title: Romani society and culture

text: Seven former Communist Central European and Southeastern European states launched the Decade of Roma Inclusion initiative in 2005 to improve the socioeconomic conditions and status of the Romani minority.


title: Eureka Flag

text: The Eureka Flag was flown at the Battle of the Eureka Stockade, which took place on 3 December 1854 at Ballarat in Victoria, Australia. It was the culmination of the 1851–1854 Eureka Rebellion on the Victorian goldfields, where miners protested against the cost of mining permits and the officious way the colonial authorities enforced the system along with other grievances. An estimated crowd of over 10,000 demonstrators swore allegiance to the flag as a symbol of defiance at Bakery Hill on 29 November 1854. It was then flown over the Eureka Stockade during the battle which left an official total of 27 deaths. Around 120 miners were arrested, and many others were badly wounded.


title: Eureka Flag

text: The field is Prussian blue, measuring x (2:3.08 ratio) and made from a fine woollen fabric. The horizontal arm of the cross is tall, and the vertical arm is wide. The central star is slightly larger (8.5%) than the others being about , all from point to point and the other stars . The white stars are made from a fine cotton lawn and the off-white cross from cotton twill. In addition to a modern, standardised version, there are also other Eureka Flag variants.


title: Eureka Flag

text: The flag is listed as an object of significance on the Victorian Heritage Register and was designated as a Victorian icon by the National Trust of Australia in 2006. It is part of the collection of the Art Gallery of Ballarat, which is responsible for its care and conservation. Since 2013 it has been on a long-term loan to the interpretative centre located at the Eureka Stockade Memorial Park, where it remains on public display.


title: Eureka Flag

text: The disputed first report of the attack on the Eureka Stockade also refers to a Union Jack being flown during the battle that was captured, along with the Eureka Flag, by the foot police.


title: Eureka Flag

text: The Port Phillip District was partitioned on 1 July 1851, as Victoria gained autonomy within the British Empire after a decade of de facto independence from New South Wales. Approval of the Victorian constitution by the Imperial parliament was pending, with an election held for a provisional legislative council consisting of 20 elected and ten appointed members subject to property-based franchise and membership requirements.


title: Eureka Flag

text: Gold prospectors were offered 200 guineas for making discoveries within of Melbourne. In August 1851 the news was received worldwide that, on top of several earlier finds, Thomas Hiscock, outside of Buninyong in central Victoria, had found still more deposits. As gold fever took hold, the colony's population increased from 77,000 in 1851 to 198,496 in 1853. Among this number was "a heavy sprinkling of ex-convicts, gamblers, thieves, rogues and vagabonds of all kinds." The local authorities soon found themselves with fewer police officers and lacking the infrastructure needed to support the expansion of the mining industry. The number of public servants, factory and farm workers leaving for the goldfields to seek their fortune led to a chronic labour shortage that needed to be resolved. The response was a universal mining tax based on time stayed, rather than what was seen as the more equitable option, being an export duty levied only on gold found, meaning it was always designed to make life unprofitable for most prospectors. Licence inspections, known as "digger hunts," were treated as recreation and carried out by mounted officials who would receive a fifty per cent commission from any fines imposed. Many recruits were former prisoners from Tasmania and prone to brutal means, having been sentenced to serve in the military. Miners were often arrested for not carrying licences on their person because of the typically wet and dirty conditions in the mines, then subjected to such indignities as being chained to trees and logs overnight.


title: Eureka Flag

text: In the years leading up to the Eureka Stockade, several mass public meetings were held to address the miner's grievances. The Bendigo Petition received over 5,000 signatures and was presented to Lieutenant-Governor Charles La Trobe by a miner's delegation in August 1853. There were also delegations received by the Ballarat gold commissioner Robert William Rede and La Trobe's successor Charles Hotham in October and November 1854. However, the ever-present "physical force" faction of the mining tax protest movement would gain the ascendancy over those who advocated "moral force," including John Basson Humffray, after a judicial enquiry into the murder of miner James Scobie outside the Eureka Hotel. There was no finding of guilt regarding the owner James Bently, who was deeply suspected of involvement, with the case being presided over by a police magistrate accused of having a conflict of interest. Then there was an uproar over the arrest of the Catholic Father Smyth's disabled Armenian servant Johannes Gregorious. He was subjected to police brutality and false arrest for licence evasion even though it was revealed he was exempt from the requirement. Gregorious was instead convicted of assaulting a constable and fined 5 pounds despite the court hearing testimony to the contrary. Eventually, the discontent would begin to spiral out of control when a mob of many thousands of aggrieved miners put the Eureka Hotel to the torch on 17 October 1854. On 28 November, there was a skirmish as the approaching 12th Regiment (East Suffolk) had their wagon train looted in the vicinity of the Eureka lead, where the rebels ultimately made their last stand. The next day the Eureka Flag appeared on the platform for the first time, and mining licences were burnt at the final fiery mass meeting of the Ballarat Reform League – the miner's lobby. The league's founding charter proclaims that "it is the inalienable right of every citizen to have a voice in making the laws he is called upon to obey" and "taxation without representation is tyranny," in the language of the United States Declaration of Independence. On 30 November, there was further rioting where missiles were once again directed at military and law enforcement by the protesting miners who had henceforth refused to cooperate with licence inspections "en masse". That afternoon there was a paramilitary display on Bakery Hill. The oath swearing ceremony took place as the military companies formed were gathered around the Eureka Flag. In preceding weeks, the men of violence had already been aiming musket balls at the barely fortified government camp during the night.


title: Eureka Flag

text: The rebels under their commander-in-chief Peter Lalor, who had left Ireland for the goldfields of Australia, were led down the road from Bakery Hill to the ill-fated Eureka Stockade. It was a crude "higgledy piggledy" battlement erected between 30 November and 2 December that consisted of diagonal spikes and overturned horse carts. In the ensuing battle that left at least 22 rebels and seven soldiers and police dead, the stockade was besieged and captured by the advancing government forces. They briefly wavered, with the 40th Regiment (2nd Somersetshire) having to be rallied amid a short, sharp exchange of ranged fire lasting around 15 minutes at dawn on Sunday, 3 December. The Victorian police contingent led the way over the top as the forlorn hope in a bayonet charge.


title: Eureka Flag

text: The earliest mention of a flag was the report of a meeting held on 23 October 1854 to discuss indemnifying Andrew McIntyre and Thomas Fletcher, who had both been arrested and committed for trial over the burning of the Eureka Hotel. The correspondent for the Melbourne Herald stated: "Mr. Kennedy suggested that a tall flag pole should be erected on some conspicuous site, the hoisting of the diggers' flag on which should be the signal for calling toge-ther a meeting on any subject which might require immediate consideration."


title: Eureka Flag

text: In 1885, John Wilson, whom the Victorian Works Department employed at Ballarat as a foreman, claimed that he had originally conceptualised the Eureka Flag after becoming sympathetic to the rebel cause. He then recalls that it was constructed from bunting by a tarpaulin maker. There is another popular tradition where the flag design is credited to a member of the Ballarat Reform League, "Captain" Henry Ross of Toronto, in Ontario, Canada. A. W. Crowe recounted in 1893 that "it was Ross who gave the order for the insurgents' flag at Darton and Walker's." Crowe's story is confirmed in that there were advertisements in the "Ballarat Times" dating from October–November 1854 for Darton and Walker, manufacturers of tents, tarpaulin and flags, situated at the Gravel Pits.


title: Eureka Flag

text: It has long been said that women were involved with constructing the Eureka Flag. In a letter to the editor published in the Melbourne "Age", 15 January 1855 edition, Fredrick Vern states that he "fought for freedom's cause, under a banner made and wrought by English ladies." According to some of their descendants, Anastasia Withers, Anne Duke and Anastasia Hayes were all involved in sewing the flag. The stars are made of delicate material, consistent with the story they were made out of their petticoats. The blue woollen fabric "certainly bears a marked resemblance to the standard dressmaker's length of material for making up one of the voluminous dresses of the 1850s" and also the blue shirts worn by the miners.


title: Eureka Flag

text: In his seminal "Flag of Stars", Frank Cayley published two sketches he discovered on a visit to the soon-to-be headquarters of the Ballarat Historical Society in 1963, which may be the original plans for the Eureka Flag. One is a two-dimensional drawing of a flag bearing the words "blue" and "white" to denote the colour scheme. Cayley has concluded: "It looks like a rough design of the so-called King Flag." The other sketch was "pasted on the same piece of card shows the flag being carried by a bearded man" that Cayley believes may have been intended as a representation of Henry Ross. Professor Anne Beggs-Sunter refers to an article reportedly published in the "Ballarat Times" "shortly after the Stockade referring to two women making the flag from an original drawing by a digger named Ross. Unfortunately no complete set of the Ballarat Times exists, and it is impossible to locate this intriguing reference."


title: Eureka Flag

text: The theory that the Eureka Flag is based on the Australian Federation Flag has precedents in that "borrowing the general flag design of the country one is revolting against can be found in many instances of colonial liberation, including Haiti, Venezuela, Iceland, and Guinea." Some resemblance to the modern Flag of Quebec has been noted, that was based on a design used by the French-speaking majority of the colony of the Province of Canada at the time Ross emigrated. Ballarat local historian Father Tom Linane thought that women from the St Aliphius chapel on the goldfields might have made the flag. This theory is supported by St Aliphius raising a blue and white ecclesiastical flag featuring a couped cross to signal that mass was about to commence. Professor Geoffrey Blainey believed that the white cross on which the stars are arrayed is "really an Irish cross rather than being [a] configuration of the Southern Cross."


title: Eureka Flag

text: Cayley has stated that the field "may have been inspired by the sky, but was more probably intended to match the blue shirts worn by the diggers." Norm D'Angri theorises that the Eureka Flag was hastily manufactured, and the number of points on the stars is a mere convenience as eight was "the easiest to construct without using normal drawing instruments."


title: Eureka Flag

text: Before the oath swearing ceremony at Bakery Hill on 30 November 1854, another recorded hoisting of the Eureka Flag occurred that day. In his open letter to the colonists of Victoria, dated 7 April 1855, Peter Lalor said that he heard the news that shots were fired on miners at the Gravel Pits. Along with an armed mob, he then headed towards Barker and Hunt's store on Specimen Hill. It was here the Eureka Flag "was procured and hoisted on the flagstaff belonging to Barker and Hunt; but it was almost immediately hauled down, and we moved down to the holes on the Gravel Pits Flat."


