title: Ya Kid K

text: While Jo Bogaert hired new singers for Technotronic's third album, "Body to Body", Ya Kid K returned after limited success of her own album, "One World Nation". This album contained many different musical and, in particular, vocal styles.


title: Ya Kid K

text: In 1991, Ya Kid K appeared on the , performing "Awesome (You Are My Hero)", continuing her work with the music of the film franchise. The partnership continued in 1993, when 2 versions of Ya Kid K's "Rockin' over the Beat" appeared on the .


title: Ya Kid K

text: In 1995, Technotronic re-emerged in the U.S. with Ya Kid K as its front vocalist, again with limited success of the album, "Recall". On the track "Are You Ready" she teamed up with Daisy Dee, who already did a cover version of "This Beat is…" with MC B. In 1996, a Ya Kid K single titled "Rock My World" was released. She appeared in June 2000 on Technotronic's single "The Mariachi." In 2002, she released "Take a Trip" on Semini Records.


title: Ya Kid K

text: In 1997, Ya Kid K also provided fresh vocals for the 2 Skinnee J's cover of "Pump Up the Jam" entitled, "BBQ". She sang "Pump up the gas grill" as the chorus.


title: Ya Kid K

text: In October 2005, Ya Kid K made a guest appearance on "Public Warning" the debut album of English female rapper Lady Sovereign.


title: Ya Kid K

text: In 2011, she returned with the song "DO UC ME Standing". Ya Kid K also released the song "Comes Love" on Baronic Arts.


title: Ya Kid K

text: In 2014 she released some new tracks and an album called "Stalled Constructions". She also worked with the German dance project Maviic for the single release "Moja Mbili Tatu".


title: Ya Kid K

text: After the single "Rockin' Over the Beat", Ya Kid K had a child with MC Eric who performed the Technotronic hit "This Beat Is Technotronic".


title: G-Star Raw

text: G-Star RAW (commonly called G-Star) is a Dutch designer clothing company, founded by Jos van Tilburg in Amsterdam in 1989. The brand specializes in making raw denim—an unwashed, untreated denim. G-Star is influenced by military clothing. Inspirations of their designs come from vintage military apparel from around the world.


title: G-Star Raw

text: Models for the brand include Liv Tyler, Max Verstappen, Mathias Ranegie, Girls' Generation, World Chess Champion Magnus Carlsen, Clémence Poésy and musician Sergio Pizzorno. It was showcased at the New York Fashion Week from 2008 to 2011.


title: G-Star Raw

text: G-Star was founded in 1989, specializing in denim clothing in the Netherlands. Jeans, shirts, and other articles of clothing were produced. G-Star was originally named Gap Star but decided to change their name when going international to avoid confusion with the already established Gap.


title: G-Star Raw

text: G-Star's flagship stores are located in New York City, Boston, Los Angeles, Edinburgh, Melbourne, Shanghai, Paris, London, Cardiff, Milan, Santiago de Chile, Mumbai and the Netherlands as its home base in the most luxurious shopping street of Amsterdam, the P.C. Hooftstraat. In total, G-Star has more than 6,500 selling points worldwide.


title: G-Star Raw

text: G-Star's business in Australia went into voluntary administration in May 2020 following business challenges due to the COVID-19 pandemic. In August 2020, all 57 Australian stores were permanently closed after administrators failed to find a buyer for the business.


title: G-Star Raw

text: In February 2014, artist and music producer Pharrell Williams announced a collaboration between G-Star RAW and his textile company Bionic Yarn called "RAW for the Oceans," a collection of denim made from recycled plastic that is found in the ocean. The project was presented at the American Museum of Natural History in New York City.


title: Flame-bladed sword

text: A flame-bladed sword or wave-bladed sword has a characteristically undulating style of blade. The wave in the blade is often considered to contribute a flame-like quality to the appearance of a sword. The dents on the blade can appear parallel or in a zig-zag manner. The two most common flame-bladed swords are rapiers or "Zweihänders". A flame-bladed sword was not exclusive to a certain country or region. The style of blade can be found on swords from modern-day Germany, France, Spain, and Switzerland.


title: Flame-bladed sword

text: The two-handed flame-bladed sword is referred to by the German "Flammenschwert" (literally "flame sword"). These swords are very similar to two-handed sword or "Zweihänder", the only difference being the blade. The design of the blade is decorative along with being functional by causing unpleasant vibrations while parrying. Still, the undulating blade is no more effective at cutting than a straight one. An advantage over swords with a straight blade is that a waved blade could better distribute the force of impact and thus was less likely to break. It could also threaten the opponent in a duel and may have witheld them of grabbing the blade. Like other "Zweihänders" they were used during the 16th century by the "Landsknechts" (well-trained and experienced swordsmen) for single-fights, protecting castle/town walls, or sometimes to protect the banner on the battlefield.


title: Flame-bladed sword

text: "Flamberge" is not a fit term to use for flame-bladed swords because of the many different connotations it has. Despite coming from the French "flamber", meaning "flaming", it has been used to refer to swords without the flamed-blade.


title: Flame-bladed sword

text: Egerton Castle used the term to refer to swords that were a transition from the rapier to the smallsword. These swords did not necesarilly have an undulated blade. Castle makes note of this being the case of certain Swiss rapiers, but "flamberge" quickly became a disdainful term in France to refer to flamboyant swords. This comes from the French expression ""Mettre flamberge au vent"", meaning "To put [the sword] in the wind". Here, it is suggested that the wielder of the sword likened it to the mythical sword Durendal, which alternatively was called "flamberge".


title: Flame-bladed sword

text: The term is a frequent name or alias for swords in medieval chansons de geste and romances. Here, it often just meant a large sword.


title: Italian fashion

text: Italy is one of the leading countries in fashion design, alongside France, the United States and the United Kingdom. Fashion has always been an important part of the country's cultural life and society, and Italians are well known for their attention to dress; "la bella figura", or good appearance, retains its traditional importance.


title: Italian fashion

text: Italian fashion became prominent during the 11th to 16th centuries, when artistic development in Italy was at its peak. Cities such as Rome, Palermo, Venice, Milan, Naples, Florence and Vicenza started to produce luxury goods, hats, cosmetics, jewelry and rich fabrics. From the 17th century to the early 20th, Italian fashion lost its importance and lustre and Europe's main trendsetter became France, with the great popularity of French fashion; this is due to the luxury dresses which were designed for the courtiers of Louis XIV. However, since the 1951–53 fashion soirées held by Giovanni Battista Giorgini in Florence, the ""Italian school"" started to compete with the French "haute couture", and labels such as Ferragamo and Gucci began to contend with Chanel and Dior. In 2009, according to the Global Language Monitor, Milan, Italy's centre of design, was ranked the top fashion capital of the world, and Rome was ranked fourth, and, although both cities fell in subsequent rankings, in 2011, Florence entered as the 31st world fashion capital. Milan is generally considered to be one of the "big four" global fashion capitals, along with New York, Paris, and London; occasionally, the "big five" also includes Rome.


title: Italian fashion

text: Italian fashion is linked to the most generalized concept of "Made in Italy", a merchandise brand expressing excellence of creativity and craftsmanship. Italian luxury goods are renowned for the quality of the textiles and the elegance and refinement of their construction. Many French, British and American high-top luxury brands (such as Chanel, Dior, Balmain and the main line of Ralph Lauren) also rely on Italian craft factories, located in highly specialized areas in the metropolitan area of Naples and in the centre-north of Italy (Tuscany, Marche, Veneto and Piedmont), to produce parts of their apparel and accessories.


title: Italian fashion

text: The nonprofit association that co-ordinates and promotes the development of Italian fashion is the National Chamber of Italian Fashion (Camera Nazionale della Moda Italiana), now led by Carlo Capasa. It was set up in 1958 in Rome and now is settled in Milan and represents all the highest cultural values of Italian fashion. This association has pursued a policy of organisational support aimed at the knowledge, promotion and development of fashion through high-profile events in Italy and abroad. The talent of young, creative fashion is also promoted in Italy, as in the annual ITS (International Talent Support Awards) young fashion designer competition in Trieste.


title: Italian fashion

text: Examples of major Italian fashion houses focused on both menswear and womenswear, but also accessories:


title: Italian fashion

text: Examples of major fashion brands which are specialized mainly at womenswear (and also accessories for women) are Agnona, Laura Biagiotti, Blumarine (created by Anna Molinari), Capucci (directed by Mario Dice), Alberta Ferretti, Gattinoni, Genny (designed by Sara Cavazza Facchini), Giamba (created by designer Giambattista Valli), Krizia (founded by Mariuccia Mandelli and now art directored by Zhu Chongyun), La Perla, Luisa Spagnoli, Max Mara (created by Ian Griffiths), Miu Miu (founded and directed by Miuccia Prada), Philosophy (directed by Lorenzo Serafini), Emilio Pucci (created by Camille Miceli), Mila Schon and Twin-set Milano whilst the most important luxury houses which focus only on menswear and accessories for men are Brioni, Canali, Corneliani, Lardini, Stefano Ricci, Ermenegildo Zegna (directed by Alessandro Sartori) and Pal Zileri.


title: Italian fashion

text: Luxury sportswear and streetwear have become general fashion trends, mixing high and low, formal and active style in one look and also in this segment Italy, apart from big luxury brands focused on ready to wear (or couture) developing their own streetstyle lines or items such as Gucci, Fendi, Moschino and Prada or top brands with a strong sporty heritage like Bikkembergs, has got a few high end companies focused on this style like GCDS, OFF White founded by American Virgil Abloh but based in Milan, Stone island. In sportswear some of the most prominent houses are Diadora, Fila, and Kappa.


title: Italian fashion

text: A few Italian designers head (or have headed) some important fashion brands outside Italy. Riccardo Tisci had been working for French luxury house Givenchy for twelve years until 2017 and in 2018 was named British Burberry's creative director until 2022, Maria Grazia Chiuri after co-heading at Valentino together with Pier Paolo Piccioli now is the first female creative director ever at Dior, French fashion brand Rochas had been directed by Alessandro Dell'Acqua for a few years, Marco Colagrossi heads Ungaro after a few years under the directorship of Fausto Puglisi, Nino Cerruti founded his own Paris-based fashion house, Giambattista Valli's main ready to wear and high fashion lines are set in Paris and Stefano Pilati was for almost eight years Saint Laurent's head designer.


title: Italian fashion

text: Among the newest labels or younger designers, the most prominent are Golden Goose Deluxe Brand and Stella Jean.


