title: Lepa Brena

text: In early 1980, at the age of 19, Fahreta began singing with a band called Lira Show when the group's original singer Spasa left the band because her husband, a boxer, did not want his wife to be a singer. Saša Popović, the band's frontman, was initially opposed to the idea that Fahreta should be the band's new singer, but later changed his opinion. She subsequently moved to Novi Sad and then to Belgrade. Brena's first performance with Lira Show occurred on 6 April 1980 in the hotel Turist in Bačka Palanka. Lira Show changed their name to Slatki Greh ("Sweet Sin") in 1981. Brena and Slatki Greh premiered their first studio album, "Čačak, Čačak", on 3 February 1982. The album was written mostly by Milutin Popović-Zahar, and the career-manager was Vladimir Cvetković.


title: Lepa Brena

text: Since her career began in 1980, she has become arguably the most popular singer of the former Yugoslavia, and a top-selling female recording artist with more than 40 million records sold.


title: Lepa Brena

text: The same year Lepa Brena and Slatki Greh appeared in the first part of Yugoslav classic comedy film "A Tight Spot" with popular comedian Nikola Simić and actress Ružica Sokić, which raised their status and brought them almost instant fame. They would again team up with songwriter Milutin Popović-Zahar for their second studio album "Mile voli disko" ("Mile Loves Disco"), released 18 November 1982. In addition to the title song, the album had a couple of other hit songs: "Duge noge" ("Long Legs") and "Dama iz Londona" ("London Lady").


title: Lepa Brena

text: In 1983, Lepa Brena and Slatki Greh ended their collaboration with Milutin Popović-Zahar and Vladimir Cvetković. That same year Lepa Brena and Slatki Greh participated in "Jugovizija", the Yugoslav selection for the Eurovision Song Contest, with the song "Sitnije, Cile, sitnije". The song was released on an extended play of the same name, along with another song. Their appearance on "Jugovizija" caused controversy, since the competition was traditionally dominated exclusively by pop artists, and Lepa Brena belonged to a totally different music genre, which was folk-pop, or also called "novokomponovana muzika". Although they did not qualify for the prestigious European competition, Lepa Brena and Slatki Greh won the contest, gaining even more popularity.


title: Lepa Brena

text: 1984 saw Brena and her band begin a cooperation with a new manager and producer, Raka Đokić. "Bato, Bato" ("Brother, Brother"), their third album, was released the same year. A new provocative image was accompanied by a new musical style, different from the one fostered by Popović. Later that year, they held a concert in neighboring Romania, at the stadium in Timișoara to an audience of 65,000, what was at time among the most successful concerts of a Yugoslav musician outside their home country.


title: Lepa Brena

text: Their next three albums, "Pile moje" ("My Little One", 1985) and "Voli me, voli" ("Love Me, Love") and "Uske pantalone" ("Tight Trousers", both 1986) would propel her to the throne of the Yugoslav music scene. Along with these albums, Brena established a cooperation with Serbian folk star Miroslav Ilić and recorded a collaborative extended play "Jedan dan života" ("One Day of Life"), which featured four songs, including a romantic duet called "Jedan dan života", and the song "Živela Jugoslavija" ("Long Live Yugoslavia"), which was received with a mixed response. The latter song was in line with Brena's only official political stance: an uncompromising support of a united Yugoslavia, with her becoming a symbol of this view. By the end of 1986, Lepa Brena had become the star of Belgrade social jet-set, and the most popular public figure in Yugoslavia.


title: Lepa Brena

text: Brena's manager Raka Đokić came up with the idea that her seventh studio album should be followed by a film in which she would play the lead role. This idea was successfully implemented in 1987 when the motion picture "Hajde da se volimo" ("Let's Love Each Other") was filmed. The film shared the name with the album. Many then-popular Yugoslav actors co-starred in the film, including Dragomir "Gidra" Bojanić, Milutin "Mima" Karadžić, Velimir "Bata" Živojinović, Milan Štrljić, etc. During the premiere of the film on 24 October 1987, Brena met her future husband, Serbian tennis star Slobodan Živojinović.


title: Lepa Brena

text: Based on the success of the original, two sequels were produced: "Hajde da se volimo 2" (1989) and "Hajde da se volimo 3" (1990), which was followed by the studio album "Boli me uvo za sve" ("I Don't Care About Anything"). "Boli me uvo za sve" also had multiple hit songs including "Čik pogodi" ("Take a Guess"), "Biće belaja" ("There Will Be Trouble"), "Tamba Lamba", and the title track. Their eighth studio album "Četiri godine" ("Four Years") was released on 1 October 1989 and contained the controversial song "Jugoslovenka" ("Yugoslav Woman") with Montenegrin vocalist Danijel Popović, Croatian vocalist Vlado Kalember and Bosnian vocalist Alen Islamović. The music video for the pop-folk song "Čuvala me mama" ("Mum Protected Me") was filmed on the Croatian island Lopud.


title: Lepa Brena

text: Lepa Brena and Slatki Greh held more than 350 concerts yearly, and would often hold two concerts in one day. They set a record by holding thirty-one concerts consecutively at Dom Sindikata, and seventeen concerts consecutively at the Sava Centar. On 24 July 1990, Brena landed with a helicopter at Vasil Levski National Stadium in Sofia, Bulgaria, and held a concert with an audience of 90,000 people. While she was in Bulgaria in July 1990, she met with the Bulgarian mystic Baba Vanga.


title: Lepa Brena

text: Brena and Slatki Greh released their second-to-last album together, "Zaljubiška" ( 'lovelysh'), in 1991.


title: Lepa Brena

text: In December 1993, after two-year hiatus, Brena premiered her first solo album "Ja nemam drugi dom" ("I Have No Other Home"), and held a famous "concert in the rain" on 13 June 1994 at Belgrade's Tašmajdan Sports Centre which was attended by 35,000 people. After that, she recorded two more solo albums: "Kazna Božija" ("God's Punishment", 1994) and "Luda za tobom" ("Crazy Over You", 1996). In the mid-90s she had many popular songs; "Kazna Božija", "Luda za tobom", "Sve mi dobro ide osim ljubavi" ("I'm Good at Everything But Love"), "Izdajice" ("Traitor"), "Moj se dragi Englez pravi" ("My Man's Acting an Englishman"), "I da odem iza leđa bogu" ("Even If I Go Behind God's Back"), "Ja nemam drugi dom", "Dva dana" ("Two Days"), and "Ti si moj greh" ("You Are My Sin"), among others. The music video for "Ti si moj greh" had an ancient Egyptian theme, with Brena dressed as a pharaoh.


title: Lepa Brena

text: Brena became co-founder of the Serbian record label Grand Production, which was formerly known as Zabava miliona (ZaM), in December 1998.


title: Lepa Brena

text: After her marriage in 1991, when she briefly moved to the United States, she ceased cooperation with Slatki Greh. However, in 2000 they recorded another album together "Pomračenje sunca" ("Solar eclipse"), their last album to date. After eight years of absence from the music business, Lepa Brena returned in 2008 with "Uđi slobodno..." ("Feel Free to Enter...") and "Začarani krug" ("Vicious Circle") in 2011. Both albums were major successes.


title: Lepa Brena

text: Beginning in 2012, Brena started recording sessions for two studio albums. The first, "Izvorne i novokomponovane narodne pesme" ("Original and Newly Composed Folk Songs") was released in December 2013. She dedicated the album to her ailing mother Ifeta, who sang folk songs to her when she was a child. Ifeta died the following year.


title: Lepa Brena

text: In the month after that album's release, Brena premiered two other songs: "Ljubav čuvam za kraj" ("I'm Keeping Love For the End") on 28 December 2013 and "Zaljubljeni veruju u sve" ("Those in Love Believe in Everything"), with lyrics written by Hari Varešanović, on 12 January 2014.


title: Lepa Brena

text: On 19 December 2013, Brena, along with Dragana Mirković, Severina, Jelena Rozga, Haris Džinović, Aca Lukas and Jelena Karleuša, was a guest at a humanitarian concert by Goran Bregović at the Olympic Hall Juan Antonio Samaranch in the Bosnian capital city Sarajevo for the Roma in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Brena arrived in Sarajevo two days before the concert so that she could enjoy the city with friends before the concert. She said in an interview: "Sarajevo has suffered and survived so much, I'm really glad to see positive people and happiness in this city".


title: Lepa Brena

text: Lepa Brena and Steven Seagal were the stars of Belgrade 2016 New Year party, an event held at Nikola Pašić Square in front of the Serbian National Assembly, and attended by 60,000 people.


title: Lepa Brena

text: In December 2017, Brena published two new songs "Zar je važno da l' se pjeva ili peva" ("Does It Matter Whether It's Sung" (in Ijekavian) "or Sung" (in Ekavian)) and "Boliš i ne prolaziš" ("You Hurt and You Don't Heal") as teasers for her new album expected to be published in the beginning of 2018.


title: Lepa Brena

text: Her wedding to Serbian tennis star Slobodan Živojinović on 7 December 1991 was a media event throughout Yugoslavia. The lavish ceremony took place at Belgrade's InterContinental Hotel. The level of interest in the event was such that Brena's manager Raka Đokić released a VHS tape of the wedding. Their public relationship has been providing steady fodder for various tabloid publications ever since. Brena and Živojinović's first child, a son named Stefan, was born in New York City on 21 May 1992. Their second son Viktor was born 30 March 1998.


title: Lepa Brena

text: Brena broke her leg in a skiing accident in November 1992, and it took six months for her to heal. Her manager and producer Raka Đokić died suddenly on 30 October 1993.


title: Lepa Brena

text: On 23 November 2000, the couple's elder son Stefan was kidnapped by members of the Zemun mafia. After they paid a ransom of 2,500,000 Deutsche Marks in cash, he was released, having been held for five days. She has resided in Belgrade since 1980 and currently lives there with her husband, while their sons are studying in the United States. In a 2014 interview, she stated that she is still healing from the trauma of the kidnapping incident.


title: Lepa Brena

text: After the debacle and family drama, she went on hiatus once again, lasting eight years, living between Belgrade and Miami, Florida with her family. Brena and her husband have a home in Coconut Creek, Florida, where they lived during the 1999 NATO bombing of Yugoslavia, although Brena visited Yugoslavia during the bombing and took part on one of the public morale-raising concerts on Belgrade's Republic Square. She also has an apartment in Monte Carlo, French Riviera, and another townhouse on Fisher Island, also in Florida. In 2010, Brena and her husband purchased a five-bedroom villa with an in-ground heated pool on one of Miami's islands at a cost of $1.6 million.


