title: War (The Temptations song)

text: "War" was performed in concert by Bruce Springsteen and the E Street Band in 1985, added to the set list for the final few shows of their lengthy Born in the U.S.A. Tour. Springsteen and his manager Jon Landau were looking for a way to make these concluding shows, taking place at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum, a little different and special, and Landau suggested playing "War". A year earlier, he had suggested the same, as a loose protest against Reagan Administration foreign policy in Central America and elsewhere, but the band had been unable to come up with an effective arrangement. This time, however, they did. Springsteen taped the words of the song to his arm, prefaced the song with a spoken admonition not to blindly trust the government, leaders or anything else, and then he and the band performed a rock rendition.


title: War (The Temptations song)

text: Springsteen released the September 30, 1985 performance as a part of his 1986 box set, "Live/1975–85". "War" was chosen as the first single from the set, and it was again a big hit, reaching No. 8 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart. The music video for the single was a straight concert filming of the same performance.


title: War (The Temptations song)

text: Springsteen continued to perform "War" regularly through his 1988 Tunnel of Love Express and Human Rights Now! Tours. He then retired it for 11 years until a one-off guest spot by Edwin Starr during the Reunion Tour. Springsteen brought the song back for six performances on his 2003 Rising Tour before and in the early days of the Iraq War. Springsteen hasn't, to date, performed the song since 2003.


title: Iridescent shark

text: The iridescent shark, iridescent shark catfish (Pangasianodon hypophthalmus) is a species of shark catfish (family Pangasiidae) native to the rivers of Southeast Asia. Despite its name, it is not a shark. It is found in the Mekong basin as well as the Chao Phraya River, and is heavily cultivated for food there.


title: Iridescent shark

text: The meat is often marketed under the common name swai (from Thai สวาย). It has also been introduced into other river basins as a food source, and its striking appearance and iridescence have made it popular with fishkeeping hobbyists, among whom it is also known as the Siamese shark catfish or sutchi catfish. The swai's omnivorous diet consists of crustaceans, other fish, and plant matter.


title: Iridescent shark

text: The fish is named for the glow or iridescence exhibited in juveniles, as well as the shark-like appearance of this and other shark catfish.


title: Iridescent shark

text: Adults reach up to in length and can weigh up to a maximum of . They have a shiny, iridescent color that gives these fish their name. However, large adults are uniformly grey. The fins are dark grey or black. Juveniles have a black stripe along the lateral line and a second black stripe below the lateral line.


title: Iridescent shark

text: Iridescent sharks originate from the large rivers Chao Phraya and Mekong in Asia, though they have been introduced into other rivers for aquaculture. They are a freshwater fish that natively live in a tropical climate and prefer water with a 6.5–7.5 pH, a water hardness of 2.0–29 dGH, and a temperature range of . They prefer large bodies of water similar to the deep waters of their native Mekong river basin.


title: Iridescent shark

text: The iridescent shark is a migratory fish that in most regions moves upstream to spawn during the flood season while the waters are high and returns downstream to seek rearing habitats when the river water levels recede. The dates of the migrations vary depending on the river system. In the Mekong river basin, they migrate upstream in May to July and return downstream during September through December. South of the Khone Falls, upstream migration occurs in October to February, with its peak in November to December; here, it appears to be triggered by receding waters at the end of the flood season.


title: Iridescent shark

text: In August 2015, an environmental group in Santander, Colombia, confirmed that iridescent sharks had been found in one of the tributaries that feed into the Magdalena River, having been accidentally introduced from illegal farm fisheries in the area. The find has caused alarm amongst the scientific community and government officials, as the Magdalena river is home to over 200 native fish species, 35 of which are endangered.


title: Iridescent shark

text: Iridescent sharks are also introduced to other Southeast asia countries for food especially Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia and Myanmar, In Malaysia, Singapore and Indonesia they are called ikan patin (which 'ikan' means fish in malay and indonesian), Malaysian Chinese prefer them steamed or cooked in whole, while Malay prefer cooking these fishes with Tempoyak and Curry.


title: Iridescent shark

text: Pangasius does not have a gourmet reputation and is sold cheaply as swai (, from Thai สวาย "s̄wāy") in the United States, panga (or pangas) in Europe and cream dory and basa in several Asian countries and in the UK.


title: Iridescent shark

text: Despite its lowly reputation, the total export of pangasius from Vietnam reached US$1.8 billion in 2014.


title: Iridescent shark

text: Pangasius fillets are an increasingly popular product because of their low cost, mild taste and firm texture. Recipes for other whitefish such as sole or halibut can be adapted to pangasius.


title: Iridescent shark

text: Pangasius is an omnivorous fish, and thus does not require a high level of animal protein in its diet. Typical grading sizes are , , and .


title: Iridescent shark

text: While juvenile iridescent sharks are sold as pets for home aquariums, they are not easy fish to keep. Iridescent sharks are schooling fish that prefer groups, are accustomed to living in rivers, and are active fish that require space. They have very poor eyesight, so detected movement from outside of their habitat can be seen as a threat. If stressed, their first instinct is to flee; a blind dash can cause injury in an aquarium environment. These injuries may result in the fish sinking to the bottom, where it may lie on its side or back until it recovers.


title: Iridescent shark

text: Iridescent sharks require a minimum tank size of to develop naturally. Schools require even larger tanks. If given enough room and fed adequately, they can reach in length. In most home aquaria, the lack of space stunts their growth. For this reason, most iridescent sharks kept in home aquaria grow to in length only and may die prematurely. When provided adequately sized aquaria and proper husbandry, iridescent sharks may live into their teens and grow to full size.


title: Sandal

text: Sandals are an open type of footwear, consisting of a sole held to the wearer's foot by straps going over the instep and around the ankle. Sandals can also have a heel. While the distinction between sandals and other types of footwear can sometimes be blurry (as in the case of "huaraches"—the woven leather footwear seen in Mexico, and peep-toe pumps), the common understanding is that a sandal leaves all or most of the foot exposed. People may choose to wear sandals for several reasons, among them comfort in warm weather, economy (sandals tend to require less material than shoes and are usually easier to construct), and as a fashion choice.