title: Eureka Flag

text: John Wilson claimed to have enlisted the help of prisoners to procure the flag pole on Bakery Hill. He said that it was long and felled from an area known as Byle's Swamp in Bullarook Forest. Then it was set into an abandoned mineshaft and his design of "five white stars on a blue ground, floated gaily in the breeze."


title: Eureka Flag

text: The "Ballarat Times" first mentioned the Eureka Flag on 24 November 1854 in an article about a meeting of the Ballarat Reform League to be held the following Wednesday where, "The Australian flag shall triumphantly wave in the sunshine of its own blue and peerless sky, over thousands of Australia's adopted sons." There are also other examples of it being referred to at the time as the Australian flag. The day after the battle, the "Age" reported that: "They assembled round the Australian flag, which has now a permanent flag-staff." The "Geelong Advertiser" stated "The following remarkable scene at the inauguration of the 'Australian flag,' and the organisation of the first 'rebel army' in these colonies" and that "The 'Australian Flag,' it appears, has been captured from the volunteers." In a despatch dated 20 December 1854, Lieutenant-Governor Charles Hotham said: "The disaffected miners...held a meeting whereat the Australian flag of independence was solemnly consecrated and vows offered for its defence."


title: Eureka Flag

text: Lalor, armed with a rifle, took the initiative by mounting a stump and proclaiming "liberty," then called for rebel volunteers to form themselves into companies. Near the base of the flagpole, Lalor knelt with his head uncovered, pointed his right hand to the Eureka Flag, and swore to the affirmation of over 10,000 demonstrators: "We swear by the Southern Cross to stand truly by each other and fight to defend our rights and liberties." Raffaello Carboni recalls that Henry Ross was the "bridegroom" of the flag and "sword in hand, he had posted himself at the foot of the flag-staff, surrounded by his rifle division."


title: Eureka Flag

text: In 1931, R. S. Reed claimed that "an old tree stump on the south side of Victoria Street, near Humffray Street, is the historic tree at which the pioneer diggers gathered in the days before the Eureka Stockade, to discuss their grievances against the officialdom of the time." Reed called for the formation of a committee of citizens to "beautify the spot, and to preserve the tree stump" upon which Lalor addressed the assembled rebels during the oath swearing ceremony. It was reported that the stump had "been securely fenced in, and the enclosed area is to be planted with floriferous trees. The spot is adjacent to Eureka, which is famed alike for the stockade fight and for the fact that the Welcome Nugget. (sold for £10,500) was discovered in 1858 within a stone's throw of it."


title: Eureka Flag

text: The modern-day address of the oath swearing ceremony is likely 29 St Paul's Way, Bakery Hill. As of 2016, the site is a car park and was for a hundred years a school, with plans to develop it into an apartment block.


title: Eureka Flag

text: After the oath swearing ceremony, the rebels marched in double file behind the Eureka Flag from Bakery Hill to the Eureka lead, where construction of the stockade began. In his 1855 memoirs, Raffaello Carboni again mentions the role of Henry Ross, who "was our standard-bearer. He hoisted down the Southern Cross from the flag-staff, and headed the march."


title: Eureka Flag

text: In his report dated 14 December 1854, Captain John Thomas mentioned: "the fact of the Flag belonging to the Insurgents (which had been nailed to the flagstaff) being captured by Constable King of the Force." King had volunteered for the honour while the battle was still raging. W. Bourke, a miner residing about 250 yards from the stockade, recalled that: "The police negotiated the wall of the Stockade on the south-west, and I then saw a policeman climb the flag pole. When up about 12 or 14 feet the pole broke, and he came down with a run." John Lynch, who fought at the Eureka Stockade, said that: "I have a vague recollection of its being pulled down by the soldiers amidst a chorus of jeers and ribald shoutings. A private of the 40th Regiment told myself and other prisoners that he was one of those who rough handled it." Theophilus Williams, a Justice of the Peace and later Mayor of Ballarat East, had a tent situated 300 yards away from the Eureka Stockade. He said that he was prepared to "affirm on affidavit that he saw two red uniformed soldiers haul down the flag." Carboni, an eyewitness to the battle, recalls that: "A wild 'hurrah!' burst out and 'the Southern Cross' was torn down, I should say, among their laughter, such as if it had been a prize from a May-pole...The red-coats were now ordered to 'fall in;' their bloody work was over, and were marched off, dragging with them the 'Southern Cross.'" The "Geelong Advertiser" reported that the flag "was carried by in triumph to the Camp, waved about in the air, then pitched from one to another, thrown down and trampled on." The soldiers also danced around the flag on a pole that was "now a sadly tattered flag from which souvenir hunters had cut and torn pieces." The morning after the battle, "the policeman who captured the flag exhibited it to the curious and allowed such as so desired to tear off small portions of its ragged end to preserve as souvenirs."


title: Eureka Flag

text: At the Eureka state treason trials that began on 22 February 1855, the 13 defendants had it put to them that they did "traitorously assemble together against our Lady the Queen" and attempt "by the force of arms to destroy the Government constituted there and by law established, and to depose our Lady the Queen from the kingly name and her Imperial Crown." Furthermore, concerning the "overt acts" that constituted the actus reus of the offence, the indictment read: "That you raised upon a pole, and collected round a certain standard, and did solemnly swear to defend each other, with the intention of levying war against our said Lady the Queen."


title: Eureka Flag

text: Called as a witness, George Webster, the chief assistant civil commissary and magistrate, testified that upon entering the stockade the besieging forces "immediately made towards the flag, and the police pulled down the flag." John King testified, "I took their flag, the southern cross, down – the same flag as now produced."


title: Eureka Flag

text: In his closing submission, the defence counsel Henry Chapman argued there were no inferences to be drawn from the hoisting of the Eureka Flag, saying:


title: Eureka Flag

text: The Eureka Flag was retained by John King, who quit the police force two days after the state treason trials ended to become a farmer. In the late 1870s, he eventually settled near Minyip in the Victorian Wimmera district. It was here that the flag "made occasional appearances at country bazaars." In his 1870 history of Ballarat, William Withers said he had not been able to find out what had happened to the flag. Professor Anne Beggs-Sunter thinks it is "likely that King read Withers's book, because he wrote to the Melbourne Public Library offering to sell the flag to that institution." The head librarian, Marcus Clarke, approached Peter Lalor to authenticate the flag. However, he was unable, replying, "Can you find someone whose memory is more accurate than mine?". The library eventually decided not to acquire the flag due to the uncertainty over its origins. It would remain in the custody of the King family for forty years until 1895 when it was lent to the Ballarat Fine Art Gallery (now the Art Gallery of Ballarat). John King's widow Isabella would post the flag after being approached by art gallery president, James Oddie, along with a letter to the secretary which reads:


title: Eureka Flag

text: In a letter to his father, Fred Riley recalled visiting Ballarat in 1912 and acquiring a fragment of the Eureka Flag that now resides at the National Library of Australia. He said:


title: Eureka Flag

text: As a result of this practice the pieces of the flag in the art gallery collection represent only 69.01% of the original specimen.


title: Eureka Flag

text: The Eureka Flag remained at the art gallery in continued obscurity "under a cloud of skepticism and conservative disapproval." After being told about it by his friend Rem McClintock, in December 1944, Sydney journalist Len Fox, who worked with the Communist Party media, published an article about the flag during his investigation that followed on from Withers'. He entered into correspondence with the King family, the art gallery, and Ballarat local historian Nathan Spielvogel. Fox was sent a piece of the flag by the art gallery in March 1945, along with a drawing. Spielvogel offered to assist, although he had reasons to doubt the authenticity of the flag held by the art gallery. Later that year, Fox visited Ballarat to inspect the flag, and the custodians gave him two more pieces. Fox self-published a booklet in 1963 that advanced his argument as to why the flag at the art gallery was authentic. It was probably due to Fox's interest that in 1963 the flag was transferred to a safe at the art gallery. Eventually, the librarian discovered that the safe had been broken into; however, the robber left the flag that was still there wrapped in brown paper. At this point, it was stored in a vault at the National Bank. The final irrefutable validation of its authentication occurred when sketchbooks of Canadian Charles Doudiet were put up for sale at a Christie's auction in 1996. Two sketches, in particular, show the design as being the same as the tattered remains of the original flag that were first put on public display at the art gallery in 1973, being unveiled during a ceremony attended by Prime Minister Gough Whitlam. The art gallery had received a $1,000 grant from the state government to cover half the estimated cost of repairing and mounting the flag. Ballarat seamstress Val D'Angri did the conservation work in May 1973. Along with a pin, there was a "W" mark discovered at the fly end of the cross that D'Angri believes may be the signature of her great-great-grandmother Anastasia Withers.


title: Eureka Flag

text: In 2001, legal ownership of the Eureka Flag was transferred to the art gallery. There was a second extensive restoration of the specimen undertaken in 2011 by leading textile conservation specialists Artlab Australia. The City of Ballarat had received a permit from Heritage Victoria to proceed with the conservation work. A full assessment of the state of the flag was commissioned. The report compiled by Artlab described the flag as "arguably the most important historical textile in Australia." The old backing cloth was replaced with state-of-the-art materials that are less prone to deterioration, along with the timber backing board. A new, purpose-built, low-light, temperature-controlled display case was also constructed. The art gallery then loaned the flag to the Museum of Australian Democracy at Eureka (MADE) in 2013. When MADE closed in 2018, the interpretive centre came under the management of the City of Ballarat. The flag was retained as the centrepiece of a visitor experience now branded as the Eureka Centre Ballarat while remaining part of the art gallery collection.


title: Eureka Flag

text: Over the years, a number of additional pieces of the Eureka Flag have been entrusted to the Art Gallery of Ballarat and other organisations or sold at auction. Martha Clendinning claimed to have a piece of the Eureka Flag that was given to her by doctor Alfred Carr. Clendinning's daughter married Robert Rede, who was the Ballarat gold commissioner at the time of the battle. In his 1896 article, Withers states that these fragments were sent to him by Rede. They were compared to the pieces loaned to the art gallery in 1895. After a minute comparison by Mr Grainger of Sunnyside Woollen Mills, they were adjudged to be the same. A small piece of blue material was later donated to the Melbourne Public Library by Mr A.S. Kenyon, who died in 1943. Along with the fragment was a written statement signed by a Mrs Clendinning that reads, "Piece of the flag set up in the Stockade. Given to me by Dr Alfred Carr immediately after it was taken."