title: Lepa Brena

text: In October 2010, her father, Abid Jahić, was severely injured when a bus hit him as he walked in the town of Brčko. He was transported to a hospital in Tuzla, where he died on 22 October 2010 aged 82. He was buried in a Muslim funeral three days after his death. Brena, her two siblings and mother, along with other family members and citizens of Brčko attended the funeral. She later regarded the months after her father's death as the emotionally most difficult time of her life. Her mother Ifeta died 21 November 2014, aged 80. She was buried in a Muslim funeral in Brčko next to her husband.


title: Lepa Brena

text: Brena was hospitalized on 27 July 2012 when she complained of pain and was diagnosed as having venous thrombosis, a blood clot. She remained in the hospital for three days, then was released. A similar incident had occurred in October 2004 when a blood clot in her hand was removed. In August 2012, she was forced to cancel three months of scheduled concerts to deal with further complications with her illness.


title: Lepa Brena

text: She was again hospitalized on 25 July 2014 while at holiday in the Croatian resort of Novi Vinodolski where she fell down the stairs and broke both arms. She was hospitalized for five days and spent her month-long recovery at a local hotel. On 2 January 2015, Brena fell down the stairs again during a family vacation at Zlatibor, Serbia, and hurt her wrist. Unlike the previous incident, this injury did not require surgery. However, because of this, she stayed hospitalized in Belgrade and rescheduled upcoming performances in the Bosnian towns Živinice and Travnik.


title: Lepa Brena

text: During the late 1980s and early 1990s, ethnic tensions which started rising in Yugoslavia and eventually led to country's breakup, made Lepa Brena become one of main tabloid targets at the time. Some Bosniaks viewed her as a traitor as she was a Bosniak who sang and spoke with an Ekavian accent (which is predominantly spoken in Serbia) and she married Serbian Slobodan Živojinović. Several tabloids claimed that she had converted from Islam to Serbian Orthodoxy and that she had changed her name from Fahreta to Jelena. She intensely denied these allegations. In socialist Yugoslavia, religions in general were an unpopular topic, and people acknowledged the religion to which belonged in relation to its family roots, but were overwhelmingly non-practitioners. In that sense, being a Yugoslav icon, Lepa Brena never publicly spoke about her religious beliefs beyond stating that she had grown up being Sunni Muslim.


title: Lepa Brena

text: In 2009, numerous Bosniaks and Croats protested when her concerts in Sarajevo on 30 May and in Zagreb on 13 June were announced. The reason behind the protests were pictures allegedly shot in 1993 during the Bosnian War in which she appears wearing the uniform of the Army of Republika Srpska in the besieged town of Brčko, where she grew up. In the pictures, taken and published by one Serbian magazine, she appears giving support to Bosnian Serb soldiers, which were at that time involved in intense fighting against Croatian and Bosniak forces in Posavina front. This is why Croatian and Bosnian protesters were angered calling her a "traitor" and "" (feminine version of Chetnik). The concerts went ahead as scheduled with no incidents and she claimed the uniform was from the set of a 1990 music video for her song "Tamba lamba", in which she wore a similar uniform while filming at a zoo in Kenya for the film "Hajde da se volimo 3". However, when compared side by side, the uniforms are different. Brena also claimed she was only in Brčko in 1993 to rescue her parents.


title: Lepa Brena

text: Dark Scene Records released in 2009 "Dark Tribute to Lepa Brena", an electronic/rock album where 20 different artists interpret 20 of her songs.


title: WordPress.com

text: WordPress.com is a platform for self-publishing that is popular for blogging and other works. It is owned and operated by Automattic, Inc. It is run on a modified version of WordPress software. This website provides free blog hosting for registered users and is financially supported via paid upgrades, "VIP" services and advertising.


title: WordPress.com

text: While Automattic is among the many companies contributing to the WordPress project, neither it nor WordPress.com are affiliated with the WordPress software/project or the WordPress Foundation.


title: WordPress.com

text: The website opened to beta testers on August 8, 2005 and opened to the public on November 21, 2005. It was initially launched as an invitation-only service, although at one stage, accounts were also available to users of the Flock web browser. As of February 2017, over 77 million new posts and 42.7 million new comments are published monthly on the service.


title: WordPress.com

text: Registration is not required to read or comment on blogs hosted on the site, except if chosen by the blog owner. Registration is required to own or post in a weblog. All the basic and original features of the site are free-to-use. However, some features are not available in the free plan: install PHP plugins, customize theme CSS, write JavaScript, domain mapping, domain registration, removal of ads, website redirection, video upload, storage upgrades...


title: WordPress.com

text: In September 2010, it was announced that Windows Live Spaces, Microsoft's blogging service, would be closing and that Microsoft would partner with WordPress.com for blogging services.


title: WordPress.com

text: If the free plan is in use, readers see ads on WordPress.com pages, though WordPress.com claims that it is rare. On its support pages, WordPress.com says it "sometimes display[s] advertisements on your blog to help pay the bills". In order to remove the ads, users need to purchase a Plan that starts at $4 a month.


title: WordPress.com

text: In August 2007, Adnan Oktar, a Turkish creationist, was able to get a Turkish court to block Internet access to WordPress.com for all of Turkey. His lawyers argued that blogs on WordPress.com contained libellous material on Oktar and his colleagues which WordPress.com staff was unwilling to remove.


title: WordPress.com

text: Matt Mullenweg commented: "WordPress.com supports free speech and doesn't shut people down for 'uncomfortable thoughts and ideas, in fact, we're blocked in several countries because of that."


title: WordPress.com

text: In August 2018, WordPress.com began removing several pages that suggested the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting was a hoax.


title: WordPress.com

text: In advance of the Australian Marriage Law Postal Survey of 2017, a rainbow banner was placed at the top of the WordPress Reader. This was also done in June 2015, in celebration of the US Supreme Court ruling that same-sex marriage is a constitutional right.


title: Kars Oblast

text: The Kars Oblast was a province ("oblast") of the Caucasus Viceroyalty of the Russian Empire between 1878 and 1917. Its capital was the city of Kars, presently in Turkey. The "oblast" bordered the Ottoman Empire to the west, the Batum Oblast (in 1883–1903 part of the Kutaisi Governorate) to the north, the Tiflis Governorate to the northeast, and the Erivan Governorate to the east. The Kars Oblast included parts of the contemporary provinces of Kars, Ardahan, and Erzurum Province of Turkey, and the Amasia Community of the Shirak Province of Armenia.


title: Kars Oblast

text: The Kars Oblast was a province established after the region's annexation into the Russian Empire through the Treaty of San Stefano in 1878, following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire and the dissolution of the latter's Kars, Childir and Erzurum "eyalets".


title: Kars Oblast

text: With the incorporation of the region into Russian Empire, between 1879–1882 more than 110,000 people from the Kars Oblast and 30,000 from the Batum Oblast migrated to the new borders of the Ottoman Empire, about 80% were Muslim. In their stead, Christian settlers, mostly consisting of Armenians, Greeks and Russians, were settled throughout the province. The Armenians, who eventually came to form the largest ethnic group in the region were largely composed of immigrants from the Six Vilayets escaping persecution in the Ottoman Empire.


title: Kars Oblast

text: During the First World War, the Kars Oblast became the site of intense battles between the Russian Caucasus Army supplemented by Armenian volunteer units and the Ottoman Third Army, the latter of whom was successful in briefly occupying Ardahan on 25 December 1914 before they were dislodged in early January 1915.


title: Kars Oblast

text: On 3 March 1918, in the aftermath of the October Revolution the Russian SFSR ceded the entire Kars Oblast through the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk to the Ottoman Empire, who had been unreconciled with its loss of the territory since 1878. Despite the ineffectual resistance of the Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic which had initially rejected the aforementioned treaty, the Ottoman Third Army was successful in occupying the Kars Oblast and expelling its more than 100,000 Armenian inhabitants.


title: Kars Oblast

text: The Ottoman Ninth Army under the command of Yakub Shevki Pasha, the occupying force of the district by the time of the Mudros Armistice, were permitted to winter in Kars until early 1919, after which on 7 January 1919 Major General G.T. Forestier-Walker ordered their complete withdrawal to the pre-1914 Ottoman-frontier. Intended to hinder the westward expansion of the fledgling Armenian and Georgian republics into the Kars Oblast, Yukub Shevki backed the emergence of the short-lived South-West Caucasus Republic with moral support, also furnishing it with weapons, ammunition and instructors.


title: Kars Oblast

text: The South-West Caucasus Republic administered the entire Kars Oblast and neighboring formerly occupied districts for three months before provoking British intervention by order of General G.F. Milne, leading to its capitulation by Armenian and British forces on 10 April 1919. Consequently, the Kars Oblast largely came under the Armenian civil governorship of Stepan Korganian who wasted no time in facilitating the repatriation of the region's exiled refugees.


title: Kars Oblast

text: Despite the apparent defeat of the Ottoman Empire, Turkish agitators were reported by Armenian intelligence to have been freely roaming the countryside of Kars encouraging sedition among the Muslim villages, culminating in a series of anti-Armenian uprisings in July 1919.


title: Kars Oblast

text: The Kars Oblast for the third time in six years saw invading Turkish troops, this time under the command of General Kâzım Karabekir in September 1920 during the Turkish-Armenian War. The disastrous war for Armenia resulted in the permanent expulsion of the region's ethnic Armenian population, many who inexorably remained befalling massacre, resulting in the region joining the Republic of Turkey through the Treaty of Alexandropol on 3 December 1920. Turkey's annexation of Kars and the adjacent Surmalu uezd was confirmed in the treaties of Kars and Moscow in 1921, by virtue of the new Soviet regime in Armenia.


title: Kars Oblast

text: After Turkey's annexation of the region, Soviet diplomat Georgy Chicherin sent a letter to the Turkish ambassador to the RSFSR, Ali Fuat Cebesoy, complaining of the violence and expulsion against Russians in Kars by Turkish authorities. For example, in the village of Novo-Mikhailovka (present-day ), the Russian population was placed into "stables and barns" and replaced by 2,000 Turkish settlers from Anatolia.


title: Kars Oblast

text: In 1892, the population of Kars Oblast was estimated as 200,868. The ethnic composition was reported as follows:


title: Kars Oblast

text: The Russian Empire Census of 1897 counted 290,654 residents in the Kars Oblast, including 160,571 men and 130,083 women. This number may imply that the 200,868 estimate for 1892 given by Brockhaus is too low, or that a large-scale migration from other provinces of the empire took place in between:


title: Kars Oblast

text: The 30,000 excess population of male over females was mainly attributed to the European language speakers. Among the 27,856 speakers of Russian, Ukrainian, and Belarusian, 19,910 men and 7,946 women were recorded. The Polish, and Lithuanian speakers were almost exclusively (99%) male as well; Germans and Jews, 80–90% males. This preponderance of males in the European language speakers (reported to a lesser extent in neighboring governorates as well) may indicate presence of a large numbers of soldiers or exiled persons in the region. This assumption supported by the fact that 28,875 or 9.9% of the population were military or administrative personnel.