title: Sandal

text: Usually, people wear sandals in warmer climates or during warmer parts of the year in order to keep their feet cool and dry. The risk of developing athlete's foot is lower than with enclosed shoes, and the wearing of sandals may be part of the treatment regimen for such an infection.


title: Sandal

text: The oldest known sandals (and the oldest known footwear of any type) were discovered in Fort Rock Cave in the U.S. state of Oregon; radiocarbon dating of the sagebrush bark from which they were woven indicates an age of at least 10,000 years.


title: Sandal

text: The ancient Egyptians wore sandals made of palm tree-leaves and papyrus. They are sometimes observable on the feet of Egyptian statues and in reliefs, being carried by sandal-bearers. According to Herodotus, sandals of papyrus were a part of the required and characteristic dress of the Egyptian priests.


title: Sandal

text: In Ancient Greece sandals were the most common type of footwear that women wore and spent most of their time at home. The Greek sandals featured a multitude of straps with which they securely fastened to the foot. The top of the sandals were usually of colored leather. The soles were made of cattle skin, of even better quality and made up of several layers. In Ancient Rome residents used to carve their boots and sandals with elaborate designs.


title: Sandal

text: In Ancient Levant sandals ("Biblical sandals") were made from non-processed leather and dry grass, and had strings or ropes made of simple, cheap materials. Occasionally golden or silver beads and even gems were added.


title: Sandal

text: A sandal may have a sole made from rubber, leather, wood, tatami or rope. It may be held to the foot by a narrow thong that generally passes between the first and second toe, or by a strap or lace, variously called a latchet, sabot strap or sandal, that passes over the arch of the foot or around the ankle. A sandal may or may not have a heel (either low or high) or heel strap.


title: Kamran Akmal

text: Kamran Akmal (Urdu, ; born 13 January 1982) is a Pakistani former cricketer, who played for Pakistan as a right-handed batsman & wicketkeeper. He started his international career in November 2002 with a Test match at Harare Sports Club.


title: Kamran Akmal

text: Kamran Akmal was a quick-scoring batsman and a wicket-keeper, who has achieved 6 centuries in Test cricket. However, his first century was vital – his 109 from the number eight position at Mohali, coming in with Pakistan in a lead of 39 against India in the first Test, ensured that the visitors could draw the match. His form against the touring England in 2005 made him one of the most important players in the team. Naturally, he is a batsman that plays lower down the order but has also opened in limited over formats. As an opener he has scored two back to back centuries in ODIs against England. Coming in lower down the order in Test matches, he played one memorable innings. He saved Pakistan from a score of 39/6, scoring a century, to a competitive 245 which helped Pakistan win the match and the series.


title: Kamran Akmal

text: His batting was highly productive in early 2006 as he scored seven international hundreds within the space of 6 months. Since his tour of England in Summer 2006 however his batting form dwindled and steadily become worse. His wicket-keeping also worsened and dropped many catches on both the England tour and on a tour to South Africa in early 2007. He then scored an international hundred in the Bangladeshi tour of Pakistan in 2008. He later moved to have some injuries and did not play for some days but later he was again brought into the team.


title: Kamran Akmal

text: Akmal was dropped for the 2008 Asia Cup as a result of his poor wicket-keeping. He was replaced by Sarfraz Ahmed who performed very well at the domestic level and also because of Sarfraz's strong showing in the U-19 World Cup. Akmal was named in the 30-man probable squad for the 2008 ICC Champions Trophy.


title: Kamran Akmal

text: Akmal was part of the Pakistan team that won the T20 World Cup in 2009. He was notable for his quick stumpings, dismissing 4 batsmen in one match against Netherlands.


title: Kamran Akmal

text: On 12 November 2008, Akmal hit three consecutive 6s in the last over. As a result, Pakistan won the first ODI in Abu Dhabi against West Indies.


title: Kamran Akmal

text: On 17 July 2010, Akmal was appointed the vice-captain of the Pakistani test squad but later removed because of his alleged involvement in spot fixing.


title: Kamran Akmal

text: In Feb–March 2017, he played for Peshawar Zalmi in Pakistan Super League 2017. In the 3rd Qualifying match he scored 104 runs, the first century in PSL 2017. In this match Peshawar Zalmi won and moved to final of PSL for first time.


title: Kamran Akmal

text: In the 2nd Test match in Sydney on the 2009–10 tour of Australia, Akmal dropped four catches in the Australian innings, three of those coming from Michael Hussey. Hussey went on to score 134* and was involved in a massive 9th wicket partnership stand of 133 runs with Peter Siddle. Pakistan eventually lost the match by 36 runs, after being bowled out for just 139 in the second innings. Later, it was alleged that he, along with pace bowler Rana Naved-ul-Hasan were involved in match fixing, and were questioned by Pakistan Cricket Board and subsequently dropped for the Twenty20 series against England.


title: Kamran Akmal

text: In early September 2010, the International Cricket Council (ICC) sent an official notice to him telling him that he is under investigation for allegedly fixing the Sydney Test. For the subsequent series against South Africa in October 2010, Akmal had an operation to remove his appendix and was unavailable for the limited-overs squad. Akmal was able to recover from the operation to participate in the two-match test series but Zulqarnain Haider was selected instead of him. Another reason also emerged that Kamran Akmal, Shoaib Malik, Umar Amin and Yasir Hameed were not selected for the tour because of suspicions being raised regarding their involvement in the spot-fixing scandal that included Salman Butt, Mohammad Amir and Mohammad Asif. Wahab Riaz was also under investigation for match-fixing but the ICC interrogated him and excluded him from the investigation, therefore, he was allowed to take part on the tour against South Africa that included two Twenty20 Internationals, five ODI matches and two Test matches. Though this has not been confirmed by the board, it is believed that the reason they were not picked was that the suspicion had not been cleared. The ICC confirmed that Akmal had been barred from entering the team. Once his investigation was completed he was available for national selection.