title: Eureka Flag

text: Before it was given to the Ballarat Historical Society, the Bradford fragment was stored for many years in a leather pouch containing a note written by J. Bradford. It reads: "This piece of cloth is part of the original Eureka Stockade Flag. It was given to me by my father Wm. Bradford who had it given to him by his father Wm. Bradford Snr, who fought for freedom at Ballarat, Victoria, in 1854." On his 1963 visit to Ballarat, Frank Cayley compared the Bradford fragment to the pieces held by the art gallery. He found they matched in both texture and colour. Acquiring a small sample of the Bradford fragment Cayley then compared this to the piece held by the Melbourne Public Library. Apart from some variations in colour due to fading he could detect no difference. Cayley shared his findings with fellow Eureka investigator Len Fox. They organised for experts from the School of Textile Technology at the University of New South Wales to test a piece of the Bradford fragment and a piece from the art gallery in Fox's possession. On 19 November 1963, the report was released, concluding that the two fragments "are most probably from the same source."


title: Eureka Flag

text: The Billings fragment was discovered in Kybram, Victoria, inside a compartment of a sea chest that had once belonged to Dr J.D. Williams, the camp surgeon in Ballarat in December 1854. Williams obtained a piece of the Eureka Flag as a souvenir while taking care of the wounded after the battle. His descendants donated it to the art gallery in 1993.


title: Eureka Flag

text: A piece of the Eureka Flag was placed in a safe at St Patrick's Christian Brothers College in Ballarat in the early 20th century. On 21 June 1996, it was donated to the art gallery. It was then loaned to the Royal Australian Navy when was commissioned and went on the warship's maiden voyage.


title: Eureka Flag

text: The five tiny pieces that were given to Len Fox during his investigation were returned to the gallery by Professor Anne-Beggs Sunter in January 1997.


title: Eureka Flag

text: Evelyn Healy was sent a fragment of the Eureka Flag by her mother, Myrtle Shaw. Healy was active with the Communist Party, and the party wanted a replica of the flag for a May Day parade in 1938. Healy believed the pieces of the Eureka Flag at the art gallery were genuine, and Shaw spoke to the gallery's custodian William Keith. He gave Shaw a snippet along with some rough sketches and a written description. Healy then forwarded these materials to party leader Rem McClintock. When Healy asked for it back, she was told it was still needed and then that it was lost. In July 1997, McClintock's son Alex tried to sell a piece of the Eureka Flag through Christie's auction house in Melbourne, with a reserve price of $10,000. It was the same piece Len Fox mentioned in his 1986 "Overland" article. Healy obtained an injunction blocking the sale on the grounds that she was the lawful owner. A lengthy court case ensued, and her claim was eventually upheld. After the fragment was returned, she gave it to the art gallery in March 1998.


title: Eureka Flag

text: In 2017, the Victorian Trades Hall Council purchased a fragment of the Eureka Flag through the Melbourne auction house Mossgreen for $32,000. The seller was Adrian Millane, who inherited a piece of the flag that was reportedly handed to his great-grandfather Francis Hanlon by Peter Lalor. The auction house subsequently went bankrupt with $12 million in debt. Millane claimed he was still owed $20,000 and that he intended to use the funds to support an orphanage in Bengal, India. In 2013, Millane loaned his fragment to the former Museum of Australian Democracy, where it was displayed for the 159th anniversary of the battle.


title: Eureka Flag

text: Since the 1854 miner's revolt, the Eureka Flag, born out of adversity, has gained wider notability in Australian culture as a symbol of democracy, egalitarianism, white nationalism and a general-purpose symbol of protest. Whilst some Australians view it as a symbol of nationality, it has more often been employed by historical societies, re-enactors and trade unions such as the former Builders Labourers Federation. More recently, far-right organisations and political parties have adopted it, including the Australia First Party, National Action, and some neo-Nazi groups, much to the frustration of more established socialist and progressive claimants. Depending on their political persuasion, these groups either see it as representative of the miner's efforts to free themselves from political or economic oppression or their sentiments favouring restricting non-white immigration and the eventual 1855 Chinese poll tax.


title: Eureka Flag

text: Construction union boss Kevin Reynolds, and the Northern Territory's nomination for Australian of the Year, Warwick Thornton, both raised fears in 2010 that the Eureka Flag could "become a swastika-like symbol of racism." Professor Greg Craven said that 20 years prior, the Eureka Flag rivalled the official Australian flag. However, it had become so tainted through appearing on bumper stickers with racist slogans that "The Southern Cross is becoming a symbol not of unity but of exclusion." According to Craven, the union movement has also politicised the Eureka Flag as "The Eureka Stockade was not exclusively about the working class but also the middle class."


title: Eureka Flag

text: In a 2013 survey about national symbols, McCrindle Research found the Eureka Flag eliciting a "mixed response with 1 in 10 (10%) being extremely proud while 1 in 3 (35%) are uncomfortable with its use."


title: Eureka Flag

text: The City of Unley refused a request to fly the Eureka Flag at the local civic centre to commemorate the 166th anniversary of the Eureka Stockade in 2020. Councillor Jennifer Bonham noted the flag's place in the "struggle for democracy." However, she said it must be acknowledged that "the Chinese were persecuted on the goldfields" and "The Eureka flag can also be a symbol of that persecution." Councillor Jane Russo said that it had become symbolic of "white supremacy."


title: Eureka Flag

text: There is an oral tradition that Eureka Flags were on display at a seaman's union protest against the use of cheap Asian labour on ships at Circular Quay in 1878. In August 1890, a crowd of 30,000 protesters gathered at the Yarra Bank in Melbourne under a platform draped with the flag in a show of solidarity with maritime workers. A similar flag was flown prominently above the camp at Barcaldine during the 1891 Australian shearers' strike.


title: Eureka Flag

text: After the first world war and the Great Depression, the Eureka Flag once again returned to the public domain, being adopted by the New Guard and "the radical left wing of the Australian Labor Party and the Communist Party" in the 1930s.


title: Eureka Flag

text: In 1948 a procession of 3,000 members of the Communist affiliated Eureka Youth League and allied unionists led by a Eureka Flag bearer marched through the streets of Melbourne on the occasion of the 94th anniversary of the Eureka Stockade. The same year, headlines in the Melbourne "Argus" stated "Police in serious clash with strikers" and "Battle over Eureka flag" following a violent clash between about 500 strikers and police during a procession on St Patrick's Day in Brisbane. The marchers were singing "It's a Great Day for the Irish" and "Advance, Australia Fair" whilst carrying shamrock-shaped anti-government placards and a coffin with the label "Trade Unionism." Readers were also told that: "Conspicuous in the procession was a Eureka flag, a replica of the flag Peter Lalor's followers carried at the Eureka Stockade in 1854." It was reported that two protesters were injured and five arrested "In a fight for the Eureka flag" where the "strikers resisted, and blows were struck. Police, caught up in the melee, drew batons and used them."


title: Eureka Flag

text: The Eureka Flag was also used by supporters of Gough Whitlam after he was dismissed as prime minister. In 1979, the Northcote City Council began flying the Eureka Flag from its Town Hall to mark the 125th anniversary of the uprising, and continued until at least 1983.


title: Eureka Flag

text: During a 1983 royal tour, a republican supporter informally presented a small Eureka Flag to Diana, Princess of Wales, who did not recognise it. The event prompted a cartoon of the royal couple with Charles, Prince of Wales, observing "Mummy will not be pleased."


title: Eureka Flag

text: To commemorate the 2004 Eureka sesquicentenary, the Eureka Flag flew at every state and territory parliament; the federal senate; City Hill, Canberra; and from the Sydney Harbour Bridge. Deputy Prime Minister John Anderson made the flag a federal election issue that year. He was opposed to flying it at Parliament House, Canberra to mark the occasion, stating: "I think people have tried to make too much of the Eureka Stockade ... trying to give it a credibility and standing that it probably doesn't enjoy."


title: Eureka Flag

text: The Eureka Flag has been adopted by a variety of civic and political organisations, including the City of Ballarat and Federation University, which use elements or stylised versions of the flag in their official logo. Several trade unions use it, including the CFMEU and ETU. It is also often informally flown on-site by crews on building and other construction sites as a symbol of the construction, forestry, maritime, mining and energy unions to associate themselves with the values associated with the stockade, that of fairness, equality and a struggle against authority. The flag flies permanently over the Melbourne Trades Hall and the Ballarat Trades Hall. The Prospectors and Miners Association of Victoria use it as their official flag. In 2016 it was formally incorporated into the official logo of the Australia First Party.


title: Eureka Flag

text: Sporting clubs have also made use of the Eureka Flag, including the Melbourne Victory and Melbourne Rebels. Melbourne Victory supporters adopted it as a club flag for the foundation year in 2004. However, it was subsequently briefly banned at A-League games by the Football Federation of Australia but rescinded in the face of criticism from the Victorian general public. The Football Federation of Australia claimed that the ban was "unintentional."


title: Eureka Flag

text: HMAS "Ballarat" occasionally flies the Eureka Flag from its mainstay alongside the Australian White Ensign.


title: Eureka Flag

text: In response to the use of the Eureka Flag at violent protests in recent times, efforts have been made by some, like Federal Labor MP Catherine King, to reclaim the Eureka Flag.


title: Eureka Flag

text: The standardised Eureka Flag most often seen in circulation today is an enhanced and different version from the original specimen with blue key lines around each of five equal stars. It is frequently made in the proportions of 20:13. The Eureka Flag features the stars of the Southern Cross, a constellation more visible to viewers in the Southern Hemisphere. The stars are arranged differently from the astronomical alignment of the Southern Cross. The "middle" star (Epsilon Crucis) in the constellation is off-centre and near to the edge of the "diamond." In contrast, the Eureka Flag features a star in the centre of the white cross.


title: Eureka Flag

text: The Lambing Flat riots were a series of violent anti-Chinese demonstrations in the Burrangong region in New South Wales, Australia. The miner's local vigilante committee was known as the Miner's Protection League. On 30 June 1861, seven hundred miners led by a brass band went about sacking the grog-shops, which were havens for thieves before turning their attention to the Chinese section. Most fled, but two Chinese who stayed to fight were killed and ten others badly injured. There were further incidents throughout 1861, with the Chinese who returned targeted. Another large gathering was held on Bastille Day, 14 July. The demonstrators were eventually read the riot act and had shots fired over their heads before being dispersed by mounted troopers. The trouble gradually subsided as more soldiers and marines were sent from Sydney. In 1870 the town was renamed in honour of former New South Wales governor, Sir John Young.


