title: Brooch

text: Brooches dating from this period were developed from a combination of Late Roman and new Germanic art forms, designs and technology. Metalworkers throughout western Europe created some of the most colorful, lively and technically superior jewellery ever seen. The brooches of this era display techniques from Roman art: repoussé, filigree, granulation, enamelling, openwork and inlay, but it is inlay that the Migration period artists are famous for. Their passion for colour makes their jewellery stand out. Colour is the primary feature of Migration period jewellery. The precious stone most often used in brooches was the almandine, a burgundy variety of garnet, found in Europe and India.


title: Brooch

text: According to J. Anderson Black, "designers would cover the entire surface of an object with the tiny geometric shapes of precious stones or enamel which were then polished flat until they were flush with the cloisonné settings, giving the appearance of a tiny stained glass window."


title: Brooch

text: Brooch designs were many and varied: geometric decoration, intricate patterns, abstract designs from nature, bird motifs and running scrolls. Zoomorphic ornamentation was a common element during this period, in Anglo-Saxon England as well as in Europe. Intertwined beasts were a signature feature of these lively, intricately decorated brooches. Bow shaped, S-shaped, radiate-headed and decorated disc brooches were the most common brooch styles during the Migration period, which spanned the 5th through the 7th centuries.


title: Brooch

text: The majority of brooches found in early Anglo-Saxon England were Continental styles that had migrated from Europe and Scandinavia. The long brooch style was most commonly found in 5th- and 6th-century England. Circular brooches first appeared in England in the middle of the 5th century. During the 6th century, craftsmen from Kent began manufacturing brooches using their own distinctive styles and techniques. The circular form was the preferred brooch type by the end of the 6th century. During the 7th century, all brooches in England were in decline. They reappeared in the 8th century and continued to be fashionable through the end of the Anglo-Saxon era.


title: Brooch

text: Brooch styles were predominantly circular by the middle to late Anglo-Saxon era. During this time period, the preferred styles were the annular and jewelled (Kentish) disc brooch styles. The circular forms can be divided generally into enamelled and non-enamelled styles. A few non-circular style were fashionable during the 8th to 11th centuries. The ansate, the safety-pin, the strip and a few other styles can be included in this group. Ansate brooches were traditional brooches from Europe migrated to England and became fashionable in the late Anglo-Saxon period. Safety- pin brooches, more abundant in the early Anglo-Saxon period became more uncommon by the 7th century and by the 8th century, evolve into the strip brooch. Miscellaneous brooches during this time period include the bird, the ottonian, the rectangle and the cross motif.


title: Brooch

text: Celtic brooches represent a distinct tradition of elaborately decorated penannular and pseudo-penannular brooch types developed in Early Medieval Ireland and Scotland. Techniques, styles and materials used by the Celts were different from Anglo-Saxon craftsmen. Certain attributes of Celtic jewellery, such as inlaid millefiori glass and curvilinear styles have more in common with ancient brooches than contemporary Anglo-Saxon jewellery. The jewellery of Celtic artisans is renowned for its inventiveness, complexity of design and craftsmanship. The Tara Brooch is a well-known example of a Celtic brooch.


title: Brooch

text: Germanic Animal Style decoration was the foundation of Scandinavian art that was produced during the Middle Ages. The lively decorative style originated in Denmark in the late fifth century as an insular response to Late Roman style metalwork. During the early medieval period, Scandinavian craftsmen created intricately carved brooches with their signature animal style ornamentation. The brooches were generally made of copper alloy or silver.


title: Brooch

text: Beginning in the eighth century and lasting until the eleventh century, Scandinavian seafarers were exploring, raiding and colonizing Europe, Great Britain and new lands to the west. This era of Scandinavian expansion is known as the Viking Age, and the art created during this time period is known as Viking art. Metalwork, including brooches, produced during this period were decorated in one or more of the Viking art styles. These five sequential styles are: Oseberg, Borre, Jellinge, Mammen, Ringerike and Urnes.


title: Brooch

text: A variety of Scandinavian brooch forms were common during this period: circular, bird-shaped, oval, equal-armed, trefoil, lozenge-shaped, and domed disc. The most common Scandinavian art styles of the period are the Jellinge and Borre art styles. Some of the characteristics of these related art styles are: interlaced gripping beasts, single animal motifs, ribbon-shaped animals, knot and ring-chain patterns, tendrils, and leaf, beast and bird motifs.


title: Brooch

text: Brooches found during the late medieval era, (1300 to 1500 AD), were worn by both men and women. Brooch shapes were generally: star-shaped, pentagonal, lobed, wheel, heart-shaped, and ring. Rings were smaller than other brooches, and often used to fasten clothing at the neck. Brooch decoration usually consisted of a simple inscription or gems applied to a gold or silver base. Inscriptions of love, friendship and faith were a typical feature of ring brooches of this period. The heart-shaped brooch was a very popular gift between lovers or friends.


title: Brooch

text: Amulet brooches were very common prior to medieval times. In late antiquity, they were embellished with symbols of pagan deities or gems that held special powers to protect the wearer from harm. These pagan inspired brooches continued to be worn after the spread of Christianity. Pagan and Christian symbols were often combined to decorate brooches during the Middle Ages. Beginning in the fourteenth century, three-dimensional brooches appeared for the first time. The Dunstable Swan Brooch is a well-known example of a three-dimensional brooch.


title: Brooch

text: The early modern period of jewellery extended from 1500 to 1800. Global exploration and colonization brought new prosperity to Europe and Great Britain along with new sources of diamonds, gems, pearls, and precious metals. The rapid changes in clothing fashion during this era generated similar changes in jewellery styles. The demand for new jewellery resulted in the deconstruction and melting down of many old jewellery pieces to create new jewellery. Because of this, there are very few surviving jewellery pieces from this era. The primary jewellery styles during this time period are: Renaissance, Georgian and Neoclassical.


title: Brooch

text: The Renaissance period in jewellery (1300–1600) was a time of wealth and opulence. Elaborate brooches covered in gemstones or pearls were in fashion, especially with the upper classes. Gemstones commonly used for brooches were emeralds, diamonds, rubies, amethyst and topaz. Brooches with religious motifs and enamelled miniature portraits were popular during this time period. Gems were often selected for their protective properties as well as their vibrant colours. During the fifteenth century, new cutting techniques inspired new gemstone shapes.


title: Brooch

text: The Georgian jewellery era (1710–1830) was named after the four King Georges of England. In the early 1700s, ornate brooches with complex designs were fashionable. By the mid- to late 1700s, simpler forms and designs were more common, with simpler themes of nature, bows, miniature portraits and animals. Georgian jewelry was typically handmade in gold or silver. Diamonds and pearls continued to be fashionable during this period.


title: Brooch

text: The Neoclassical era (1760–1830) in jewellery design was inspired by classical themes of ancient Greece and Rome. The main difference between Renaissance jewellery and neoclassical jewellery was that Renaissance jewellery was created primarily for the upper class and neoclassical jewellery was made for the general public. An important innovation in jewellery making during this era was the technique of producing cameos with hard pastes called black basalt and jasper. English pottery manufacturer Josiah Wedgwood is responsible for this important contribution to jewellery making. Cameos and brooches with classical scenes were fashionable during this period. Pearls and gemstones continued to be used in brooches, but were less popular than before. The beginning of the French Revolution halted the manufacture and demand for opulent jewellery.


title: Brooch

text: The late modern era of jewellery covers the period from 1830 to 1945. The major jewellery styles of this period are: Victorian (1835–1900), Art Nouveau (1895–1914), Edwardian (1901–1910) and Art deco (1920–1939).


title: Brooch

text: This period was named for Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom, who reigned from 1837 to 1901. Cameos, locket brooches, flowers, nature, animal and hearts were popular jewellery styles in the early Victorian era. When Victoria's husband, Prince Albert, died in 1861, jewellery fashion changed to reflect the queen in mourning. Styles turned heavier and more somber, using materials like black enamel, jet, and black onyx. Mourning brooches were commonly worn until the end of the Victorian period.


title: Brooch

text: It was fashionable during this period to incorporate hair and portraiture into a brooch. The practice began as an expression of mourning, then expanded to keepsakes of loved ones who were living. Human hair was encased within the brooch or braided and woven into a band to which clasps were affixed.


title: Brooch

text: The Art Nouveau period of jewellery spanned a short period from 1895 to 1905. The style began in France as a reaction to the heavy, somber jewellery of the Victorian era. Innovative, flowing designs were now in fashion along with nature, flowers, insects and sensuous women with flowing hair. The jewellery style was fashionable for fifteen years, and ended with the beginning of World War I.


title: Brooch

text: The Edwardian era of jewellery (1901–1910) began after the death of Queen Victoria. This period marked the first time platinum was used in jewellery. Because of platinum's strength, new jewellery pieces were created with delicate filigree to look like lace and silk. The main gemstones used in brooches were diamonds, typically with platinum or white gold, and coloured gemstones or pearls. Platinum and diamond brooches were a common brooch style. Small brooches continued to be fashionable. Popular brooch forms were bows, ribbons, swags, and garlands, all in the delicate new style.


title: Brooch

text: The Art Deco period lasted from 1920 to 1939. Cubism and Fauvism, early 20th century art movements, were inspirations for this new art style, along with Eastern, African and Latin American art. Art Deco was named after the Exposition International des Arts Décoratifs et Industriels Modernes, a decorative and industrial arts exhibition held in Paris in 1925. Common brooch decoration of this period are: geometric shapes, abstract designs, designs from Cubism, Fauvism, and art motifs from Egypt and India. Black onyx, coral, quartz, lapis and carnelian were used with classic stones such as diamonds, rubies, emeralds, and sapphires.


title: Johann Strauss I

text: Johann Baptist Strauss I (; also Johann Strauss Sr., the Elder, the Father; 14 March 1804 – 25 September 1849) was an Austrian composer of the Romantic Period. He was famous for his light music, namely waltzes, polkas, and galops, which he popularized alongside Joseph Lanner, thereby setting the foundations for his sons—Johann, Josef and Eduard—to carry on his musical dynasty. He is best known for his composition of the Radetzky March (named after Joseph Radetzky von Radetz).


title: Johann Strauss I

text: Johann Strauss was born in Leopoldstadt (now in Vienna). Strauss's parents, Franz Borgias Strauss (10 October 1764 – 5 April 1816) and Barbara Dollmann (3 December 1770 – 28 August 1811), were innkeepers (). He was born a Roman Catholic.