title: Kamran Akmal

text: Kamran Akmal has always been criticized for his lack of consistent wicket-keeping. He has often been a subject of ridicule by being referred to as a goal keeper rather than a wicket-keeper.


title: Kamran Akmal

text: After another horrendous series behind the stumps against Sri Lanka in January 2009, journalists and former players called for his removal from the national team. His wicket-keeping steadily improved, with a very strong showing in the 2009 T20 World Cup, including a world-record performance of four stumpings in a single match against the Netherlands. However, during the second test against Australia at the Sydney Cricket Ground, he dropped four catches including three chances from Michael Hussey in one session on Day 4. Hussey went on to score a match-winning century resulting in Pakistan's defeat despite dominating the first three days of the match. He was subsequently dropped for the third test, being replaced by Sarfraz Ahmed. After this tour, Akmal saw a steady improvement in his wicket-keeping for the 2010 ICC World Twenty20, 2010 Asia Cup and against Australia in July 2010. However, in the next test series against England, Akmal dropped three easy catches and missed a stumping chance. During the match, he took a superb catch of Kevin Pietersen before dropping a catch of Paul Collingwood on the very next ball. In the first innings, Akmal dropped a catch of Eoin Morgan when he was on 23 and then went on to score 130. Despite having another keeper, Zulqarnain Haider, in the squad, Pakistani captain Salman Butt announced it was too early to decide the fate of Kamran Akmal, as just one match has been played.


title: Kamran Akmal

text: On 13 October 2020, in the 2020–21 National T20 Cup, Akmal became the first wicket-keeper to affect 100 stumpings in Twenty20 cricket.


title: Kamran Akmal

text: Akmal was signed on to the Rajasthan Royals, and played in the inaugural season of the IPL. He played five matches in the tournament, as a Wicket-keeper and top-order batsman, including the final of the tournament against the Chennai Super Kings. He took two catches in the first innings, however, he was run out for only six runs during the Royal's chase. The Royals won the tournament after a thrilling finish. He did not participated in the IPL 2009 because Pakistani players were not allowed to play in that season as a result of the tense atmosphere after the 2008 Mumbai attacks.


title: Kamran Akmal

text: Kamran was picked ("bought") for US$70,000 by the Peshawar Zalmi side. He had an average scoring of just 151 runs in the 2016 season scoring, with a highest score of 45. He was retained on the back of his tremendous performance in 2016–17 Quaid-e-Azam Trophy. In the inaugural match of 2017 season against Islamabad United, he scored 88 runs off just 48 balls. He lost his rhythm in the middle of the season but found his form at right time against Karachi Kings in a do-or-die match scoring a century off just 60 balls, ensuring his team a place in the final. He was later adjudged player-of-the-match. He finished the tournament as the leading run-scorer with 353 runs and won the green cap and the Hanif Mohammad Award for best batsman, as well as the Imtiaz Ahmed award for the best wicket keeper of the season with a total of 12 dismissals.


title: Kamran Akmal

text: In 2015, Kamran Akmal played for Trinbago Knight Riders in Caribbean Premier League (CPL). In 2017, he was signed by Saint Lucia Kings in Caribbean Premier League (CPL). On 3 June 2018, he was selected to play for the Toronto Nationals in the players' draft for the inaugural edition of the Global T20 Canada tournament. In September 2018, he was named in Balkh's squad in the first edition of the Afghanistan Premier League tournament. In November 2020, he was signed by Dambulla Hawks in the Lanka Premier League but he pulled out after few days due to shoulder injury.


title: Kamran Akmal

text: Kamran was picked by the Maratha Arabians side in the inaugural edition of T10 League held in UAE. He was retained by the franchise for the 2nd edition as well. Kamran Akmal played in the first edition of Qatar T10 League in 2019 where he was picked by Swift Gallopers.


title: Kamran Akmal

text: In the 2016–17 Quaid-e-Azam Trophy, Akmal was the highest run-scorer in the tournament making 1,035 runs. In November 2017, he scored 150 not out batting for Lahore Whites against Islamabad in the 2017–18 National T20 Cup. He became the first batsman for Pakistan to score 150 runs in a T20 match. He also hit the most number of sixes in a domestic T20 match in Pakistan and became the third batsman to make five consecutive fifties in T20 cricket. During the 2017–18 National T20 Cup he along with Salman Butt set the world record opening partnership in T20 history of unbeaten 209 runstand, surpassing the previous highest opening partnership of 207 in any form of T20 cricket held by Joe Denly and Daniel Bell-Drummond. The record runstand was also the third highest partnership in terms of runs for any wicket in T20 history.


title: Kamran Akmal

text: In April 2018, he was named as the captain of Federal Areas' squad for the 2018 Pakistan Cup. In the opening fixture of the tournament, against Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, he scored 105 runs and was named the man of the match. He was the leading run-scorer for Federal Areas in the tournament, with 313 runs in four matches. In March 2019, he was named as the captain of Punjab's squad for the 2019 Pakistan Cup.


title: Kamran Akmal

text: In September 2019, he was named in Central Punjab's squad for the 2019–20 Quaid-e-Azam Trophy tournament.


title: Kamran Akmal

text: Two of his brothers, Adnan Akmal and Umar Akmal, are also professional cricketers, the former being a wicket-keeper batsman and the latter being a specialist batsman as well as a part-time wicket-keeper. Pakistani batsman and current captain Babar Azam is also his first cousin. He married the daughter of former Test cricketer Mohammad Ilyas in 2006 and lives with his wife and children. He is a matriculated of Central Model School, Lahore.


title: Republic of Afghanistan (1973–1978)

text: The Republic of Afghanistan (, ; , ) was the first republic in Afghanistan. It is often called the Daoud Republic, as it was established in July 1973 after General "Sardar" Mohammed Daoud Khan deposed his cousin, King Mohammed Zahir Shah, in a "coup d'état". General Daoud was known for his autocracy and attempts to modernize the country with help from both the Soviet Union and the United States, among others.