title: Eureka Flag

text: The Lambing Flat banner was painted on a tent flap, now on display at the Lambing Flat Museum. It bears a Southern Cross superimposed over a St Andrew's cross with the inscription "ROLL UP. ROLL UP. NO CHINESE." It has been claimed that the banner, which served as an advertisement for a public meeting that presaged the Lambing Flat riots, was inspired by the Eureka Flag.


title: Eureka Flag

text: According to Dr Whitney Smith, writing in 1975, the Eureka Flag "perhaps because of its association with labour riots and a time of political crisis in Australian history, was long forgotten. A century after it was first hoisted, however, Australian authors began to recognise that it had been an inspiration, both in spirit and design, for many banners up to and including the current official civil and state flags of the nation."


title: Eureka Flag

text: Before the Eureka Flag going on permanent display to the public, it was often featured with no cross and free-floating stars as per the Australian national flag, such as in the 1949 motion picture "Eureka Stockade" starring Chips Rafferty.


title: Eureka Flag

text: During his investigation in the late nineteenth century, William Withers found two women, Mrs Morgan and Mrs Oliver, who claimed to have sewn a starry flag at the time, but "they could not positively identify it as the one flown at Eureka." John Wilson recalls that the Eureka Flag was taken down by Thomas Kennedy at sundown on 2 December 1854 and stored in his tent "for safe keeping." However, when the government forces arrived in the early hours of the following day, it was already flying above the stockade. Frank Cayley has concluded that: "Wilson's flag was undoubtedly one of several flags, in various designs, that were made at Eureka." His colleague and fellow Eureka investigator, Melbourne journalist Len Fox, has also stated: "Flags were popular on the goldfields, and it may well be that among the diggers at Ballarat were smaller (and different) versions of the Eureka flag."


title: Eureka Flag

text: Concerning the provenance of the star-spangled Eureka Flag, Withers also interviewed police officer John McNeil, who recalled a meeting at Bakery Hill where Robert McCandlish "unbuttoned his coat and took out and unfurled a light blue flag with some stars on it, but there was no cross on it."


title: Eureka Flag

text: Since 2012 various theories have emerged, based on the "Argus" account of the battle dated 4 December 1854, and an affidavit sworn by Private Hugh King three days later as to a flag being seized from a prisoner detained at the stockade, that a Union Jack, known as the Eureka Jack may also have been flown by the rebels. Readers of the "Argus" were told that: "The flag of the diggers, 'The Southern Cross,' as well as the 'Union Jack,' which they had to hoist underneath, were captured by the foot police."


title: Eureka Flag

text: Hugh King, who was a private in the 40th Regiment, swore in a signed contemporaneous affidavit that he recalled:


title: Eureka Flag

text: During the committal hearings for the Eureka rebels, there would be another "Argus" report dated 9 December 1854 concerning the seizure of a second flag at the stockade in the following terms:


title: Eureka Flag

text: Hugh King was called upon to give further testimony live under oath in the matter of Timothy Hayes. In doing so went into more detail than in his written affidavit, as the report states that the flag like a Union Jack was found:


title: Eureka Flag

text: Military historian and author of "Eureka Stockade: A Ferocious and Bloody Battle", Gregory Blake, has conceded the rebels may have flown two battle flags as they were claiming to be defending their British rights. Blake leaves open the possibility that the flag being carried by the prisoner had been souvenired from the flag pole as the routed garrison was fleeing the stockade. Once taken by Constable John King, the Eureka Flag was placed beneath his tunic in the same fashion as the suspected Union Jack was found on the prisoner. In 1896, Sergeant John McNeil, who was at the battle, recalled shredding a flag at the Spencer Street Barracks in Melbourne at the time. He claimed it was the Eureka Flag that he had torn down; however, Blake believes it may have been the mystery Eureka Jack. Another theory is that the Eureka Jack was an 11th-hour response to divided loyalties in the rebel camp. In "The Revolt at Eureka", part of a 1958 illustrated history series for students, the artist Ray Wenban would remain faithful to the first reports of the battle with his rendition featuring two flags flying above the Eureka Stockade.


title: Eureka Flag

text: In 2013 the Australian Flag Society announced a worldwide quest and a $10,000 reward for more information and materials relating to the Eureka Jack mystery.


title: Eureka Flag

text: Ballarat Reform League Charter, 11 November 1854, VPRS 4066/P Unit 1, November no. 69, VA 466 Governor (including Lieutenant Governor 1851–1855 and Governor's Office), Public Record Office Victoria.


title: Campylobacter jejuni

text: Campylobacter jejuni () is a species of pathogenic bacteria, one of the most common causes of food poisoning in Europe and in the US. The vast majority of cases occur as isolated events, not as part of recognized outbreaks. Active surveillance through the Foodborne Diseases Active Surveillance Network (FoodNet) indicates that about 20 cases are "diagnosed" each year for each 100,000 people in the US, while many more cases are undiagnosed or unreported; the CDC estimates a total of 1.5 million infections every year. The European Food Safety Authority reported 246,571 cases in 2018, and estimated approximately nine million cases of human campylobacteriosis per year in the European Union.


title: Campylobacter jejuni

text: "Campylobacter" is a genus of bacteria that is among the most common causes of bacterial infections in humans worldwide. Campylobacter means "curved rod", deriving from the Greek "kampylos "(curved) and "baktron" (rod). Of its many species, "C. jejuni" is considered one of the most important from both a microbiological and public health perspective.


title: Campylobacter jejuni

text: "C. jejuni" is commonly associated with poultry, and is also commonly found in animal feces. "Campylobacter" is a helical-shaped, non-spore-forming, Gram-negative, microaerophilic, nonfermenting motile bacterium with a single flagellum at one or both poles, which are also oxidase-positive and grow optimally at 37 to 42 °C. When exposed to atmospheric oxygen, "C. jejuni" is able to change into a coccal form. This species of pathogenic bacteria is one of the most common causes of human gastroenteritis in the world. Food poisoning caused by "Campylobacter" species can be severely debilitating, but is rarely life-threatening. It has been linked with subsequent development of Guillain–Barré syndrome, which usually develops two to three weeks after the initial illness. Individuals with recent "C. jejuni" infections develop Guillain-Barré syndrome at a rate of 0.3 per 1000 infections, about 100 times more often than the general population. Another chronic condition that may be associated with "Campylobacter" infection is reactive arthritis. Reactive arthritis is a complication strongly associated with a particular genetic make-up. That is, persons who have the human leukocyte antigen B27 (HLA-B27) are most susceptible. Most often, the symptoms of reactive arthritis will occur up to several weeks after infection.


title: Campylobacter jejuni

text: In 1886 a pediatrician, Theodor Escherich, observed "Campylobacters" from diarrhea samples of children. The first isolation of "C. jejuni" was in Brussels, Belgium, from stool samples of a patient with diarrhea.


title: Campylobacter jejuni

text: Campylobacteriosis is an infectious disease caused by bacteria of the genus "Campylobacter". In most people who become ill with campylobacteriosis, symptoms develop within two to five days of exposure to the organism and illness typically lasts seven days following onset. Infection with "C. jejuni" usually results in enteritis, which is characterised by abdominal pain, diarrhea, fever, and malaise. Diarrhea itself can vary in severity from loose to bloody stools. The disease is usually self-limiting. However, it does respond to antibiotics. Severe (accompanying fevers, blood in stools) or prolonged cases may require erythromycin, azithromycin, ciprofloxacin, or norfloxacin. Fluid replacement via oral rehydration salts may be needed and intravenous fluid may be required for serious cases. Possible complications of campylobacteriosis include Guillain–Barré syndrome and reactive arthritis.


title: Campylobacter jejuni

text: Studies on the pathogenesis of "C. jejuni" show that for this organism to cause disease, the susceptibility of the host and the relative virulence of the infecting strain are both important. Infection results from the ingestion of contaminated food or water, and the infective dose can be as low as 800 organisms. To initiate infection, the organism must penetrate the gastrointestinal mucus, which it does using its high motility and spiral shape. The bacteria must then adhere to the gut enterocytes and can then induce diarrhea by toxin release. "C. jejuni" releases several different toxins, mainly enterotoxin and cytotoxins, which vary from strain to strain and correlate with the severity of the enteritis (inflammation of the small intestine). During infection, levels of all immunoglobulin classes rise. Of these, IgA is the most important because it can cross the gut wall. IgA immobilises organisms, causing them to aggregate and activate complement, and also gives short-term immunity against the infecting strain of organism. The bacteria colonize the small and large intestines, causing inflammatory diarrhea with fever. Stools contain leukocytes and blood. The role of toxins in pathogenesis is unclear. "C jejuni" antigens that cross-react with one or more neural structures may be responsible for triggering the Guillain–Barré syndrome.


title: Campylobacter jejuni

text: Hypoacylated lipopolysaccharide (LPS) from "C. jejuni" induces moderate TLR4-mediated inflammatory response in macrophages and such LPS bioactivity may eventually result in the failure of local and systemic bacterial clearance in patients. At the same time, moderation of anti-bacterial responses may be advantageous for infected patients in clinical practice, since such an attenuated LPS may not be able to induce severe sepsis in susceptible individuals.


title: Campylobacter jejuni

text: One of the most important virulence factor of "C. jejuni" are flagella. The flagellar protein FlaA has been proven to be one of the abundant proteins in the cell. Flagella are required for motility, biofilm formation, host cell interactions and host colonization. The production of flagella is energetically costly so the production must be regulated from metabolic standpoint. CsrA is a post-transcriptional regulator that regulates the expression of FlaA by binding to "flaA" mRNA and is able to repress its translation. "CsrA" mutant strains have been studied and the mutant strains exhibit dysregulation of 120-150 proteins that are included in motility, host cell adherence, host cell invasion, chemotaxis, oxidative stress resistance, respiration and amino acid and acetate metabolism. Transcriptional and post-transcriptional regulation of flagellar synthesis in "C. jejuni" enables proper biosynthesis of flagella and it is important for pathogenesis of this bacteria.


title: Campylobacter jejuni

text: Other important virulence factors of "C. jejuni" are the ability to produce N-linked glycosylation of more than 30 proteins. These proteins are important for the bacteria colonization, adherence and invasion. "C. jejuni" secretes "Campylobacter" invasive antigens (Cia) which facilitates the motility. The bacteria produces also cytolethal distending toxins that participate in cell cycle control and induction of host cell apoptosis. "C. jejuni" also exploits different adaptation strategies in which the host factors seem to play a role for pathogenesis of this bacteria.