title: Johann Strauss I

text: Strauss’ mother died of 'creeping fever' when he was seven and five years later his father drowned, possibly as a result of suicide, in the Danube river. Strauss' guardian, the tailor Anton Müller, placed him as an apprentice to the bookbinder, Johann Lichtscheidl; Strauss took lessons in the violin and viola in addition to fulfilling his apprenticeship. Contrary to a story later told by his son Johann Strauss II, Strauss successfully completed his bookbinder apprenticeship in 1822. He also studied music with Johann Polischansky during his apprenticeship and eventually managed to secure a place in a local orchestra, headed by . Strauss left the orchestra to join a popular string quartet known as the "Lanner Quartet", formed by his would-be rivals Joseph Lanner and the Drahanek brothers, Karl and Johann. This string quartet playing Viennese waltzes and rustic German dances expanded into a small string orchestra in 1824.


title: Johann Strauss I

text: Strauss became deputy conductor of the orchestra to assist Lanner in commissions after it became so popular during the Fasching of 1824 and Strauss was soon placed in command of a second smaller orchestra which was formed as a result of the success of the parent orchestra. In 1825, he decided to form his own band and began to write music (chiefly, dance music) for it to play after he realized that he could also possibly emulate the success of Lanner in addition to putting an end to his financial struggles. By so doing, he would have made Lanner a serious rival although the rivalry did not entail hostile consequences as the musical competition was very productive for the development of the waltz as well as other dance music in Vienna.


title: Johann Strauss I

text: Strauss soon became one of the best-known and well loved dance composers in Vienna. During the carnival of 1826, Strauss inaugurated his long line of triumphs by introducing his band to the public of Vienna at the in the suburb of Roßau where his Täuberln-Walzer (Op. 1) at once established his reputation. He toured with his band to Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium and Britain. The conducting reins and management of this Strauss Orchestra would eventually be passed on to the hands of his sons until its disbandment by Eduard Strauss in 1901.


title: Johann Strauss I

text: On a trip to France in 1837 Strauss heard the quadrille and began to compose them himself, becoming largely responsible for introducing that dance to Austria in the 1840 Fasching, where it became very popular. It was this very trip (in 1837) which has proved Strauss' popularity with audiences from different social backgrounds and this paved the way to forming an ambitious plan to perform his music in England for the coronation of Queen Victoria in 1838. Strauss also adapted various popular melodies of his day into his works so as to ensure a wider audience, as evidenced in the incorporation of the "Oberon" overture into his early waltz, "Wiener Carneval", Op. 3, and also the French national anthem "La Marseillaise" into his "Paris-Walzer", Op. 101.


title: Johann Strauss I

text: Strauss married Maria Anna Streim (1801–1870) in 1825 in the Roman Catholic Lichtental Parish Church in Vienna. The marriage was relatively unhappy because of his prolonged absences caused by frequent tours abroad which led to a gradual alienation. They had six children: Johann (born 1825), Josef (born 1827), Anna (born 1829), Therese (born 1831), Ferdinand (born 1834 and living only ten months) and Eduard (born 1835). Eduard's first son was Johann Strauss III.


title: Johann Strauss I

text: The family home was called 'Hirschenhaus' but was better known in Vienna as the 'Goldener Hirsch' (The Golden Stag). Strauss was a strict disciplinarian and demanded that none of his sons pursue careers in music, despite their display of musical talent. Johann Junior was to study banking, likewise his brother Josef Strauss was destined for a military career, whereas the youngest Eduard Strauss was expected to join the Austrian consulate.


title: Johann Strauss I

text: By 1834 Strauss had taken a mistress, Emilie Trampusch, with whom he had eight children. When her husband openly acknowledged his paternity of a daughter born to Emilie in 1844, Maria Anna sued for divorce. With the ending of the marriage, Anna Strauss determined to further Johann Strauss II's musical career, allowing him to develop his skills as a composer.


title: Johann Strauss I

text: Despite family problems, Strauss senior continued to tour frequently and was always prepared to write novelty pieces for numerous charitable organizations. His waltzes were gradually developed from a rustic peasant dance into one which posterity would recognize as the Viennese waltz. They were written in three-quarter time with a short introduction; often with little or no reference to the later chain of five two-part waltz structure; usually appended with a short coda and concluded in a stirring finish, although his son Johann Strauss II expanded the waltz structure and utilized more instruments than his father. While he did not possess a musical talent as rich as his eldest son's, nor a business mind as astute, he was among the handful of early waltz composers along with Joseph Lanner to actively write pieces with individual titles — with the view to boost sales of their sheet music — which enabled music enthusiasts to easily recognize those pieces. In fact, during his performances at the Sperl-Ballroom in Vienna, where he established his name, he actively pursued the concept of collecting a fixed entrance fee from the patrons of the ballroom instead of the old practice of passing around a collection plate where income was reliant on the goodwill of the patrons.


title: Johann Strauss I

text: Johann Strauss II often played his father's works and openly declared his admiration of them, although it was no secret to the Viennese that their rivalry was intense, with the press at that time fueling it. Johann Strauss I himself refused to play ever again at the Dommayer's Casino, which offered his son his conducting debut, and was to tower over his son during his lifetime in terms of career advancement, although Strauss II was to eclipse him in terms of popularity in the classical repertoire. In 1846, Johann Strauss I was awarded the honorary title of "K.K. Hofballmusikdirektor" (Director of Music for the Imperial and Royal Court Balls) by Emperor Ferdinand I.


title: Johann Strauss I

text: Strauss died in Vienna on 25 September 1849 at the age of 45 from scarlet fever contracted from one of his illegitimate children. He was buried at the Döblinger cemetery beside his friend Joseph Lanner. In 1904, both of their remains were transferred to the graves of honour at the Zentralfriedhof. The former Döbling Cemetery is now a Strauss-Lanner Park. Hector Berlioz himself paid tribute to the 'Father of the Viennese Waltz' by commenting that "Vienna without Strauss is like Austria without the Danube".


title: Olivia Attwood

text: Olivia Jade Attwood (born 2 May 1991) is an English television personality, presenter and model. In 2017, she appeared on the third series of "Love Island" and later became a regular cast member on the ITVBe reality series "The Only Way Is Essex". In November 2022, she participated in Series 22 of "I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here!" but withdrew on medical grounds two days after arriving.


title: Olivia Attwood

text: Attwood was born on 2 May 1991 in London. She has two siblings, Georgia and Max. After young years living in London, Surrey, England and Alberta, Canada, she attended Tormead School and Cranleigh School.


title: Olivia Attwood

text: Attwood began her career as a model and a motorsport grid girl. In 2017, she became a contestant on the third series of the ITV2 reality dating show "Love Island". Along with Chris Hughes, she reached the final and the pair finished in third place. The following year, Attwood and Hughes starred in their own spin-off series "Chris & Olivia: Crackin' On".


title: Olivia Attwood

text: In 2018, Attwood appeared on series five of "Celebs Go Dating." Attwood reportedly lied about being single in order to appear on the show. However she denied the claims. In 2019, Attwood joined the cast of "The Only Way Is Essex" for its twenty-fourth series. She appeared in 16 episodes before leaving at the end of series 26 in 2020.


title: Olivia Attwood

text: In 2020, Attwood began starring in her own reality series on ITVBe titled "Olivia Meets Her Match", which followed the events leading up to her engagement with footballer Bradley Dack. She and Dack also appeared in ITV's Drama vs. Reality advertisement alongside Anna Friel. In 2021, she appeared on the ITV2 series "Celebrity Karaoke Club". She has also made appearances on "Lorraine", "Tipping Point: Lucky Stars", "The Crystal Maze", "The Real Housewives of Cheshire" and "Loose Women".


title: Olivia Attwood

text: In 2021, it was announced that Attwood would present a series with ITV titled "Getting Filthy Rich". The series, which aired in 2022, explored the online selling of sexual content on OnlyFans. Later in 2022, Attwood began competing in the ITV competition series "I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here!" but withdrew on medical grounds shortly after arriving.


title: Olivia Attwood

text: Attwood dated Chris Hughes whom she met on "Love Island" until 2018. She is currently engaged to footballer Bradley Dack. She has ADHD.


title: Comparison of Intel processors

text: , the x86 architecture is used in most high end compute-intensive computers, including cloud computing, servers, workstations, and many less powerful computers, including personal computer desktops and laptops. The ARM architecture is used in most other product categories, especially high-volume battery powered mobile devices such as smartphones and tablet computers.


title: Comparison of Intel processors

text: Some Xeon Phi processors support four-way hyper-threading, effectively quadrupling the number of threads. Before the Coffee Lake architecture, most Xeon and all desktop and mobile Core i3 and i7 supported hyper-threading while only dual-core mobile i5's supported it. Post Coffee Lake, increased core counts meant hyper-threading is not needed for Core i3, as it then replaced the i5 with four physical cores on the desktop platform. Core i7, on the desktop platform no longer supports hyper-threading; instead, now higher-performing core i9s will support hyper-threading on both mobile and desktop platforms. Before 2007 and post-Kaby Lake, some Intel Pentiums support hyper-threading. Celeron and Atom processors never supported it.


title: Collision in Korea

text: Collision in Korea, officially known as the , was a professional wrestling pay-per-view (PPV) event jointly produced by New Japan Pro-Wrestling (NJPW) and World Championship Wrestling (WCW). The event featured 15 matches over two evenings on April 28 and 29, 1995, at May Day Stadium in Pyongyang, North Korea. It aired in North America on August 4, 1995, when WCW broadcast a selection of eight matches from the show on pay-per-view. It was the first event hosted by an American professional wrestling promotion in the country.


title: Collision in Korea

text: The second day of the event holds the record for the largest ever attendance for a wrestling event, with a claimed audience of 190,000. The first day holds the record for the second-largest ever attendance, with a claimed audience of 165,000. American wrestling journalist Dave Meltzer reported different attendance numbers of 150,000 and 165,000 respectively.


title: Collision in Korea

text: Retired boxer Muhammad Ali was the event's guest of honor. NJPW's Hidekazu Tanaka was the ring announcer for the show, while Masao Tayama and Tiger Hattori refereed the matches. Commentary for the WCW pay-per-view presentation of the event was provided by Eric Bischoff, Mike Tenay, and Kazuo Ishikawa.


title: Collision in Korea

text: As of 2022, the event is one of the few WCW PPVs not available for streaming on the WWE Network. Collision in Korea is one of the topics covered in the third season of Vice TV's "Dark Side of the Ring", which debuted in May 2021.