title: Italian fashion

text: Other luxury labels which are mainly focused on the production of leather goods such as accessories, especially shoes (but not only), are Baldinini, Ballin, Bontoni, Rene Caovilla, Bruno Magli, Cesare Paciotti, Pollini, Sergio Rossi, Giuseppe Zanotti, while fashion brands or labels which produce primarily bags, totes, suitcases are Braccialini, Furla, Mandarina Duck, Piquadro, Valextra.


title: Italian fashion

text: Italy also is home to many fashion magazines, such as "Vogue Italia", "Vanity Fair", "Elle", "Glamour", "Grazia".


title: Italian fashion

text: Other Italian accessory and jewelry brands, such as Luxottica (owner, amongst several luxury eyewear brands, of Ray-Ban and Persol), Safilo, Buccellati, Damiani, Vhernier, Pomellato, Morellato, Officine Panerai and Bvlgari.


title: Italian fashion

text: Fashion in Italy started to become the most fashionable in Europe since the 11th century, and powerful cities of the time, such as Venice, Milan, Florence, Naples, Vicenza and Rome began to produce robes, jewelry, textiles, shoes, fabrics, ornaments and elaborate dresses. Italian fashion reached its peak during the Renaissance. As Italy is widely recognized as the cradle and birthplace of the Renaissance, art, music, education, finance and philosophy flourished, and along with it, Italian fashion designs became very popular (especially those worn by the Medicis in Florence. The fashions of Queen Catherine de' Medici of France were considered amongst the most fashionable in Europe.


title: Italian fashion

text: After a decline in the 17th to mid-20th century, Italy returned to being a leading nation in fashion, and Florence was Italy's fashion capital in the 50s and 60s from the very first high fashion parade at the Sala Bianca of the Pitti Palace in 1952 with names such as Emilio Schuberth, Emilio Pucci, Vincenzo Ferdinandi, Roberto Capucci, Sorelle Fontana, Germana Marucelli, Mila Schön, Fausto Sarli, whilst Milan led the way in the 70s and 80s, with then-new labels, such as Armani, Enrico Coveri, Dolce & Gabbana, Gianfranco Ferré, Romeo Gigli, Krizia, Missoni, Moschino, Luciano Soprani, Trussardi and Versace and opening up and setting up their first boutiques and emporia. Until the 1970s, Italian fashion was mainly designed for the rich and famous, more or less like the French ""Haute Couture"". Yet, in the 1970s and 80s, Italian fashion started to concentrate on ready-to-wear clothes, such as coats, jackets, trousers, shirts, jeans, jumpers and miniskirts. Milan became more affordable and stylish for shoppers, and Florence was deposed of its position as the Italian fashion capital and replaced by Rome, which grew in importance as high fashion pole in the country thanks to the creations of Valentino, Fendi, Roberto Capucci, Renato Balestra and Gattinoni.


title: Italian fashion

text: Today, Milan and Rome are Italy's fashion capitals, and are major international centres for fashion design, competing with other cities such as Tokyo, Los Angeles, London, Paris and New York. Also, other cities such as Venice, Florence, Naples, Vicenza, Bologna, Genoa and Turin are important centres. The country's main shopping districts are the Via Montenapoleone fashion district and the Galleria Vittorio Emanuele (Milan), Via dei Condotti (Rome), and Via de' Tornabuoni (Florence).


title: Italian fashion

text: Italian fashion is dominated by Milan, Rome, and to a lesser extent, Florence, with the former two being included in the top 30 fashion capitals of the world. Nonetheless, there are numerous other cities which play an important role in Italian fashion.


title: Italian fashion

text: In 2014, Milan was regarded as the world fashion capital (based upon frequency of mention in global media outlets), even surpassing New York, Paris, Rome and London. In 2011, Milan was ranked #4, behind London, New York, and Paris. Many of the major Italian fashion brands, such as Valentino, Versace, Prada, Armani, Dolce & Gabbana, Marni, Iceberg, Missoni, Trussardi, Moschino, Dirk Bikkembergs, Etro, and Zegna are currently headquartered in the city. International fashion labels also operate shops in Milan, including an Abercrombie & Fitch flagship store which has become a main consumer attraction. Milan also hosts a fashion week twice a year, just like other international centres such as Paris, London and New York. Milan's main upscale fashion district is the ""quadrilatero della moda"" (literally, "fashion quadrilateral"), where the city's most prestigious shopping streets (Via Montenapoleone, Via della Spiga, Via Sant'Andrea, Via Manzoni and Corso Venezia) are held. The Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II, the Piazza del Duomo, Via Dante and Corso Buenos Aires are other important shopping streets and squares.


title: Italian fashion

text: Florence is regarded by some as the birthplace and earliest centre of the modern (post World War Two) fashion industry in Italy. The Florentine "soirées" of the early 1950s organized by Giovanni Battista Giorgini were events where several now-famous Italian designers participated in group shows and first garnered international attention. Florence has served as the home of the Italian fashion company Salvatore Ferragamo since 1928. Gianfranco Lotti, Gucci, Roberto Cavalli, Ermanno Scervino, Stefano Ricci, Patrizia Pepe, Enrico Coveri and Emilio Pucci were also founded and most of them are still headquartered in Florence. Other major players in the fashion industry such as Prada and Chanel have large offices and stores in Florence or its outskirts. Florence's main upscale shopping street is Via de' Tornabuoni, where major luxury fashion houses and jewelry labels, such as Armani and Bulgari, have their elegant boutiques. Via del Parione and Via Roma are other streets that are also well known for their high-end fashion stores.


title: Italian fashion

text: Rome is widely recognized as a world fashion capital. Although not as important as Milan, Rome is the world's 4th most important centre for fashion in the world, according to the 2009 Global Language Monitor after Milan, New York and Paris, and beating London. Major Italian luxury fashion houses and jewelry chains, such as Valentino, Bulgari, Fendi, Laura Biagiotti, Gattinoni and Brioni, just to name a few, are headquartered or were founded in the city. Also, other major labels, such as Chanel, Prada, Dolce & Gabbana, Armani and Versace have luxury boutiques in Rome, primarily along its prestigious and upscale Via dei Condotti. The Rome Fashion Week is an important global showcase.


title: Italian fashion

text: Although Milan, Rome and Florence are commonly regarded as the leading cities in Italian fashion, other cities, such as Venice, Vicenza, Turin, Naples and Bologna, are also important centres for Italian clothing design and industry. Venice, for instance, is the home of Italian fashion house Roberta di Camerino, which was founded in 1945. The brand is famous for its handbags, and is most notably associated with the creation of the it bag, a form of handbag which is recognisable due to its status symbol. Brands such as Max Mara and United Colors of Benetton, despite being major Italian brands, are not headquartered in Milan, Rome or Florence, yet, the former has its headquarters in Reggio Emilia, and the latter in Ponzano Veneto. Italian holding OTB held by Renzo Rosso, owner of different ready-to-wear brands such as Diesel and also fashion houses like Marni, Dutch label Viktor & Rolf and Belgian Maison Margiela, is headquartered in the countryside near Vicenza in the region of Veneto. Italian companies Cesare Paciotti and also Tod's, owned by businessman Diego Della Valle (which produces luxury shoes, other leather goods and also clothes under the labels of Tod's itself, Roger Vivier, Hogan, Fay and haute couture brand Schiaparelli), Santoni, Bontoni are headquartered in the region of Marche, a very important manufacturing district for shoes and leather components in the Adriatic coast. Fashion houses Fabiana Filippi and Brunello Cucinelli's home is the region of Umbria and luxury brands Kiton and Harmont & Blaine were founded in Naples which is also another prominent area of the country for the manufacturing of apparel and accessories (especially shoes and leather goods in general around the district of Solofra).


title: Italian fashion

text: The Milan Fashion Week takes place twice a year after the London Fashion Week and before the Paris Fashion Week. It is scheduled as the third of the four most important and global international ready-to-wear fashion weeks of the calendar during the so-called fashion month. Dates are determined by the Camera Nazionale della Moda Italiana. Some of the locations where fashion shows are held are Milan's Palazzo Reale, Palazzo Serbelloni, Padiglione Visconti, Spazio delle Cavallerizze at Leonardo Da Vinci museum and many others.


title: Italian fashion

text: Another prominent platform for men's collections and new projects in fashion industry is Pitti Immagine in Florence at the Fortezza da Basso, held twice a year a few days before the Milanese man's fashion week.


title: Hirudo medicinalis

text: Hirudo medicinalis, the European medicinal leech, is one of several species of leeches used as "medicinal leeches".


title: Hirudo medicinalis

text: Other species of "Hirudo" sometimes also used as medicinal leeches include "H. orientalis", "H. troctina", and "H. verbana". The Asian medicinal leech includes "Hirudinaria manillensis", and the North American medicinal leech is "Macrobdella decora".


title: Hirudo medicinalis

text: The general morphology of medicinal leeches follows that of most other leeches. Fully mature adults can be up to 20 cm in length, and are green, brown, or greenish-brown with a darker tone on the dorsal side and a lighter ventral side. The dorsal side also has a thin red stripe. These organisms have two suckers, one at each end, called the anterior and posterior suckers. The posterior is used mainly for leverage, whereas the anterior sucker, consisting of the jaw and teeth, is where the feeding takes place. Medicinal leeches have three jaws (tripartite) that resemble saws, on which are approximately 100 sharp edges used to incise the host. The incision leaves a mark that is an inverted Y inside of a circle. After piercing the skin, they suck out blood while injecting anticoagulants (hirudin). Large adults can consume up to ten times their body weight in a single meal, with 5–15 mL being the average volume taken. These leeches can live for up to a year between feeding.


title: Hirudo medicinalis

text: Medicinal leeches are hermaphrodites that reproduce by sexual mating, laying eggs in clutches of up to 50 near (but not under) water, and in shaded, humid places. A study done in Poland concluded that they have been found inside the nest of large aquatic birds although, their effect on the bird is largely unknown.


title: Hirudo medicinalis

text: Their range extends over almost the whole of Europe and into Asia as far as Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan. The preferred habitat for this species is muddy freshwater pools and ditches with plentiful weed growth in temperate climates.


title: Hirudo medicinalis

text: Over-exploitation by leech collectors in the 19th century has left only scattered populations, and reduction in natural habitat through drainage has also contributed to their decline. Another factor has been the replacement of horses in farming (horses were medicinal leeches' preferred food source) and provision of artificial water supplies for cattle. As a result, this species is now considered near threatened by the IUCN, and European medicinal leeches are legally protected through nearly all of their natural range. They are particularly sparsely distributed in France and Belgium, and in the UK there may be as few as 20 remaining isolated populations (all widely scattered). The largest (at Lydd) is estimated to contain several thousand individuals; 12 of these areas have been designated Sites of Special Scientific Interest. There are small, transplanted populations in several countries outside their natural range, including the USA.