title: Campylobacter jejuni

text: "Campylobacter jejuni" is commonly associated with poultry, and it naturally colonises the digestive tract of many bird species. All types of poultry and wild birds can become colonized with Campylobacter. One study found that 30% of European starlings in farm settings in Oxfordshire, United Kingdom, were carriers of "C. jejuni". It is also common in cattle, and although it is normally a harmless commensal of the gastrointestinal tract in these animals, it can cause campylobacteriosis in calves. It has also been isolated from wombat and kangaroo feces, being a cause of bushwalkers' diarrhea. Contaminated drinking water and unpasteurized milk provide an efficient means for distribution. Contaminated food is a major source of isolated infections, with incorrectly prepared meat and poultry as the primary source of the bacteria. Moreover, surveys show that 20 to 100% of retail chickens are contaminated. This is not overly surprising, since many healthy chickens carry these bacteria in their intestinal tracts and often in high concentrations, up to 10 cfu/g. The bacteria contaminate the carcasses due to poor hygiene during the slaughter process. Several studies have shown increased concentrations of "Campylobacter" on the carcasses after the evisceration. Studies have investigated the chicken microbiome to understand how, why and when "Campylobacter" appears within the chicken gut. The impact of Industrial system production systems on the chicken gut microbiome and "Campylobacter" prevalence have also been investigated.


title: Campylobacter jejuni

text: Raw milk is also a source of infections. The bacteria are often carried by healthy cattle and by flies on farms. Unchlorinated water may also be a source of infections. However, properly cooking chicken, pasteurizing milk, and chlorinating drinking water kill the bacteria. "Campylobacter" is not, in contrast to "Salmonella", transmitted vertically into eggs and therefore humans do not get infected by consuming eggs.


title: Campylobacter jejuni

text: Local complications of "Campylobacter" infections occur as a result of direct spread from the gastrointestinal tract and can include cholecystitis, pancreatitis, peritonitis, and massive gastrointestinal hemorrhage. Extraintestinal manifestations of "Campylobacter" infection are quite rare and may include meningitis, endocarditis, septic arthritis, osteomyelitis, and neonatal sepsis. Bacteremia is detected in <1% of patients with "Campylobacter" enteritis and is most likely to occur in patients who are immunocompromised or among the very young or very old. Transient bacteremia in immunocompetent hosts with "C. jejuni" enteritis may be more common, but not detected because most strains are rapidly cleared by the killing action of normal human serum and because blood cultures are not routinely performed for patients with acute gastrointestinal illness.


title: Campylobacter jejuni

text: Serious systemic illness caused by "Campylobacter" infection rarely occurs, but can lead to sepsis and death. The case-fatality rate for "Campylobacter" infection is 0.05 per 1000 infections. For instance, one major possible complication that "C. jejuni" can cause is Guillain–Barré syndrome, which induces neuromuscular paralysis in a sizeable percentage of those who suffer from it. Over time, the paralysis is typically reversible to some extent; nonetheless, about 20% of patients with GBS are left disabled, and around 5% die. Another chronic condition that may be associated with "Campylobacter" infection is reactive arthritis. Reactive arthritis is a complication strongly associated with a particular genetic make-up. That is, persons who have the human leukocyte antigen B27 (HLA-B27) are most susceptible. Most often, the symptoms of reactive arthritis will occur up to several weeks after infection.


title: Campylobacter jejuni

text: An estimated 2 million cases of "Campylobacter" enteritis occur annually, accounting for 5–7% of cases of gastroenteritis. "Campylobacter" organisms have a large animal reservoir, with up to 100% of poultry, including chickens, turkeys, and waterfowl, having asymptomatic intestinal infections. The major reservoirs of "C. fetus" are cattle and sheep. Nonetheless, the incidence of "Campylobacter" infections has been declining. Changes in the incidence of culture-confirmed "Campylobacter" infections have been monitored by the Foodborne Diseases Active Surveillance Network (FoodNet) since 1996. In 2010, "Campylobacter" incidence showed a 27% decrease compared with 1996–1998. In 2010, the incidence was 13.6 cases per 100,000 population, and this did not change significantly compared with 2006–2008.


title: Campylobacter jejuni

text: "Campylbacter jejuni" infections are extremely common worldwide, although exact figures are not available. New Zealand reported the highest national campylobacteriosis rate, which peaked in May 2006 at 400 per 100,000 population.


title: Campylobacter jejuni

text: "Campylobacter" is more frequently isolated in males than females, and homosexual men appear to have a higher risk of infection by atypical "Campylobacter"-related species such as "Helicobacter cinaedi" and "Helicobacter fennelliae".


title: Campylobacter jejuni

text: "Campylobacter" infections can occur in all age groups. Studies show a peak incidence in children younger than 1 year and in people aged 15–29 years. The age-specific attack rate is highest in young children. In the United States, the highest incidence of "Campylobacter" infection in 2010 was in children younger than 5 years and was 24.4 cases per 100,000 population, However, the rate of fecal cultures positive for "Campylobacter" species is greatest in adults and older children.


title: Campylobacter jejuni

text: Patients with "Campylobacter" infection should drink plenty of fluids as long as the diarrhea lasts to maintain hydration. Patients should also get rest. If he or she cannot drink enough fluids to prevent dehydration or if the symptoms are severe, medical help is indicated. In more severe cases, certain antibiotics can be used and can shorten the duration of symptoms if given early in the illness. Moreover, maintenance of electrolyte balance, not antibiotic treatment, is the cornerstone of treatment for "Campylobacter" enteritis. Indeed, most patients with this infection have a self-limited illness and do not require antibiotics at all. Nevertheless, antibiotics should be used in specific clinical circumstances. These include high fevers, bloody stools, prolonged illness (symptoms that last >1 week), pregnancy, infection with HIV, and other immunocompromised states.


title: Campylobacter jejuni

text: The genome of "C. jejuni" strain NCTC11168 was published in 2000, revealing 1,641,481 base pairs (30.6% G+C) predicted to encode 1,654 proteins and 54 stable RNA species. The genome is unusual in that virtually no insertion sequences or phage-associated sequences and very few repeat sequences are found. One of the most striking findings in the genome was the presence of hypervariable sequences. These short homopolymeric runs of nucleotides were commonly found in genes encoding the biosynthesis or modification of surface structures, or in closely linked genes of unknown function. The apparently high rate of variation of these homopolymeric tracts may be important in the survival strategy of "C. jejuni". The genome was re-annotated in 2007 updating 18.2% of product functions. Analysis also predicted the first pathogenicity island in "C. jejuni" amongst select strains, harbouring the bacteria's Type VI secretion system and putative cognate effectors.


title: Campylobacter jejuni

text: Initial transposon mutagenesis screens revealed 195 essential genes, although this number is likely to go up with additional analysis.


title: Campylobacter jejuni

text: "C. jejuni" is naturally competent for genetic transformation. Natural genetic transformation is a sexual process involving DNA transfer from one bacterium to another through the intervening medium, and the integration of the donor sequence into the recipient genome by homologous recombination. "C. jejuni" freely takes up foreign DNA harboring genetic information responsible for antibiotic resistance. Antibiotic resistance genes are more frequently transferred in biofilms than between planktonic cells (single cells that float in liquid media).


title: Campylobacter jejuni

text: In the intestinal environment, bile functions as a defensive barrier against colonization by "C. jejuni". When "C. jejuni" is grown in a medium containing the bile acid deoxycholic acid, a component of bile, the DNA of "C. jejuni" is damaged by a process involving oxidative stress. To survive, "C. jejuni" cells repair this DNA damage by a system employing proteins AddA and AddB that are needed for repair of DNA double-strand breaks.


title: Campylobacter jejuni

text: Under light microscopy, "C. jejuni" has a characteristic "sea-gull" shape as a consequence of its helical form. "Campylobacter" is grown on specially selective "CAMP" agar plates at 42 °C, the normal avian body temperature, rather than at 37 °C, the temperature at which most other pathogenic bacteria are grown. Since the colonies are oxidase positive, they usually only grow in scanty amounts on the plates. Microaerophilic conditions are required for luxurious growth. A selective blood agar medium (Skirrow's medium) can be used. Greater selectivity can be gained with an infusion of a cocktail of antibiotics: vancomycin, polymixin-B, trimethoprim, and actidione ([Preston's agar]), and growth under microaerophilic conditions at 42 °C.


title: Árpád

text: Árpád (; 845 – 907) was the head of the confederation of the Magyar tribes at the turn of the 9th and 10th centuries. He might have been either the sacred ruler or "kende" of the Hungarians, or their military leader or "gyula", although most details of his life are debated by historians, because different sources contain contradictory information. Despite this, many Hungarians refer to him as the "founder of our country", and Árpád's preeminent role in the Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin has been emphasized by some later chronicles. The dynasty descending from Árpád ruled the Kingdom of Hungary until 1301.


title: Árpád

text: Árpád was the son of Álmos who is mentioned as the first head of the confederation of the Magyar tribes by all Hungarian chronicles. His mother's name and family are unknown. According to historian Gyula Kristó, Árpád was born around 845. His name derived from the Hungarian word for barley, "árpa".


title: Árpád

text: The Byzantine Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus (r. 913–959) states that the Hungarians "had never at any time had any other prince" before Árpád, which is in sharp contrast to the Hungarian chronicles' report of the position of Árpád's father. In Porphyrogenitus's narration, the Khazar khagan initiated the centralization of the command of the Hungarian tribes in order to strengthen his own suzerainty over them. The khagan initially wanted to appoint a chieftain named Levedi to lead the Hungarians. However, Levedi did not accept this offer and suggested that either Álmos or Árpád should be promoted instead of him. The khagan approached the Hungarians with this new proposal. They preferred Árpád to his father, because he was "greatly admired for wisdom and counsel and valour, and capable of this rule". Thereafter, Árpád was made "prince according to the custom ... of the Chazars, by lifting him upon a shield." Constantine Porphyrogenitus erroneously refers to the Magyars as Turks. This was a misnomer, as while the Magyars do have some Turkic genetic and cultural influence, and their historical social structure was of Turkic origin, they are not a Turkic people.


title: Árpád

text: The reliability of the Byzantine emperor's report of Árpád's election is debated by modern historians: for instance, Victor Spinei states that it is "rather vague and scarcely credible", but András Róna-Tas writes that its core is reliable. The latter historian adds that Árpád's election was promoted by Álmos, who forced Levedi to renounce his position as "kende". Accordingly, in Róna-Tas's view, Árpád succeeded Levedi as sacred ruler, or "kende", which enabled his father to preserve his own position as the actual leader of the Hungarians, or "gyula".