title: Collision in Korea

text: The idea for a professional wrestling event in North Korea came from Antonio Inoki, a Japanese politician, professional wrestler, and head of the professional wrestling promotion New Japan Pro-Wrestling (NJPW). At the time, Inoki was struggling with his political career and envisioned the event as an opportunity to improve the diplomatic relations between Japan and North Korea. Inoki had a positive relationship with the government of North Korea, and as a wrestler, he had trained under Rikidōzan, a Korean-Japanese wrestler whom the North Korean government had used extensively in propaganda following his death in 1963. Additionally, Kim Jong-il had recently become Supreme Leader of North Korea following the death of his father Kim Il-sung in 1994 and was allowing some foreign tourists to attend the event, with "The New York Times" stating that it may have been in an attempt to showcase his leadership of the country.


title: Collision in Korea

text: While planning the event, Inoki wanted to get American wrestlers to participate, and he reached out to Eric Bischoff, president of World Championship Wrestling (WCW), an American promotion with which NJPW had a working relationship. Bischoff was enthusiastic about the event and was even able to convince retired boxer Muhammad Ali to attend the event. At the time, WCW was competing in a ratings war against the World Wrestling Federation (WWF, now WWE) promotion, and Bischoff believed that a largescale international event could bolster WCW's popularity worldwide. As part of the working arrangement, Inoki would compete in the main event against a famous American wrestler from WCW. Bischoff initially approached WCW wrestler Hulk Hogan, but he declined to participate. In an interview with "Sports Illustrated", Bischoff stated, "I might as well have asked him to row a boat to Pluto. It was not gonna ["sic"] happen". As a result, Bischoff asked Ric Flair, who agreed. In addition to Flair, other WCW wrestlers who participated in the event included 2 Cold Scorpio, Chris Benoit (under his gimmick as Wild Pegasus), Road Warrior Hawk, Scott Norton, and the Steiner Brothers. Reporter Mike Chinoy also came to cover the event for CNN. WCW consultant Sonny Onoo contacted the Japanese embassy to inform them of their plans, with the embassy stating that they could not guarantee their safety, and the wrestlers traveled to North Korea from Japan on a military transport plane. Upon landing, the people had their passports confiscated and were split into two groups with handlers assigned to each. They were then given a tour of North Korea and laid flowers at the foot of a statue of Kim Il-sung.


title: Collision in Korea

text: The opening bout was a Singles Match in which Yuji Nagata defeated Tokimitsu Ishizawa by forcing him to submit using the "Nagata Lock III" (a crossface/scissored armbar combination).


title: Collision in Korea

text: The second bout was a Tag Team Match in which Akira Hokuto & Bull Nakano defeated Manami Toyota & Mariko Yoshida when Nakano pinned Yoshida following a diving leg drop.


title: Collision in Korea

text: The fourth bout was a tag team match in which Ookami Gundan (Masahiro Chono & Hiro Saito) defeated El Samurai & Tadao Yasuda when Chono pinned El Samurai following a diving shoulder block.


title: Collision in Korea

text: The fifth bout was a singles match in which Flying Scorpio defeated Shinjiro Otani when the referee stopped the match due to Otani bleeding excessively from a broken nose.


title: Collision in Korea

text: The main event was a singles match between Scott Norton and Shinya Hashimoto that ended in a time limit draw.


title: Collision in Korea

text: The second bout was a singles match in which Akira Hokuto defeated Bull Nakano for the CMLL World Women's Championship. The match ended with a pinfall.


title: Collision in Korea

text: The fourth bout was a singles match in which Wild Pegasus defeated Flying Scorpio by pinfall following a swandive headbutt.


title: Collision in Korea

text: The fifth bout was a tag team match in which Masahiro Chono & Scott Norton defeated Akira Nogami & Takayuki Iizuka by pinfall.


title: Collision in Korea

text: The sixth bout was a singles match in which Hawk Warrior defeated Tadao Yasuda by pinfall following a diving clothesline.


title: Collision in Korea

text: The seventh bout was a tag team match in which The Steiner Brothers defeated Hiroshi Hase & Kensuke Sasaki when Scott Steiner pinned Hase following a "Steiner Screw Driver".


title: Collision in Korea

text: The main event was a singles match in which Antonio Inoki defeated Ric Flair by pinfall following an enzuigiri.


title: Collision in Korea

text: Following the event, North Korean officials requested that Flair read a statement that the nation had the capability to dominate the United States, though Flair declined and instead made a statement wherein he expressed praise for the "beautiful and peaceful country" of North Korea and said, "His Excellency, Kim Il-sung, will always be with us". In late 1995, an image taken during the event showing a bloody Flair being beaten by Inoki was featured on propaganda leaflets that were dropped by the North Korean government over Seoul.


title: Collision in Korea

text: In the United States, the show garnered little news attention, and when the event was released as a pay-per-view later that year, it only received approximately 30,000 buys, a small amount compared to the company's other pay-per-views. Following the purchase of WCW and its assets by WWE in 2001, the company has rarely acknowledged the event and has not released the event on its WWE Network, despite having released almost all other WCW taped events. According to Bischoff and sports journalist Dave Meltzer, this may be because WWE claims the attendance of 93,173 people for their WrestleMania III in 1987 as one of the largest ever for a professional wrestling event, and acknowledging that a competitor of theirs broke that record would hurt their image.


title: Robyn Hitchcock

text: Robyn Rowan Hitchcock (born 3 March 1953) is an English singer-songwriter and guitarist. While primarily a vocalist and guitarist, he also plays harmonica, piano, and bass guitar. After leading the Soft Boys in the late 1970s and releasing the influential "Underwater Moonlight", Hitchcock launched a prolific solo career. His musical and lyrical styles have been influenced by Bob Dylan, John Lennon, Syd Barrett, Captain Beefheart, Martin Carthy, Lou Reed, Roger McGuinn and Bryan Ferry.


title: Robyn Hitchcock

text: Hitchcock's earliest lyrics mined a rich vein of English surrealist comic tradition and tended to depict a particular type of eccentric and sardonic English worldview. His music and performance style was originally (and remains) heavily influenced by Bob Dylan, but also by the English folk music revival of the 1960s and early 1970s, and this was soon filtered through a then-unfashionable psychedelic rock lens during the punk rock and New Wave music eras of the late 1970s and early 1980s. This combination of musical styles won Hitchcock's band of the time, The Soft Boys, a very enthusiastic if small fanbase, but an extremely frosty critical reception from the UK music press of the era. However, the Soft Boys' final album together, "Underwater Moonlight", posthumously earned them a glowing reputation (particularly in America) as a major influence on bands like R.E.M.


title: Robyn Hitchcock

text: After finding a measure of success in the latter 1980s in America, Hitchcock's lyrical and musical horizons broadened further to encompass a range of approaches while still retaining a recognisably surreal, but more serious, signature style. He has recorded for two major American labels (A&M Records, then Warner Bros.) over the course of the 1980s and 1990s, and was the subject of a live performance/documentary film ("Storefront Hitchcock") by major motion picture director Jonathan Demme in 1998. Since the turn of the millennium he has also finally received belated critical recognition in his home country. Despite this, mainstream success remains limited. He continues to tour and record prolifically and has earned strong critical reviews over a steady stream of album releases and live performances, and a dedicated "cult following" for his unique body of work.


title: Robyn Hitchcock

text: Hitchcock was educated at Winchester College, where he was a "groovy and alternative" friend of Julia Darling. While at art school in London around 1972, Hitchcock was a member of the college band the Beetles. In 1974, he moved to Cambridge, where he did some busking, and joined a series of local bands: B.B. Blackberry and the Swelterettes, the Worst Fears, and Maureen and the Meatpackers. His next group, Dennis and the Experts, became the neo-psychedelia band The Soft Boys in 1976, recording their first EP, "Give It to the Soft Boys", at Spaceward studios, Cambridge, in 1977. After recording "A Can of Bees" (1979) and "Underwater Moonlight" (1980), the latter of which was described in Rolling Stone as a "classic" and influential on bands such as R.E.M. and The Replacements, the group broke up in 1981.


title: Robyn Hitchcock

text: In 1981, Hitchcock released his solo debut, "Black Snake Diamond Röle", which included instrumental backing by several former Soft Boys. He followed it in 1982 with the generally critically maligned "Groovy Decay". Following his solo acoustic album "I Often Dream of Trains" in 1984, he formed a new band, The Egyptians, comprising former members of the Soft Boys (Andy Metcalfe and Morris Windsor, supplemented at first by early keyboardist Roger Jackson), resulting in their 1985 debut "Fegmania!", which featured typically surrealist Hitchcock songs such as "My Wife and My Dead Wife" and "The Man with the Lightbulb Head". (A live album, "Gotta Let This Hen Out!", was released at the end of that year.) Their popularity grew with the 1986 album "Element of Light" and they were subsequently signed to A&M Records in the U.S. The album "Globe of Frogs", released in 1988, further expanded their reach, as the single "Balloon Man" became a college radio and MTV hit, followed in 1989 by "Madonna of the Wasps" from their "Queen Elvis" album. In 1989, they also teamed up with Peter Buck of R.E.M. and Peter Holsapple of The dB's, playing two gigs as Nigel and the Crosses, mostly covers.


title: Robyn Hitchcock

text: At the beginning of 1990, Hitchcock took a break from the Egyptians and A&M Records to release another solo acoustic album, "Eye", then resumed with the band's "Perspex Island" release in 1991. 1993's "Respect", influenced a great deal by his father's death, marked the last Egyptians release and the end of his association with A&M Records.


title: Robyn Hitchcock

text: Early in 1994, after disbanding the Egyptians, Hitchcock embarked on a short reunion tour with the Soft Boys. His work received a slight boost in 1995 when his back catalogue (including both solo releases and Egyptians albums) were re-packaged and re-issued in the United States by the respected Rhino Records label. For the rest of the decade he continued recording and performing as a solo artist, releasing several albums on Warner Brothers Records, such as 1996's "Moss Elixir" (which featured the contributions of violinist Deni Bonet and guitarist Tim Keegan), and the soundtrack from the Jonathan Demme-directed concert film "Storefront Hitchcock" in 1998. The 1999 release "Jewels for Sophia", also on Warner, featured cameos from Southern California-based musicians Jon Brion and Grant-Lee Phillips, both of whom often shared the stage with Hitchcock when he played Los Angeles nightclub Largo. An album of outtakes from the Sophia sessions called "A Star for Bram", released on Hitchcock's own label, followed, and his subsequent albums appeared on a variety of independent labels.