title: Hirudo medicinalis

text: The species is protected under Appendix II of CITES meaning international trade (including in parts and derivatives) is regulated by the CITES permitting system.


title: Hirudo medicinalis

text: Medicinal leeches have been found to secrete saliva containing about 60 different proteins. These achieve a wide variety of goals useful to the leech as it feeds, helping to keep the blood in liquid form and increasing blood flow in the affected area. Several of these secreted proteins serve as anticoagulants (such as hirudin), platelet aggregation inhibitors (most notably apyrase, collagenase, and calin), vasodilators, and proteinase inhibitors. It is also thought that the saliva contains an anesthetic, as leech bites are generally not painful.


title: Hirudo medicinalis

text: The first description of leech therapy, classified as blood letting, is found in the "Sushruta Samhita", an ancient Sanskrit medical text. It describes 12 types of leeches (6 venomous and 6 non-venomous).


title: Hirudo medicinalis

text: Diseases where leech therapy was indicated include skin diseases, sciatica, and musculoskeletal pains.


title: Hirudo medicinalis

text: In medieval and early modern medicine, the medicinal leech ("Hirudo medicinalis" and its congeners "H. verbana", "H. troctina", and "H. orientalis") was used to remove blood from a patient as part of a process to balance the humors that, according to Galen, must be kept in balance for the human body to function properly. (The four humors of ancient medical philosophy were blood, phlegm, black bile, and yellow bile.) Any sickness that caused the subject's skin to become red (e.g. fever and inflammation), so the theory went, must have arisen from too much blood in the body. Similarly, any person whose behavior was strident and sanguine was thought to be suffering from an excess of blood. Leeches were often gathered by leech collectors and were eventually farmed in large numbers. A unique 19th-century "Leech House" survives in Bedale, North Yorkshire on the bank of the Bedale Beck, used to store medicinal leeches until the early 20th century.


title: Hirudo medicinalis

text: A recorded use of leeches in medicine was also found during 200 BC by the Greek physician Nicander in Colophon. Medical use of leeches was discussed by Avicenna in "The Canon of Medicine" (1020s), and by Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi in the 12th century. The use of leeches began to become less widespread towards the end of the 19th century.


title: Hirudo medicinalis

text: Manchester Royal Infirmary used 50,000 leeches a year in 1831. The price of leeches varied between one penny and threepence halfpenny each. In 1832 leeches accounted for 4.4% of the total hospital expenditure. The hospital maintained an aquarium for leeches until the 1930s.


title: Hirudo medicinalis

text: Medicinal leech therapy (also referred to as "Hirudotherapy" or "Hirudin therapy") made an international comeback in the 1970s in microsurgery, used to stimulate circulation to salvage skin grafts and other tissue threatened by postoperative venous congestion, particularly in finger reattachment and reconstructive surgery of the ear, nose, lip, and eyelid. Other clinical applications of medicinal leech therapy include varicose veins, muscle cramps, thrombophlebitis, and osteoarthritis, among many varied conditions. The therapeutic effect is not from the small amount of blood taken in the meal, but from the continued and steady bleeding from the wound left after the leech has detached, as well as the anesthetizing, anti-inflammatory, and vasodilating properties of the secreted leech saliva. The most common complication from leech treatment is prolonged bleeding, which can easily be treated, but more serious allergic reactions and bacterial infections may also occur. Leech therapy was classified by the US Food and Drug Administration as a medical device in 2004.


title: Hirudo medicinalis

text: Because of the minuscule amounts of hirudin present in leeches, it is impractical to harvest the substance for widespread medical use. Hirudin (and related substances) are synthesized using recombinant techniques. Devices called "mechanical leeches" that dispense heparin and perform the same function as medicinal leeches have been developed, but they are not yet commercially available.


title: Snow-White and Rose-Red

text: "Snow-White and Rose-Red" () is a German fairy tale. The best-known version is the one collected by the Brothers Grimm (KHM 161). An older, somewhat shorter version, "The Ungrateful Dwarf", was written by Caroline Stahl (1776–1837). Indeed, that appears to be the oldest variant; no previous oral version is known, although several have been collected since its publication in 1818. Oral versions are very limited regionally. The tale is of Aarne-Thompson type 426 ("The Two Girls, the Bear, and the Dwarf").


title: Snow-White and Rose-Red

text: This story is not related to the Brothers Grimm fairy tale "Snow White" that provided the basis for the 1937 Walt Disney animated film "Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs". The modern German name of that heroine is "Schneewittchen" rather than "Schneeweißchen". This story has little in common but the similar name of its fair-skinned girl. "Snow-White and Rose-Red" does feature encounters with one dwarf.


title: Snow-White and Rose-Red

text: Snow-White and Rose-Red are two little girls living with their mother, a poor widow, in a small cottage by the woods. Snow-White is quiet and shy and prefers to spend her time indoors, doing housework and reading. Rose-Red is outspoken, lively and cheerful, and prefers to be outside. They are both very good girls who love each other and their mother dearly, and their mother is very fond of them as well.


title: Snow-White and Rose-Red

text: One winter night, there is a knock at the door. Rose-Red opens the door to find a bear. At first, she is terrified, but the bear tells her not to be afraid. "I'm half frozen and I merely want to warm up a little at your place," he says. They let the bear in, and he lies down in front of the fire. Snow-White and Rose-Red beat the snow off the bear, and they quickly become quite friendly with him. They play with the bear and roll him around playfully. They let the bear spend the night in front of the fire. In the morning, he leaves trotting out into the woods. The bear comes back every night for the rest of that winter and the family grows used to him.


title: Snow-White and Rose-Red

text: When summer comes, the bear tells them that he must go away for a while to guard his treasure from a wicked dwarf. During the summer, when the girls are walking through the forest, they find a dwarf whose beard is stuck in a tree. The girls rescue him by cutting his beard free, but the dwarf is ungrateful and yells at them for cutting his beautiful beard. The girls encounter the dwarf several times that summer and rescue him from some peril each time, for which he is ungrateful.


title: Snow-White and Rose-Red

text: Then one day, they meet the dwarf once again. This time, he is terrified because the bear is about to kill him. The dwarf pleads with the bear and begs it to eat the girls. Instead, the bear pays no heed to his plea and kills the dwarf with one swipe of his paw. Instantly, the bear turns into a prince. The dwarf had previously put a spell on the prince by stealing his precious stones and turning him into a bear. The curse is broken with the death of the dwarf. Snow-White marries the prince and Rose-Red marries the prince's brother.


title: Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment

text: Buena Vista Home Entertainment, Inc., doing business as Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment, is the home entertainment distribution arm of The Walt Disney Company. The division handles the distribution of Disney's films, television series, and other audiovisual content across several home media formats, such as Ultra HD Blu-ray, Blu-ray discs, DVDs, and digital media, under various brand labels around the world.


title: Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment

text: The division was legally incorporated as Buena Vista Home Video in March 1988. It was renamed to its current legal name in 1997. The division adopted the current Walt Disney Studios-branding in its public name in 2007, but retained the Buena Vista-branding within its legal corporate name.


title: Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment

text: Before Disney began releasing home video titles itself, it licensed some titles to MCA's DiscoVision label for their newly developed disc format, later called LaserDisc. Disney's agreement with MCA ended in December 1981.


title: Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment

text: In 1980, Disney established its own video distribution operation as part of Walt Disney Telecommunications and Non-Theatrical Company (WDTNT) with Jim Jimirro as its first president. Home video was not considered to be a major market by Disney at the time. WDTNT Co. also handled marketing of other miscellaneous ancillary items such as short 8 mm films for home movies.


title: Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment

text: Disney's first releases on videotape were 13 titles that were licensed for rental to Fotomat on March 4, 1980, initially in a four-city test (Chicago, Houston, Philadelphia, and San Francisco/Oakland/San Jose), to be expanded nationwide by the end of 1980. The agreement specified rental fees ranging from $7.95 to $13.95.


title: Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment

text: Disney was unusual among the major studios in offering a program for authorized rentals. Most of the other studios involved in the videocassette market at the time were trying to find ways to stop dealers from renting out their movie tapes. Magnetic Video (with titles from 20th Century Fox and others) ceased doing business with Fotomat after Fotomat began renting Magnetic Video cassettes without authorization.


title: Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment

text: In the late 1980s, Disney began seeking other outlets to distribute its video, and signed deals with mass-merchant retailers such as Target, Caldor, and Walmart. Around this time, the studio began partnering with major retailers for advertising campaigns.


title: Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment

text: The name Buena Vista Home Video originated as a label of WDTNT in 1984, originally used to distribute tapes of "Hopalong Cassidy". Soon, BVHV became the label utilized for a variety of miscellaneous content; such content included animation not created by Disney (such as "Rocky and Bullwinkle" and "Alvin and the Chipmunks"), concerts and other adult music titles, and various special-interest programs, including "The Very Best of The Ed Sullivan Show". Eventually, Buena Vista Home Video was incorporated on March 31, 1988. The "Buena Vista" name was adopted from Buena Vista Pictures Distribution, who also acted as copyright holder for tapes released directly under the BVHE banner.


title: Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment

text: In November 1992, Buena Vista Home Video entered into a worldwide joint venture with Jim Henson Productions to form Jim Henson Video, which distributed Henson-owned material, including various Muppet productions; the company had previously distributed Muppet content in the United States from 1983 to 1985 under the Muppet Home Video label. This lasted until late 1997. The following year, the label moved to Sony Pictures' Columbia TriStar Home Video division.


title: Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment

text: In July 1993, Buena Vista Home Video signed a multimillion-dollar multiyear North American licensing deal with DIC Entertainment. The deal included over 1,000 half-hours worth of animated content from DIC, alongside the creation of a dedicated home video label and interactive and multimedia opportunities. This deal lasted until 2000, following DIC's sale by Disney, with DIC later signing a deal with Lions Gate Home Entertainment in May the following year.


title: Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment

text: In April 1996, due to ongoing realignment stemming from Disney's merger with Capital Cities/ABC, Buena Vista Home Video was transferred out of the Disney Television and Telecommunications group to The Walt Disney Studios. In August 1996, Disney and Tokuma Shoten Publishing entered a deal wherein Buena Vista Home Video would acquire the worldwide home media distribution rights to the Studio Ghibli animated films. Disney would go on to produce the English dubs and distribute 15 of Ghibli's films, through the Walt Disney Pictures, Buena Vista Home Video, Miramax and Touchstone Pictures banners. Buena Vista Home Video was renamed Buena Vista Home Entertainment in 1997.