title: Árpád

text: The earliest reliable source of Árpád's life is an early 10th-century document, the "Continuation of the Chronicle by George the Monk". It narrates that the Byzantine Emperor Leo VI the Wise (r. 886–912) sent his envoy Nicetas Sclerus to the Hungarians in 894 or 895 "to give presents" and incite them against the Bulgarian Empire. Sclerus met with their two leaders, Árpád and Kurszán, at the Lower Danube. Sclerus's mission succeeded: a Hungarian army soon crossed the Danube on Byzantine ships against Bulgaria. An interpolation in Porphyrogenitus's text suggests that the invading Hungarians were under the command of Árpád's son, Liüntika.


title: Árpád

text: The positions held by Árpád and Kurszán at the time of their negotiations with Sclerus are debated by historians. Spinei wrote that Árpád was the "gyula", and Kurszán was the "kende". In contrast, Kristó said that Kurszán was the "gyula" and Árpád represented his father, Álmos "kende".


title: Árpád

text: The Hungarian army defeated the Bulgarians, but the latter hired the Pechenegs against them. The Bulgarians and Pechenegs simultaneously invaded the Hungarians' territories in the western regions of the Pontic steppes in 895 or 896. The destruction of their dwelling places by the Pechenegs forced the Hungarians to leave for a new homeland across the Carpathian Mountains towards the Pannonian Plain.


title: Árpád

text: The "Illuminated Chronicle" says that Árpád's father Álmos "could not enter Pannonia, for he was killed in Erdelw" or Transylvania. Engel, Kristó and Molnár, who accept the reliability of this report, wrote that Álmos's death was a ritual murder, similar to the sacrifice of the Khazar khagans in case of a disaster affecting their people. In contrast with them, Róna-Tas states that even if the report on Álmos's murder "reflects true event, the only possible explanation would be that Árpád or someone in his entourage" killed the aged prince. Spinei rejects the "Illuminated Chronicle"'s report on Álmos's murder in Transylvania, because the last mention of Álmos in the contrasting narration of the "Gesta Hungarorum" is connected to a siege of Ungvár (Uzhhorod, Ukraine) by the Hungarians. The latter chronicle says that Álmos appointed Árpád "as leader and master" of the Hungarians on this occasion.


title: Árpád

text: Árpád's name "is completely unknown" to all sources written in East Francia, which was one of the main powers of the Carpathian Basin at the turn of the 9th and 10th centuries. These sources, including the "Annales Alamannici" and the "Annales Eisnidlenses", only mention another Hungarian leader, Kurszán. According to Kristó and other historians, these sources suggest that Kurszán must have been the "gyula" commanding the Hungarian forces, while Árpád succeeded his murdered father as the sacred "kende". Proposing a contrasting theory, the Romanian historian Curta wrote that Kurszán was the "kende" and Árpád "gyula" only succeeded him when Kurszán was murdered by Bavarians in 902 or 904.


title: Árpád

text: In contrast to nearly contemporaneous sources, Hungarian chronicles written centuries after the eventsfor instance, the "Gesta Hungarorum" and the "Illuminated Chronicle"emphasize Árpád's pre-eminent role in the conquest of the Carpathian Basin. The "Gesta Hungarorum" also highlights Árpád's military skills and his generosity. This chronicle also emphasizes that Tétény, one of the heads of the seven Hungarian tribes, acquired "the land of Transylvania for himself and his posterity" only after Árpád had authorized him to conquer it.


title: Árpád

text: The "Gesta Hungarorum" says that Árpád took "an oath of the leading men and warriors of Hungary," and "had his son, Prince Zoltán elevated" to prince in his life. However, the reliability of this report and the list of the grand princes in the "Gesta Hungarorum" is dubious. For instance, it ignores Fajsz, who ruled when Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus was completing his "De Administrando Imperio" around 950.


title: Árpád

text: The date of Árpád's death is debated. The "Gesta Hungarorum" states that he died in 907. However, Kristó wrote that he actually died in 900 or later because the "Gesta" says 903 is the starting date of the Hungarian "land-taking" instead of its actual date around 895. If the "Gesta"'s report on his funeral is reliable, Árpád was buried "at the head of a small river that flows through a stone culvert to the city of King Attila" where a village, Fehéregyháza, developed near Buda a century later.


title: Árpád

text: The Hungarians arrived in their new homeland within the Carpathians under Árpád. Árpád is the principal actor in the "Gesta Hungarorum", which attributes "almost all memorable events" of the "Hungarian land-taking" to him. Furthermore, until the extinction of the male line of his dynasty in 1301, Hungary was ruled by "a single line of princes", all descending from Árpád. Árpád is known among Hungarians as "honalapító" or the "founder of our homeland".


title: Árpád

text: Porphyrogenitus says Árpád "had four sons: first, "Tarkatzous"; second, "Ielech"; third, "Ioutotzas"; fourth, "Zaltas"". However, he also refers to one ""Liuntikas", son of" Árpád; Kristó wrote that Liuntikas (Liüntika) was an alternative name of Tarkatzous (Tarhos). The name and family of the mother of Árpád's sons are unknown. The following is a family tree presenting Árpád's ancestors and his descendants to the end of the 10th century:


title: Árpád

text:
"*Liüntika and Tarkatzus are supposed to have been identical."
"**The father of Tas was one of Árpád's four or five sons, but his name is unknown."
"***All later grand princes and kings of Hungary descended from Taksony."


title: Marvel vs. Capcom 3: Fate of Two Worlds

text: In "Marvel vs. Capcom 3", players select a team of three characters to engage in combat and attempt to knock out their opponents. It features similar tag team game mechanics to earlier games in the series, along with new methods of play designed to make the game more accessible to new players. The game was produced by Ryota Niitsuma, who had previously worked on "", which utilizes the same simplified three-button attack system.


title: Marvel vs. Capcom 3: Fate of Two Worlds

text: The game received generally positive reviews from critics, who praised its gameplay and character roster, while criticizing its online component and lack of features and game modes. More than 2 million units were shipped worldwide a month after its debut, rendering it a commercial success. Less than a year after its release, Capcom announced an updated version of the game, titled "Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3". The standalone update was released in November 2011, and featured additional characters, stages, and gameplay tweaks. Combined sales of both versions exceed copies. A proper sequel, titled "", was released in September 2017.


title: Marvel vs. Capcom 3: Fate of Two Worlds

text: "Marvel vs. Capcom 3: Fate of Two Worlds" is a fighting game in which players compete in battle using characters with different fighting styles and special attacks. The game features tag team-based gameplay similar to previous installments of the series. Players select teams of three characters to engage in one-on-one combat, and can choose to switch between them at any point during the match. During combat, players can call in one of their off-screen characters to perform a single special move, known as an "assist". As characters deal or receive damage, their team's "Hyper Combo Gauge" will gradually fill with energy, which can be expended by players to execute certain techniques, such as hyper combos, which are stronger versions of special moves; "snapbacks", which force the current opponent off the screen and replaces them with one of their other teammates; and "crossover combinations", which summon the player's entire team to use their hyper combos all at once. Players must use the various attacks in their arsenal to exhaust their opponent's life gauge and defeat the entire enemy team, or have the most cumulative health when time runs out. "Marvel vs. Capcom 3" is the first entry in the franchise to feature three-dimensional character models as opposed to two-dimensional sprites. However, gameplay remains restricted to two dimensions, resulting in a 2.5D graphical design.


title: Marvel vs. Capcom 3: Fate of Two Worlds

text: Unlike "", which featured four attack buttons separated as two pairs of low and high-strength punches and kicks, "Marvel vs. Capcom 3" uses a simplified, three-button control scheme of undefined light, medium, and heavy attacks modeled after "", which aims to "knock down the wall of complicated controls and open up the field of strategic fighting to all comers". The game includes a new "exchange button", which is used to launch opponents into the air, swap characters while performing combos, and slam the opponent into the ground. Players can use each button to string together attacks and form combos, as well as perform special moves using a combination of button presses and joystick movements. "Marvel vs. Capcom 3" also features an alternate control scheme designed for players unfamiliar to fighting games called "Simple Mode". Simple Mode allows players to perform special moves and hyper combos with single button presses at the expense of limiting a character's available moveset.


title: Marvel vs. Capcom 3: Fate of Two Worlds

text: "Marvel vs. Capcom 3" introduces a new game mechanic known as "X-Factor", which offers increased damage, speed, and health regeneration for a short period of time. It can be activated by players once per match, and can also be used to extend combos. The duration and intensity of X-Factor is dependent on the number of active characters in the player's team; as a player loses fighters, X-Factor lasts longer and grants higher damage boosts.


title: Marvel vs. Capcom 3: Fate of Two Worlds

text: "Marvel vs. Capcom 3" features various offline game modes, such as Arcade Mode, where the player fights against AI-controlled opponents to reach the final boss character, Galactus, a supervillain from Marvel Comics' "Fantastic Four" series. Each character has their own unique ending sequence, which is earned upon completion of Arcade Mode. Other offline modes include Versus Mode, where two players can fight against each other locally; Training Mode, which features several customization options for training purposes, such as the ability to adjust the Hyper Combo gauge, set AI difficulty, record and playback moves, and even simulate input lag; and Mission Mode, which features character-specific challenges designed to test players on their ability to execute complex combos.


title: Marvel vs. Capcom 3: Fate of Two Worlds

text: "Marvel vs. Capcom 3" includes online play using Microsoft's Xbox Live and Sony's PlayStation Network services. Online multiplayer includes ranked matches, where players battle to increase their rank and ascend the game's leaderboards; player matches, which do not bestow rank and offer options for quick rematches; and player lobbies, which allow up to eight players in a single room to compete in a king of the hill-style format. When an online match begins, both players can view their opponent's License Card. License Cards keep track of players' tendencies based on fighting style, record player points and total number of wins and losses, and allow players to see the positive and negative points of their play styles. Included among the online features is Shadow Battle, a series of downloadable content packs that allow the player to fight against a team of AI-controlled opponents programmed after the techniques and preferences of Capcom's development staff and famous players from the fighting game community.