title: Kars Oblast

text: According to the 1917 publication of the "Caucasian Calendar", the Kars Oblast had 364,214 residents in 1916, including 185,895 men and 178,319 women, 308,400 of whom were the permanent population, and 55,814 were temporary residents:


title: Marta Fascina

text: Marta Fascina (born 9 January 1990) is an Italian politician from Forza Italia. She has been a member of the Chamber of Deputies since the 2018 Italian general election.


title: Marta Fascina

text: She was born in Melito di Porto Salvo, Calabria, a small coastal town at the southern tip of the Italian Peninsula. She attended the Sapienza University of Rome, graduating with a degree in literature in 2018.


title: Marta Fascina

text: Since March 2020, Fascina has been dating former Prime Minister of Italy, Silvio Berlusconi, who is 54 years her senior.


title: Dakshinamurthy

text: Dakshinamurthy () is an aspect of the Hindu god Shiva as a guru (teacher) of all types of knowledge. This aspect of Shiva, as the original guru, is his personification as the supreme or the ultimate awareness, understanding and knowledge. This form represents Shiva as a teacher of yoga, music and wisdom, and giving exposition on the "shastras". He is worshipped as the god of wisdom, complete and rewarding meditation. According to Hindu scriptures, if a person doesn't have a guru, they can consider and worship Dakshinamurthy as their guru. Eventually they will be blessed with a self-realised human guru, if they are worthy.


title: Dakshinamurthy

text: Dakshinamurti literally means 'one who is facing south ()' in Sanskrit. According to another school of thought 'Dakshinya' means Karuna in Sanskrit or kindness (benevolence). So this manifestation of Shiva is a benevolent teacher who accords wisdom to seekers of salvation.


title: Dakshinamurthy

text: one meaning of "Dakshina" is efficient; another meaning is 'in the heart on the right side of the body'; "Amurthy" 'means Formlessness' .


title: Dakshinamurthy

text: In his aspect as Jnana Dakshinamurti, Shiva is generally shown with four arms. He is depicted seated under a banyan tree, facing the south. Shiva is seated upon a deer-throne and surrounded by sages who are receiving his instruction. He is shown as seated with his right foot on mythical apasmara (a demon which in Hindu mythology, is the personification of ignorance) and his left foot lies folded on his lap. Sometimes even the wild animals, are depicted to surround Shiva. In his upper arms, he holds a snake or rosary or both in one hand and a flame in the other; while in his lower right hand is shown in vyakhyanamudra, his lower left hand holds a bundle of kusha grass or the scriptures. The index finger of his right hand is bent and touching the tip of his thumb. The other three fingers are stretched apart. This symbolic hand gesture or mudra is the Gnana Mudra (or Jnana Mudra or Jana Mudra), a symbol of knowledge and wisdom. Sometimes, this hand is in the Abhaya Mudra, a posture of assurance and blessing. In Melakadambur the statue of the Dakshinamurthy appears seated on a bull under a banyan tree with a hole extending from one ear to the other.


title: Dakshinamurthy

text: Dakshinamurthy is portrayed as a powerful form brimming with ever-flowing bliss and supreme joy while being in the yogic state of abstract meditation. Variations of this iconic representation include Veenadhara Dakshinamurthy (holding a Veena) and Rishabharooda Dakshinamurthy (mounted on a Rishabha - the bull).


title: Dakshinamurthy

text: Indian tradition accords a special reverence to the guru or the spiritual teacher. Dakshinamurti is regarded as the ultimate guru, the embodiment of knowledge and the personification of ignorance (as represented by the demon being crushed under the feet of the deity). The Jnana Mudra is interpreted in this way:- The thumb denotes the god and the index finger denotes the man. The other three fingers stand for the three congenital impurities of man viz. arrogance, illusion and bad deeds of the past births. When man detaches himself from these impurities, he reaches God. Another interpretation is that the other three fingers denote the three states of life: Jagruti (Fully awake through senses and mind), Swapna (Sleep state - When the mind is awake) and Sushupti (True-self - When the senses and mind go into soul - Atma). The Abhaya Mudra, a gesture with the hand lifted above thigh with palm facing out, fingers pointing, is interpreted as his grace upon his students. The rosary or the snake signifies tantric knowledge. The fire represents illumination, removing the darkness of ignorance.


title: Dakshinamurthy

text: The fifth day of the week, Thursday is associated with the planet Jupiter and is referred to as Brihaspati, who is the teacher of the Gods. For this reason, many languages have taken to referring to Thursday as Guruvar or Guruvaaram, a simplification of the more formal Brihaspativar (which is retained in languages like Bangla). Thursdays are considered to be auspicious days on which to start any educational endeavor. It is on Thursdays that special worship services are offered to Dakshinamurthy in many Saivite temples. Some temple traditions hold full moon nights, particularly the night of the Guru Purnima as the appropriate time for worship services to Dakshinamurthy.


title: Dakshinamurthy

text: Even though the icon of Dakshinamurthy is installed in every Shiva temple, there are only a few temples where Dakshinamurthy is the chief deity.


title: Dakshinamurthy

text: Many mantras are dedicated to Lord Dakshinamurthy. Lord Dakshinamurthy is prayed to for protection and overall wellbeing, and for success in education.


title: Dakshinamurthy

text: I salute Śrī Dakṣiṇāmūrti, the Young Guru, who teaches the knowledge of Brahman through silence, who is surrounded by disciples, who are themselves ṛṣis and scholars in the Vedas. (I worship Śrī Dakṣiṇāmūrti), who is the teacher of teachers, whose hand is held in the sign of knowledge (cin-mudrā), whose nature is fullness, who reveals in himself, and who is ever silent.


title: Dakshinamurthy

text: In his aspect as Yoga Dakshinamurti, Shiva is generally represented in any of the two styles described as under: -


title: Colonization of the Moon

text: Colonization of the Moon or Lunar settlement is a process, or concept employed by some proposals, for claiming robotic or human exploitation and settlement on the Moon.


title: Colonization of the Moon

text: Laying claim to the Moon has been declared illegal through international space law and no state has made such claims, despite having a range of probes and artificial remains on the Moon.


title: Colonization of the Moon

text: While a range of proposals for missions of lunar colonization, exploitation or permanent exploration have been raised, current projects for establishing permanent crewed presence on the Moon are not for colonizing the Moon, but rather focus on building moonbases for exploration and to a lesser extent for exploitation of lunar resources.


title: Colonization of the Moon

text: The commercialization of the Moon is a contentious issue for national and international lunar regulation and laws (such as the Moon treaty).


title: Colonization of the Moon

text: Colonization of the Moon has been imagined as early as the first half of the 17th century by John Wilkins in "A Discourse Concerning a New Planet".


title: Colonization of the Moon

text: Colonization of the Moon as a material process has been taking place since the first artificial objects reached the Moon after 1959. "Luna" landers scattered pennants of the Soviet Union on the Moon, and U.S. flags were symbolically planted at their landing sites by the Apollo astronauts, but no nation claims ownership of any part of the Moon's surface. Russia, China, India, and the U.S. are party to the 1967 Outer Space Treaty, which defines the Moon and all outer space as the "province of all mankind", restricting the use of the Moon to peaceful purposes and explicitly banning military installations and weapons of mass destruction from the Moon.


title: Colonization of the Moon

text: The landing of US Astronauts was seen as a precedence for the superiority of the free-market socioeconomic model of the US, and in this case as the successful model for space flight, exploration and ultimately human presence in the form of colonization. In the 1970s the word and goal of colonization was discouraged by NASA and funds as well as focus shifted away from the Moon and particularly to Mars. But the US eventually nevertheless opposed the 1979 Moon Agreement which aimed to restrict the exploitation of the Moon and its resources. Subsequently, the treaty has been signed and ratified by only 18 nations, as of January 2020, none of which engage in self-launched human space exploration.


title: Colonization of the Moon

text: After US missions in the 1990s suggested the presence of lunar water ice, its actual discovery in the soil at the lunar poles by Chandrayaan-1 (ISRO) in 2008–09 renewed interest in the Moon. A range of moonbases have been proposed by states and public actors. Currently the US-led international Artemis program seeks to establish with private contractors a state run orbital lunar way-station in the 2020s, and China advances with Russia to establish the International Lunar Research Station in the 2030s. Mainly proposed to serve the goal of exploration such proposals and ongoing projects have increasingly also aimed for enabling exploitation or commercialization of the Moon, something that has been criticized as colonialism and contrasted by proposals such as the "Declaration of the Rights of the Moon", drawing on the concept of the Rights of Nature for a legal personality of non-human entities in space.


title: Colonization of the Moon

text: Far from being a colony, the temporary Tranquility Base of the first crewed mission to the Moon in 1969, as well as its successor camps of the Apollo missions, has been the closest to a colony on the Moon so far.


title: Colonization of the Moon

text: Before and since then a permanent human presence through colonization of the Moon has been pursued and advocated for by a range of civil actors and space advocacy groups. But most importantly different countries have been putting forward concepts and plans for not only new crewed expeditions, but also for moonbases.


title: Colonization of the Moon

text: The pursued purpose of such moonbases is broad, but is mostly for space exploration, but also for exploiting and commercializing the Moon and advocating for a lunar and cis-lunar infrastructure, economy and settled society.


title: Colonization of the Moon

text: The most advanced contemporary missions share this spectrum of purpose, between exploration and exploitation.


title: Colonization of the Moon

text: For example, the leading Artemis program and International Lunar Research Station projects, while focusing on exploration, they do both mention prospecting for lunar resource extraction for in-situ resource utilization as an objective, in the case of the American policy including that the Artemis program should furthermore enable resource commercialization and private enterprise.


title: Colonization of the Moon

text: These bases are planned to be crewed, but only eventually permanently. Commercial proposals though have suggested building and use of moonbases for tourism and possibly settlement.


title: Colonization of the Moon

text: For long-term sustainability, a space colony should be close to self-sufficient. Mining and refining the Moon's materials on-site – for use both on the Moon and elsewhere in the Solar System – could provide an advantage over deliveries from Earth, as they can be launched into space at a much lower energy cost than from Earth. It is possible that large amounts of cargo would need to be launched into space for interplanetary exploration in the 21st century, and the lower cost of providing goods from the Moon might be attractive.