title: Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment

text: In July 1998, Buena Vista Home Entertainment entered into a distribution agreement with Warner Home Video where the latter would distribute over 100 Buena Vista/Disney titles on DVD in EMEA and ex-Soviet Union regions until the end of 2000. The distribution of VHS releases, however, remain under Disney's full control.


title: Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment

text: In 2005, Roger Corman-owned production company New Concorde signed a distribution deal with Buena Vista Home Entertainment, giving BVHE home video distribution rights to 400 Corman-produced films, including the pre-1984 New World Pictures library until 2008.


title: Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment

text: As part of a broader company-wide effort, Buena Vista Home Entertainment dropped the "Buena Vista" branding in 2007 and was renamed as Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment. However, the division retained Buena Vista as its legal corporate name. In July 2017, GKIDS and Shout! Factory acquired the North America home video rights of the Studio Ghibli films from Disney. However, Disney still handles home video distribution of the company's films in Japan and China. In March 2019, Disney acquired 21st Century Fox, and after 20th Century Fox was renamed to 20th Century Studios in January 2020, 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment was folded into Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment a few months later that year.


title: Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment

text: The company currently distributes digital media, Blu-ray discs and DVDs under many labels around the world.


title: Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment

text: Disney is notable for implementing a longtime moratorium practice on its film library, known in the industry as the "Disney Vault". Disney has stated that this practice of moratorium is done to both control their market and to allow the studio's films to be reissued for subsequent generations of viewers. This practice was extended to the 20th Century Fox library, after its acquisition by Disney in 2019.


title: Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment

text: The first Disney animated feature to be released on videocassette was "Dumbo" on June 28, 1981, for rental only. "The Many Adventures of Winnie the Pooh" was released for rental and sale at the same time. "Alice in Wonderland" was released on October 15, 1981, for rental only. "Fun and Fancy Free" was released in 1982 as "'Fun and Fancy Free' Featuring: Mickey and the Beanstalk", to capitalize on the best-known segment of the film.


title: Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment

text: Their agreement with DiscoVision having ended in 1981, Disney began releasing LaserDiscs under the Walt Disney Home Video label to their own network of distributors and dealers. The first five titles were shipped in June 1982: "The Black Hole", "The Love Bug", "Escape to Witch Mountain", "The Many Adventures of Winnie the Pooh", and "Mickey Mouse and Donald Duck Cartoons, Collection One". Five more titles shipped in July: "Pete's Dragon", "Dumbo", "Davy Crockett and the River Pirates", "The One and Only, Genuine, Original Family Band", and "Mickey Mouse and Donald Duck Cartoons, Collection Two".


title: Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment

text: Disney released more cartoon compilations (pre-Walt Disney Cartoon Classics in 1983) in late 1981, including "Goofy Over Sports" and "A Tale of Two Critters".


title: Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment

text: "Dumbo" was released for sale on tape in summer 1982, while "Alice in Wonderland" was released for sale in November 1982. The next major animated feature to be released (excluding the "package" anthology features) was "Robin Hood" on December 3, 1984, starting the Walt Disney Classics collection. By 1982, all the video releases were for sale and rental, along with newer releases, but at high prices.


title: Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment

text: July 16, 1985 saw the home video premiere of "Pinocchio" which became the bestselling video of that year. Later, the Making Your Dreams Come True promotion started on November 6, 1985 with repackaged live action titles. In addition, "Dumbo" was released on the same day.


title: Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment

text: Disney DVD is the brand name under which Buena Vista Home Entertainment releases its Disney-branded motion pictures. Disney began working on title releases for DVDs in 1997, although they were not released in this format in the UK until early 1998. Disney's first U.S. DVD release was "Mary Poppins" on March 1, 1998. VHS releases ceased with "Bambi II", which was released on February 7, 2006.


title: Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment

text: Disney Blu-ray is the brand name under which Buena Vista Home Entertainment releases its Disney-branded motion pictures in high-definition. In late 2006, Disney began releasing titles, like the "Pirates of the Caribbean" films, the "National Treasure" films, and the first two "Narnia" films on Blu-ray.


title: Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment

text: In late 2010, Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment began releasing their 3D movies in the Blu-ray 3D format, starting with "A Christmas Carol" and "Alice in Wonderland". In 2017, Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment quietly discontinued releasing new titles in the format in North America, presumably due to the declining interest in the 3D format at home in the region. Despite this, Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment has continued releasing new titles in the format in other regions.


title: Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment

text: A new feature that was included in the Diamond Edition of "Bambi" on March 1, 2011, "Disney Second Screen" is a feature accessible via a computer or iPad app download that provides additional content as the user views the film. Disney Second Screen syncs along with the movie, and as the film plays, interactive elements such as trivia, photo galleries, and animated flipbooks appear on the iPad or computer screen. The service was discontinued since October 2, 2016.


title: Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment

text: Disney began releasing their new films on Ultra HD Blu-ray starting with "Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2" on August 22, 2017. Christopher Nolan's "The Prestige" was Disney's first catalog release on UHD, under the Touchstone label on December 19, 2017.


title: The Night We Met (Lord Huron song)

text: "The Night We Met" is a song recorded by American band Lord Huron for their second studio album, "Strange Trails" (2015). Following its inclusion in the Netflix series "13 Reasons Why", "The Night We Met" entered the record charts in several countries, including in Australia, Canada, France, the United Kingdom, and the United States. It was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America for combined sales and streaming figures exceeding one million units.


title: The Night We Met (Lord Huron song)

text: The song is written and produced by Ben Schneider, and mixed by Rick Parker. "The Night We Met" was recorded at Russian Recording, USA, and Whispering Pines.


title: The Night We Met (Lord Huron song)

text: The song quickly got a huge amount of success after being featured in "13 Reasons Why", and it was "subsequently confirmed platinum nearly two years after it was released". The song has been streamed over one billion times. "The Night We Met" immediately turned into the band's most well known song. The song is used in the season finale of "The Originals", season 2, when Rebekah takes on a new body and parts ways with Marcel. It also appears in "13 Reasons Why" episode 5 when the main character, Clay, and Hannah dance together. Refinery29 described it as "a time machine to him and Hannah at their happiest". After being featured in the series, the song garnered a band deal with Republic Records.


title: The Night We Met (Lord Huron song)

text: Marissa Matozzo of "Paste" labelled the song as "one of the band's most renowned tracks". "The Night We Met" appeared in a 3rd position in a "Relaxing Tracks That You Can Sing Along To" list compiled by Entertainment.ie. Erin Vierra of Mxdwn wrote, "The Night We Met" is the kind of song one likes to hold on to late at night, the kind of song that fills the listener with a peaceful meditation". The Musical Hype wrote, "This is a sensational song aside from the buzz its received in the mainstream. The lyrics are poetic, while the sound and vibe of the record are mysterious". "Under the Radar" described the song as "heartbreaking waltz".


title: The Night We Met (Lord Huron song)

text: “The Night We Met" reached number 5 on US Hot Rock Songs ("Billboard"), and number 7 on US Adult Alternative Songs ("Billboard") charts. In 2019, Lord Huron performed two versions of the song: one version for "13 Reasons Why" and a version featuring Phoebe Bridgers in Hollywood Bowl.


title: The Night We Met (Lord Huron song)

text: The song was certified two-times platinum with 2 million units sold, and it was certified gold in France (with 100,000 units sold) and United Kingdom (with 400,000 units sold).


title: The Night We Met (Lord Huron song)

text: The music video was uploaded to Lord Huron's YouTube channel on May 15, 2017 and has accumulated more than 148 million views as of April 2022.


title: Karuta

text: "Karuta" packs are classified into two groups, those that are descended from Portuguese cards and those from "e-awase". "E-awase" originally derived from "kai-awase", which was played with shells but were converted to card format during the early 17th century. The basic idea of any "e-awase karuta" game is to be able to quickly determine which card out of an array of cards is required and then to grab the card before it is grabbed by an opponent. It is often played by children at elementary school and junior high-school level during class, as an educational exercise.


title: Karuta

text: The first indigenous Japanese deck was the "" named after the Tenshō period (1573–92). It was a 48 card deck with the 10s missing like Portuguese decks from that period. It kept the four Latin suits of cups, coins, clubs, and swords along with the three face cards of female knave, knight, and king. In 1633, the Tokugawa shogunate banned these cards, forcing Japanese manufacturers to radically redesign their cards. As a result of Japan's isolationist "Sakoku" policy, karuta would develop separately from the rest of the world. In order to evade the proscription of Portuguese derived cards, makers turned the cards into very abstract designs known as "mekuri karuta". By the mid-20th century, all "mekuri karuta" fell into oblivion with the exception of "Komatsufuda" (Japanese: ) which is used to play Kakkuri, a game similar to Poch, found in Yafune, Fukui prefecture.


title: Karuta

text: The "" (Japanese: ) deck developed in the late 17th century. It has five suits of 15 ranks each for a total of 75 cards. Six of the ranks were face cards. The Portuguese deck used to have dragons on their aces; the Unsun karuta made the aces and dragons separate cards. The order of the court cards change depending on whether it is the trump suit or not just like in Ombre. The new Guru suit used circular whirls ("mitsudomoe") as pips. Unsun karuta is still used in Hitoyoshi, Kumamoto, to play "hachinin-meri", a game descended from , a relative of Ombre. This game preserves some very archaic features such as inverted ranking for the pip cards in the three round suits. Inverted ranking is a feature found in Madiao, Khanhoo, Tổ tôm, Ganjifa, Tarot, Ombre, and Maw and is believed to have originated in the very earliest card games.


title: Karuta

text: "Kabufuda" (Japanese: ) is another derivative of "mekuri karuta" but all the suits were made identical. It is used for gambling games such as Oicho-Kabu. They come in decks of 40 cards with designs representing the numbers 1 through 10. There are four cards for each number and the 10 (Jack) is the only face card.


title: Karuta

text: The gambling game of can be played with either a "Harifuda" () or "Hikifuda" () set. "Harifuda" contains seven copies of cards numbered one to six in stylized Chinese numerals for a total of 42 cards. The 48-card "Hikifuda" or "Mamefuda" () has eight copies of cards with one to six coins, similar to the coins of a "mekuri karuta" set. In Tehonbiki, the player tries to guess which number from 1 to 6 the dealer has selected. Some sets may include indicator cards to raise or hedge bets.