title: Republic of Afghanistan (1973–1978)

text: In 1978, a military coup known as the Saur Revolution took place, instigated by the communist People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan, in which Daoud and his family were killed. The "Daoud Republic" was subsequently succeeded by the Soviet-allied Democratic Republic of Afghanistan.


title: Republic of Afghanistan (1973–1978)

text: In July 1973, while King Mohammed Zahir Shah, the reigning Afghan monarch at the time, was in Italy undergoing eye surgery as well as therapy for lumbago, his cousin and brother-in-law, General "Sardar" Mohammed Daoud Khan, the former Prime Minister, staged a "coup d'état" in Kabul. This "coup" overthrew the Kingdom of Afghanistan and established the Republic of Afghanistan in its place, which was a single-party republic. General Daoud had been forced to resign as Prime Minister by King Zahir a decade earlier. The King abdicated the following month rather than risk an all-out civil war.


title: Republic of Afghanistan (1973–1978)

text: After seizing power, Daoud Khan, who had himself proclaimed as the first President of Afghanistan, established his own political party, the National Revolutionary Party. This party became the sole focus of political activity in the country. In January 1977, a "loya jirga" was convened following the Constitutional Assembly election, and approved a new constitution establishing a presidential one-party state, with political opposition being suppressed, sometimes violently.


title: Republic of Afghanistan (1973–1978)

text: Also in 1973, Mohammad Hashim Maiwandwal, a former Prime Minister, was accused of plotting a coup, though it is unclear if the plan was actually targeting the new republican government or the abolished monarchy. Maiwandwal was arrested and allegedly committed suicide in jail before his trial, but widespread belief says he was tortured to death.


title: Republic of Afghanistan (1973–1978)

text: After General Daoud's 1973 establishment of the Republic of Afghanistan, members of the People's Democratic Party (PDPA) were given positions in the government. In 1976, President Daoud established a seven-year economic plan for the country. He started military training programs with India and commenced economic development talks with Iran. Daoud also turned his attention to oil rich Middle Eastern nations such as Saudi Arabia, Iraq, and Kuwait among others for financial assistance.


title: Republic of Afghanistan (1973–1978)

text: But during Daoud's presidency, relations with the Soviet Union deteriorated. They saw his shift to a more Western-friendly leadership as dangerous, including Daoud's criticism of Cuba's membership in the Non-aligned Movement and Daoud's expulsion of Soviet military and economic advisers. The suppression of political opposition furthermore turned the Soviet-backed PDPA, an important ally in the 1973 coup against the King, against him.


title: Republic of Afghanistan (1973–1978)

text: Daoud in 1978 had achieved little of what he had set out to accomplish. The Afghan economy had not made any real progress and the Afghan standard of living had not risen. Daoud had also garnered much criticism for his single party constitution in 1977 which alienated him from his political supporters.


title: Republic of Afghanistan (1973–1978)

text: When Afghans by 1978 had grown disappointed with the "do nothing" Daoud government, the PDPA government officials alone were identified by some with economic and social reform. By this time, the two main factions of the PDPA, previously locked in a power struggle, had reached a fragile agreement for reconciliation. Communist-sympathizing army officials were by then already planning a move against the government. According to Hafizullah Amin, who became Afghan head of state in 1979, the PDPA had started plotting the coup in 1976, two years before it materialized.


title: Republic of Afghanistan (1973–1978)

text: The PDPA seized power in a brutal military coup in 1978, which is best known as the Saur Revolution. On April 27, troops from the military base at Kabul International Airport started to move towards the center of the capital. It took only 24 hours to consolidate power, with the rapid push including an air raid on the Arg (the Presidential palace), and insurgent army units quickly seized critical institutions and communication lines. The deposed Daoud and most of his family were executed the following day.


title: Republic of Afghanistan (1973–1978)

text: Nur Muhammad Taraki, General Secretary of the PDPA, was proclaimed Chairman of the Presidium of the Revolutionary Council and effectively succeeded Mohammed Daoud Khan as head of state. He simultaneously became head of government of the newly established Democratic Republic of Afghanistan.


title: Republic of Afghanistan (1973–1978)

text: Daoud Khan pursued the policy of "bi-tarafi", meaning "without sides", during the Cold War. He sought investments from the Soviet Union and the United States.


title: Republic of Afghanistan (1973–1978)

text: Daoud Khan heavily focused on education and women's rights during his reign. His government opened many schools and by the time of the Saur Revolution, 1 million Afghan students were enrolled in school, many whom were girls.


title: Default (finance)

text: In finance, default is failure to meet the legal obligations (or conditions) of a loan, for example when a home buyer fails to make a mortgage payment, or when a corporation or government fails to pay a bond which has reached maturity. A national or sovereign default is the failure or refusal of a government to repay its national debt.


title: Default (finance)

text: The biggest private default in history is Lehman Brothers, with over $600 billion when it filed for bankruptcy in 2008. The biggest sovereign default is Greece, with $138 billion in March 2012.


title: Default (finance)

text: The term "default" should be distinguished from the terms "insolvency", illiquidity and "bankruptcy":


title: Default (finance)

text: Default can be of two types: debt services default and technical default. Debt service default occurs when the borrower has not made a scheduled payment of interest or principal. Technical default occurs when an affirmative or a negative covenant is violated.


title: Default (finance)

text: Affirmative covenants are clauses in debt contracts that require firms to maintain certain levels of capital or financial ratios. The most commonly violated restrictions in affirmative covenants are tangible net worth, working capital/short term liquidity, and debt service coverage.


title: Default (finance)

text: Negative covenants are clauses in debt contracts that limit or prohibit corporate actions (e.g. sale of assets, payment of dividends) that could impair the position of creditors. Negative covenants may be continuous or incurrence-based. Violations of negative covenants are rare compared to violations of affirmative covenants.


title: Default (finance)

text: With most debt (including corporate debt, mortgages and bank loans) a covenant is included in the debt contract which states that the total amount owed becomes immediately payable on the first instance of a default of payment. Generally, if the debtor defaults on any debt to the lender, a cross default covenant in the debt contract states that that particular debt is also in default.