title: Colonization of the Moon

text: In the long term, the Moon will likely play an important role in supplying space-based construction facilities with raw materials. Microgravity in space allows for the processing of materials in ways impossible or difficult on Earth, such as "foaming" metals, where a gas is injected into a molten metal, and then the metal is annealed slowly. On Earth, gas bubbles may rise or fall due to their relative density to air, but in a zero gravity environment this does not happen. The annealing process requires large amounts of energy, as a material is kept very hot for an extended period of time (allowing the molecular structure to realign), and this too may be more efficient in space, as the vacuum drastically reduces all heat transfer except through radiative heat loss.


title: Colonization of the Moon

text: Exporting material to Earth in trade from the Moon is problematic due to the cost of transportation, which would vary greatly if the Moon is industrially developed (see "Launch costs" above). One suggested trade commodity is helium-3 (He) which is carried by the solar wind and accumulated on the Moon's surface over billions of years, but occurs only rarely on Earth. Helium-3 might be present in the lunar regolith in quantities of 0.01 ppm to 0.05 ppm (depending on soil). In 2006 it had a market price of about $1,500 per gram ($1.5M per kilogram), more than 120 times the value per unit weight of gold and over eight times the value of rhodium.


title: Colonization of the Moon

text: In the future He harvested from the Moon may have a role as a fuel in thermonuclear fusion reactors. It should require about of helium-3 to produce the electricity that Earth uses in a year and there should be enough on the Moon to provide that much for 10,000 years.


title: Colonization of the Moon

text: To reduce the cost of transport, the Moon could store propellants produced from lunar water at one or several depots between the Earth and the Moon, to resupply rockets or satellites in Earth orbit.


title: Colonization of the Moon

text: Lunar scientists had discussed the possibility of water repositories for decades. They are now increasingly "confident that the decades-long debate is over" a report says. "The Moon, in fact, has water in all sorts of places; not just locked up in minerals, but scattered throughout the broken-up surface, and, potentially, in blocks or sheets of ice at depth." The results from the "Chandrayaan" mission are also "offering a wide array of watery signals."


title: Colonization of the Moon

text: It is estimated there is at least 600 million tons of ice at the north pole in sheets of relatively pure ice at least a couple of meters thick.


title: Colonization of the Moon

text: Gerard K. O'Neill, noting the problem of high launch costs in the early 1970s, came up with the idea of building Solar Power Satellites in orbit with materials from the Moon. Launch costs from the Moon would vary significantly if the Moon is industrially developed (see "Launch costs" above). This proposal was based on the contemporary estimates of future launch costs of the Space Shuttle.


title: Colonization of the Moon

text: On 30 April 1979, the Final Report "Lunar Resources Utilization for Space Construction" by General Dynamics Convair Division under NASA contract, NAS9-15560 concluded that the use of lunar resources would be cheaper than terrestrial materials for a system comprising as few as thirty Solar Power Satellites of 10 GW capacity each.


title: Colonization of the Moon

text: In 1980, when NASA's launch cost estimates for the Space Shuttle were grossly optimistic, O'Neill et al. published another route to manufacturing using lunar materials with much lower startup costs. This 1980s SPS concept relied less on human presence in space and more on partially self-replicating systems on the lunar surface under telepresence control of workers stationed on Earth.


title: George Washington Parke Custis

text: George Washington Parke Custis (April 30, 1781 – October 10, 1857) was an American plantation owner, antiquarian, author, and playwright. His father John Parke Custis was the stepson of George Washington. He and his sister Eleanor grew up at Mount Vernon and in the Washington presidential household.


title: George Washington Parke Custis

text: Upon reaching age 21, Custis inherited a large fortune from his late father, John Parke Custis, including a plantation in what became Arlington, Virginia. High atop a hill overlooking the Potomac River and Washington, D.C., Custis built the Greek Revival mansion Arlington House (1803–18), as a shrine to George Washington. There he preserved and displayed many of Washington's belongings. Custis also wrote historical plays about Virginia, delivered a number of patriotic addresses, and was the author of the posthumously published "Recollections and Private Memoirs of George Washington" (1860).


title: George Washington Parke Custis

text: His daughter, Mary Anna Randolph Custis, married Robert E. Lee. They inherited Arlington House and the plantation surrounding it, but the property was soon confiscated by the federal government during the Civil War. After the war, the US Supreme Court determined the property to have been illegally confiscated and ordered it returned to Lee's heirs. After regaining Arlington Custis Lee immediately sold it back to the federal government for its market value. Arlington House is now a museum, interpreted by the National Park Service as the Robert E. Lee Memorial. Fort Myer and Arlington National Cemetery are also located on what had been Custis' plantation.


title: George Washington Parke Custis

text: Custis was born on April 30, 1781, at his mother's family home, Mount Airy, which survives in Rosaryville State Park in Prince George's County, Maryland. He initially lived with his parents John Parke Custis and Eleanor Calvert Custis, and his sisters Elizabeth Parke Custis, Martha Parke Custis and Nelly Custis, at Abingdon Plantation (part of which is now Ronald Reagan National Airport, in Arlington County), which his father had purchased in 1778. However, six months after Custis's birth, his father died of "camp fever" at Yorktown, Virginia, shortly after the British army surrendered there.


title: George Washington Parke Custis

text: Custis's grandmother, Martha Dandridge Custis Washington, had been widowed in 1757, and married George Washington in January 1759. His father had grown up at Mount Vernon. Following John Parke Custis's death, George Washington never formally adopted the Custis grandchildren; GWP Custis and his sister Nelly however grew up at Mount Vernon and were treated as they were his adopted grandchildren. Custis's two oldest sisters, Elizabeth and Martha, remained at Abingdon with their widowed mother, who in 1783 married Dr. David Stuart, an Alexandria physician and associate of George Washington.


title: George Washington Parke Custis

text: The Washingtons brought Custis and Nelly, 8 and 10 years old, respectively, to New York City in 1789, to live in the first and second presidential mansions. Following the transfer of the national capital to Philadelphia, the original "First Family" occupied the President's House from 1790 to 1797.


title: George Washington Parke Custis

text: Custis (nicknamed "Wash") attended—but did not graduate from—Philadelphia Academy (the preparatory school of what is now the University of Pennsylvania); the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University); and St. John's College in Annapolis, Maryland. George Washington repeatedly expressed frustration with young Custis, as well as his own inability to improve the youth's attitude. Upon young Custis's return to Mount Vernon after only one term at St. John's, George Washington sent him to his mother and stepfather (Dr. David Stuart) at Hope Park, writing "He appears to me to be moped and Stupid, says nothing, and is always in some hole or corner excluded from the Company."


title: George Washington Parke Custis

text: When Custis came of age in 1802, he inherited large amounts of money, land, and property from the estates of his father, John Parke Custis, and grandfather Daniel Parke Custis. When Martha Washington died (also in 1802), Custis received both a bequest from her (as he had upon George Washington's death in 1799) as well as his father's former plantations because of the termination of Martha's life estate. However, Martha's executor, Bushrod Washington, refused to sell to Custis the Mount Vernon estate on which Custis had been living and which Bushrod Washington (George Washington's nephew) had inherited. Custis thereupon moved into a four-room, 80-year-old house on land inherited from his father, who had called it "Mount Washington".


title: George Washington Parke Custis

text: Almost immediately, Custis began constructing Arlington House on his land, which at the time was within Alexandria County (now Arlington County) in the District of Columbia. Hiring George Hadfield as architect, he constructed a mansion that was the first example of Greek Revival architecture in America. He located the building on a prominent hill overlooking the Georgetown-Alexandria Turnpike (at the approximate location of the present Eisenhower Drive in Arlington National Cemetery), the Potomac River, and the growing Washington City on the opposite side of the river.


title: George Washington Parke Custis

text: Using slave labor and materials on site, and interrupted by the War of 1812 (and material shortages after the British burned the American capital city), Custis finally completed the mansion's exterior in 1818. Custis intended the mansion to serve as a living memorial to George Washington, and included design elements similar to Mt. Vernon's. He then gained a reputation for inviting many guests for various celebrations and social events at the mansion, where he displayed relics from Mt. Vernon, although the interior was not completed (and renovated) until occupancy by Robert E. Lee's family (including Custis's grandsons/heirs) in the 1850s.


title: George Washington Parke Custis

text: On July 7, 1804, Custis married Mary Lee Fitzhugh. Of their four children, only one daughter, Mary Anna Randolph Custis, survived to maturity. She married Robert E. Lee at Arlington House on June 30, 1831. Lee's father, Henry Lee III (Light-Horse Harry Lee) had delivered the eulogy at George Washington's December 18, 1799, funeral.


title: George Washington Parke Custis

text: In January 1799, Custis accepted a commission as a cornet in the United States Army and was promoted to second lieutenant in March. He served as "aide-de-camp" to General Charles Cotesworth Pinckney and was honorably discharged on June 15, 1800.


title: George Washington Parke Custis

text: During the War of 1812, Custis, despite physical infirmities, assisted in the firing of an artillery piece to help defend Washington, D.C., from the British during the Battle of Bladensburg. Custis also delivered and published an address condemning the death of Revolutionary War general James Lingan, whom a Baltimore mob killed for defending an anti-war publisher's right to oppose the war.


title: George Washington Parke Custis

text: Custis owned land and enslaved people in several Virginia counties. In the 1820 U.S. Federal Census, he owned 116 slaves in New Kent County, Virginia in land he inherited from his father and hired a steward to manage. He also owned 58 slaves in what became Arlington County, then the Alexandria section of the District of Columbia. In 1830, Custis owned 57 slaves in the Alexandria section of the District of Columbia, and in 1840 owned 52 slaves in that area (33 male and 19 female). The Alexandria slave schedules are missing or misindexed for the last census of his lifetime, in 1850. By 1850, Custis owned 98 enslaved people in New Kent County, and an additional 34 in King William County, Virginia.


title: George Washington Parke Custis

text: During the 1820s, Custis was an active member of the American Colonization Society—an organization led by his cousin Bushrod Washington and that supported the colonization of free blacks in Africa, particularly in Liberia. Custis eventually lost interest in the Society, but his wife and daughter continued to support it for many years. Colonization was generally unpopular with African American slaves. Of the Arlington slaves, only William Burke and his family chose to move to Liberia. In 1854, William and Rosabella Burke and their children left Arlington House for Monrovia, Liberia. Rosabella continued to write to Mrs. Lee and named a new daughter "Martha" in tribute to the family.


title: George Washington Parke Custis

text: In 1826, Custis admitted the paternity of Maria Carter, who had been born in 1803 to Arianna "Airy" Carter (1776–1880), an African-American slave maid at the Arlington estate who had earlier resided at Mount Vernon as a slave of Martha Washington. Maria lived and worked at Arlington as a slave until 1826, when she married Charles Syphax, a slave who oversaw the dining room of Arlington House.(It was a religious ceremony only; enslaved people could not legally marry.) Soon after Maria's marriage, Custis freed her and gave her a plot in the southwest corner of the Arlington estate. Maria subsequently raised ten children on her property, thus establishing the Syphax family. Tall trees and stretches of grassland reportedly surrounded Maria's white cottage. Custis is also believed to have fathered a girl named Lucy with the slave Caroline Branham.