title: Karuta

text: "Hanafuda" (Japanese: , lit. "flower cards", also called Hanakaruta) are 48 card decks with flower designs originating from the early 19th century. Instead of being divided by 4 suits with 12 cards each, a hanafuda deck is divided by 12 suits (months) with 4 cards each. Hanafuda games are mostly fishing games.


title: Karuta

text: "Uta-garuta" (, lit. "poetry karuta") is a card game in which 100 "waka" poems are written on two sets of 100 cards: one set is yomifuda (, lit. "reading cards"), which have the complete poem taken from the "Ogura Hyakunin Isshu", and the other is torifuda (, lit. "grabbing cards"), which each correspond to a yomifuda and have only the last few lines of the corresponding poem on them. One person is chosen to be the reader. As the reader reads a yomifuda, the players race to find its associated torifuda before anybody else does. This game has traditionally been played on New Year's Day since 1904. Competitive karuta has competitions on various levels with the Japan national championship tournament being held every January at Omi shrine (a Shinto shrine) in Ōtsu, Shiga since 1955.


title: Karuta

text: A few non-matching games exist that use only the yomifuda. Bouzu Mekuri (), is a simple game of chance originating from the Meiji period. (Color Crowns) is a 4-player partnership game that is related to Goita. In both games, the poems are irrelevant, and the only parts of the cards that matter are the appearance of the poets such as their clothing, sex, or social status.


title: Karuta

text: "Ita-karuta" (Japanese: ) is a variation found in Hokkaido. The torifuda are made of wood while the yomifuda remain the same or lack illustrations of the poets. They are used to play a competitive partnership game called "" in which the last half of the poem is read.


title: Karuta

text: "Iroha karuta" (Japanese: ) is an easier-to-understand matching game for children, similar to Uta-garuta but with 96 cards. Instead of poems, the cards represent the 47 syllables of the hiragana syllabary and adds "kyō" (, "capital") for the 48th (since the syllable "-n" can never start any word or phrase). It uses the old iroha ordering for the syllables which includes two obsolete syllables, "wi" () and "we" (). A typical "torifuda" features a drawing with a "kana" at one corner of the card. Its corresponding "yomifuda" features a proverb connected to the picture with the first syllable being the "kana" displayed on the "torifuda". There are 3 standard Iroha karuta variants: Kamigata, Edo and Owari. Each variant has its own set of proverbs based on the local dialect and culture. The Kamigata or Kyoto version is the oldest but the Edo version is the most widespread, being found all over Japan. The Owari variant existed only during the latter half of the 19th-century before being supplanted by the Edo version.


title: Karuta

text: "Obake karuta" is an obsolete variation of Iroha karuta unique to Tokyo. The cards were created in the Edo period and remained popular through the 1910s or 1920s. Each card in the deck features a hiragana syllable and a creature from Japanese mythology; in fact, "obake karuta" means "ghost cards" or "monster cards". Success requires knowledge of Japanese mythology and folklore as players attempt to collect cards that match clues read by a referee. The player who accumulates the most cards by the end of the game wins.


title: Karuta

text: "Obake karuta" is an early example of the common Japanese fascination with classifying monsters and creating new ones. The game is one of the earliest attempts by Japanese companies to categorize legendary creatures, label them, define them, and subsequently market them. As such, it is a precursor to the "Godzilla" films of the 1950s and later. Even more closely, "obake karuta" resembles the "Yu-Gi-Oh!" or "Pokémon Trading Card Game", which also involves collecting cards that represent fabulous creatures. In fact, many Pokémon were designed specifically after creatures from Japanese mythology.


title: Karuta

text: (上毛かるた, じょうもうかるた) is a regional variation of the popular Japanese card game karuta and contains 44 cards featuring famous people, places, and history from Japan's Gunma Prefecture. 'Jomo' is an old name for Gunma. The first edition of Jomo karuta was printed in 1947.


title: Karuta

text: Every year Gunma Prefecture holds a Jomo karuta competition. Preliminaries take place in January, encouraging local children to take advantage of winter vacation to practice. Then the final competition is held in February. It is not uncommon for people who spent their childhoods in Gunma to have all the cards memorized by heart. In fact, as adults they often realize that Gunma citizens are the only ones who know so much about their own birthplace.


title: Karuta

text: Among the 44 cards, only the "chi" card changes slightly depending on the era. That is because it is representative of the population of Gunma, so as the number of people living in the prefecture changes, so does the number shown on the card. As of the 1947 census, the population stood at 1,570,027 people compared to 1,600,000 recorded in the very first edition of Jomo karuta. In 1993 the population grew to over 2 million people. Fans of Jomo karuta are able to guess one's approximate age based on the version of the "chi" card one has memorized.


title: Karuta

text: In 1998, the Gunma Culture Association released an official English edition. However, on October 28, 2013, the rights to English Jomo karuta were handed over to Gunma Prefecture. Nowadays there are several events that utilize the game; in February 2013 the first national King of JMK tournament was established, giving adults the opportunity to participate in a Jomo karuta competition as well.


title: Karuta

text: Masahiko Urano, a native of Gunma, returned to his hometown from what is present day Mongolia after Japan's defeat in World War 2. Urano felt compelled to help the many orphans and widows affected by the war and began working to support them. Under orders of The Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers, schools had stopped teaching geography and history. Urano, who loved Gunma dearly, wanted the children to take pride in their local history and culture.


title: Karuta

text: It was under those circumstances that on July 15, 1946, Urano met Seiki Suda, a devout Christian priest, at a conference in neighboring city Annaka. Together, Urano and Suda came up with the idea of promoting Gunma's history and culture through the game of karuta. On January 11, 1947, The "Jomo Shimbun" newspaper ran an ad announcing the concept and asked for submissions for possible card ideas. A committee of 18 local historians and figures of cultural importance were gathered to select the winning 44 cards as well as design the artwork and content of each one. 12,000 copies were sold during the initial release. The first annual Jomo karuta competition was then held in 1948.


title: Karuta

text: Because the purpose of the game was to teach children about the history and culture of Gunma, each card represents something or someone of local importance. On the front of each "yomifuda" (the card that is read aloud) is a short proverb related to the card's topic, and on the back is a longer description of its significance.


title: Karuta

text: There were many historical figures whose names were submitted for possible card entries, and most are still used to this day. However, the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers took issue with several of the cards, citing that the people featured had had problematic philosophies and criminal backgrounds. Those same cards were subsequently discarded from the game.


title: Karuta

text: Main cities located throughout Gunma are featured, as well as famous nature and sightseeing spots around the Prefecture. Cities include Maebashi, Takasaki, Kiryu, Isesaki, and Ota. In addition, Gunma's three famous mountains (Mt. Akagi, Mt. Haruna, and Mt. Myogi), nationally famous onsen (Kusatsu, Ikaho, and Shima), and local shrines and specialty food products are also included.


title: Karuta

text: Players sit on the floor facing each other and do a quick bout of rock-paper-scissors; when playing in teams, the person sitting in the middle is the one who does rock-paper-scissors. The winning side is responsible for shuffling the deck and splitting the torifuda cards into two sets of 22. The losing side gets to choose which set they want and the winning side takes the other. Each team will spread their 22 cards on the floor. When playing one-on-one cards are set in tiers of 3 (when playing as a team, cards are set in tiers of 2), with all the cards being spread out evenly. Both teams place the final card on either their left or right.


title: Karuta

text: There should be 3 centimeters of space between the two teams, and each tier of cards should be spaced 1 centimeter apart. The cards should be placed at least 20 centimeters away from the players' kneecaps. Players are allowed to strategize about the order they place down their cards. When playing in teams, all members should have an equal number of cards by the end of the match.


title: Karuta

text: The referee will give a signal 3 minutes before the start of the match. During this time players are free to set up their cards on the floor and strategize together. The referee will give another signal 1 minute before the match begins; after that, players are not allowed to touch the cards until the official start. During this time players memorize the cards' locations to make it easier to grab them during the match.


title: Karuta

text: The person reading the "yomifuda" cards must read the 'tsu' card ("Shaped like a flying crane, Gunma Prefecture") twice. This officially allows the match to begin. Players should not grab the 'tsu' card during this time. From then on, the reader will always read each card twice. This allows the referee time to intervene should there be any disputes over who grabbed the "torifuda" card first, as well as grant a cool down period before the next card is drawn. The first reading is considered the "real" one and read in a higher tone of voice, while the second reading is done in a lower voice. Players may grab the card before the reader has finished the first reading.


title: Karuta

text: The first player to touch the picture "torifuda" card gets to keep it. It does not matter if the card gets flipped, blown away, or pulled; however, players are not allowed to use both hands or keep their hand down near the cards. The unused hand cannot stick out past the player's knees. Players also cannot put their other hand on their laps until after the card reader begins reading. If any players touch a card that was not read, they must give one of their cards to their opponent as a penalty.


title: Karuta

text: When there are only two cards remaining, they need to be lined up side by side, with 30 centimeters of space between them. After the second reading (which should be one of the two remaining cards), players may try and take the card. Whoever succeeds is given the last remaining card as a bonus; therefore, the last card is not read aloud. When playing in teams, the players sitting in the middle are the ones who try and grab the final cards.


title: Karuta

text: The scoring system is different for single and team matches. In the former, the player with the most cards in hand simply wins. In the latter, the score is calculated first at one point for each card the player has in his or her hand. Then, the same cards get awarded extra points based on a special scale seen below. The team with the highest total score wins. In the event of a tie, the player or team who holds the 'tsu' card becomes the winner. This means that the 'tsu' card is the most important card in the game, so players will need to move quickly if they want to be able to snag it.


title: Karuta

text: In team matches it is beneficial to gather specific card combinations. The special scale awards points as seen below: Note that this scale does not apply during single matches.


title: Karuta

text: Elementary school players can only use the 5 Cities and/or the 3 Mountains combinations whereas junior high school players can use any of the three.


title: Antisemitism in the Soviet Union

text: The 1917 Russian Revolution overthrew a centuries-old regime of official antisemitism in the Russian Empire, dismantling its Pale of Settlement. However, the previous legacy of antisemitism was continued by the Soviet state, especially under Joseph Stalin. After 1948, antisemitism reached new heights in the Soviet Union, especially during the anti-cosmopolitan campaign, in which numerous Yiddish-writing poets, writers, painters and sculptors were arrested or killed. This campaign culminated in the so-called Doctors' plot, in which a group of doctors (almost all of whom were Jewish) were subjected to a show trial for supposedly having plotted to assassinate Stalin.