title: Default (finance)

text: In corporate finance, upon an uncured default, the holders of the debt will usually initiate proceedings (file a petition of involuntary bankruptcy) to foreclose on any collateral securing the debt. Even if the debt is not secured by collateral, debt holders may still sue for bankruptcy, to ensure that the corporation's assets are used to repay the debt.


title: Default (finance)

text: There are several financial models for analyzing default risk, such as the Jarrow-Turnbull model, Edward Altman's Z-score model, or the structural model of default by Robert C. Merton (Merton Model).


title: Default (finance)

text: Sovereign borrowers such as nation-states generally are not subject to bankruptcy courts in their own jurisdiction, and thus may be able to default without legal consequences. One example is Greece, which defaulted on an IMF loan in 2015. In such cases, the defaulting country and the creditor are more likely to renegotiate the interest rate, length of the loan, or the principal payments.


title: Default (finance)

text: In the 1998 Russian financial crisis, Russia defaulted on its internal debt (GKOs), but did not default on its external Eurobonds. As part of the Argentine economic crisis in 2002, Argentina defaulted on $1 billion of debt owed to the World Bank.


title: Default (finance)

text: In times of acute insolvency crises, it can be advisable for regulators and lenders to preemptively engineer the methodic restructuring of a nation's public debt—also called "orderly default" or "controlled default". Experts who favor this approach to solve a national debt crisis typically argue that a delay in organising an orderly default would wind up hurting lenders and neighboring countries even more.


title: Default (finance)

text: When a debtor "chooses" to default on a loan, despite being able to service it (make payments), this is said to be a strategic default. This is most commonly done for nonrecourse loans, where the creditor cannot make other claims on the debtor; a common example is a situation of negative equity on a mortgage loan in common law jurisdictions such as the United States, which is in general non-recourse. In this latter case, default is colloquially called "jingle mail"—the debtor stops making payments and mails the keys to the creditor, generally a bank.


title: Default (finance)

text: Sovereign borrowers such as nation-states can also choose to default on a loan, even if they are capable of making the payments. In 2008, Ecuador's president Rafael Correa strategically defaulted on a national debt interest payment, stating that he considered the debt "immoral and illegitimate".


title: Default (finance)

text: Consumer default frequently occurs in rent or mortgage payments, consumer credit, or utility payments. A European Union wide analysis identified certain risk groups, such as single households, being unemployed (even after correcting for the significant impact of having a low income), being young (especially being younger than around 50 years old, with somewhat different results for the New Member States, where the elderly were more often at risk as well), being unable to rely on social networks, etc. Even internet illiteracy has been associated with increased default, potentially caused by these households being less likely to find their way to the social benefits they are often entitled to. While effective non-legal debt counseling is usually the preferred -more economic and less disruptive- option, consumer default can end-up in legal debt settlement or consumer bankruptcy procedures, the last ranging from 1-year procedures in the UK to 6-year procedures in Germany.


title: Default (finance)

text: Research in the United States has found that pre-purchase counseling can significantly reduce the rate of defaults.


title: The Indian Express

text: The Indian Express is an English-language Indian daily newspaper founded in 1932. It is published in Mumbai by the Indian Express Group. In 1999, eight years after the group's founder Ramnath Goenka's death in 1991, the group was split between the family members. The southern editions took the name "The New Indian Express", while the northern editions, based in Mumbai, retained the original "Indian Express" name with ""The"" prefixed to the title.


title: The Indian Express

text: In 1932, the "Indian Express" was started by an Ayurvedic doctor, P. Varadarajulu Naidu, at Chennai, being published by his "Tamil Nadu" press. Soon under financial difficulties, he sold the newspaper to Swaminathan Sadanand, the founder of "The Free Press Journal", a national news agency. In 1933, the "Indian Express" opened its second office in Madurai, launching the Tamil edition, "Dinamani". Sadanand introduced several innovations and reduced the price of the newspaper. Faced with financial difficulties, he sold a part of his stake to Ramanath Goenka as convertible debentures. In 1935, when "The Free Press Journal" finally collapsed, and after a protracted court battle with Goenka, Sadanand lost ownership of "Indian Express". In 1939, Goenka bought "Andhra Prabha", another prominent Telugu daily newspaper. The name Three Musketeers was often used for the three dailies namely, Indian Express, Dinamani and Andhra Prabha.


title: The Indian Express

text: In 1940, the whole premises was gutted by fire. "The Hindu", a rival newspaper, helped considerably in re-launching the paper, by getting it printed temporarily at one of its Swadesimithran's press and later offering its recently vacated premises at 2, Mount Road, on rent to Goenka, which later became the landmark Express Estates. This relocation also helped the Express obtain better high speed printing machines. The district judge who did inquiry into the fire concluded that a short circuit or a cigarette butt could have ignited the fire and said that the growing city had inadequate fire control support. In 1952, the paper had a circulation of 44,469.


title: The Indian Express

text: After Ramnath Goenka's death in 1991, two of the grandsons, Manoj Kumar Sonthalia and Vivek Goenka split the group into two. Indian Express Mumbai with all the North Indian editions went to Vivek Goenka, and all the Southern editions which were grouped as Express Publications Madurai Limited with Chennai as headquarters went to MK Sonthalia. "Indian Express" began publishing daily on the internet on 8 July 1996. Five months later, the website "expressindia.com" attracted "700,000 hits every day, excepting weekends when it fell to 60% of its normal levels".


title: Kalpavriksha

text: Kalpavriksha () is a wish-fulfilling divine tree in Indian religions, like Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, and Sikhism. Its earliest descriptions are mentioned in Sanskrit literature. It is also a popular theme in Jain cosmology and Buddhism.


title: Kalpavriksha

text: The Kalpavriksha originated during the Samudra Manthana or the "churning of the ocean" along with Kamadhenu, the divine cow, providing for all needs. The king of the gods, Indra, returned with this tree to his paradise. Kalpavriksha is also identified with many trees such as parijata ("Erythrina variegata"), "Ficus benghalensis", "Acacia", "Madhuca longifolia", "Prosopis cineraria", "Diploknema butyracea", and mulberry tree ("Morus nigra" tree). The tree is also extolled in iconography and literature.