title: George Washington Parke Custis

text: In 1802, the Washington Jockey Club sought a site for a new race course, as its old site—which occupied land from the rear of what is now the site of Decatur House at H Street and Jackson Place, across Seventeenth Street and Pennsylvania Avenue, to Twentieth Street, where the Eisenhower Executive Office Building sits today—was suffering encroachment from the growth of the Federal City. Under the leadership of John Tayloe III and Charles Carnan Ridgely, and with the support of Custis, Gen. John Peter Van Ness, Dr. William Thornton, John D. Threlkeld of Georgetown and George Calvert of Riversdale, Bladensburg, Maryland, the races were moved to Holmstead Farm's one-mile oval track on Meridian Hill, south of Columbia Road, between Fourteenth and Sixteenth streets.


title: George Washington Parke Custis

text: One biographer claimed Lafayette and his son Georges Washington de La Fayette visited Custis at Mount Vernon in 1825, although Custis was then living at Arlington House.


title: George Washington Parke Custis

text: In 1836, Custis established a mill on Four Mile Run and Columbia Pike, in what a decade later became Arlington County, Virginia, as described below. It ground grain for nearby farmers, and eventually became the site of an early skirmish in the American Civil War.


title: George Washington Parke Custis

text: In 1846, the federal government retroceded to the state of Virginia the portion of the District of Columbia that was south and west of the Potomac River, which at the time contained the city and county of Alexandria. Custis initially opposed the retrocession, but later spoke in support of it. The General Assembly approved the retrocession on March 13, 1847.


title: George Washington Parke Custis

text: On July 4, 1848, Custis attended the ceremony celebrating the laying of the cornerstone of the Washington Monument by Freemasons. Along with President James K. Polk, the ceremony attracted 20,000 other spectators. On July 4, 1850, Custis dedicated a stone that the people of the District of Columbia had donated to the Monument at a ceremony that President Zachary Taylor attended, five days before Taylor died from food poisoning.


title: George Washington Parke Custis

text: Custis achieved some distinction as an orator and playwright. In addition to the Lingan eulogy, he delivered "The Celebration of the Russian Victories, in Georgetown, District of Columbia; on June 5, 1813" (1813). Two of Custis's plays, "The Indian Prophecy; or Visions of Glory" (1827) and "Pocahontas; or, The Settlers of Virginia" (1830), were published during his lifetime. Other plays included "The Rail Road" (1828), "The Eighth of January, or, Hurra for the Boys of the West!" (ca. 1830), "North Point, or, Baltimore Defended" (1833), and "Montgomerie, or, The Orphan of a Wreck" (1836). Custis wrote a series of biographical essays about his adoptive father that were compiled and posthumously published in 1859 and 1860, after his own death in 1857, as "Recollections and Private Memoirs of Washington".


title: George Washington Parke Custis

text: Custis was descended from a number of aristocratic colonial era families, as well as, through his mother Eleanor Calvert Custis Stuart, British nobility and, very distantly, from the royal houses of Hanover and Stuart. His mother was descended from Charles Calvert, 3rd Baron Baltimore, and Henry Lee of Ditchley, one of whose descendants was Edward Lee, 1st Earl of Lichfield, who married Charlotte Fitzroy, an illegitimate daughter of Charles II by one of his mistresses, Barbara Palmer. It is believed Custis was descended from George I's natural daughter Melusina von der Schulenburg, Countess of Walsingham, whose extra-marital liaison with Charles Calvert, 5th Baron Baltimore, produced a son, Benedict Swingate Calvert, who was Custis's maternal grandfather. Custis's father, John Parke Custis, was the son of Martha Washington by her marriage to Daniel Parke Custis.


title: George Washington Parke Custis

text: Custis's sister Eleanor "Nelly" Parke Custis Lewis married George Washington's nephew, Lawrence Lewis. As a wedding present, Washington gave Nelly a section of Mount Vernon's land, on which the Lewises established Woodlawn plantation and constructed Woodlawn Mansion. The National Park Service has listed Woodlawn on the National Register of Historic Places.


title: George Washington Parke Custis

text: Another sister of Custis, Martha Parke Custis Peter, married Thomas Peter. Using Martha's inheritances from George and Martha Washington, the Peters purchased property in Georgetown within the District of Columbia. The couple then constructed the Tudor Place mansion on the property. Tudor Place and its grounds, which the National Park Service has listed on the National Register of Historic Places, contain features that resemble those of Arlington House and Woodlawn.


title: George Washington Parke Custis

text: Custis died on October 10, 1857, and was buried at his Arlington estate alongside his wife, Mary Lee Fitzhugh Custis, who had died four years earlier. Custis's will provided that:


title: George Washington Parke Custis

text: Custis' death impacted the careers of Robert E. Lee and his two elder sons on the cusp of the American Civil War. Then-Lt. Col. Robert E. Lee, named as the will's executor, took a two-year leave from his army post in Texas to settle the estate. During this period Lee was ordered to lead troops to quash John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry. By 1859, Lee's eldest son, George Washington Custis Lee, got transferred to an army position in Washington, D.C., so that he could care for Arlington plantation, where his mother and sisters were living. Lee's second son, Rooney Lee, resigned his army commission, got married, and took over farming White House and Romancoke plantations near Richmond. Robert E. Lee was able to leave for Texas to resume his army career in February 1860.


title: George Washington Parke Custis

text: At the outbreak of the American Civil War, Union Army forces seized the Arlington Plantation for strategic reasons (protection of the river and national capital). The United States government then confiscated the Custis estate for non-payment of taxes. In 1863, a "Freedman's Village" was established there for freed slaves.


title: George Washington Parke Custis

text: On December 29, 1862, Robert Lee freed all of the remaining Custis slaves, as this was the last day within the five year limit he was allowed to retain them.


title: George Washington Parke Custis

text: In 1864, Montgomery C. Meigs, Quartermaster General of the United States Army, appropriated some parts of Arlington Plantation for use as a military burial ground. After the Civil War ended, George Washington Custis Lee sued and recovered title to the Arlington Plantation from the United States government in 1882, when the Supreme Court of the United States ruled in favor of Lee in "United States v. Lee", 106 U. S. 196. Lee then sold the property back to the United States government for $150,000. Arlington House, built by Custis to honor George Washington, is now the Robert E. Lee Memorial. It is restored and open to the public under the auspices of the National Park Service, while the Department of Defense controls Fort Myer and Arlington National Cemetery on the remainder of the Arlington Plantation.


title: Cabin Fever 2: Spring Fever

text: Cabin Fever 2: Spring Fever (also known as Cabin Fever 2 or Cabin Fever: Spring Fever) is a 2009 American horror comedy film directed by Ti West and stars Noah Segan, Rusty Kelley, Alexi Wasser, Marc Senter, Rider Strong and Giuseppe Andrews. It is a sequel to the 2002 film "Cabin Fever" and the second installment in the "Cabin Fever" series. The film is about a high school prom that descends into chaos when a deadly flesh-eating bacteria spreads via a popular brand of bottled water.


title: Cabin Fever 2: Spring Fever

text: Sometime after the events of the previous film, a very disfigured Paul (Rider Strong) escapes from the creek and wanders through the woods, leaving pieces of his own flesh along the way. When he finally manages to make it to the highway, he is splattered and killed by a school bus. His remains are checked by Deputy Winston Olsen (Giuseppe Andrews), the local policeman from the previous film. Winston assures the shocked bus driver that he has hit a moose.


title: Cabin Fever 2: Spring Fever

text: The creek Paul was lying in turns out to be connected to a bottled-water company and the infected water was distributed to the local high school.


title: Cabin Fever 2: Spring Fever

text: John (Noah Segan), a senior at the high school, is deciding whether to go to prom with his long-time crush Cassie (Alexi Wasser) or stay home. His friend Alex (Rusty Kelley) is against going until he hooks up with a girl named Liz (Regan Deal). She says if she can get off work that night, she will meet him there.


title: Cabin Fever 2: Spring Fever

text: John asks Cassie to go to prom but she refuses. Meanwhile, Winston is at a restaurant where a worker from the bottled-water company dies from the infection. He then realizes the creek got heavily contaminated due to the fact he foolishly dumped Paul's body into the creek instead of driving him to the other hospital for quarantine and goes to the water plant to tell the officials that the water is contaminated. The worker he informs is quickly killed by a group of CCD (Contamination Control Division) soldiers in NBC suits. Winston leaves before they can get to him.


title: Cabin Fever 2: Spring Fever

text: At the high school, the infection begins to spread slowly. Frederica (Amanda Jelks) dies in the swimming pool from the infection and Rick (Thomas Blake, Jr.) is killed when he drowns after hitting his head on the side of the pool and falling in. Alex is disappointed that Liz did not come, while John gets into a fight with Cassie's boyfriend Marc (Marc Senter). Principal Sinclair (Michael Bowen) then kicks John out. Cassie follows him and John angrily confesses his love to her. As popular girl Sandy (Lindsey Axelsson) is declared prom queen the CCD then forces John and Cassie back into the school. The CCD locks all of the main exits from the school and kills Principal Sinclair when he demands to know what is going on. The infection then begins to kill the students in the gym at an alarming rate. The gym is then gassed from the outside. Cassie, John, and Alex watched in horror as all the students are killed. Winston is picked up by his cousin Herman (Mark Borchardt), ready to leave town.


title: Cabin Fever 2: Spring Fever

text: Alex discovers he is infected and that the disease is incurable necrotizing fasciitis. The only way to stop the infection is to amputate the infected limb. However, Alex's infection is already too severe and he stays behind. John begins to show signs of the infection too and lets Cassie amputate his hand to stop it.


title: Cabin Fever 2: Spring Fever

text: Cassie's boyfriend Marc then comes out of nowhere, hits Cassie with a hammer, and tries to kill John but Cassie recovers and kills him with a nail gun. The two leave the school only to be ambushed by the CCD. John stalls them, allowing Cassie to escape. She finds herself on the highway and stops Herman's van. Winston and Herman take Cassie with them. The camera shows her back where she is starting to show signs of infection.


title: Cabin Fever 2: Spring Fever

text: Meanwhile, Alex's date Liz is at her workplace. She is a stripper at Teazers and she spreads the infection to the customers, who in turn spread it further around the country and even to Mexico.


title: Cabin Fever 2: Spring Fever

text: The film was produced by Tonic Films, Morningstar Films, Carr Miller Entertainment, and Tunnel Post. The special effects are from Quantum Creation FX who created the make-up effects. Rider Strong and Giuseppe Andrews are the only two "Cabin Fever" cast members to come back for the sequel.