title: Marvel vs. Capcom 3: Fate of Two Worlds

text: "Marvel vs. Capcom 3: Fate of Two Worlds" contains a base roster of 36 characters, featuring both new and returning characters to the "Marvel vs. Capcom" franchise. Two additional characters, Jill Valentine and Shuma-Gorath, are also available as downloadable content. According to producer Niitsuma, character selection was a collaborative process between Capcom and Marvel Comics. Marvel gave Niitsuma and his team precise directions regarding the Marvel characters' designs, but was willing to leave game balancing to Capcom. In regards to characters who did not originate from fighting games, such as Deadpool and Arthur, Niitsuma's team tried to "preserve their essence" from their source material and see how they could siphon it into an interesting fighting game character.


title: Marvel vs. Capcom 3: Fate of Two Worlds

text: Marvel worked closely with Capcom to include dialogue quips and mid-match events between the companies' characters. Comic book writer Frank Tieri was assigned to write the character dialogue and endings for the game. Marvel also gave Tieri full use of their library of characters for storyline purposes. As a result, several unplayable characters from the Marvel and Capcom universes, such as the Fantastic Four, Ghost Rider, Daredevil, MegaMan Volnutt, Nemesis, and Phoenix Wright, make cameo appearances in the campaign stages and Arcade Mode endings.


title: Marvel vs. Capcom 3: Fate of Two Worlds

text: "Marvel vs. Capcom 3: Fate of Two Worlds" is the fifth installment in the "Marvel vs. Capcom" series. The game was first publicly announced at Capcom's Captivate press show in Hawaii on April 20, 2010. It was revealed to have been in development since 2008, when Capcom reacquired the Marvel license after a period of legal issues placed the series on hiatus for nearly a decade. Ryota Niitsuma, who had previously headed production on "", signed on as the producer for the new project, which was green-lit after "years and years of unrelenting fan demand". Niitsuma stated that the game was built using the same MT Framework game engine seen in "Resident Evil 5" and "Lost Planet 2".


title: Marvel vs. Capcom 3: Fate of Two Worlds

text: Capcom's design philosophy for "Marvel vs. Capcom 3" was to maximize gameplay depth and minimize complexity. According to Niitsuma, the development team sought to create a game that would reach out to longtime fans of the series, while simultaneously expanding their user base to those familiar with the characters, but perhaps not with fighting games in general. The urge to reach out to new players also stemmed from Marvel's recent success in the Hollywood film industry. Capcom's global head of production, Keiji Inafune, expressed interest in appealing to a worldwide audience. These ideas drove the decision to retool the fighting system, which was criticized in past iterations for being too complicated for casual players. These changes include the implementation of the three-button attack system from "Tatsunoko vs. Capcom" and the addition of Simple Mode. Unlike previous titles in the series, Capcom had no plans for an arcade release, and focused only on console versions for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360. When asked if Capcom was planning to release the game on other consoles, Niitsuma did not dismiss the possibility for a Nintendo Wii version; however, this ultimately did not come to fruition.


title: Marvel vs. Capcom 3: Fate of Two Worlds

text: Employees from Marvel Comics worked closely with Capcom's art design team to ensure that each character from their company was properly represented. As a result, several Marvel characters were modeled after their more recent comic book appearances. For example, Iron Man sports his Extremis Armor, while Wolverine wears his costume from "Astonishing X-Men". The development team originally planned to have English and Japanese voice actors for all characters. Niitsuma eventually decided against it, stating that having the Marvel roster speaking Japanese did not mesh well with the characters' image.


title: Marvel vs. Capcom 3: Fate of Two Worlds

text: "Marvel vs. Capcom 3: Fate of Two Worlds" was released on February 15, 2011, in North America, February 17 in Japan, and February 18 in Europe for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360. A special edition of the game included a steelbook case, a twelve-page prologue comic written by Frank Tieri, a one-month subscription to Marvel Digital Comics, and codes redeemable for free downloads of the Jill Valentine and Shuma-Gorath downloadable content.


title: Marvel vs. Capcom 3: Fate of Two Worlds

text: DLC costumes for characters were later announced by Capcom and Marvel, which were released on the PlayStation Network and Xbox Live Marketplace on March 1, 2011. The costume pack contained new outfits for Ryu, Thor, Dante, Iron Man, Chris Redfield, and Captain America. The release of the pack coincided with the release of the "Shadow Battle" DLC.


title: Marvel vs. Capcom 3: Fate of Two Worlds

text: Following the game's launch, a "Marvel vs. Capcom" merchandise program was launched in April 2011. Apparel wholesalers Mad Engine and Philcos sold T-shirts and sweatshirts bearing "Marvel vs. Capcom 3" promotional artwork. Diamond Select Toys created a line of Minimates based on various characters from the game. Hollywood Collectibles debuted collectible statue sets featuring Akuma, Dante, Deadpool, Doctor Doom, Ryu, and Wolverine. In 2012, after the release of "Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3", UDON Entertainment unveiled a 200-page artbook, titled "Marvel vs. Capcom: Official Complete Works", containing compilations of existing "Marvel vs. Capcom" imagery alongside new commissioned pieces by comic book artists.


title: Marvel vs. Capcom 3: Fate of Two Worlds

text: "Marvel vs. Capcom 3: Fate of Two Worlds" received positive reviews from critics, garnering aggregate scores of 85/100 and 84/100 from Metacritic for the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 versions, respectively.


title: Marvel vs. Capcom 3: Fate of Two Worlds

text: Reviewers praised "Marvel vs. Capcom 3" for its simplified, yet deep gameplay and diverse cast of characters. According to GameSpot's Maxwell McGee, the game's simplified core combat mechanics worked harmoniously to drive the action forward. McGee also praised the addition of Simple Mode, saying that its simplicity was ideal for series newcomers. Richard George of IGN stated that the alterations to the control scheme helped to mature the franchise by removing needless complexities. Neidel Crisan of 1UP.com complimented the uniqueness of the characters' play styles, stating that he enjoyed exploring the roster and possible team combinations. Brian Leahy of G4 also praised the variety and balance of characters, claiming that, unlike "Marvel vs. Capcom 2", in which a large majority of the cast was "severely underpowered" compared to its top fighters, almost every character in "Marvel vs. Capcom 3" seemed to be a viable option.


title: Marvel vs. Capcom 3: Fate of Two Worlds

text: In contrast to its character roster, the game was criticized for its lack of diversity in game modes and online features. George expressed his disappointment that the development team did not supplement "Marvel vs. Capcom 3"'s core experience with extras to add variety to the total package and extend its lifespan. GameTrailers criticized the Arcade Mode, stating that its "underwhelming PowerPoint-style" endings left much to be desired, especially in comparison to the intro, outro, and rival battle sequences seen in "Street Fighter IV". Tim Turi of "Game Informer" stated that fans expecting to see extensive online functionality similar to "Street Fighter IV" should "regulate their excitement". Eurogamer's Simon Parkin pointed specifically to the absence of a spectator mode, noting that the exclusion of viewable matches also presented a serious shortcoming.


title: Marvel vs. Capcom 3: Fate of Two Worlds

text: At the Electronic Entertainment Expo 2010, "Marvel vs. Capcom 3: Fate of Two Worlds" received the award for "Best Fighting Game" from the Game Critics Awards. It also earned "Best Fighting Game of E3" awards from IGN, 1UP.com, and "X-Play"/G4.


title: Marvel vs. Capcom 3: Fate of Two Worlds

text: Prior to its release, Capcom expected to sell 2 million units of "Marvel vs. Capcom 3" worldwide across both platforms. The game reached number 2 in the United Kingdom PlayStation 3 sales chart, behind "". On March 30, 2011, the company announced that it had shipped more than 2 million copies of the game a month and a half after its debut. In response to reaching the milestone, Capcom dubbed "Marvel vs. Capcom 3" a commercial success. , "Fate of Two Worlds" has sold units, with "Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3" selling 1.2 million units, bringing combined sales of both versions to copies.


title: Marvel vs. Capcom 3: Fate of Two Worlds

text: "Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3" is a standalone updated version of "Marvel vs. Capcom 3: Fate of Two Worlds", released in November 2011 for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360. The game was later ported to the PlayStation Vita with PlayStation 4, Xbox One and PC versions announced in December 2016. While the update features largely identical gameplay mechanics to the original, changes were made to both the aerial combat and X-Factor systems. It features the entire roster from "Fate of Two Worlds", including the two DLC characters, and introduces 12 new playable fighters. Among the added fighters, only one is a returning character from previous games in the "Marvel vs. Capcom" series: Strider Hiryu. The other eleven characters, all new to the franchise, are Doctor Strange, Ghost Rider, Hawkeye, Iron Fist, Nova, Rocket Raccoon, Firebrand, Frank West, Nemesis T-Type, Phoenix Wright, and Vergil.


title: Marvel vs. Capcom 3: Fate of Two Worlds

text: Following the release of "Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3" for the PlayStation Vita in 2012, Marvel's new parent company, The Walt Disney Company, which acquired Marvel in 2009, chose not to renew Capcom's license with the Marvel characters, instead opting to put them in its own self-published "Disney Infinity" series. As a result, Capcom had to pull both "Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3" and "" off Xbox Live Arcade and the PlayStation Network in 2013. However, in 2016, Disney decided to cancel its "Disney Infinity" series, discontinue self-publishing efforts, and switch to a licensing-only model, allowing them to license their characters to third-party game developers, including Capcom. On December 3, 2016, "" was officially unveiled during Sony's PlayStation Experience event. The game was released on September 19, 2017, for PlayStation 4, Xbox One, and Microsoft Windows.


title: Common toad

text: The common toad, European toad, or in Anglophone parts of Europe, simply the toad ("Bufo bufo", from Latin "bufo" "toad"), is a frog found throughout most of Europe (with the exception of Ireland, Iceland, and some Mediterranean islands), in the western part of North Asia, and in a small portion of Northwest Africa. It is one of a group of closely related animals that are descended from a common ancestral line of toads and which form a species complex. The toad is an inconspicuous animal as it usually lies hidden during the day. It becomes active at dusk and spends the night hunting for the invertebrates on which it feeds. It moves with a slow, ungainly walk or short jumps, and has greyish-brown skin covered with wart-like lumps.


title: Common toad

text: Although toads are usually solitary animals, in the breeding season, large numbers of toads converge on certain breeding ponds, where the males compete to mate with the females. Eggs are laid in gelatinous strings in the water and later hatch out into tadpoles. After several months of growth and development, these sprout limbs and undergo metamorphosis into tiny toads. The juveniles emerge from the water and remain largely terrestrial for the rest of their lives.


title: Common toad

text: The common toad seems to be in decline in part of its range, but overall is listed as being of "least concern" in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. It is threatened by habitat loss, especially by drainage of its breeding sites, and some toads get killed on the roads as they make their annual migrations. It has long been associated in popular culture and literature with witchcraft.