title: Kalpavriksha

text: Kalpavriksha, the tree of life, also meaning "World Tree", finds mention in the Vedic scriptures. In the earliest account of the Samudra Manthana, or the "churning of the ocean of milk". Kalpavriksha emerged from the primal waters during the ocean churning process along with Kamadhenu, the divine cow that bestows all needs. The tree is also said to be the Milky Way or the birthplace of the stars Sirius. The king of the devas, Indra, returned with this Kalpavriksha to his abode in paradise and planted it there. The tree also finds mention in the Sanskrit text Mānāsara, part of "Shilpa Shastras".


title: Kalpavriksha

text: Another story says that Kalpavriksha was located on earth and was transported to Indra's abode after people started misusing it by wishing evil things. In Indra's "Devaloka" it is said that there are five Kalpavrikshas, which are called Mandana, Parijata, Santana, Kalpavriksha, and Harichandana, all of which fulfill various wishes. Kalpavriksha, in particular, is said to be planted at Mt. Meru peak in the middle of Indra's five paradise gardens. It is on account of these wish-granting trees that the asuras waged a perpetual war with the devas as the heavenly gods who exclusively benefited freely from the "divine flowers and fruits" from the Kalpavriksha, whereas the asuras lived comparatively in penury at the lower part of its "trunk and roots". The Parijata is often identified with its terrestrial counterpart, the Indian coral tree ("Eyrthrina indica"), but is most often depicted like a magnolia or frangipani (Sanskrit: champaka) tree. It is described as having roots made of gold, a silver midriff, lapis lazuli boughs, coral leaves, pearl flower, gemstone buds, and diamond fruit. It is also said that Ashokasundari was created from a Kalpavriksha tree to provide relief to Parvati from her loneliness.


title: Kalpavriksha

text: In some versions of Hindu mythology, Shiva and Parvati, after many painful discussions while parting with their daughter Aranyani, gave her away to the divine Kalpavriksha for safekeeping when the demon Andhakasura waged war. Parvati requested Kalpavriksha to bring up her daughter with "safety, wisdom, health and happiness," and to make her Vana Devi, the protector of forests.


title: Kalpavriksha

text: In Jain Cosmology Kalpavrikshas are wish-granting trees which fulfill the desires of people in the initial stages of a world cycle. In initial times children are born in pairs (boy and girl) and don't do any karma. There are 10 Kalpavrikshas which grant 10 distinct wishes such as an abode to reside, garments, utensils, nourishment including fruits and sweets, pleasant music, ornaments, fragrant flowers, shining lamps and a radiant light at night.


title: Kalpavriksha

text: According to Jain cosmology, in the three "Aras" (unequal periods) of the descending arc (Avasarpini), Kalpavrikshas provided all that was needed, but towards the end of the third "ara", the yield from them diminished. Eight types of these trees are described in some texts, each of which provided different objects. Thus from the "Madyanga tree" delicious and nutritious drinks could be obtained; from the "Bhojananga", delicious food; from "yotiranga", light more radiant than the sun and the moon; while from "Dopanga" came indoor light. Other trees provided homes, musical devices, table ware, fine garments, wreaths and scents.


title: Kalpavriksha

text: The "Tiloya Panatti" give the following list: "Pananga", "Turiyanga", "Bhusananga", "Vatthanga", "Bhoyanga", "Alayanga", "Diviyanga", "Bhayananga", "Malanga", "Tejanga" with excellent drinks, music, ornaments, garments, edibles and ready-made dishes, mansions to live in, lamps, utensils and garlands of flowers respectively while the last type, namely "Tejanga", seems to be self-luminous, serving the purpose of heavenly luminaries.


title: Kalpavriksha

text: In Buddhism a small wish granting tree is depicted decorating the upper part of the "long-life vase" held by "longevity deities" like Amitayus and Ushnishavijaya. The goddess Shramana devi holds jeweled branch of Kalpavriksha in her left hand.


title: Kalpavriksha

text: Worship of the "Nyagrodha tree" as a form of non-human worship is depicted in a Buddhist sculpture at Besnagar. This sculpture in Besnagar, also known as Vidisa (Bhilsa), is dated to third century BC and is exhibited in the Calcutta Museum.


title: Kalpavriksha

text: In Myanmar, where Theravada Buddhism is practiced, the significance of the Kalpavriksha is in the form of an annual ritual known as Kathina (presenting a robe) in which the laity present gifts to the monks in the form of money trees. At the kingdom of Ketumati's front gates, it is thought four Kalpavrikshas will spring up from the Earth and provide enough valuables to satisfy all of Jambudvīpa for years.


title: Kalpavriksha

text: In Sikhism, the Sri Guru Granth Sahib's scriptures have various references to the tree, more commonly referring to it as "Parjat", which translates to "Elysian Tree".


title: Kalpavriksha

text: In different states of India some trees are specifically referred to as the Kalpavriksha. These are stated below.


title: Kalpavriksha

text: The banyan tree ("Ficus benghalensis"), also called "Nyagrodha" tree, which grows throughout the country is referred to as Kalpavriksha or Kaplaptaru because of its ability to amply provide for human needs.


title: Kalpavriksha

text: The coconut tree ("Cocos nucifera") found in most regions of the country is called "Kalpavriksha", as every part of it is useful in one way or the other. The coconut water inside the nut is a delicious drink. In dried form it is called copra and is used to manufacture oil. The coconut husk, called coir, is used to make rope. Leaves are used to make huts, fans, mats. Palm sugar is made from budding flower. The dried midrib is used to make boats.


title: Kalpavriksha

text: Ashwatha tree (sacred fig tree) is also known as Kalapvriksha where the deities and Brahma are stated to reside, and it is where sage Narada taught the rishis on the procedure for worshipping the tree and its usefulness.


title: Kalpavriksha

text: Mahua tree ("Madhuca longifolia") holds an important place in the day-to-day life of the tribal people. It is like the Kalpavriksha wish tree called madhu ("Madhuca indica").