title: Cabin Fever 2: Spring Fever

text: After extensive re-editing and re-shooting by the producers, director Ti West requested to have his name removed from the film and replaced with the popular pseudonym Alan Smithee. Because he was not a member of the Directors Guild of America, his request was denied by the producers and he remains credited as the film's director. West has since disowned the final product claiming that it is more a product of the producers and executives than that of his own.


title: Cabin Fever 2: Spring Fever

text: The film score was composed by Ryan Shore. The film also featured songs are "Dancing On Our Graves" by Washington-based band The Cave Singers, "Prom Night" by Paul Zaza and Carl Zittrer from the 1980 film "Prom Night" and "Inner Station" by Minimal Compact.


title: Cabin Fever 2: Spring Fever

text: The film premiered on October 24, 2009 at the Mann Chinese 6 theaters in Hollywood, California as part of the 2009 Screamfest Horror Film Festival Los Angeles. The DVD was released in the USA on February 16, 2010 and in the UK on February 22. The US Blu-ray release comes with the Unrated Directors Cut version of Eli Roth's "Cabin Fever".


title: Imperial Crown of the Holy Roman Empire

text: The Imperial Crown of the Holy Roman Empire (), a hoop crown () with a characteristic octagonal shape, was the coronation crown of the Holy Roman Emperor, probably from the late 10th century until the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806. The crown was used in the coronation of the King of the Romans, the title assumed by the Emperor-elect immediately after his election. It is now kept in the Imperial Treasury ("Kaiserliche Schatzkammer") at the Hofburg in Vienna, Austria.


title: Imperial Crown of the Holy Roman Empire

text: The crown of eight hinged golden plates was probably made in Western Germany for the Imperial coronation of Otto I in 962, with later additions by Conrad II. The first preserved mention of it is from the 12th century, assuming (as is probable) it is the same crown.


title: Imperial Crown of the Holy Roman Empire

text: Most Kings of the Romans were crowned with it until the end of the Holy Roman Empire. The crown was the most important item of the Imperial Regalia (), which also included the Imperial Cross (), the Imperial Sword (), and the Holy Lance (). During the coronation, it was given to the new king along with the sceptre () and the Imperial Orb ().


title: Imperial Crown of the Holy Roman Empire

text: The Imperial Crown was the inspiration for the German State Crown designed in 1871 for the arms of the German Empire and its Emperor. The latter, however, had four half-arches supporting a small orb and cross, rather than the single arch and front cross of the original.


title: Imperial Crown of the Holy Roman Empire

text: The changes were made to differentiate the Wilhelmine crown from the one kept in Vienna (outside the German Empire), while simultaneously invoking the powerful legacy of the Holy Roman Empire. A now-lost wooden model was made, but no actual crown was produced until the Empire's demise in 1918.


title: Imperial Crown of the Holy Roman Empire

text: As a result it remained a heraldic crown only, even though it was also represented as if a real crown existed on that model, e.g. at the Niederwalddenkmal (1871-1883), in Hermann Wislicenus's "Apotheose of Empire" painting at the Imperial Palace of Goslar (ca. 1880), or on the Weidendammer Bridge in Berlin (1896).


title: Imperial Crown of the Holy Roman Empire

text: The Crown was held in various locations during the first few centuries after its creation, including Limburg Abbey, Harzburg Castle, the Imperial Palace of Goslar, Trifels Castle, the , Waldburg Castle, Krautheim Castle, Kyburg Castle, Rheinfelden Castle, and the Alter Hof in Munich.


title: Imperial Crown of the Holy Roman Empire

text: In 1349, Charles IV took the Imperial Regalia to the Karlštejn Castle near Prague, which he had just built for that purpose. in 1424, with Bohemia suffering the troubles of the Hussite Wars, Sigismund had them relocated to Visegrád and then to Nuremberg, where they were permanently kept in the "Heilig-Geist-Spital" except for the time of coronations (in Aachen until 1531, then in Frankfurt from 1562).


title: Imperial Crown of the Holy Roman Empire

text: In 1796, as the war with revolutionary France was threatening the entire fabric of the Empire, the Regalia were brought for safety to Saint Emmeram's Abbey in Regensburg, and from there in 1800 to the Imperial capital in Vienna, where the Empire was abolished on 6 August 1806.


title: Imperial Crown of the Holy Roman Empire

text: The crown and other Regalia remained in Vienna until the "Anschluss" of March 1938, when they were brought back to Nuremberg (this time in the "Katharinenkirche") by Nazi Germany in line with their promotion of the city as repository of mythicized ancient German traditions. During World War II the crown was placed in the Historischer Kunstbunker, an underground vault of Nuremberg Castle. The American military recovered it with other treasures in August 1945, and returned it to the Oesterreichische Nationalbank in allied-occupied Austria in January 1946. It has been kept permanently in Vienna since that date. The Crown and Regalia were again on display at the Hofburg in 1954. The current display dates from a comprehensive refurbishment of the Hofburg's Treasury Vault in 1983-1987.


title: Imperial Crown of the Holy Roman Empire

text: The crown does not have a round shape but an octagonal one, a possible reference to the shape of crowns of Byzantine emperors and/or of Charlemagne's Palatine Chapel in Aachen. Its eight hinged plates are arched at the top. Two strips of iron of unidentified date, riveted with golden rivets to the plates, hold the crown together. Before the addition of the rings the plates were held together by long golden pins, which made it possible to separate the plates and the arch for easier transport.


title: Imperial Crown of the Holy Roman Empire

text: Each plate of the crown is made out of a high carat gold, around 22 carats, which gives the crown a "buttery" colour, and is studded with pearls and precious stones. The stones are not cut into facets (a technique still unknown when the crown was made), but polished into rounded shapes and fixed "en cabochon", i.e. put into openings that were cut into the metal, and fastened with thin wires. The effect is that when light shines in, the stones look as if they would shine from within.


title: Imperial Crown of the Holy Roman Empire

text: The crown is decorated with 144 precious stones including sapphires, emeralds and amethysts (blue, green and purple precious stones being proper to emperors in Byzantine imperial protocol), and about the same number of pearls. Similar gem-studded decoration was used for other precious objects of the early and high Middle Ages, e.g. reliquaries, processional or altar crosses ("crux gemmata"), or precious book covers such as those of the Codex Aureus of St. Emmeram and Codex Aureus of Echternach.


title: Imperial Crown of the Holy Roman Empire

text: The smaller four plaques, or 'picture-plates' ("Bildplatten"), bear pictorial representations of figures and scenes from the Bible and inscriptions in cloisonné enamel in Byzantine "sunk" ("Senkschmelz") style. Each of these enamelled plates is surrounded by blue sapphires and pearls in raised filigree settings.


title: Imperial Crown of the Holy Roman Empire

text: The other four plates, or 'stone-plates' ("Steinplatten"), are of various sizes and decorated solely with precious stone and pearls in raised filigree settings. The twelve stones on the front and back plates are probably a direct reference to the twelve stones of the Jewish high priest's breastplate or "hoshen" (Exodus 39:9-14) and to the twelve foundation stones of the New Jerusalem in the Revelation to John (Revelation 21: 19-21).


title: Imperial Crown of the Holy Roman Empire

text: The top central stone of the front plate is a triangular sapphire which replaces a famous stone, now lost, which was known as the "Waise" (i.e., the 'Orphan', because of its uniqueness), probably a large white opal with a wine-red fire or possibly a singularly brilliant garnet or red zircon and the subject of medieval lore. The medieval theologian and philosopher Albert the Great wrote about it in 1250:


title: Imperial Crown of the Holy Roman Empire

text: The Orphan is a jewel in the crown of the Roman emperor. Because the like of it has never been seen elsewhere, it is called the "Orphan". It has the color of wine, of delicate red wine and it is as if the dazzling, white of snow penetrates the bright wine red and yet it remains dormant in this redness. The gem shines powerfully and it is said that it once even shone at night, but not in our time, but it is said to preserve the honour of the empire.


title: Imperial Crown of the Holy Roman Empire

text: When and why it was removed from the Imperial Crown is not known. The last mention of it is in an inventory ordered by Charles IV in 1350.


title: Imperial Crown of the Holy Roman Empire

text: The crown has a single arch (or hoop) from the front to the back plate with the name and imperial style of Conrad II (1024-1039) in seed pearls On the left side of this arch these seed pearls spell out the words "Conrad, by the Grace of God" ("CHUONRADUS DEI GRATIA"), while on the right side they read "Emperor of the Romans, Augustus" ("ROMANORU[M] IMPERATOR AUG[USTUS]"). Above the front plate and in front of the arch is a jeweled cross with an engraving of the crucified Christ on its reverse side, originally a pectoral cross said to have belonged to Henry II and only later attached to the Imperial Crown. It is probable that both the arch and cross were added during Conrad II's reign.


title: Imperial Crown of the Holy Roman Empire

text: There are three small holes on each of the two side stone-plates from which probably hung chains with pendant jewels, known as "pendilia". These were a feature of the now-lost crown of Byzantine emperors, as in the mosaic portrait of Justinian I in the Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna. Pendilia are still extant on the Holy Crown of Hungary, or the Crown of Constance of Aragon held in Palermo Cathedral.


title: Imperial Crown of the Holy Roman Empire

text: The present red velvet cap on the inside of the crown dates from the 17th century. Before this the imperial crown was worn over a mitre; assuming this had the form of the Byzantine "camelaucum", the arch would have caused it to bulge up on both sides, much as the embroidered ribbon from front to back on the eleventh century bishops' mitres caused their linen fabric to bulge up. Thus the Imperial Crown appears to be the earliest form of mitre crowns worn by the Holy Roman Emperors as a sign of their imperial office, the form of which was perpetuated in the crown created for Rudolf II and now known as the Imperial Crown of Austria.


title: Imperial Crown of the Holy Roman Empire

text: An identical copy was made in 1915 by order of Wilhelm II for display in Aachen, where it is still kept in the "Krönungssaal" of Aachen Town Hall, built in the 14th century on the remains of Charlemagne's palace.


title: Imperial Crown of the Holy Roman Empire

text: There are also copies of the crown and regalia in the Historical Museum of Frankfurt; in the fortress of Trifels in the former Electorate of the Palatinate; and in the Czech castle of Karlštejn, along with a copy of the Crown of Saint Wenceslas.


title: Imperial Crown of the Holy Roman Empire

text: The Imperial Crown of the Holy Roman Empire was selected as the main motif for a high value commemorative coin, the €100 Imperial Crown of the Holy Roman Empire commemorative coin, minted in 2008. The obverse shows the Imperial Crown of the Holy Roman Empire. The reverse shows the Emperor Otto I with the Old St. Peter's Basilica in Rome in the background, where his coronation took place.