title: Robyn Hitchcock

text: In 2000 the Italian music writer Luca Ferrari released a long interview with Hitchcock, "A Middle Class Hero" (Stampa Alternativa), in the form of a 96-page booklet in English and Italian accompanying a three-song CD of unreleased tracks.


title: Robyn Hitchcock

text: In 2001 Hitchcock reunited and toured with Kimberley Rew, bassist Matthew Seligman, and Morris Windsor for the Soft Boys' re-release of their best-known album, 1980's "Underwater Moonlight". The following year they recorded and released a new album, "Nextdoorland", which was accompanied by a short album of outtakes, "Side Three". The reunion was short-lived.


title: Robyn Hitchcock

text: The 2002 double album "Robyn Sings" comprised cover versions of Bob Dylan songs, including a live re-creation (performed in 1996) of Dylan's so-called "Live at the Royal Albert Hall" 1966 concert. Hitchcock celebrated his 50th birthday in 2003 with a concert at the Queen Elizabeth Hall in London at which his then-new solo acoustic album "Luxor" was given away as a gift to all those attending, and an original poem of his was read by actor Alan Rickman. He continued collaborating with a series of different musicians, as on the album "Spooked", which was recorded with country/folk duo (and longtime Hitchcock fans) Gillian Welch and David Rawlings. The Soft Boys re-formed again in 2006 to perform a live concert of Syd Barrett-era Pink Floyd covers in London, benefiting Médecins Sans Frontières.


title: Robyn Hitchcock

text: In 2006 "Olé! Tarantula" was released with the Venus 3, a band which consisted of longtime friends and collaborators R.E.M.'s Peter Buck and Young Fresh Fellows' frontman Scott McCaughey, as well as Ministry's Bill Rieflin (by then also R.E.M.'s full-time drummer). The song "'Cause It's Love (Saint Parallelogram)" was written with Andy Partridge of XTC.


title: Robyn Hitchcock

text: In 2007, he was the subject of a documentary "" directed by John Edginton, shown on the U.S. Sundance Channel and in the UK on BBC Four (and later released on DVD). "Food, sex and death are all corridors to life if you like. You need sex to get you here, you need food to keep you here and you need death to get you out and they’re the entry and exit signs."


title: Robyn Hitchcock

text: The filmmaker eavesdrops on Hitchcock at work on his latest collection of songs with contributors including Nick Lowe, former Led Zeppelin bassist John Paul Jones, Peter Buck and Gillian Welch. The film culminates with Hitchcock and the band taking the songs on the road in America. A live EP with The Venus 3, "Sex, Food, Death... and Tarantulas", was released in conjunction with the documentary. The film also includes candid interviews with Hitchcock, who reveals much about the source of his work: "At heart I'm a frightened angry person. That's probably why my stuff isn't totally insubstantial. I'm constantly, deep down inside, in a kind of rage."


title: Robyn Hitchcock

text: Late in 2007, Hitchcock's music was again re-packaged and re-released in the U.S., as Yep Roc Records began an extensive reissue campaign with three early solo releases and a double-CD compilation of rarities, which would be available separately or as part of a new boxed set release, "I Wanna Go Backwards".


title: Robyn Hitchcock

text: In 2008, that boxed set was followed up with "Luminous Groove", a boxed set of three early Egyptians releases and two further discs of rarities. In 2009, the electro-pop artist and remixer Pocket released an EP featuring Hitchcock called "Surround Him With Love", while Hitchcock released an entirely separate new album, "Goodnight Oslo", with the Venus 3. At the end of the year, a live album called "I Often Dream of Trains in New York" documented the late-2008 onstage re-creation of his acclaimed 1984 acoustic album (a limited-edition deluxe version also included the materials to construct a kind of moving-image generator called a phenakistoscope).


title: Robyn Hitchcock

text: In 2009, Hitchcock contributed to The Decemberists' concept album "The Hazards of Love", performing the short instrumental solo "An Interlude." Also in 2009, Hitchcock provided the score for the film "Women in Trouble", a feminist/exploitation "chick flick".


title: Robyn Hitchcock

text: Concurrent with the redesign of his official website in early 2010, Hitchcock began to offer a series of "Phantom 45s" as downloads, each "45" being two newly recorded songs that would initially be offered as a free download. He also released the "Propellor Time" album, containing new material partially based on the "Sex, Food, Death" sessions shown in the 2007 documentary, but mainly featuring the Venus 3. In 2011, he released "Tromsø, Kaptein", an album of songs written in Norway, and released physically only in that country. Hitchcock was chosen by Jeff Mangum of Neutral Milk Hotel to perform "I Often Dream of Trains" at the All Tomorrow's Parties festival, to be curated by Mangum in March 2012 in Minehead, England. The album "Love From London" (working title: File Under Pop) was released on Yep Roc Records on 5 March 2013. The label also released his subsequent record, "The Man Upstairs", on 26 August 2014.


title: Robyn Hitchcock

text: April 2015 saw Robyn Hitchcock team up with Emma Swift to release a limited Record Store Day 7" single "Follow Your Money," backed with a stripped back cover of Neil Young's "Motion Pictures." The pair subsequently toured, releasing another 7" single double A side with the songs "Love Is A Drag" and "Life Is Change," produced by Teenage Fanclub's Norman Blake.


title: Robyn Hitchcock

text: In 2017, Hitchcock released his eponymous album "Robyn Hitchcock". Working with Brendan Benson as co-producer, the album saw a return to a full band sound after his previous release, with guest appearances from Gillian Welch and Emma Swift.


title: Robyn Hitchcock

text: Hitchcock wrote the song "Sunday Never Comes" for the 2018 film "Juliet, Naked", which was sung in the movie by Ethan Hawke's character, an aging, reclusive musician. He later released a companion video of his own version of the song.


title: Robyn Hitchcock

text: In September 2019 Hitchcock collaborated with XTC frontman Andy Partridge on a four-song EP "Planet England", co-writing the songs and both singing.


title: Robyn Hitchcock

text: In 2020, he released "", an album of outtakes recorded in 2013 as demos for "The Man Upstairs". He also appeared on Emma Swift's album of Bob Dylan covers, "Blonde on the Tracks", recorded between 2017 and 2020 in Nashville, Tennessee and produced by Wilco's Pat Sansone.


title: Robyn Hitchcock

text: Hitchcock was born in Paddington, London, England, son of novelist Raymond Hitchcock (writer of "Percy").


title: Robyn Hitchcock

text: Hitchcock writes short stories, paints (often in a whimsical, surrealist style), and draws in a cartoon-strip style. His album covers often make use of his paintings or drawings, and the liner notes sometimes include a short story. His live concerts include story-telling, in the form of imaginative and surreal ad-libbed monologues in his lyrical style.


title: Robyn Hitchcock

text: Hitchcock collaborated with director Jonathan Demme in 1998 for a live concert and film "Storefront Hitchcock", and later appeared in Demme's 2004 remake of "The Manchurian Candidate", in which he played double agent Laurent Tokar. He also appeared in Demme's "Rachel Getting Married" in 2008, singing and playing guitar in the wedding-party band.


title: Robyn Hitchcock

text: In September 2008 Hitchcock joined the Disko Bay Cape Farewell expedition to the West Coast of Greenland. Cape Farewell is a UK-based arts organisation that brings artists, scientists and communicators together to instigate a cultural response to climate change. Other voyagers on the trip included musicians Feist, Laurie Anderson, Jarvis Cocker, KT Tunstall and Martha Wainwright.


title: Robyn Hitchcock

text: He lives in East Nashville with his partner Emma Swift and their cats. He has a daughter named Maisie from a previous relationship.


title: Contraposition

text: In logic and mathematics, contraposition refers to the inference of going from a conditional statement into its logically equivalent contrapositive, and an associated proof method known as proof by contraposition. The contrapositive of a statement has its antecedent and consequent inverted and flipped.


title: Contraposition

text: If "P", Then "Q". — If not "Q", Then not "P". """If "it is raining," then "I wear my coat" —" "If "I don't wear my coat," then "it isn't raining.""


title: Contraposition

text: The law of contraposition says that a conditional statement is true if, and only if, its contrapositive is true.


title: Contraposition

text: Note that if formula_1 is true and one is given that "formula_9" is false (i.e., formula_10), then it can logically be concluded that "formula_11" must be also false (i.e., formula_12). This is often called the "law of contrapositive", or the "modus tollens" rule of inference.


title: Contraposition

text: In the Euler diagram shown, if something is in A, it must be in B as well. So we can interpret "all of A is in B" as:


title: Contraposition

text: It is also clear that anything that is "not" within B (the blue region) "cannot" be within A, either. This statement, which can be expressed as:


title: Contraposition

text: In practice, this equivalence can be used to make proving a statement easier. For example, if one wishes to prove that every girl in the United States (A) has brown hair (B), one can either try to directly prove formula_13 by checking that all girls in the United States do indeed have brown hair, or try to prove formula_14 by checking that all girls without brown hair are indeed all outside the US. In particular, if one were to find at least one girl without brown hair within the US, then one would have disproved formula_14, and equivalently formula_13.


title: Contraposition

text: In general, for any statement where "A" implies "B", "not B" always implies "not A". As a result, proving or disproving either one of these statements automatically proves or disproves the other, as they are logically equivalent to each other.


title: Contraposition

text: This states that, "if formula_11, then formula_9", or, "if "Socrates is a man", then "Socrates is human"." In a conditional such as this, formula_11 is the antecedent, and formula_9 is the consequent. One statement is the contrapositive of the other only when its antecedent is the negated consequent of the other, and vice versa. Thus a contrapositive generally takes the form of:


title: Contraposition

text: That is, "If not-formula_9, then not-formula_11", or, more clearly, "If formula_9 is not the case, then "P" is not the case." Using our example, this is rendered as "If "Socrates is not human", then "Socrates is not a man"." This statement is said to be "contraposed" to the original and is logically equivalent to it. Due to their logical equivalence, stating one effectively states the other; when one is true, the other is also true, and when one is false, the other is also false.


title: Contraposition

text: Strictly speaking, a contraposition can only exist in two simple conditionals. However, a contraposition may also exist in two complex, universal conditionals, if they are similar. Thus, formula_29, or "All formula_11s are formula_9s," is contraposed to formula_32, or "All non-formula_9s are non-formula_11s."