title: Antisemitism in the Soviet Union

text: Under the Tsars, Jews – who numbered approximately 5 million in the Russian Empire in the 1880s, and mostly lived in poverty – had been confined to a Pale of Settlement, where they experienced prejudice and persecution, often in the form of discriminatory laws, and they had often been the victims of pogroms, many of which were either organized or tacitly approved of by the Tsarist authorities. In response to the oppression which they were being subjected to, many Jews either emigrated from the Russian Empire or joined radical political parties, such as the Jewish Bund, the Bolsheviks, the Socialist Revolutionary Party, and the Mensheviks. There were also numerous antisemitic publications of the era which gained widespread circulation.


title: Antisemitism in the Soviet Union

text: The Russian Provisional Government cancelled all restrictions imposed on the Jews by the Tsarist regime, in a move parallel to the Jewish emancipation in Western Europe that had taken place during the 19th century abolishing Jewish disabilities.


title: Antisemitism in the Soviet Union

text: The October Revolution officially abolished the Pale of Settlement and other laws which regarded the Jews as an outlawed people. At the same time, the Bolsheviks were strongly opposed to Judaism (and indeed to any religion) and conducted an extensive campaign to suppress the religious traditions among the Jewish population, alongside traditional Jewish culture. In 1918, the Yevsektsiya was established to promote Marxism, secularism and Jewish assimilation into Soviet society, and supposedly bringing Communism to the Jewish masses.


title: Antisemitism in the Soviet Union

text: In August 1919 Jewish properties, including synagogues, were seized and many Jewish communities were dissolved. The anti-religious laws against all expressions of religion and religious education were being taken out on all religious groups, including the Jewish communities. Many Rabbis and other religious officials were forced to resign from their posts under the threat of violent persecution. This type of persecution continued on into the 1920s. Jews were also frequently placed disproportionately on the front lines of Russian wars in the early 1900s as well as WW2. As a result, large numbers of Jews emigrated out of Russia to places like the United States. Changing their family's last name during emigration to reduce perceived risk was not uncommon.


title: Antisemitism in the Soviet Union

text: In March 1919, Lenin delivered a speech "On Anti-Jewish Pogroms" where he denounced antisemitism as an "attempt to divert the hatred of the workers and peasants from the exploiters toward the Jews". The speech was in line with the previous condemnation of the antisemitic pogroms perpetrated by the White Army during the Russian Civil War. In 1914 Lenin had said "No nationality in Russia is as oppressed and persecuted as the Jews".


title: Antisemitism in the Soviet Union

text: Information campaigns against antisemitism were conducted in the Red Army and in the workplaces, and a provision forbidding the incitement of propaganda against any ethnicity became part of Soviet law. The official stance of the Soviet government in 1934 was to oppose antisemitism "anywhere in the world" and claimed to express "fraternal feelings to the Jewish people", praising the Jewish contributions towards international socialism.


title: Antisemitism in the Soviet Union

text: Joseph Stalin emerged as dictator of the Soviet Union following a power struggle with Leon Trotsky after Lenin's death. Stalin has been accused of resorting to antisemitism in some of his arguments against Trotsky, who was of Jewish heritage. Those who knew Stalin, such as Nikita Khrushchev, suggest that Stalin had long harbored negative sentiments toward Jews that had manifested themselves before the 1917 Revolution. As early as 1907, Stalin wrote a letter differentiating between a "Jewish faction" and a "true Russian faction" in Bolshevism. Stalin's secretary Boris Bazhanov stated that Stalin made crude antisemitic outbursts even before Lenin's death. Stalin adopted antisemitic policies which were reinforced with his anti-Westernism. Antisemitism, as historian, Orientalist and anthropologist Raphael Patai and geneticist Jennifer Patai Wing put it in their book "The Myth of the Jewish Race", was "couched in the language of opposition to Zionism". Since 1936 in the show trial of "Trotskyite-Zinovievite Terrorist Center", the suspects, prominent Bolshevik leaders, were accused of hiding their Jewish origins under Slavic names.


title: Antisemitism in the Soviet Union

text: On 3 May 1939, Stalin fired foreign minister Maxim Litvinov, who was closely identified with the anti-Nazi position. Stalin said "The Soviet Government intended to improve its relations with Hitler and if possible sign a pact with Nazi Germany. As a Jew and an avowed opponent of such a policy, Litvinov stood in the way." The move opened Stalin's way to close ties with the Nazi state, as well as a quiet campaign removing Jews in high Soviet positions.


title: Antisemitism in the Soviet Union

text: After World War II antisemitism escalated openly as a campaign against the "rootless cosmopolitan" (a euphemism for "Jew"). In his speech titled "On Several Reasons for the Lag in Soviet Dramaturgy" at a plenary session of the board of the Soviet Writers' Union in December 1948, Alexander Fadeyev equated the cosmopolitans with the Jews. In this anti-cosmopolitan campaign, many leading Jewish writers and artists were killed. Terms like "rootless cosmopolitans", "bourgeois cosmopolitans", and "individuals devoid of nation or tribe" appeared in . The Soviet press accused cosmopolitans of "groveling before the West", helping "American imperialism", "slavish imitation of bourgeois culture" and "bourgeois aestheticism". Victimization of Jews in the USSR at the hands of the Nazis was denied, Jewish scholars were removed from the sciences, and emigration rights were denied to Jews. The Stalinist antisemitic campaign ultimately culminated in the Doctors' plot in 1953. According to Patai and Patai, the Doctors' plot was "clearly aimed at the total liquidation of Jewish cultural life". Communist antisemitism under Stalin shared a common characteristic with Nazi and fascist antisemitism in its belief in a "Jewish world conspiracy".


title: Antisemitism in the Soviet Union

text: Soviet antisemitism extended to policy in the Soviet Occupation Zone of Germany. As the historian Norman Naimark has noted, officials in the Soviet Military Administration in Germany (SVAG) by 1947–48 displayed a "growing obsession" with the presence of Jews in the military administration, in particular their presence in the Cadres Department's Propaganda Administration. Jews in German universities who resisted Sovietisation were characterized as having "non-Aryan background" and being "lined up with the bourgeois parties".


title: Antisemitism in the Soviet Union

text: Scholars such as Erich Goldhagen claim that following the death of Stalin, the policy of the Soviet Union towards Jews and the Jewish question became more discreet, with indirect antisemitic policies over direct physical assault. Erich Goldhagen suggests that despite being famously critical of Stalin, Nikita Khrushchev did not view Stalin's antisemitic policies as "monstrous acts" or "rude violations of the basic Leninist principles of the nationality policy of the Soviet state".


title: Antisemitism in the Soviet Union

text: Antisemitism in the Soviet Union once again peaked during the rule of Leonid Brezhnev, following Israeli victory in the 1967 Six-Day War. "Anti-Zionist" propaganda, including the film "Secret and Explicit", was often antisemitic in nature. Many of Brezhnev's close advisors, most principally Mikhail Suslov, were also fervent antisemites. Jewish emigration to Israel and the United States, which had been allowed in limited amounts under the rule of Khrushchev, once more became heavily restricted, primarily due to concerns that Jews were a security liability or treasonous. Would-be emigrants, or refuseniks, often required a "vyzov", or special invitation from a relative living abroad, for their application to be even considered by the Soviet authorities. In addition, in order to emigrate, one needed written permission from all immediate family members. The rules were often stretched in order to prevent Jews from leaving, and ability for appeal was rarely permitted. Substantial fees were also required to be paid, both to emigrate and as "reimbursement".


title: Antisemitism in the Soviet Union

text: Institutional racism against Jews was widespread in the Soviet Union under Brezhnev, with many sectors of the government being off-limits. Following the failure of the Dymshits–Kuznetsov hijacking affair, in which 12 refuseniks unsuccessfully attempted to hijack a plane and flee west, crackdowns on Jews and the refusenik movement followed. Informal centres for studying the Hebrew language, the Torah and Jewish culture were closed.


title: Antisemitism in the Soviet Union

text: Immediately following the Six-Day War in 1967, the antisemitic conditions started causing desire to emigrate to Israel for many Soviet Jews. A Jewish Ukrainian radio engineer, Boris Kochubievsky, sought to move to Israel. In a letter to Brezhnev, Kochubievsky stated:


title: Antisemitism in the Soviet Union

text: Within the week he was called in to the KGB bureau and without questioning, was taken to a mental institution in his hometown of Kiev. While this may seem as an isolated incident, the aftermath of the Six-Day War affected almost every Jew within the Soviet Union. Jews who had been subject to assimilation under previous regimes were now confronted with a new sense in vigour and revival in their Jewish faith and heritage.


title: Antisemitism in the Soviet Union

text: On February 23, 1979, a six-page article was distributed throughout the cities of Moscow and Leningrad, which criticized Brezhnev and seven other individuals for being "Zionist". The article contained traces of deep-rooted antisemitism in which the anonymous author, a member of the Russian Liberation Organization, set out ways to identify Zionists; these included "hairy chest and arms", "shifty eyes", and a "hook-like nose".


title: Antisemitism in the Soviet Union

text: A major stride was made in the United States in regards to helping the Soviet Jews on 18 October 1974, when Senator Henry M. Jackson, National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger, Senator Jacob Javits and Congressman Charles Vanik met to discuss the finalization of the "Jackson–Vanik amendment" which had been in limbo in the United States Congress for nearly a year. After the meeting, Jackson told reporters that a "historic understanding in the area of human rights" had been met and while he did not "comment on what the Russians have done [...] there [had] been a complete turnaround here on the basic points". The amendment set out to reward the Soviet Union for letting some Soviet Jews leave the country.


title: Antisemitism in the Soviet Union

text: On February 22, 1981, in a speech, which lasted over 5 hours, Soviet Premier Leonid Brezhnev denounced anti-Semitism in the Soviet Union. While Lenin and Stalin had much of the same in various statements and speeches, this was the first time that a high-ranking Soviet official had done so in front of the entire Party. Brezhnev acknowledged that anti-Semitism existed within the Eastern Bloc and saw that many different ethnic groups existed whose "requirements" were not being met. For decades, people of different ethnic, or religious backgrounds were assimilated into Soviet society and denied the ability or resources to get the education or practice their religion as they had previously done. Brezhnev made it official Soviet Policy to provide these ethnic groups with these "requirements" and cited a fear of the "emergence of inter-ethnic tensions" as the reason. The announcement of the policy was followed with a generic, but significant Party message;


title: Antisemitism in the Soviet Union

text: While to most, the issue of anti-Semitism seemed to be dropped very casually and almost accidentally, it was very much calculated and planned, as was everything else the Party did. At this time the Soviet Union was feeling pressure from around the world to solve many human rights violations that were taking place within their borders, and the statement responded to the inquiries of countries such as Australia and Belgium. While the Party seemed to be taking a hard stance against anti-Semitism, the fact remained that anti-Semitic propaganda had long been present in the Soviet Union, making it extremely difficult to solve the problems right away. Furthermore, Jewish organizations in Washington D.C. were calling attention to the problems of Soviet Jewry to American leaders.