title: Kalpavriksha

text: Shami tree ("Prosopis cineraria"), found in desert areas of the country, called in local dialect as "Ajmer" or "jaant" is called Kalpavriksha. In Rajasthan desert area its roots go deep to a depth of . This checks the erosion of the sandy soil of the desert. For this reason the tree stays green even during drought conditions. People of Rajasthan hence regard this tree as Kalpavriksha, because at the time of drought when no grass or fodder is found anywhere the animals are able to sustain by eating its green leaves.


title: Kalpavriksha

text: "Chyur tree" in the high altitudes of the Himalayas growing at an altitude between 500 and 1000 m, known as the Indian butter tree ("Diploknema butyracea"), is called a Kalpavriskha, or tree of paradise by the people of the mountainous region as it yields honey, jaggery and ghee. It is in the shape of an umbrella.


title: Kalpavriksha

text: In Joshimath in Uttarakhand a mulberry tree, which is said to be 2400 years old, is renowned and revered as the Kalpavriksha as it was the location where, in the 8th century, Adi Sankaracharya did "penance" under the tree as he considered it an incarnation of Lord Shiva. It is also believed that sage Durvasa meditated under this tree, in Urgam. The mountain slopes of Kailasa are stated to have a profusion of Kalpavrikshas.


title: Kalpavriksha

text: At Mangaliyawas near Ajmer, Rajasthan, there are two revered trees (Male and Female) which are more than 800 years old, known as Kalpavrikshas. They are worshipped on an Amavasya day in the Hindu month of Shraavana.


title: Kalpavriksha

text: In Tamil Nadu's culture, "tala" ("Borassus flabellifer") a variety of Palmyra palm ("Borassus"), also known as toddy, is referred to as Kalpataru as all its parts have a use. This tree is also native to Asia and South East Asia, has normally a life span of 100 years, grows up to height; its leaves in the shape of a fan are rough texture. The leaves were used for writing in the ancient times.


title: Kalpavriksha

text: In the Harivansh Puraan, the Parijata, baobab tree, is called a Kalpavriksha, or wish bearing tree, which apart from the village of Kintoor, near Barabanki, Uttar Pradesh, is only found in heaven. The tree has mythological link with prince Arjuna of the Pandava clan who is said to have brought it from heaven. His mother Kunti after whom the village Kintoor is named used to offer flowers from this tree to worship Lord Shiva. It is also said that Lord Krishna brought this tree from heaven to please his wife Satyabhama.


title: Kalpavriksha

text: Kalpalatha is another wish fulfilling tree, a creeper, which was extolled during the later part of the Aryan period. It is said that a person standing below this tree would be blessed with beautiful ornaments, dresses and even unmarried girls.


title: Kalpavriksha

text: In iconography, Kalpavriksha, the wish-fulfilling tree, is painted within a picture of a landscape, decorated with flowers, silks, and suspended with jewellery. It is a pattern which has a prominent symbolic meaning. Ornamental Kalpavriksha design was a feature that was adopted on the reverse of the coins and sculptures in the Gupta period.


title: Kalpavriksha

text: Kalpavriksha is also dated to the Dharmachakra period of Buddhism. The paintings of this period depicting the tree with various branches and leaves have a female figure painted on its top part. The female figure is painted from mast upwards holding a bowl in her hand. Similar depiction of female figure with tree representing it as presiding deity was a notable feature during the Sunga period as seen in the image of "Salabhanvka" in the railing pillars.


title: Kalpavriksha

text: In most paintings of Kalpavriksha Shiva and Parvati are a common feature. It forms a canopy over Shiva. In one painting Paravati is paying obeisance to Lord Shiva with her hands held up in adoration when she is blessed with a stream of water from the Kalpavriksha.


title: Kalpavriksha

text: A Kalpavriksha is mentioned in the Sanskrit work Mānāsara as a royal insignia. In Hemādri's work "Caturvargacīntama", the Kalpavriksha is said to be a tree of gold and gem stones.


title: Kalpavriksha

text: In poetry Kalpavriksha is compared to Lakshmi as its sister emerging from the sea. It is born to the Naga King Kumuda, the fifth descendant of Takshaka, along with his sister Kumudavati. It emerged from below the bed of the Sarayu River challenging Kusa considered an incarnation of Vishnu just in the disguise as a son.


title: Kalpavriksha

text: Kalidasa, in his poetry "Meghadūta" epitomizing wish-fulfilling trees found in the capital of the Yaksha king extols the virtues of Kalpavriksha as "the dainties and fineries for the fair women of Alaka, coloured clothes for the body, intoxicating drinks for exciting glances of the eyes, and flowers for decorating the hair and ornaments of various designs".


title: José Benavidez Jr.

text: José Luis Benavidez Jr. (born May 15, 1992) is an American professional boxer, currently fighting at welterweight. He is the son of boxing trainer José Benavidez Sr. of Arcelia, Guerrero, Mexico.


title: José Benavidez Jr.

text: Benavidez was born in Panorama City, California. His younger brother David Benavidez is also a professional boxer. In August 2016 he was shot in Phoenix while walking his cat.


title: José Benavidez Jr.

text: Benavidez Jr. was an eleven time national champion, which include the Silver Gloves twice, qualifying for the Junior Olympics and earning a spot on the U.S. National Team, en route to a gaudy 120-5 amateur record. Benavidez is also the 2009 National Golden Gloves Champion in the light welterweight division, Making him the youngest ever Golden Gloves Champion at only sixteen years old. He then reached the USA Boxing National Championship's title fight in Denver by beating the 2010 National Golden Gloves Champion Gary Allen Russell. He would lose the final on points 11-9 to Frankie Gómez.


title: José Benavidez Jr.

text: On 13 october, 2018, Benavidez Jr fought the unbeaten Terence Crawford for his WBO welterweight title, in what was the first title of fight of his career. Benavidez Jr put up a good fight, but was ultimately overmatched by Crawford and lost the bout via TKO in the final round.