title: Contraposition

text: It is given that, if A is true, then B is true, and it is also given that B is not true. We can then show that A must not be true by contradiction. For if A were true, then B would have to also be true (by Modus Ponens). However, it is given that B is not true, so we have a contradiction. Therefore, A is not true (assuming that we are dealing with bivalent statements that are either true or false):


title: Contraposition

text: Here, we also know that B is either true or not true. If B is not true, then A is also not true. However, it is given that A is true, so the assumption that B is not true leads to a contradiction, which means that it is not the case that B is not true. Therefore, B must be true:


title: Contraposition

text: Combining the two proved statements together, we obtain the sought-after logical equivalence between a conditional and its contrapositive:


title: Contraposition

text: Logical equivalence between two propositions means that they are true together or false together. To prove that contrapositives are logically equivalent, we need to understand when material implication is true or false.


title: Contraposition

text: This is only false when formula_11 is true and formula_9 is false. Therefore, we can reduce this proposition to the statement "False when formula_11 and not-formula_9" (i.e. "True when it is not the case that formula_11 and not-formula_9"):


title: Contraposition

text: We define formula_51 as equal to "formula_10", and formula_53 as equal to formula_12 (from this, formula_55 is equal to formula_56, which is equal to just formula_11):


title: Contraposition

text: This reads "It is not the case that ("R" is true and "S" is false)", which is the definition of a material conditional. We can then make this substitution:


title: Contraposition

text: By reverting "R" and "S" back into formula_11 and formula_9, we then obtain the desired contrapositive:


title: Contraposition

text: Take the statement ""All red objects have color."" This can be equivalently expressed as ""If an object is red, then it has color.""


title: Contraposition

text: In other words, the contrapositive is logically equivalent to a given conditional statement, though not sufficient for a biconditional.


title: Contraposition

text: Similarly, take the statement ""All quadrilaterals have four sides,"" or equivalently expressed ""If a polygon is a quadrilateral, then it has four sides.""


title: Contraposition

text: Since the statement and the converse are both true, it is called a biconditional, and can be expressed as "A polygon is a quadrilateral "if, and only if," it has four sides." (The phrase "if and only if" is sometimes abbreviated as "iff".) That is, having four sides is both necessary to be a quadrilateral, and alone sufficient to deem it a quadrilateral.


title: Contraposition

text: Because the contrapositive of a statement always has the same truth value (truth or falsity) as the statement itself, it can be a powerful tool for proving mathematical theorems (especially if the truth of the contrapositive is easier to establish than the truth of the statement itself). A proof by contraposition (contrapositive) is a direct proof of the contrapositive of a statement. However, indirect methods such as proof by contradiction can also be used with contraposition, as, for example, in the proof of the irrationality of the square root of 2. By the definition of a rational number, the statement can be made that ""If formula_63 is rational, then it can be expressed as an irreducible fraction"". This statement is true because it is a restatement of a definition. The contrapositive of this statement is ""If formula_63 cannot be expressed as an irreducible fraction, then it is not rational"". This contrapositive, like the original statement, is also true. Therefore, if it can be proven that formula_63 cannot be expressed as an irreducible fraction, then it must be the case that formula_63 is not a rational number. The latter can be proved by contradiction.


title: Contraposition

text: The previous example employed the contrapositive of a definition to prove a theorem. One can also prove a theorem by proving the contrapositive of the theorem's statement. To prove that "if a positive integer "N" is a non-square number, its square root is irrational", we can equivalently prove its contrapositive, that "if a positive integer "N" has a square root that is rational, then "N" is a square number." This can be shown by setting equal to the rational expression "a/b" with "a" and "b" being positive integers with no common prime factor, and squaring to obtain "N" = "a"/"b" and noting that since "N" is a positive integer "b"=1 so that "N" = "a", a square number.


title: Contraposition

text: In intuitionistic logic, the statement formula_42 cannot be proven to be equivalent to formula_68. We can prove that formula_42 implies formula_68, but the reverse implication, from formula_68 to formula_42, requires the law of the excluded middle or an equivalent axiom.


title: Contraposition

text: "Contraposition" represents an instance of Bayes' theorem which in a specific form can be expressed as:


title: Contraposition

text: In the equation above the conditional probability formula_74 generalizes the logical statement formula_75, i.e. in addition to assigning TRUE or FALSE we can also assign any probability to the statement. The term formula_76 denotes the base rate (aka. the prior probability) of formula_11. Assume that formula_78 is equivalent to formula_79 being TRUE, and that formula_80 is equivalent to formula_75 being FALSE. It is then easy to see that formula_82 when formula_83 i.e. when formula_42 is TRUE. This is because formula_85 so that the fraction on the right-hand side of the equation above is equal to 1, and hence formula_86 which is equivalent to formula_68 being TRUE. Hence, Bayes' theorem represents a generalization of "contraposition".


title: Contraposition

text: "Contraposition" represents an instance of the subjective Bayes' theorem in subjective logic expressed as:


title: Contraposition

text: formula_88 which is equivalent to formula_68 being TRUE. Hence, the subjective Bayes' theorem represents a generalization of both "contraposition" and Bayes' theorem.


title: Norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor

text: A norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (NRI, NERI) or noradrenaline reuptake inhibitor or adrenergic reuptake inhibitor (ARI), is a type of drug that acts as a reuptake inhibitor for the neurotransmitters norepinephrine (noradrenaline) and epinephrine (adrenaline) by blocking the action of the norepinephrine transporter (NET). This in turn leads to increased extracellular concentrations of norepinephrine and epinephrine and therefore can increase adrenergic neurotransmission.


title: Norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor

text: NRIs are commonly used in the treatment of conditions like ADHD and narcolepsy due to their psychostimulant effects and in obesity due to their appetite suppressant effects. They are also frequently used as antidepressants for the treatment of major depressive disorder, anxiety and panic disorder. Additionally, many addictive substances such as cocaine and methylphenidate possess NRI activity, though NRIs without combined dopamine reuptake inhibitor (DRI) properties are not significantly rewarding and hence are considered to have negligible potential for addiction. However, norepinephrine has been implicated as acting synergistically with dopamine when actions on the two neurotransmitters are combined (e.g., in the case of NDRIs) to produce rewarding effects in psychostimulant addictive substances.


title: Norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor

text: A meta analysis published in BMJ in 2011 concluded that the selective NRI reboxetine is indistinguishable from placebo in the treatment of depression. A second review by the European Medicines Agency concluded that reboxetine was significantly more effective than placebo, and that its risk/benefit ratio was positive. The latter review, also examined the efficacy of reboxetine as a function of baseline depression, and concluded that it was effective in severe depression and panic disorder but did not show effects significantly superior to placebo in mild depression.


title: Norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor

text: Note: Only NRIs selective for the NET greater than the other two monoamine transporters (MATs) are listed here. For a list of NRIs that act at multiple MATs, see the other monoamine reuptake inhibitor pages such as NDRI, SNRI, and SNDRI.


title: James G. Blaine

text: James Gillespie Blaine (January 31, 1830January 27, 1893) was an American statesman and Republican politician who represented Maine in the U.S. House of Representatives from 1863 to 1876, serving as Speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives from 1869 to 1875, and then in the United States Senate from 1876 to 1881.


title: James G. Blaine

text: Blaine twice served as Secretary of State, first in 1881 under President James A. Garfield and Chester A. Arthur, and then from 1889–1892 under President Benjamin Harrison. He is one of only two U.S. Secretaries of State to hold the position under three separate presidents, the other being Daniel Webster. Blaine unsuccessfully sought the Republican nomination for President in 1876 and 1880 before being nominated in 1884. In the 1884 general election, he was narrowly defeated by Democrat Grover Cleveland. Blaine was one of the late 19th century's leading Republicans and a champion of the party's moderate reformist faction, later known as the "Half-Breeds".


title: James G. Blaine

text: Blaine was born in the western Pennsylvania town of West Brownsville and moved to Maine after completing college where he became a newspaper editor. Nicknamed "the Magnetic Man", he was a charismatic speaker in an era that prized oratory. He began his political career as an early supporter of Republican Abraham Lincoln and the Union war effort in the American Civil War. During Reconstruction, Blaine was a supporter of black suffrage, but opposed some of the more coercive measures of the Radical Republicans. Initially in favor of high tariffs, he later worked to lower tariffs and expand international trade. Railroad promotion and construction were important issues in his time and, as a result of his interest and support, Blaine was widely suspected of corruption in awarding railroad charters, especially with the emergence of the Mulligan letters. Though no evidence of corruption ever surfaced from these allegations, they nevertheless plagued his 1884 presidential candidacy.


title: James G. Blaine

text: As Secretary of State, Blaine was a transitional figure, marking the end of an isolationist era in foreign policy and foreshadowing the rise of the American Century that would begin with the Spanish–American War. His efforts to expand U.S. trade and influence began the nation's shift to a more active American foreign policy. Blaine was a pioneer of tariff reciprocity and urged greater involvement in Latin American affairs. An expansionist, Blaine's policies would lead in less than a decade to the establishment of the U.S. acquisition of Pacific colonies and dominance in the Caribbean.


title: James G. Blaine

text: James Gillespie Blaine was born January 31, 1830, in West Brownsville, Pennsylvania, the third child of Ephraim Lyon Blaine and his wife Maria (Gillespie) Blaine. He had two older sisters, Harriet and Margaret. Blaine's father was a western Pennsylvania businessman and landowner, and the family lived in relative comfort. On his father's side, Blaine was descended from Scotch-Irish settlers who first emigrated to Pennsylvania in 1745. His great-grandfather Ephraim Blaine served as a Commissary-General under George Washington in the American Revolutionary War. Blaine's mother and her forebears were Irish Catholics who immigrated to Pennsylvania in the 1780s. Blaine's parents were married in 1820 in a Catholic ceremony, although Blaine's father remained a Presbyterian. Following a common compromise of the era, the Blaines agreed that their daughters would be raised in their mother's Catholic faith while their sons would be brought up in their father's religion. James Blaine's cousin, Angela Gillespie, was a nun and founded the American branch of the Sisters of the Holy Cross. In politics, Blaine's father supported the Whig Party.


title: James G. Blaine

text: Blaine's biographers describe his childhood as "harmonious," and note that the boy took an early interest in history and literature. At the age of thirteen, Blaine enrolled in his father's alma mater, Washington College (now Washington & Jefferson College), in nearby Washington, Pennsylvania. There, he was a member of the Washington Literary Society, one of the college's debating societies. Blaine succeeded academically, graduating near the top of his class and delivering the salutatory address in June 1847. After graduation, Blaine considered attending Yale Law School, but ultimately decided against it, instead moving west to find a job.