title: Great Railroad Strike of 1877

text: The Great Railroad Strike of 1877, sometimes referred to as the Great Upheaval, began on July 14 in Martinsburg, West Virginia, after the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad (B&O) cut wages for the third time in a year. This strike finally ended 52 days later, after it was put down by unofficial militias, the National Guard, and federal troops. Because of economic problems and pressure on wages by the railroads, workers in numerous other cities, in New York, Pennsylvania and Maryland, into Illinois and Missouri, also went out on strike. An estimated 100 people were killed in the unrest across the country. In Martinsburg, Pittsburgh, Philadelphia and other cities, workers burned down and destroyed both physical facilities and the rolling stock of the railroads—engines and railroad cars. Local populations feared that workers were rising in revolution such as the Paris Commune of 1871.


title: Great Railroad Strike of 1877

text: At the time, the workers were not represented by trade unions. The city and state governments were aided by unofficial militias, the National Guard, federal troops and private militias organized by the railroads, who all fought against the workers. Disruption was widespread and at its height, the strikes were supported by about 100,000 workers. With the intervention of federal troops in several locations, most of the strikes were suppressed by early August. Labor continued to work to organize into unions to work for better wages and conditions. Fearing the social disruption, many cities built armories to support the local National Guard units; these defensive buildings still stand as symbols of the effort to suppress the labor unrest of this period.


title: Great Railroad Strike of 1877

text: With public attention on workers' wages and conditions, the B&O in 1880 founded an Employee Relief Association to provide death benefits and some health care. In 1884, it established a worker pension plan. Other improvements were implemented later.


title: Great Railroad Strike of 1877

text: The Long Depression, beginning in the United States with the financial Panic of 1873 and lasting 65 months, became the longest economic contraction in American history, including the later more famous, 45-month-long Great Depression of the 1930s. The failure of the Jay Cooke bank in New York, was followed quickly by that of Henry Clews, and set off a chain reaction of bank failures, temporarily closing the New York stock market.


title: Great Railroad Strike of 1877

text: Unemployment rose dramatically, reaching 14 percent by 1876, many more were severely underemployed, and wages overall dropped to 45% of their previous level. Thousands of American businesses failed, defaulting on more than a billion dollars of debt. One in four laborers in New York were out of work in the winter of 1873-1874. National construction of new rail lines dropped from 7,500 miles of track in 1872 to just 1,600 miles in 1875, and production in iron and steel alone dropped as much as 45%.


title: Great Railroad Strike of 1877

text: When the Civil War ended, a boom in railroad construction ensued, with roughly 35,000 miles (55,000 kilometers) of new track being laid from coast to coast between 1866 and 1873. The railroads, then the second-largest employer outside of agriculture, required large amounts of capital investment, and thus entailed massive financial risk. Speculators fed large amounts of money into the industry, causing abnormal growth and over-expansion. Jay Cooke's firm, like many other banking firms, invested a disproportionate share of depositors' funds in the railroads, thus laying the track for the ensuing collapse.


title: Great Railroad Strike of 1877

text: In addition to Cooke's direct infusion of capital in the railroads, the firm had become a federal agent for the government in the government's direct financing of railroad construction. As building new track in areas where land had not yet been cleared or settled required land grants and loans that only the government could provide, the use of Jay Cooke's firm as a conduit for federal funding worsened the effects that Cooke's bankruptcy had on the nation's economy.


title: Great Railroad Strike of 1877

text: In the wake of the Panic of 1873, a bitter antagonism between workers and the leaders of industry developed. Immigration from Europe was underway, as was migration of rural workers into the cities, increasing competition for jobs and enabling companies to drive down wages and easily lay off workers. By 1877, 10 percent wage cuts, distrust of capitalists and poor working conditions led to workers conducting numerous railroad strikes that prevented the trains from moving, with spiraling effects in other parts of the economy. Suppressed by violence, workers continued to organize to try to improve their conditions. Management worked to break up such movements, and mainstream society feared labor organizing as signs of revolutionary socialism. Tensions lingered well after the depression ended in 1878–79.


title: Great Railroad Strike of 1877

text: Many of the new immigrant workers were Catholics, and their church had forbidden participation in secret societies since 1743, partially as a reaction against the anti-Catholicism of Freemasonry. But by the late 19th century, the Knights of Labor, a national and predominately European and Catholic organization, had 700,000 members seeking to represent all workers. In 1888 Archbishop James Cardinal Gibbons of Baltimore sympathized with the workers and collaborated with other bishops to lift the prohibition against workers joining the KOL. Other workers also took actions, and unrest marked the following decades. In 1886 Samuel Gompers founded the American Federation of Labor for the skilled craft trades, attracting skilled workers from other groups. Other labor organizing followed.


title: Great Railroad Strike of 1877

text: The Great Railroad Strike of 1877 started on July 14 in Martinsburg, West Virginia, in response to the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad (B&O) cutting wages of workers for the third time in a year. Striking workers would not allow any of the trains, mainly freight trains, to roll until this third wage cut was revoked. West Virginia Governor Henry M. Mathews sent in National Guard units to restore train service but the soldiers refused to fire on the strikers. The governor then appealed for federal troops.


title: Great Railroad Strike of 1877

text: Meanwhile, the Strike also spread into western Maryland to the major railroad hub of Cumberland, county seat of Allegany County where railway workers stopped freight and passenger traffic.


title: Great Railroad Strike of 1877

text: In Baltimore, the famous Fifth ("Dandy Fifth") and Sixth Regiments of the former state militia, reorganized since the Civil War as the Maryland National Guard, were called up by Maryland Governor John Lee Carroll, at the request of powerful B. & O. President John Work Garrett. The Fifth marched down North Howard Street from its armory above the old Richmond Market (at present North Howard and West Read Streets) in the Mount Vernon-Belvedere neighborhood and were generally unopposed heading south for the B. & O.'s general headquarters and main depot at the Camden Street Station to board waiting westward trains to Hagerstown and Cumberland.


title: Great Railroad Strike of 1877

text: The Sixth assembled at its armory at East Fayette and North Front Streets (by the old Phoenix Shot Tower) in the Old Town /Jonestown area and headed to Camden. It had to fight its way west through sympathetic Baltimore citizens, rioters and striking workers. The march erupted into bloodshed along Baltimore Street, the main downtown commercial thoroughfare, the way to get to Camden. It was a horrible scene reminiscent of the worst of the bloody "Pratt Street Riots" of the Civil War era in April 1861, over 15 years earlier. When the outnumbered troops of the 6th Regiment finally fired volleys on an attacking crowd, they killed 10 civilians and wounded 25. The rioters injured several members of the National Guard, damaged B. & O. engines and train cars, and burned portions of the train station at South Howard and West Camden Streets. The National Guard was trapped in the Camden Yards, besieged by armed rioters until July 21–22, when President Rutherford B. Hayes sent federal troops and the U.S. Marines to Baltimore to restore order.


title: Great Railroad Strike of 1877

text: There were strike actions also further north in Albany, Syracuse and Buffalo, New York on other railroad lines. On July 25, 1877, workers gathered on Van Woert Street Rail Crossing in Albany, New York. The workers waited for a train arrival then proceeded to barrage the train with projectiles. The arrival of militiamen caused the crowd to rouse and throw their projectiles at the militia. A second night proceeded of attacks on the rail line. After the second night the mayor rescinded the militia and ordered local police to protect the rail. Workers in the cities in industries other than railroads still attacked them because of how they cut through the cities and dominated city life. Their resentment of the railroads' economic power was expressed in physical attacks against them at a time when many workers' wages were lowered. Protestors "included cross-class elements from other work sites, small businesses, and commercial establishments. Some protestors acted out of solidarity with the strikers, but many more vented militant displeasure against dangerous railroad traffic that crisscrossed urban centers in that area."


title: Great Railroad Strike of 1877

text: Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania became the site of the worst violence of related strikes. Thomas Alexander Scott of the Pennsylvania Railroad, described as one of the first robber barons, suggested that the strikers should be given "a rifle diet for a few days and see how they like that kind of bread." As in some other cities and towns, local law enforcement officers such as sheriffs, deputies and police refused to fire on the strikers. Several Pennsylvania National Guard units were ordered into service by Governor John Hartranft, including the 3rd Pennsylvania Infantry Regiment under the command of Colonel George R. Snowden.


title: Great Railroad Strike of 1877

text: On July 21, National Guard members bayoneted and fired on rock-throwing strikers, killing 20 people and wounding 29. Rather than quell the uprising, these actions infuriated the strikers, who retaliated and forced the National Guard to take refuge in a railroad roundhouse. Strikers set fires that razed 39 buildings and destroyed rolling stock: 104 locomotives and 1,245 freight and passenger cars. On July 22, the National Guard mounted an assault on the strikers, shooting their way out of the roundhouse and killing 20 more people on their way out of the city. After more than a month of rioting and bloodshed in Pittsburgh, President Rutherford B. Hayes sent in federal troops as in West Virginia and Maryland to end the strikes.


title: Great Railroad Strike of 1877

text: Three hundred miles to the east, Philadelphia strikers battled local National Guard units and set fire to much of Center City before Pennsylvania Governor John Hartranft gained assistance and federal troops from President Hayes to put down the uprising.


title: Great Railroad Strike of 1877

text: Workers in Reading, Pennsylvania's third-largest industrial city at the time, also broke out into a strike. This city was home of the engine works and shops of the Philadelphia and Reading Railway, against which engineers had struck since April 1877. The National Guard shot 16 citizens. Preludes to the massacre included: fresh work stoppage by all classes of the railroad's local workforce; mass marches; blocking of rail traffic; and trainyard arson. Workers burned down the only railroad bridge offering connections to the west, in order to prevent local National Guard companies from being mustered to actions in the state capital of Harrisburg or Pittsburgh. Authorities used the National Guard, local police and Pinkerton detectives in an attempt to break the strike.


title: Great Railroad Strike of 1877

text: Philadelphia and Reading Railway management mobilized a private militia, the members of which committed the shootings in the city.


title: Great Railroad Strike of 1877

text: On July 25, 1,000 men and boys, many of them coal miners, marched to the Reading Railroad Depot in Shamokin, east of Sunbury along the Susquehanna River valley. They looted the depot when the town announced it would pay them only $1/day for emergency public employment. The mayor, who owned coal mines, organized an unofficial militia. It committed 14 civilian shooting casualties, resulting in the deaths of two persons.


title: Great Railroad Strike of 1877

text: On August 1, 1877, in Scranton in northeast Pennsylvania, one day after railroad workers commenced a strike, a city posse of 51 men armed with new rifles and under the command of William Walker Scranton, general manager of the Lackawanna Iron & Coal Company, returned fire on a group of rioters, strikers, and, most likely, bystanders. The posse immediately killed or fatally wounded four and wounded an undetermined number of others, estimated at 20 to 50, according to different sources.