title: Antisemitism in the Soviet Union

text: Antisemitism, however, remained widespread both within and outside the Communist Party; antisemitic media continued to be published with the assent of the government, while antisemitic propaganda (believed variously to be the work of far-right groups or the Soviet government) spread throughout cities in the Soviet Union during the late 1970s. Mikhail Savitsky's 1979 painting, "Summer Theatre", depicted a Nazi extermination camp guard and Jewish prisoner grinning between a pile of Russian corpses.


title: Metcalfe's law

text: Metcalfe's law states that the value of a telecommunications network is proportional to the square of the number of connected users


title: Metcalfe's law

text: of the system ("n"). First formulated in this form by George Gilder in 1993, and attributed to Robert Metcalfe in regard to Ethernet, Metcalfe's law was originally presented, c. 1980, not in terms of users, but rather of "compatible communicating devices" (e.g., fax machines, telephones). Only later with the globalization of the Internet did this law carry over to users and networks as its original intent was to describe Ethernet connections.


title: Metcalfe's law

text: Metcalfe's law characterizes many of the network effects of communication technologies and networks such as the Internet, social networking and the World Wide Web. Former Chairman of the U.S. Federal Communications Commission Reed Hundt said that this law gives the most understanding to the workings of the Internet. Metcalfe's Law is related to the fact that the number of unique possible connections in a network of formula_1 nodes can be expressed mathematically as the triangular number formula_2, which is asymptotically proportional to formula_3.


title: Metcalfe's law

text: The law has often been illustrated using the example of fax machines: a single fax machine is useless, but the value of every fax machine increases with the total number of fax machines in the network, because the total number of people with whom each user may send and receive documents increases. Likewise, in social networks, the greater the number of users with the service, the more valuable the service becomes to the community.


title: Metcalfe's law

text: Metcalfe’s law was conceived in 1983 in a presentation to the 3Com sales force.  It stated "V" would be proportional to the total number of possible connections, or approximately "n"-squared.


title: Metcalfe's law

text: The original incarnation was careful to delineate between a linear cost ("Cn"), non-linear growth, "n", and a non-constant proportionality factor "A" “Affinity.”  The breakeven point where costs are recouped is given by


title: Metcalfe's law

text: At some size, the right-hand side of the equation "V" “Value” exceeds the cost, and "A" describes the relationship between size and net value added.  For large "n", net network value is then


title: Metcalfe's law

text: Metcalfe properly dimensioned "A" as “value per user”. Affinity is also a function of network size, and Metcalfe correctly asserted that "A" must decline as "n" grows large. In a 2006 interview, Metcalfe stated


title: Metcalfe's law

text: "“There may be diseconomies of network scale that eventually drive values down with increasing size. So, if V=A*n, it could be that A (for “affinity,” value per connection) is also a function of n and heads down after some network size, overwhelming n.”"


title: Metcalfe's law

text: Network size, and hence value, does not grow unbounded but is constrained by practical limitations such as infrastructure, access to technology, and bounded rationality such as Dunbar's number. It is almost always the case that user growth "n" reaches a saturation point. With technologies, substitutes, competitors and technical obsolescence constrain growth of "n". Growth of n is typically assumed to follow a sigmoid function such as a logistic curve or Gompertz curve.


title: Metcalfe's law

text: "A" is also governed by the connectivity or "density" of the network topology. In an undirected network, every "edge" connects two nodes such that there are 2"m" nodes per edge. The proportion of nodes in actual contact are given by formula_6.


title: Metcalfe's law

text: The maximum possible number of edges in a simple network (i.e. one with no multi-edges or self-edges) is formula_7.


title: Metcalfe's law

text: Metcalfe’s law assumes that the value of each node formula_1 is of equal benefit. If this is not the case, for example because one fax machine serves 60 workers in a company, the second fax machine serves half of that, the third one third, and so on, then the relative value of an additional connection decreases. Likewise, in social networks, if users that join later use the network less than early adopters, then the benefit of each additional user may lessen, making the overall network less efficient if costs per users are fixed.


title: Metcalfe's law

text: Within the context of social networks, many, including Metcalfe himself, have proposed modified models in which the value of the network grows as formula_11 rather than formula_3. Reed and Andrew Odlyzko have sought out possible relationships to Metcalfe's Law in terms of describing the relationship of a network and one can read about how those are related. Tongia and Wilson also examine the related question of the costs to those excluded.


title: Metcalfe's law

text: Despite many arguments about Metcalfe' law, no real data based evidence for or against was available for more than 30 years. Only in July 2013, Dutch researchers managed to analyze European Internet usage patterns over a long enough time and found formula_3 proportionality for small values of formula_1 and formula_11 proportionality for large values of formula_1. A few months later, Metcalfe himself provided further proof, as he used Facebook's data over the past 10 years to show a good fit for Metcalfe's law (the model is formula_3).


title: Metcalfe's law

text: In 2015, Zhang, Liu and Xu parameterized the Metcalfe function in data from Tencent and Facebook. Their work showed that Metcalfe's law held for both, despite differences in audience between the two sites (Facebook serving a worldwide audience and Tencent serving only Chinese users). The functions for the two sites were formula_18 and formula_19 respectively.


title: Metcalfe's law

text: In a working paper, Peterson linked time-value-of-money concepts to Metcalfe value using Bitcoin and Facebook as numerical examples of the proof and in 2018 applied Metcalfe's law to Bitcoin, showing that over 70% of variance in Bitcoin value was explained by applying Metcalfe's law to increases in Bitcoin network size.


title: Canon AE-1

text: The Canon AE-1 is a 35 mm single-lens reflex (SLR) film camera for use with interchangeable lenses. It was manufactured by Canon Camera K. K. (today Canon Incorporated) in Japan from April 1976 to 1984. It uses an electronically controlled, electromagnet horizontal cloth focal plane shutter, with a speed range of 2 to 1/1000 second plus Bulb and flash X-sync of 1/60 second. The camera body is 87 mm tall, 141 mm wide, and 48 mm deep; it weighs 590 g. Most are black with chrome trim, but some are all black.


title: Canon AE-1

text: The AE-1 is a historically significant SLR, both because it was the first microprocessor-equipped SLR and because of its sales: backed by a major advertising campaign, the AE-1 sold over 5.7 million units, which made it an unprecedented success in the SLR market.


title: Canon AE-1

text: The AE-1 has a Canon FD breech-lock lens mount and accepts any FD or New FD (FDn) lens. It is not compatible with Canon's later Canon EF lens mount, though adapters made by independent manufacturers can be found. The camera will also accept Canon's earlier FL-mount lenses through the use of stop-down metering. Original FD lenses, introduced in 1971, do not rotate in the mounting process; instead, a locking ring at the base is turned to attach the lens. This was often criticized as being slower than the bayonet mounts of competing cameras. The counter argument, though, was that as the lens/body mating surfaces did not rotate, there was no wear that could affect the critical distance from lens to film plane. In 1979, Canon introduced the New FD series of lenses that rotate the whole "outer" lens barrel to lock. The inner lens barrel remains stationary, and thus the signal levers and pins still do not rotate. During the late 1970s, there were over 50 Canon FD lenses available for purchase. They ranged from a Fisheye FD 15 mm f/2.8 SSC to a FD 800 mm f/5.6 SSC, plus special purpose lenses such as a 7.5mm circular fisheye and a 35 mm tilt and shift lens.


title: Canon AE-1

text: Accessories for the AE-1 include the Canon Winder A (motorized single frame film advance up to 2 frames per second), the Canon Databack A (sequential numbering or date stamping on the film), and the Canon Speedlite 155A (guide number 56/17 (feet/meters) at ASA 100) and Canon Speedlite 177A (guide number 83/25 (feet/meters) at ASA 100) electronic flashes. The later Power winder A2 is also compatible, but the Motor Drive MA is not.


title: Canon AE-1

text: The AE-1 is a battery-powered (one 4LR44 or 4SR44) microprocessor-controlled manual focus SLR. It supports either manual exposure control or shutter priority auto exposure. The exposure control system consists of a needle pointing along a vertical f-stop scale on the right side of the viewfinder to indicate the readings of the built-in light meter (center-weighted with a silicon photocell). The viewfinder used by the AE-1 is Canon's standard split image rangefinder with microprism collar focusing aids.


title: Canon AE-1

text: The AE-1 was the first in what became a complete overhaul of Canon's line of SLRs. The 1970s and 1980s were an era of intense competition between the major Japanese SLR brands: Canon, Nikon, Minolta, Pentax and Olympus. Between 1975 and 1985, there was a dramatic departure from heavy all-metal manual mechanical camera bodies to much more compact bodies with integrated circuit (IC) electronic automation. In addition, due to rapid advances in electronics, the brands leap-frogged each other with successively more automated models.


title: Canon AE-1

text: Although Canon had been making quality 35 mm cameras for decades, it had since the late 1950s been overshadowed by rival Nippon Kokagu K. K. and its Nikon cameras. While Canon easily led in the amateur compact fixed-lens market (where Nikon did not compete), Canon SLRs did not have the professional features of the top-end Nikon SLRs. Nikon, with its solid reputation for quality of material and workmanship, held a stranglehold on the prestigious professional SLR market that competitors could not break.


title: Canon AE-1

text: The AE-1 was the vanguard of the landmark Canon amateur level A-series SLRs and led Canon's foray into the emerging electronically controlled SLR market. The other members of the A-series were the AT-1 (released 1977), A-1 (1978), AV-1 (1979), AE-1 Program (1981) and AL-1 (1982). They all used the same compact aluminum alloy chassis, but with different feature levels and outer cosmetic plastic top panel. By sharing most major components, including an inexpensive horizontal cloth-curtain shutter, viewfinder information display, and autoflash control, Canon further reduced costs and could undercut the price of the more expensive SLRs then on the market.