title: Common toad

text: The common toad was first given the name "Rana bufo" by the Swedish biologist Carl Linnaeus in the "10th edition of Systema Naturae" in 1758. In this work, he placed all the frogs and toads in the single genus "Rana". It later became apparent that this genus should be divided, and in 1768, the Austrian naturalist Josephus Nicolaus Laurenti placed the common toad in the genus "Bufo", naming it "Bufo bufo". The toads in this genus are included in the family Bufonidae, the true toads.


title: Common toad

text: Various subspecies of "B. bufo" have been recognized over the years. The Caucasian toad is found in the mountainous regions of the Caucasus and was at one time classified as "B. b. verrucosissima". It has a larger genome and differs from "B. bufo" morphologically and is now accepted as "Bufo verrucosissimus". The spiny toad was classified as "B. b. spinosus". It is found in France, the Iberian Peninsula and the Maghreb and grows to a larger size and has a spinier skin than its more northern counterparts with which it intergrades. It is now accepted as "Bufo spinosus". The Gredos toad, "B. b. gredosicola", is restricted to the Sierra de Gredos, a mountain range in central Spain. It has exceptionally large paratoid glands and its colour tends to be blotched rather than uniform. It is now considered to be a synonym of "Bufo spinosus".


title: Common toad

text: "B. bufo" is part of a species complex, a group of closely related species which cannot be clearly demarcated. Several modern species are believed to form an ancient group of related taxa from preglacial times. These are the spiny toad ("B. spinosus"), the Caucasian toad ("B. verrucosissimus") and the Japanese common toad ("B. japonicus"). The European common toad ("Bufo bufo") seems to have arisen more recently. It is believed that the range of the ancestral form extended into Asia but that isolation between the eastern and western species complexes occurred as a result of the development of the Central Asian Deserts during the Middle Miocene. The exact taxonomic relationships between these species remains unclear. A serological investigation into toad populations in Turkey undertaken in 2001 examined the blood serum proteins of "Bufo verrucosissimus" and "Bufo spinosus". It found that the differences between the two were not significant and that therefore the former should be synonymized with the latter.


title: Common toad

text: A study published in 2012 examined the phylogenetic relationships between the Eurasian and North African species in the "Bufo bufo" group and indicated a long evolutionary history for the group. Nine to thirteen million years ago, "Bufo eichwaldi", a recently described species from south Azerbaijan and Iran, split from the main lineage. Further divisions occurred with "Bufo spinosus" splitting off about five million years ago when the Pyrenees were being uplifted, an event which isolated the populations in the Iberian Peninsula from those in the rest of Europe. The remaining European lineage split into "Bufo bufo" and "Bufo verrucosissimus" less than three million years ago during the Pleistocene. Very occasionally the common toad hybridizes with the natterjack toad ("Bufo calamita") or the European green toad ("Bufo viridis").


title: Common toad

text: The common toad can reach about in length. Females are normally stouter than males and southern specimens tend to be larger than northern ones. The head is broad with a wide mouth below the terminal snout which has two small nostrils. There are no teeth. The bulbous, protruding eyes have yellow or copper coloured irises and horizontal slit-shaped pupils. Just behind the eyes are two bulging regions, the paratoid glands, which are positioned obliquely. They contain a noxious substance, bufotoxin, which is used to deter potential predators. The head joins the body without a noticeable neck and there is no external vocal sac. The body is broad and squat and positioned close to the ground. The fore limbs are short with the toes of the fore feet turning inwards. At breeding time, the male develops nuptial pads on the first three fingers. He uses these to grasp the female when mating. The hind legs are short relative to other frogs' legs and the hind feet have long, unwebbed toes. There is no tail. The skin is dry and covered with small wart-like lumps. The colour is a fairly uniform shade of brown, olive-brown or greyish-brown, sometimes partly blotched or banded with a darker shade. The common toad tends to be sexually dimorphic with the females being browner and the males greyer. The underside is a dirty white speckled with grey and black patches.


title: Common toad

text: Other species with which the common toad could be confused include the natterjack toad ("Bufo calamita") and the European green toad ("Bufo viridis"). The former is usually smaller and has a yellow band running down its back while the latter has a distinctive mottled pattern. The paratoid glands of both are parallel rather than slanting as in the common toad. The common frog ("Rana temporaria") is also similar in appearance but it has a less rounded snout, damp smooth skin, and usually moves by leaping.


title: Common toad

text: Common toads can live for many years and have survived for fifty years in captivity. In the wild, common toads are thought to live for about ten to twelve years. Their age can be determined by counting the number of annual growth rings in the bones of their phalanges.


title: Common toad

text: After the common frog ("Rana temporaria"), the edible frog ("Pelophylax esculentus") and the smooth newt ("Lissotriton vulgaris"), the common toad is the fourth most common amphibian in Europe. It is found throughout the continent with the exception of Iceland, the cold northern parts of Scandinavia, Ireland and a number of Mediterranean islands. These include Malta, Crete, Corsica, Sardinia and the Balearic Islands. Its easterly range extends to Irkutsk in Siberia and its southerly range includes parts of northwestern Africa in the northern mountain ranges of Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. A closely related variant lives in eastern Asia including Japan. The common toad is found at altitudes of up to in the southern part of its range. It is largely found in forested areas with coniferous, deciduous and mixed woodland, especially in wet locations. It also inhabits open countryside, fields, copses, parks and gardens, and often occurs in dry areas well away from standing water.


title: Common toad

text: The common toad usually moves by walking rather slowly or in short shuffling jumps involving all four legs. It spends the day concealed in a lair that it has hollowed out under foliage or beneath a root or a stone where its colouring makes it inconspicuous. It emerges at dusk and may travel some distance in the dark while hunting. It is most active in wet weather. By morning it has returned to its base and may occupy the same place for several months. It is voracious and eats woodlice, slugs, beetles, caterpillars, flies, earthworms and even small mice. Small, fast moving prey may be caught by a flick of the tongue while larger items are grabbed with the jaws. Having no teeth, it swallows food whole in a series of gulps. It does not recognise its prey as such but will try to consume any small, dark coloured, moving object it encounters at night. A research study showed that it would snap at a moving piece of black paper as if it were prey but would disregard a larger moving piece. Toads seem to use visual cues for feeding and can see their prey at low light intensities where humans are unable to discern anything. Periodically, the common toad sheds its skin. This comes away in tattered pieces and is then consumed.


title: Common toad

text: When attacked, the common toad adopts a characteristic stance, inflating its body and standing with its hindquarters raised and its head lowered. Its chief means of defence lies in the foul tasting secretion that is produced by its paratoid glands and other glands on its skin. This contains a toxin called bufagin and is enough to deter many predators although grass snakes seem to be unaffected by it. Other predators of adult toads include hedgehogs, rats and mink, and even domestic cats. Birds that feed on toads include herons, crows and birds of prey. Crows have been observed to puncture the skin with their beak and then peck out the animal's liver, thus avoiding the toxin. The tadpoles also exude noxious substances which deter fishes from eating them but not the great crested newt. Aquatic invertebrates that feed on toad tadpoles include dragonfly larvae, diving beetles and water boatmen. These usually avoid the noxious secretion by puncturing the tadpole's skin and sucking out its juices.


title: Common toad

text: A parasitic fly, "Lucilia bufonivora", attacks adult common toads. It lays its eggs on the toad's skin and when these hatch, the larvae crawl into the toad's nostrils and eat its flesh internally with lethal consequences. The European fingernail clam ("Sphaerium corneum") is unusual in that it can climb up water plants and move around on its muscular foot. It sometimes clings to the toe of a common toad and this is believed to be one of the means by which it disperses to new locations.


title: Common toad

text: In 2007, researchers using a remotely operated underwater vehicle to survey Loch Ness, Scotland, observed a common toad moving along the bottom of the lake at a depth of . They were surprised to find that an air-breathing animal could survive in such a location.


title: Common toad

text: The annual life cycle of the common toad is divided into three periods: the winter sleep, the time of mating and feeding period.


title: Common toad

text: The common toad emerges from hibernation in spring and there is a mass migration towards the breeding sites. The toads converge on certain ponds that they favour while avoiding other stretches of water that seem eminently suitable. Adults use the same location year after year and over 80% of males marked as juveniles have been found to return to the pond at which they were spawned. They find their way to these by using a suite of orientation cues, including olfactory and magnetic cues, but also visual cues help guide their journeys. Toads experimentally moved elsewhere and fitted with tracking devices have been found to be able to locate their chosen breeding pond when the displacement exceeded three kilometres (two miles).


title: Common toad

text: The males arrive first and remain in the location for several weeks while the females only stay long enough to mate and spawn. Rather than fighting for the right to mate with a female, male toads may settle disputes by means of the pitch of their voice. Croaking provides a reliable sign of body size and hence of prowess. Nevertheless, fights occur in some instances. In a study at one pond where males outnumbered females by four or five to one, it was found that 38% of the males won the right to mate by defeating rivals in combat or by displacing other males already mounted on females. Male toads generally outnumber female toads at breeding ponds. A Swedish study found that female mortality was higher than that of males and that 41% of females did not come to the breeding pond in the spring and missed a year before reproducing again.


title: Common toad

text: The males mount the females' backs, grasping them with their fore limbs under the armpits in a grip that is known as amplexus. The males are enthusiastic, will try to grasp fish or inanimate objects and often mount the backs of other males. Sometimes several toads form a heap, each male trying to grasp the female at the base. It is a stressful period and mortality is high among breeding toads. A successful male stays in amplexus for several days and, as the female lays a long, double string of small black eggs, he fertilises them with his sperm. As the pair wander piggyback around the shallow edges of the pond, the gelatinous egg strings, which may contain 3000 to 6000 eggs and be in length, get tangled in plant stalks.


title: Common toad

text: The strings of eggs absorb water and swell in size, and small tadpoles hatch out after two to three weeks. At first they cling to the remains of the strings and feed on the jelly. They later attach themselves to the underside of the leaves of water weed before becoming free swimming. The tadpoles at first look similar to those of the common frog ("Rana temporaria") but they are a darker colour, being blackish above and dark grey below. They can be distinguished from the tadpoles of other species by the fact that the mouth is the same width as the space between the eyes, and this is twice as large as the distance between the nostrils. Over the course of a few weeks their legs develop and their tail gradually gets reabsorbed. By twelve weeks of age they are miniature toads measuring about long and ready to leave the pond.