title: James G. Blaine

text: In 1848, Blaine was hired as a professor of mathematics and ancient languages at the Western Military Institute in Georgetown, Kentucky. Although he was only 18 years old and younger than many of his students, Blaine adapted well to his new profession. Blaine grew to enjoy life in his adopted state and became an admirer of Kentucky Senator Henry Clay. He also made the acquaintance of Harriet Stanwood, a teacher at the nearby Millersburg Female College and native of Maine. On June 30, 1850, the two wed. Blaine once again considered taking up the study of law, but instead took his new bride to visit his family in Pennsylvania. They next lived with Harriet Blaine's family in Augusta, Maine, for several months, where their first child, Stanwood Blaine, was born in 1851. The young family soon moved again, this time to Philadelphia where Blaine took a job at the Pennsylvania Institution for the Instruction of the Blind (now Overbrook School for the Blind) in 1852, teaching science and literature.


title: James G. Blaine

text: Philadelphia's law libraries gave Blaine the chance to at last begin to study the law, but in 1853 he received a more tempting offer: to become editor and co-owner of the "Kennebec Journal". Blaine had spent several vacations in his wife's native state of Maine and had become friendly with the "Journal"'s editors. When the newspaper's founder, Luther Severance, retired, Blaine was invited to purchase the publication along with co-editor Joseph Baker. He quickly accepted, borrowing the purchase price from his wife's brothers. In 1854, Baker sold his share to John L. Stevens, a local minister. The "Journal" had been a staunchly Whig newspaper, which coincided with Blaine's and Stevens' political opinions. The decision to become a newspaperman, unexpected as it was, started Blaine on the road to a lifelong career in politics. Blaine's purchase of the "Journal" coincided with the demise of the Whig party and birth of the Republican party, and Blaine and Stevens actively promoted the new party in their newspaper. The newspaper was financially successful, and Blaine was soon able to invest his profits in coal mines in Pennsylvania and Virginia, forming the basis of his future wealth.


title: James G. Blaine

text: Blaine's career as a Republican newspaperman led naturally to involvement in party politics. In 1856, he was selected as a delegate to the first Republican National Convention. From the party's early days, Blaine identified with the conservative wing, supporting Supreme Court Justice John McLean for the presidential nomination over the more radical John C. Frémont, the eventual nominee. The following year, Blaine was offered the editorship of the "Portland Daily Advertiser", which he accepted, selling his interest in the "Journal" soon thereafter. He still maintained his home in Augusta, however, with his growing family. Although Blaine's first son, Stanwood, died in infancy, he and Harriet had two more sons soon afterward: Walker, in 1855, and Emmons, in 1857. They would have four more children in years to come: Alice, James, Margaret, and Harriet. It was around this time that Blaine left the Presbyterian church of his childhood and joined his wife's new denomination, becoming a member of the South Parish Congregational Church in Augusta.


title: James G. Blaine

text: In 1858, Blaine ran for a seat in the Maine House of Representatives, and was elected. He ran for reelection in 1859, 1860, and 1861, and was successful each time by large majorities. The added responsibilities led Blaine to reduce his duties with the "Advertiser" in 1860, and he soon ceased editorial work altogether. Meanwhile, his political power was growing as he became chairman of the Republican state committee in 1859, replacing Stevens. Blaine was not a delegate to the Republican convention in 1860, but attended anyway as an enthusiastic supporter of Abraham Lincoln. Returning to Maine, he was elected Speaker of the Maine House of Representatives in 1861 and reelected in 1862. With the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861, he supported Lincoln's war effort and saw that the Maine Legislature voted to organize and equip units to join the Union Army.


title: James G. Blaine

text: Blaine had considered running for the United States House of Representatives from Maine's 4th district in 1860, but agreed to step aside when Anson P. Morrill, a former governor, announced his interest in the seat. Morrill was successful, but after redistricting placed Blaine in the 3rd district for the 1862 election, he allowed his name to be put forward. Running on a campaign of staunch support for the war effort, Blaine was elected by a wide margin; though nationwide, the Republican Party lost a significant number of seats in Congress as the Union war effort to date had been only weakly successful. By the time Blaine took his seat in December 1863, at the start of the 38th Congress, the Union Army had turned the tide of the war with victories at Gettysburg and Vicksburg.


title: James G. Blaine

text: As a first-term congressman, he initially said little, mostly following the administration's lead in supporting the continuing war effort. He did clash several times with the leader of the Republicans' radical faction, Thaddeus Stevens of Pennsylvania, firstly over payment of states' debts incurred in supporting the war, and again over monetary policy concerning the new greenback currency. Blaine also spoke in support of the commutation provision of the military draft law passed in 1863 and proposed a constitutional amendment allowing the federal government to impose taxes on exports, but it never passed.


title: James G. Blaine

text: Blaine was reelected in 1864 and, when the 39th Congress assembled in December 1865, the main issue was the Reconstruction of the defeated Confederate States. Although he was not a member of the committee charged with drafting what became the Fourteenth Amendment, Blaine did make his views on the subject known and believed that three-fourths of the non-seceded states would be needed to ratify it, rather than three-fourths of all states, an opinion that did not prevail and placed him, atypically, in the radical camp. The Republican Congress also played a role in the governance of the conquered South, dissolving the state governments President Andrew Johnson had installed and substituting military governments under Congress' control. Blaine voted in favor of these new, harsher measures, but also supported some leniency toward the former rebels when he opposed a bill that would have barred Southerners from attending the United States Military Academy. Blaine voted to impeach Johnson in 1868, although he had initially opposed the effort. Later, Blaine was more ambiguous about the validity of the charges against Johnson, writing that "there was a very grave difference of opinion among those equally competent to decide," but he followed his party's leaders.


title: James G. Blaine

text: Continuing his earlier battle with Stevens, Blaine led the fight in Congress for a strong dollar. After the issuance of 150 million dollars in greenbacks—non-gold-backed currency—the value of the dollar stood at a low ebb. A bipartisan group of inflationists, led by Republican Benjamin F. Butler and Democrat George H. Pendleton, wished to preserve the "status quo" and allow the Treasury to continue to issue greenbacks and even to use them to pay the interest due on pre-war bonds. Blaine called this idea a repudiation of the nation's promise to investors, which was made when the only currency was gold. Speaking several times on the matter, Blaine said that the greenbacks had only ever been an emergency measure to avoid bankruptcy during the war. Blaine and his hard money allies were successful, but the issue remained alive until 1879, when all remaining greenbacks were made redeemable in gold by the Specie Payment Resumption Act of 1875.


title: James G. Blaine

text: During his first three terms in Congress, Blaine had earned for himself a reputation as an expert of parliamentary procedure, and, aside from a growing feud with Roscoe Conkling of New York, had become popular among his fellow Republicans. In March 1869, when Speaker Schuyler Colfax resigned from office at the end of the 40th Congress to become vice president, the highly regarded Blaine was the unanimous choice of the Republican Congressional Caucus to become Speaker of the House for the 41st Congress. In the subsequent March 4, 1869, election for Speaker, Blaine easily defeated Democrat Michael C. Kerr of Indiana by a vote of 135 to 57. Republicans remained in control of the House in the 42nd and 43rd congresses, and Blaine was re-elected as speaker at the start of both of them. His time as speaker came to an end following the 187475 elections which produced a Democratic majority for the 44th Congress.


title: James G. Blaine

text: Blaine was an effective Speaker with a magnetic personality. Moreover, President Ulysses S. Grant valued his skill and loyalty in leading the House. He enjoyed the job and made his presence in Washington more permanent by buying a large residence on Fifteenth Street in the city. At the same time, the Blaine family moved to a mansion in Augusta.


title: James G. Blaine

text: During Blaine's six-year tenure as Speaker his popularity continued to grow, and Republicans dissatisfied with Grant mentioned Blaine as a potential presidential candidate prior to the 1872 Republican National Convention. Instead, Blaine worked steadfastly for Grant's re-election. Blaine's growing fame brought growing opposition from the Democrats, as well, and during the 1872 campaign he was accused of receiving bribes in the Crédit Mobilier scandal. Blaine denied any part in the scandal, which involved railroad companies bribing federal officials to turn a blind eye to fraudulent railroad contracts that overcharged the government by millions of dollars. No one was able to satisfactorily prove Blaine's involvement. Though not an absolute defense, it is true that the law that made the fraud possible had been written before he was elected to Congress. But other Republicans were exposed by the accusations, including Vice President Colfax, who was dropped from the 1872 presidential ticket in favor of Henry Wilson.


title: James G. Blaine

text: Although he supported a general amnesty for former Confederates, Blaine opposed extending it to include Jefferson Davis, and he cooperated with Grant in helping to pass the Civil Rights Act of 1875 in response to increased violence and disenfranchisement of blacks in the South. He refrained from voting on the anti-third term resolution that overwhelmingly passed the House that same year, believing that to vote for it would look self-interested. Blaine was loyal to Grant, and the scandals of the Grant administration did not seem to affect how the public perceived him; according to his biographer, Blaine was never more popular than when he was Speaker. Liberal Republicans saw him as an alternative to the evident corruption of other Republican leaders, and some even urged him to form a new, reformist party. Although he remained a Republican, this base of moderate reformers remained loyal to Blaine and became known as the Half Breed faction of the party.


title: James G. Blaine

text: Once out of the speaker's chair, Blaine had more time to concentrate on his presidential ambitions, and to develop new policy ideas. One result was a foray into education policy. In late 1875, President Grant made several speeches on the importance of the separation of church and state and the duty of the states to provide free public education. Blaine saw in this an issue that would distract from the Grant administration scandals and let the Republican party regain the high moral ground. In December 1875, he proposed a joint resolution that became known as the Blaine Amendment.


title: James G. Blaine

text: The proposed amendment codified the church-state separation Blaine and Grant were promoting, stating that:


title: James G. Blaine

text: The effect was to prohibit the use of public funds by any religious school, although it did not advance Grant's other aim of requiring states to provide public education to all children. The bill passed the House but failed in the Senate. Although it never passed Congress, and left Blaine open to charges of anti-Catholicism, the proposed amendment served Blaine's purpose of rallying Protestants to the Republican party and promoting himself as one of the party's foremost leaders.