title: Great Railroad Strike of 1877

text: Pennsylvania Governor Hartranft declared Scranton to be under martial law; it was occupied by state and federal troops armed with Gatling guns. Later the posse leader and about 20 of his men were charged with assault and murder. They were all acquitted. Under military occupation, and suffering the effects of protracted violence against them, the miners ended their strike without achieving any of their demands.


title: Great Railroad Strike of 1877

text: On July 24, rail traffic in Chicago was paralyzed when angry mobs of unemployed citizens wreaked havoc in the rail yards, shutting down both the Baltimore and Ohio and the Illinois Central railroads. Soon, other railroads throughout the state were brought to a standstill, with demonstrators shutting down railroad traffic in Bloomington, Aurora, Peoria, Decatur, Urbana and other rail centers throughout Illinois. In sympathy, coal miners in the pits at Braidwood, LaSalle, Springfield, and Carbondale went on strike as well. In Chicago, the Workingmen's Party organized demonstrations that drew crowds of 20,000 people.


title: Great Railroad Strike of 1877

text: Judge Thomas Drummond of the United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit, who was overseeing numerous railroads that had declared bankruptcy in the wake of the earlier financial Panic of 1873, ruled that "A strike or other unlawful interference with the trains will be a violation of the United States law, and the court will be bound to take notice of it and enforce the penalty." Drummond told the U.S. Marshals to protect the railroads, and asked for federal troops to enforce his decision: he subsequently had strikers arrested and tried them for contempt of court.


title: Great Railroad Strike of 1877

text: The Mayor of Chicago, Monroe Heath, recruited 5,000 men as an unofficial militia, asking for help in restoring order. They were partially successful, and shortly thereafter were reinforced by the arrival of the Illinois National Guard and U.S. Army troops, mobilized by the governor. On July 25, violence between police and the mob erupted, with events reaching a peak the following day. These blood-soaked confrontations between police and enraged mobs are known as the Battle of the Viaduct as they took place near the Halsted Street viaduct, although confrontations also took place at nearby 16th Street, on 12th, and on Canal Street. The headline of the "Chicago Times" screamed, "Terrors Reign, The Streets of Chicago Given Over to Howling Mobs of Thieves and Cutthroats." Order was finally restored. An estimated 20 men and boys died, none of whom were law enforcement or troops; scores more were wounded, and the loss of property was valued in the millions of dollars.


title: Great Railroad Strike of 1877

text: On July 21, workers in the industrial rail hub of East St. Louis, Illinois, halted all freight traffic, with the city remaining in the control of the strikers for almost a week. The St. Louis Workingman's Party led a group of approximately 500 men across the Missouri River in an act of solidarity with the nearly 1,000 workers on strike. It was a catalyst for labor unrest spreading, with thousands of workers in several industries striking for the eight-hour day and a ban on child labor. This was the first such general strike in the United States.


title: Great Railroad Strike of 1877

text: The strike on both sides of the river was ended after the governor appealed for help and gained the intervention of some 3,000 federal troops and 5,000 deputized special police. These armed forces killed at least eighteen people in skirmishes around the city. On July 28, 1877, they took control of the Relay Depot, the command center for the uprising, and arrested some seventy strikers.


title: Great Railroad Strike of 1877

text: The Great Railroad Strike of 1877 began to lose momentum when President Hayes sent federal troops from city to city. These troops suppressed strike after strike, until approximately 45 days after it had started, the Great Railroad Strike of 1877 was over.


title: Great Railroad Strike of 1877

text: Momentum from the East Coast strikes and the long-brewing anti-Chinese sentiment led to three days of deadly violence. A rally in support of workers' rights quickly turned into violence directed at the city's Chinese residents.


title: Great Railroad Strike of 1877

text: Strikers in Pittsburgh burned in total 39 buildings, 104 engines, 46–66 passenger cars, and 1,200–1,383 freight cars. Damage estimates ranged from five to 10 million dollars.


title: Great Railroad Strike of 1877

text: After the Great Railroad Strike of 1877, union organizers planned for their next battles while politicians and business leaders took steps to prevent a repetition of this chaos. Many states enacted conspiracy statutes. States formed new National Guard units and constructed armories in numerous industrial cities. For workers and employers alike, the strikes had shown the power of workers in combination to challenge the status quo. A National Guard member in Pittsburgh, ordered to break the 1877 strike, pointed out that the workers were driven by "one spirit and one purpose among them – that they were justified in resorting to any means to break down the power of the corporations."


title: Great Railroad Strike of 1877

text: Unions became better organized as well as more competent, and the number of strikes increased. The tumultuous Knights of Labor grew to be a national organization of predominately white Catholic workers, numbering 700,000 by the early 1880s. In the 1880s nearly 10,000 strike actions and lockouts took place. In 1886 nearly 700,000 workers went on strike. Business leaders strengthened their opposition to the unions, often firing men who tried to organize or join them. Nonetheless, the labor movement continued to grow.


title: Great Railroad Strike of 1877

text: One result of the strike was increased public awareness of the grievances of railroad workers. On May 1, 1880, the B&O Railroad, which had the lowest wage rate of any major railroad, established the Baltimore and Ohio Employees' Relief Association, which provided coverage for sickness, injury from accidents, and a death benefit. In 1884, the B&O became the first major employer to offer a pension plan.


title: Great Railroad Strike of 1877

text: Militias had almost completely disappeared in the Midwest after the Civil War, leaving many cities defenseless to civil unrest.


title: Great Railroad Strike of 1877

text: In response to the Great Strike, West Virginia Governor Henry M. Mathews was the first state commander-in-chief to call-up militia units to restore peace. This action has been viewed in retrospect as a catalyst that would transform the National Guard. In the years to come the Guard would quell strikers and double their forces; in the years 1886-1895, the Guard put down 328 civil disorders, mostly in the industrial states of Illinois, Pennsylvania, Ohio and New York; workers came to see the guardsmen as tools of their employers. Attempts to utilize the National Guard to quell violent outbreaks in 1877 highlighted its ineffectiveness, and in some cases its propensity to side with strikers and rioters. In response, as earlier riots in the mid-1800s had prompted the modernization of police forces, the violence of 1877 provided the impetus for modernizing the National Guard, "to aid the civil officers, to suppress or prevent riot or insurrections."


title: Great Railroad Strike of 1877

text: In 2003 the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad Martinsburg Shops, where the strike began, were declared a National Historic Landmark.


title: Great Railroad Strike of 1877

text: In 2013 a historical marker commemorating the event was placed in Baltimore, MD, by the Maryland Historical Trust and Maryland State Highway Administration. Its inscription reads:


title: Great Railroad Strike of 1877

text: The first national strike began July 16, 1877, with Baltimore and Ohio Railroad workers in Martinsburg, West Virginia, and Baltimore, Maryland. It spread across the nation halting rail traffic and closing factories in reaction to widespread worker discontent over wage cuts and conditions during a national depression. Broken by Federal troops in early August, the strike energized the labor movement and was precursor to labor unrest in the 1880s and 1890s.


title: Great Railroad Strike of 1877

text: Another was placed in 1978 in Martinsburg, WV by the West Virginia Department of Culture and History.


title: Great Railroad Strike of 1877

text: The use of federal troops prompted bipartisan support for the 1878 Posse Comitatus Act, limiting the power of the president to use federal troops for domestic law enforcement.


title: Brittney Karbowski

text: Brittney Marie Karbowski (born ; June 26, 1986) is an American voice actress who has voiced in a number of English-language versions of Japanese anime series for Funimation, Sentai Filmworks and ADV Films.


title: Brittney Karbowski

text: Karbowski was born on June 26, 1986 in Sugar Land, Texas. She graduated Kempner High School in 2004 and attended University of Houston briefly where she majored in theater.


title: Brittney Karbowski

text: Karbowski started her acting career in theater productions such as "Little Shop of Horrors", "Seussical", and "Pirates of Penzance" in Houston, Texas. While playing Janet in a local stage production of "The Rocky Horror Show", she was noticed by a director from ADV Films. Her start into the anime business occurred in 2004, when she was asked to be an extra in the series "Gantz". By December 2006 she stated that Fuko from "Gilgamesh" was her favorite dub as she thought the character was "cute and wicked, but wicked in a good way". She eventually received starring roles as Himeko Katagiri in "Pani Poni Dash" and as in "" through her work at ADV Films. Karbowski started voicing for Funimation in 2007 with a starring role as Mai in "Itsudatte My Santa!". She also expanded her voice acting to other venues when she voiced her first video game character in 2007 as Pinkun in "Akiba's Beat". ADV Films ultimately ceased operations in 2008, and several properties were transferred to Funimation. It was also during this time that she voiced the lead heroine Ayu Tsukimiya in "Kanon" after the title transfer had taken place. Karbowski has since dubbed dozens of characters including both major and minor roles through Funimation.


title: Brittney Karbowski

text: Karbowski has also had roles in films such as Celie in "Up & Down", Susie in "Puncture" and a backpack girl in "The Starving Games". She was slated to be a lead character Zax in the science fiction "Code of Evil". Karbowski starred in the 2014 horror film "Atrocity".


title: Two Mules for Sister Sara

text: Two Mules for Sister Sara is a 1970 American-Mexican Western film in Panavision directed by Don Siegel and starring Shirley MacLaine (billed above Clint Eastwood in the film's credits, but not on the poster) set during the French intervention in Mexico (1861–1867). The film was to have been the first in a five-year exclusive association between Universal Pictures and Sanen Productions of Mexico. It was the second of five collaborations between Siegel and Eastwood, following "Coogan's Bluff" (1968). The collaboration continued with "The Beguiled" and "Dirty Harry" (both 1971) and finally "Escape from Alcatraz" (1979).


title: Two Mules for Sister Sara

text: The plot follows an American mercenary who gets mixed up with a nun and aids a group of Juarista rebels during the puppet reign of Emperor Maximilian in Mexico. The film featured both American and Mexican actors and actresses, including being filmed in the picturesque countryside near Tlayacapan, Morelos. Ennio Morricone composed the film's music.


title: Two Mules for Sister Sara

text: Just after the American Civil War, a former soldier named Hogan (Clint Eastwood) rides up on a naked woman about to be raped by bandits. He kills the bandits and discovers the woman is a nun, Sister Sara (Shirley MacLaine), who is raising money to assist Mexican revolutionaries fighting French occupying forces. When Sara requests that Hogan take her to the Mexican camp he agrees, as he had previously arranged to help the revolutionaries attack the French garrison, in exchange for half the garrison's treasury.