title: Canon AE-1

text: In keeping with its cost-cutting philosophy, Canon designed the AE-1 to use a significant amount of structural plastic for a lighter and cheaper camera at the expense of being less impact resistant. Canon went to great effort to disguise the use of plastic - the injection-molded acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) for the top panel finished with either satin chrome (or black enameled) to give the look and feel of metal. The bottom plate were made of brass and then finished with satin chrome (or black enameled). Extensive use of electronics also allowed simpler modular internal construction instead of mechanical linkages. Five major and 25 minor internal modules reduced the individual parts count by over 300. Modular construction, in turn, allowed automated production lines in order to reduce cost. Unfortunately, cost concerns also resulted in the use of plastic in some of the moving/operating mechanisms.


title: Canon AE-1

text: The AE-1 was never designed to be a professional camera. However, it was made to have relatively straightforward controls and automatic aperture for newcomers, with various manual controls and system accessories to appeal to more experienced photographers. The AE-1 was the first SLR purchased by millions of amateur photographers, persuaded by its feature list and low price.


title: Canon AE-1

text: In many ways, the AE-1 represented the confluence of two streams of Canon camera development. The first generation electronically controlled 35 mm SLR Canon EF (1973) merged with the final generation rangefinder Canonet G-III QL17 (1972). After decades of chasing Nikon for Japanese optical supremacy, Canon finally hit upon a formula for success: high technology for ease of use, cheaper internal parts and electronics for lower price, and heavy advertising to get the message out. Despite an outcry from traditionalist photographers who complained about an “excess” of automation ruining the art of photography, automation proved to be the only way to entice most amateur photographers.


title: Canon AE-1

text: The AE-1 had only one pointer needle used to indicate the light meter recommended f-stop, and had neither a follower needle to indicate the actual lens set f-stop, nor plus/minus indicators for over/underexposure. The shutter-priority system of the AE-1 was more suited to sports action than to preserving depth-of-field, yet the 1/1000 s top speed of its horizontally traveling shutter limited its use for such activities. The battery door design was subject to frequent breakage, and over time owners have reported instances of shutter and mechanical gremlins, including mirror linkage wear (the "Canon squeal"). Canon's eventual abandonment of the FD lens mount for the EOS autofocus design also had an effect on prices for the AE-1 on the used market.


title: Canon AE-1

text: Apple sound designer Jim Reekes recorded the screen snapshot sound used on Macintosh computers and iPhones from the AE-1 he used as a high school student.


title: Denmark expedition

text: The Denmark expedition (), also known as the Denmark Expedition to Greenland's Northeast Coast, and as the Danmark Expedition after the ship, was an expedition to the northeast of Greenland in 1906–1908.


title: Denmark expedition

text: Despite being overshadowed by the death in tragic circumstances of the main exploration team, including three of the expedition's leading members: Ludvig Mylius-Erichsen (1872–1907), Niels Peter Høeg Hagen (1877–1907) and Jørgen Brønlund (1877–1907), the Denmark expedition was not a failure. It achieved its main cartographic objectives and succeeded in exploring the vast region, drawing accurate charts of formerly unexplored coastlines and fjords, naming numerous geographic features, and gathering a wealth of scientific data.


title: Denmark expedition

text: The two-year expedition was conceived and led by Ludvig Mylius-Erichsen, who had previously led the 'Literary Expedition' to Northwest Greenland together with Knud Rasmussen in 1902–1904. The main target of the Denmark expedition was to map the last blank sections of the coastline of northeastern Greenland, between Cape Bridgman, near Robert Peary's easternmost geographic exploration in the north, and Cape Bismarck, the northernmost point reached by Carl Koldewey in the east. Beginning in the 1700s Greenland had slowly been mapped section by section, but the harsh climate in the far northeast and the difficult ice conditions off the shore had prevented the cartography of the vast zone.


title: Denmark expedition

text: The expedition aimed as well to gather scientific information of the unexplored area during a period of two years, including information on any remaining Northeast-Greenland Inuit, last seen by Royal Navy Captain Douglas Clavering in 1823 further south down the coast in Clavering Island.


title: Denmark expedition

text: The strategy of the expedition was to cross the ice barrier east of Greenland and sail with a ship as far north as possible, finding a safe anchorage, establishing a base with a meteorological station, and then go further north on dogsleds along the coastal ice. After the last unmapped coast of Greenland would have been explored, which Mylius-Erichsen deemed could be done in a year, the expedition would move south to further explore the Kaiser Franz Joseph Fjord. Time permitting, the expedition would also attempt a westward crossing of the inland ice.


title: Denmark expedition

text: In addition, Robert Peary's claim that a channel running from east to west separated northernmost Greenland from the mainland further south – the so-called "Peary Channel" – was to be investigated.


title: Denmark expedition

text: A committee of authorities on Greenland, including Gustav Frederik Holm, Carl Ryder, Georg Carl Amdrup and Thomas Vilhelm Garde, advised Mylius-Erichsen on the preparation of the expedition.


title: Denmark expedition

text: The expedition travelled to Greenland aboard the "Danmark", reaching a sheltered place in southern Germania Land in August 1906 and establishing its main base there, Danmarkshavn, which was named after the ship.


title: Denmark expedition

text: The captain of the ship was Lieutenant Alf Trolle of the Danish Navy and the doctor Johannes Lindhard. Expedition members included a very large staff of mostly Danish scientists, as well as West Greenlanders who came aboard in Iceland and the Faeroe Islands along with a hundred sled dogs. Among the scientists was German meteorologist Alfred Wegener. Georg Carl Amdrup was in charge of writing the official history of the expedition.


title: Denmark expedition

text: Northbound sled journeys began in autumn 1906 in order to lay depots along the route that the two groups of the long northern explorations would take in the spring of the following year.


title: Denmark expedition

text: Finally ten sleds led by Mylius Eriksen left Danmarkshavn at the end of March 1907, heading north on the coastal ice. Along Jokel Bay, where the Greenland ice sheet comes down to the sea buckling and cracking the ice near the shore, travelling was difficult and sleds broke and had to be continually repaired. The harsh ice conditions continued along Hovgaard Island further north.


title: Denmark expedition

text: At Mallemuk Mountain in SE Holm Land the coastal ice of the Dijmphna Sound gave way to a polynya and, as the sleds tried to find a way around the open water, the first supporting party returned to Danmarkshavn.


title: Denmark expedition

text: The eight dogsleds continued northwards and found remains of ancient Inuit dwellings at Eskimonaesset, in the northeastern end of Holm Land. A few days later, off Amdrup Land, a second support section of two dogsleds returned south and split. As they traveled back to Danmarkshavn, one of the dogsleds —led by Gustav Thostrup and Alfred Wegener—


title: Denmark expedition

text: mapped the shoreline, while the other one —led by Henning Bistrup and Carl Johan Ring— mapped the numerous offshore islands.


title: Denmark expedition

text: As the six northbound dogsleds sped along the eastern coast of the Crown Prince Christian Land peninsula, Mylius Eriksen was feeling uneasy because the shore was leading them further to the northeast, which was not what he had expected. The distance to their goal was increasing, while time and provisions were running out. Finally, at the end of April, they rounded the northeastern end of Greenland, an inconspicuous point where the ice slope of the Flade Isblink met the frozen sea, and began traveling northwestwards, in the direction they had hoped for.


title: Denmark expedition

text: Shortly thereafter, they split into two teams of three dogsleds each; Ludvig Mylius-Erichsen, Niels Peter Høeg Hagen and Jørgen Brønlund, went westward hugging the coast, in the direction that they deemed would lead them to Gletscher Cape and Navy Cliff —at the head of Independence Fjord. Meanwhile the other team —with Johan Peter Koch, Aage Bertelsen and Tobias Gabrielsen— sped northwestwards across the sea ice towards Cape Bridgman in order to map the uncharted coast sections of eastern Peary Land.


title: Denmark expedition

text: Mylius-Erichsen entered the unknown Danmark Fjord without having doubts about where it was leading to. The team traveled southwestwards until the head of the fjord and, becoming aware that it was a dead end, they backtracked to the northeast. By the end of May Mylius-Erichsen's team was back again at the mouth of the fjord. As they met Koch's team at Cape Rigsdagen, already on their way back from Cape Bridgman, Mylius-Erichsen realized that they had wasted precious time and provisions by entering the long unexplored fjord.


title: Denmark expedition

text: Koch and Mylius-Erichsen considered the situation. It was getting late in the season and it would be dangerous to get stuck in the inhospitable area during the summer without adequate equipment and supplies. Melting ice would make travel back to Danmarkshavn impossible. Initially Mylius-Erichsen agreed to go back with Koch to the ship, but then he took the fateful decision to head west, leaving on 28 May.


title: Denmark expedition

text: Thus Koch departed without suspecting that he would never see the leader of the expedition again —he and his team arrived to the ship almost one month later. Mylius-Erichsen travelled west following the southern side of Independence Fjord and reached Academy Glacier at the head of Independence Fjord on 1 June, discovering that the Peary Channel did in fact not exist.


title: Denmark expedition

text: On the way back, the team explored Brønlunds Fjord and Hagens Fjord. Sudden mild weather then impeded their progress, and when they reached the western side of Danmarks Fjord on 12 June, they found their way across the ice blocked by open water. They had relied on hunting for their sustenance in order to supplement their fast dwindling provisions, but hunting was poor. The stony ground had worn their footwear and Brønlund summed up their desperate situation:


title: Denmark expedition

text: It is known that when the weather became colder the three men took the same route along the coast of the farthest northeast point of Greenland where depots had been laid. By then they had only four dogs and a sled. They reached the cliffs of Mallemuk Mountain, but found open water that made it impossible for them to travel straight southwards, so the exhausted men had to travel inland on 19 October 1907, the day the sun disappeared below the horizon. Walking on the ice in the darkness Høeg Hagen was the first to die of exhaustion in the Nioghalvfjerd Fjord area, followed shortly thereafter by Mylius-Erichsen.


title: Denmark expedition

text: Jørgen Brønlund reached Lambert Land in the moonlight and his body was found there by Koch in mid March 1908. Brønlund had his diary and Hagen's cartographic sketches. He was buried at Kap Bergendahl in southeast Lambert Land, the spot where he was found, which is today known as Brønlund's Grave (). Brønlund was only some 140 miles as the crow flies from Germania land. The expedition had covered 350 miles, of the 500 that they needed to cover from Navy Cliff to Germania Land.


title: Denmark expedition

text: When the death of expedition leader Mylius-Erichsen was confirmed, Captain Alf Trolle took formal command of the venture. Although the original plan to move the ship to Kaiser Franz Joseph Fjord in the second year was called off, Trolle carried on with the objectives of the expedition in the area during the remaining time.