title: James G. Blaine

text: Blaine entered the 1876 presidential campaign as the favorite, but his chances were almost immediately harmed by the emergence of a scandal. Rumors had begun to spread in February that Blaine had been involved in a transaction with the Union Pacific Railroad which had paid Blaine $64,000 for some Little Rock and Fort Smith Railroad bonds he owned even though they were nearly worthless. In essence, the alleged transaction was presented as a sham designed to bribe Blaine. Blaine denied the charges, as did the Union Pacific's directors. Blaine claimed that he never had any dealings with the Little Rock and Fort Smith Railroad except to purchase bonds at market price and that he had lost money on the transaction. Democrats in the House of Representatives, however, demanded a congressional investigation. The testimony appeared to favor Blaine's version of events until May 31, when James Mulligan, a Boston clerk who had been employed by Blaine's brother-in-law, testified that the allegations were true, he had arranged the transaction, and he had letters to prove it. The letters ended with the damning phrase "Kindly burn this letter." When the investigating committee recessed, Blaine met with Mulligan that night in his hotel room. What happened between the men is unclear, but Blaine acquired the letters or, as Mulligan told the committee, snatched them from Mulligan's hands and fled the room. In any event, Blaine had the letters and refused the committee's demand to turn them over.


title: James G. Blaine

text: Opinion swiftly turned against Blaine; the June 3 "The New York Times" carried the headline "Blaine's Nomination Now Out of the Question." Blaine took his case to the House floor on June 5, theatrically proclaiming his innocence and calling the investigation a partisan attack by Southern Democrats in revenge for his exclusion of Jefferson Davis from the amnesty bill of the previous year. He read selected passages from the letters aloud and said, "Thank God Almighty, I am not afraid to show them!" Blaine even succeeded in extracting an apology from the committee chairman. The political tide turned anew in Blaine's favor, but the pressure had now begun to affect Blaine's health, and he collapsed while leaving church services on June 14. His opponents called the collapse a political stunt, with one Democratic newspaper reporting the event as "Blaine Feigns a Faint." Rumors of Blaine's ill health combined with the lack of hard evidence against him garnered him sympathy among Republicans, and when the Republican convention began in Cincinnati later that month, he was again seen as the frontrunner.


title: James G. Blaine

text: Though he was damaged by the Mulligan letters, Blaine entered the convention as the favorite. Five other men were also considered serious candidates: Benjamin Bristow, the Kentucky-born Treasury Secretary; Roscoe Conkling, Blaine's old enemy and now a Senator from New York; Senator Oliver P. Morton of Indiana; Governor Rutherford B. Hayes of Ohio; and Governor John F. Hartranft of Pennsylvania. Blaine was nominated by Illinois orator Robert G. Ingersoll in what became a famous speech:


title: James G. Blaine

text: The speech was a success and Ingersoll's appellation of "plumed knight" remained a nickname for Blaine for years to come. On the first ballot, no candidate received the required majority of 378, but Blaine had the most votes, with 285 and no other candidate had more than 125. There were a few vote shifts in the next five ballots, and Blaine climbed to 308 votes, with his nearest competitor at just 111. On the seventh ballot the situation shifted drastically as anti-Blaine delegates began to coalesce around Hayes; by the time the balloting ended, Blaine's votes had risen to 351, but Hayes surpassed him at 384, a majority.


title: James G. Blaine

text: Blaine received the news at his home in Washington and telegraphed Hayes his congratulations. In the subsequent contest of 1876, Hayes was elected after a contentious compromise over disputed electoral votes. The results of the convention had further effects on Blaine's political career, as Bristow, having lost the nomination, also resigned as Treasury Secretary three days after the convention ended. President Grant selected Senator Lot M. Morrill of Maine to fill the cabinet post, and Maine's governor, Seldon Connor, appointed Blaine to the now-vacant Senate seat. When the Maine Legislature reconvened that autumn, they confirmed Blaine's appointment and elected him to the full six-year term that would begin on March 4, 1877.


title: James G. Blaine

text: Blaine was appointed to the Senate on July 10, 1876, but did not begin his duties there until the Senate convened in December of that year. While in the Senate, he served on the Appropriations Committee and held the chairmanship of the Committee on Civil Service and Retrenchment, but he never achieved the role of leadership that he had held as a member of the House. The Senate in the 45th Congress was controlled by a narrow Republican majority, but it was a majority often divided against itself and against the Hayes administration. Blaine did not number himself among the administration's defenders — later known as the Half-Breeds — but neither could he join the Republicans led by Conkling—later known as the Stalwarts — who opposed Hayes, because of the deep personal enmity between Blaine and Conkling. He opposed Hayes's withdrawal of federal troops from Southern capitals, which effectively ended the Reconstruction of the South, but to no avail. Blaine continued to antagonize Southern Democrats, voting against bills passed in the Democrat-controlled House that would reduce the Army's appropriation and repeal the post-war Enforcement Acts he had helped pass. Such bills passed Congress several times and Hayes vetoed them several times; ultimately, the Enforcement Acts remained in place, but the funds to enforce them dwindled. By 1879, there were only 1,155 soldiers stationed in the former Confederacy, and Blaine believed that this small force could never guarantee the civil and political rights of black Southerners—which would mean an end to the Republican party in the South.


title: James G. Blaine

text: On monetary issues, Blaine continued the advocacy for a strong dollar that he had begun as a Representative. This stance was in opposition to Senate Republican leadership, including Senate President Pro Tempore Thomas W. Ferry, who generally supported the greenback movement. The issue had shifted from debate over greenbacks to debate over which metal should back the dollar: gold and silver, or gold alone. The Coinage Act of 1873 stopped the coinage of silver for all coins worth a dollar or more, effectively tying the dollar to the value of gold. As a result, the money supply contracted and the effects of the Panic of 1873 grew worse, making it more expensive for debtors to pay debts they had entered into when currency was less valuable. Farmers and laborers, especially, clamored for the return of coinage in both metals, believing the increased money supply would restore wages and property values. Democratic Representative Richard P. Bland of Missouri proposed a bill, which passed the House, that required the United States to coin as much silver as miners could sell the government, thus increasing the money supply and aiding debtors. In the Senate, William B. Allison, a Republican from Iowa offered an amendment to limit the silver coinage to two to four million dollars per month. This was still too much for Blaine, and he denounced the bill and the proposed amendment, but the amended Bland–Allison Act passed the Senate by a 48 to 21 vote. Hayes vetoed the bill, but Congress mustered the two-thirds vote to pass it over his veto. Even after the Bland–Allison Act's passage, Blaine continued his opposition, making a series of speeches against it during the 1878 congressional campaign season.


title: James G. Blaine

text: His time in the Senate allowed Blaine to develop his foreign policy ideas. He advocated expansion of the American navy and merchant marine, which had been in decline since the Civil War. Blaine also bitterly opposed the results of the arbitration with Great Britain over American fishermen's right to fish in Canadian waters, which resulted in a $5.5 million award to Britain. Blaine's Anglophobia combined with his support of high tariffs. He had initially opposed a reciprocity treaty with Canada that would have reduced tariffs between the two nations, but by the end of his time in the Senate, he had changed his mind, believing that Americans had more to gain by increasing exports than they would lose by the risk of cheap imports.


title: James G. Blaine

text: Hayes had announced early in his presidency that he would not seek another term, which meant that the contest for the Republican nomination in 1880 was open to all challengers—including Blaine. Blaine was among the early favorites for the nomination, as were former President Grant, Treasury Secretary John Sherman of Ohio, and Senator George F. Edmunds of Vermont. Although Grant did not actively promote his candidacy, his entry into the race re-energized the Stalwarts and when the convention met in Chicago in June 1880, they instantly polarized the delegates into Grant and anti-Grant factions, with Blaine the most popular choice of the latter group. Blaine was nominated by James Frederick Joy of Michigan, but in contrast to Ingersoll's exciting speech of 1876, Joy's lengthy oration was remembered only for its maladroitness. After the other candidates were nominated, the first ballot showed Grant leading with 304 votes and Blaine in second with 284; no other candidate had more than Sherman's 93, and none had the required majority of 379. Sherman's delegates could swing the nomination to either Grant or Blaine, but he refused to release them through twenty-eight ballots in the hope that the anti-Grant forces would desert Blaine and flock to him. Eventually, they did desert Blaine, but instead of Sherman they shifted their votes to Ohio Congressman James A. Garfield, and by the thirty-sixth ballot he had 399 votes, enough for victory.


title: James G. Blaine

text: Garfield placated the Stalwarts by endorsing Chester A. Arthur of New York, a Conkling loyalist, as nominee for vice president, but it was to Blaine and his delegates that Garfield owed his nomination. When Garfield was elected over Democrat Winfield Scott Hancock, he turned to Blaine to guide him in selection of his cabinet and offered him the preeminent position: Secretary of State. Blaine accepted, resigning from the Senate on March 4, 1881.


title: James G. Blaine

text: Blaine saw presiding over the cabinet as a chance to preside over the Washington social scene, as well, and soon ordered construction of a new, larger home near Dupont Circle. Although his foreign policy experience was minimal, Blaine quickly threw himself into his new duties. By 1881, Blaine had completely abandoned his protectionist leanings and now used his position as Secretary of State to promote freer trade, especially within the western hemisphere. His reasons were twofold: firstly, Blaine's old fear of British interference in the Americas was undiminished, and he saw increased trade with Latin America as the best way to keep Britain from dominating the region. Secondly, he believed that by encouraging exports, he could increase American prosperity, and by doing so position the Republican party as the author of that prosperity, ensuring continued electoral success. Garfield agreed with his Secretary of State's vision and Blaine called for a Pan-American conference in 1882 to mediate disputes among the Latin American nations and to serve as a forum for talks on increasing trade. At the same time, Blaine hoped to negotiate a peace in the War of the Pacific then being fought by Bolivia, Chile, and Peru. Blaine favored a resolution that would not result in Peru yielding any territory, but Chile, which had by 1881 occupied the Peruvian capital, rejected any negotiations that would gain them nothing. Blaine sought to expand American influence in other areas, calling for renegotiation of the Clayton–Bulwer Treaty to allow the United States to construct a canal through Panama without British involvement, as well as attempting to reduce British involvement in the strategically located Kingdom of Hawaii. His plans for the United States' involvement in the world stretched even beyond the Western Hemisphere, as he sought commercial treaties with Korea and Madagascar.


title: James G. Blaine

text: On July 2, 1881, Blaine and Garfield were walking through the Sixth Street Station of the Baltimore and Potomac Railroad in Washington when Garfield was shot by Charles J. Guiteau, a disgruntled lawyer and crazed office seeker who had made repeated demands for Blaine and other State Department officials to appoint him to various ambassadorships for which he was grossly unqualified or were already filled.


title: James G. Blaine

text: Guiteau, a self-professed Stalwart, believed that after assassinating the President, he would strike a blow to unite the two factions of the Republican Party, allowing him to ingratiate himself with Vice President Arthur and receive his coveted position. Guiteau was overpowered and arrested immediately, while Garfield lingered for two and a half months before he died on September 19, 1881. Guiteau was convicted of killing Garfield and hanged on June 30, 1882.


title: James G. Blaine

text: Garfield's death was not just a personal tragedy for Blaine; it also meant the end of his dominance of the cabinet, and the end of his foreign policy initiatives. With Arthur's ascent to the presidency, the Stalwart faction now held sway, and Blaine's days at the State Department were numbered. While Arthur asked all of the cabinet members to postpone their resignations until Congress recessed that December, Blaine nonetheless tendered his resignation on October 19, 1881, but he agreed to remain in office until December 19, when his successor would be in place.


title: James G. Blaine

text: Blaine's replacement was Frederick T. Frelinghuysen, a New Jersey Stalwart; while Arthur and Frelinghuysen undid much of Blaine's work, cancelling the call for a Pan-American conference and stopping the effort to end the War of the Pacific, they did continue the drive for tariff reductions, signing a reciprocity treaty with Mexico in 1882.


title: James G. Blaine

text: Blaine began the year 1882 without a political office for the first time since 1859. Troubled by poor health, he sought no employment other than the completion of the first volume of his memoir, "Twenty Years of Congress." Friends in Maine petitioned Blaine to run for Congress in the 1882 elections, but he declined, preferring to spend his time writing and supervising the move to the new home. His income from mining and railroad investments was sufficient to sustain the family's lifestyle and to allow for the construction of a vacation cottage, "Stanwood" on Mount Desert Island, Maine, designed by Frank Furness. Blaine appeared before Congress in 1882 during an investigation into his War of the Pacific diplomacy, defending himself against allegations that he owned an interest in the Peruvian guano deposits being occupied by Chile, but otherwise stayed away from the Capitol. The publication of the first volume of "Twenty Years" in early 1884 added to Blaine's financial security and thrust him back into the political spotlight. As the 1884 campaign loomed, Blaine's name was being circulated once more as a potential nominee, and despite some reservations, he soon found himself back in the hunt for the presidency.


title: James G. Blaine

text: In the months leading up to the 1884 convention, Blaine was once more considered the favorite for the nomination, but President Arthur was contemplating a run for election in his own right. George Edmunds was again the favored candidate among reformers and John Sherman had a few delegates pledged to him, but neither was expected to command much support at the convention. John A. Logan of Illinois hoped to attract Stalwart votes if Arthur's campaign was unsuccessful. Blaine was unsure he wanted to try for the nomination for the third time and even encouraged General William T. Sherman, John Sherman's older brother, to accept it if it came to him, but ultimately Blaine agreed to be a candidate again.


title: James G. Blaine

text: William H. West of Ohio nominated Blaine with an enthusiastic speech and after the first ballot, Blaine led the count with 334½ votes. While short of the necessary 417 for nomination, Blaine had far more than any other candidate with Arthur in second place at 278 votes. Blaine was unacceptable to the Arthur delegates just as Blaine's own delegates would never vote for the President, so the contest was between the two for the delegates of the remaining candidates. Blaine's total steadily increased as Logan and Sherman withdrew in his favor and some of the Edmunds delegates defected to him. Unlike in previous conventions, the momentum for Blaine in 1884 would not be halted. On the fourth ballot, Blaine received 541 votes and was, at last, nominated. Logan was named vice presidential nominee on the first ballot, and the Republicans had their ticket.


title: James G. Blaine

text: The Democrats held their convention in Chicago the following month and nominated Governor Grover Cleveland of New York. Cleveland's time on the national scene was brief, but Democrats hoped that his reputation as a reformer and an opponent of corruption would attract Republicans dissatisfied with Blaine and his reputation for scandal. They were correct, as reform-minded Republicans (called "Mugwumps") denounced Blaine as corrupt and flocked to Cleveland. The Mugwumps, including such men as Carl Schurz and Henry Ward Beecher, were more concerned with morality than with party, and felt Cleveland was a kindred soul who would promote civil service reform and fight for efficiency in government. However, even as the Democrats gained support from the Mugwumps, they lost some blue-collar workers to the Greenback Party, led by Benjamin F. Butler, Blaine's antagonist from their early days in the House.


title: James G. Blaine

text: The campaign focused on the candidates' personalities, as each candidate's supporters cast aspersions on their opponents. Cleveland's supporters rehashed the old allegations from the Mulligan letters that Blaine had corruptly influenced legislation in favor of railroads, later profiting on the sale of bonds he owned in both companies. Although the stories of Blaine's favors to the railroads had made the rounds eight years earlier, this time more of his correspondence was discovered, making his earlier denials less plausible. Blaine acknowledged that the letters were genuine, but denied that anything in them impugned his integrity or contradicted his earlier explanations. Nevertheless, what Blaine described as "stale slander" served to focus the public's attention negatively on his character. On some of the most damaging correspondence, Blaine had written "Burn this letter," giving Democrats the last line to their rallying cry: "Blaine, Blaine, James G. Blaine, the continental liar from the state of Maine, 'Burn this letter!'"


title: James G. Blaine

text: To counter Cleveland's image of superior morality, Republicans discovered reports that Cleveland had fathered an illegitimate child while he was a lawyer in Buffalo, New York, and chanted "Ma, Ma, where's my Pa?"—to which the Democrats, after Cleveland had been elected, appended, "Gone to the White House, Ha! Ha! Ha!" Cleveland admitted to paying child support in 1874 to Maria Crofts Halpin, the woman who claimed he fathered her child named Oscar Folsom Cleveland. Halpin was involved with several men at the time, including Cleveland's friend and law partner, Oscar Folsom, for whom the child was also named. Cleveland did not know which man was the father, and is believed to have assumed responsibility because he was the only bachelor among them. At the same time, Democratic operatives accused Blaine and his wife of not having been married when their eldest son, Stanwood, was born in 1851; this rumor was false, however, and caused little excitement in the campaign. Halpin disputed the claims of being involved with several men, accusing Cleveland of raping and impregnating her, then institutionalizing her against his will to gain control of their child.


title: James G. Blaine

text: Both candidates believed that the states of New York, New Jersey, Indiana, and Connecticut would determine the election. In New York, Blaine received less support than he anticipated when Arthur and Conkling, still powerful in the New York Republican party, failed to actively campaign for him. Blaine hoped that he would have more support from Irish Americans than Republicans typically did; while the Irish were mainly a Democratic constituency in the 19th century, Blaine's mother was Irish Catholic, and he believed his career-long opposition to the British government would resonate with the Irish. Blaine's hope for Irish defections to the Republican standard were dashed late in the campaign when one of his supporters, Samuel D. Burchard, gave a speech denouncing the Democrats as the party of "Rum, Romanism, and Rebellion." The Democrats spread the word of this insult in the days before the election, and Cleveland narrowly won all four of the swing states, including New York by just over one thousand votes. While the popular vote total was close, with Cleveland winning by just one-quarter of a percent, the electoral votes gave Cleveland a majority of 219–182.


title: James G. Blaine

text: Blaine accepted his narrow defeat and spent most of the next year working on the second volume of "Twenty Years of Congress." The book continued to earn him enough money to support his lavish household and pay off his debts. Although he spoke to friends of retiring from politics, Blaine still attended dinners and commented on the Cleveland administration's policies. By the time of the 1886 Congressional elections, Blaine was giving speeches and promoting Republican candidates, especially in his home state of Maine. Republicans were successful in Maine, and after the Maine elections in September, Blaine went on a speaking tour from Pennsylvania to Tennessee, hoping to boost the prospects of Republican candidates there. Republicans were less successful nationwide, gaining seats in the House while losing seats in the Senate, but Blaine's speeches kept him and his opinions in the spotlight.


title: James G. Blaine

text: Blaine and his wife and daughters sailed for Europe in June 1887, visiting England, Ireland, Germany, France, Austria-Hungary, and finally Scotland, where they stayed at the summer home of Andrew Carnegie. While in France, Blaine wrote a letter to the "New-York Tribune" criticizing Cleveland's plans to reduce the tariff, saying that free trade with Europe would impoverish American workers and farmers. The family returned to the United States in August 1887. His letter in the "Tribune" had raised his political profile even higher, and by 1888 Theodore Roosevelt and Henry Cabot Lodge, both former opponents, urged Blaine to run against Cleveland again. Opinion within the party was overwhelmingly in favor of renominating Blaine.


title: James G. Blaine

text: As the state conventions drew nearer, Blaine announced that he would not be a candidate. His supporters doubted his sincerity and continued to encourage him to run, but Blaine still demurred. Hoping to make his intentions clear, Blaine left the country and was staying with Carnegie in Scotland when the 1888 Republican National Convention began in Chicago. Carnegie encouraged Blaine to accept if the convention nominated him, but the delegates finally accepted Blaine's refusal. John Sherman was the most prominent candidate and sought to attract the Blaine supporters to his candidacy, but instead found them flocking to former senator Benjamin Harrison of Indiana after a telegram from Carnegie suggested that Blaine favored him. Blaine returned to the United States in August 1888 and visited Harrison at his home in October, where twenty-five thousand residents paraded in Blaine's honor. Harrison defeated Cleveland in a close election, and offered Blaine his former position as Secretary of State.


title: James G. Blaine

text: Harrison had developed his foreign policy based largely on Blaine's ideas, and at the start of his term, Harrison and Blaine had very similar views on the United States' place in the world. In spite of their shared worldview, however, the two men became personally unfriendly as the term went on. Harrison was conscious that his Secretary of State was more popular than he, and while he admired Blaine's gift for diplomacy, he grew displeased with Blaine's frequent absence from his post because of illness, and suspected that Blaine was angling for the presidential nomination in 1892. Harrison tried to limit how many "Blaine men" filled subordinate positions in the State Department and denied Blaine's request that his son, Walker, be appointed First Assistant Secretary, instead naming him Solicitor of the Department of State. Despite the growing personal rancor, the two men continued, with one exception, to agree on the foreign policy questions of the day.