title: José Benavidez Jr.

text: In his next bout, Benavidez Jr fought Francisco Emanuel Torres. The bout ended in a majority draw, with one judge seeing Benavidez Jr as the winner, scoring it 96-94, while the other two scored it 95-95.


title: José Benavidez Jr.

text: In his next bout, Benavidez Jr fought former champion and WBC #5 super welterweight Danny Garcia. Garcia beat Jose Benavidez by majority decision, with the scorecards announced as 116-112, 117-111, 114-114 in favor of Garcia.


title: Hamburg Airport

text: Hamburg Airport , known in German as "Flughafen Hamburg", is a major international airport in Hamburg, the second-largest city in Germany. Since November 2016 the airport has been christened after the former German chancellor Helmut Schmidt. It is located north of the city centre in the Fuhlsbüttel quarter and serves as a hub for Eurowings and focus city for Condor. It was formerly named Hamburg-Fuhlsbüttel Airport, a name still sometimes used.


title: Hamburg Airport

text: Hamburg Airport is the fifth-busiest of Germany's commercial airports measured by the number of passengers and counted 17,231,687 passengers and 156,388 aircraft movements in 2018. As of July 2017, it featured flights to more than 130 mostly European metropolitan and leisure destinations as well as two long-haul routes to Dubai and Tehran. The airport is equipped to handle wide-bodied aircraft including the Airbus A380.


title: Hamburg Airport

text: Hamburg's other airport, Hamburg Finkenwerder Airport where the Airbus factory is located, is not open to commercial traffic.


title: Hamburg Airport

text: The airport was opened in January 1911 from private funding by the "Hamburger Luftschiffhallen GmbH (HLG)", making it the oldest international airport in the world to still be in operation and the second oldest airport in the country after Tempelhof Airport. The original site comprised 45 hectares, and during its early days was primarily used for airship flights. In 1913 the site was expanded to 60 hectares, the northern part being used for airship operations while the southeast area was used for fixed-wing aircraft.


title: Hamburg Airport

text: During the First World War, the airship hangar was used extensively by the German military, until it was destroyed by fire in 1916.


title: Hamburg Airport

text: During the British occupation, beginning in 1945, the airport was given its current name, Hamburg Airport. It was used extensively during the Berlin Airlift in 1948 as a staging area, as the northern air corridor went between Hamburg and West Berlin.


title: Hamburg Airport

text: When Lufthansa launched passenger operations in 1955, Hamburg was used as a hub until Frankfurt Airport took over due to growth constraints posed by the location in the city. Lufthansa Technik still maintains a large presence at the airport due to the early activities of the airline at the airport. In October 1959 Pan American World Airways was the first Airline to start scheduled service with Jet aircraft to Hamburg, the routing was New York - London - Hamburg - Copenhagen flown with Boeing 707.


title: Hamburg Airport

text: In the 1960s discussions began with the aim of moving the airport to Heidmoor near Kaltenkirchen. Among the reasons cited were limited expansion possibilities, capacity constraints due to crossing runways, and noise. Lufthansa had introduced the Boeing 707 in 1960, which made more noise than previous piston-engined aircraft. The plans were dropped, owing to bad experiences in other cities where airports had been moved far from city centres, and to Lufthansa's move to Frankfurt.


title: Hamburg Airport

text: In 1980 Northwest Orient started flights to Hamburg, originating from Minneapolis with a Stop in London Gatwick. In 1981 they introduced a second flight from New York JFK via Copenhagen to Hamburg. All flights were operated with Boeing 747 aircraft. After Northwest Orient received traffic rights to serve Frankfurt they discontinued all flights to Hamburg from early 1985.


title: Hamburg Airport

text: In April 1985 Pan American World Airways started a daily non-stop flight from New York JFK to Hamburg, operated with Boeing 747. This was Pan Am's first non-stop service from the US to Hamburg. Starting February 1986 Pan Am also used their new long-range Airbus A310-200 on the route which made the New York to Hamburg route becoming one of the first ETOPS routes across the atlantic. In 1988 Japan Air Lines suspended their flights from Tokyo to Hamburg after serving the route for 24 years, one year later in 1989 also Lufthansa suspended all flights between Hamburg and Tokyo after almost 30 years of service, which was the last flight from Hamburg to the far east.


title: Hamburg Airport

text: In May 1989 American Airlines started a daily service from New York JFK via Brussels to Hamburg and Delta Air Lines started a daily service from Atlanta via London Gatwick to Hamburg. While American Airlines suspended their flight already after one year, due to aircraft shortage after the purchase of Eastern Air Lines South America routes, Delta upgraded the Atlanta flight to a daily non-stop service with a Tag-On to Berlin-Tegel from May 1991 and also served New York JFK - Hamburg from November 1991 after taking over Pan Am's North Atlantic Route Network.


title: Hamburg Airport

text: In March 1990 Lufthansa launched a daily flight from Hamburg to Newark and added another non-stop flight to Miami in 1992, which was only served for one summer season and then suspended together with the Newark flight in late 1992, which left Delta Air Lines alone in this market with their Atlanta and New York flights. From early 1993 to late 1994 South African Airways operated flights from Cape Town via Johannesburg and Munich to Hamburg. In the mid 90s Delta Air Lines experienced financial troubles and had to consolidate their fleet and route network, Hamburg was among the cities in Europe that were cut completely in late 1995. From 1996 Canada 3000 started summer seasonal flights to Hamburg, until their bankruptcy in late 2001 they served Toronto to Hamburg via Halifax and Vancouver to Hamburg via Calgary. In May 1998 Delta Air Lines relaunched daily non-stop flights between Atlanta and Hamburg, however this flight only operated until early 2000. A combination of a then too large Business Class in their Boeing 767-300ER aircraft and the foundation of the SkyTeam alliance made Delta cancel this service again.


title: Hamburg Airport

text: Already in the early 1990s, the airport began an extensive modernisation process. The plan, called "HAM21", included a new 500m pier extension, a new terminal (Terminal 1), and the Airport Plaza between Terminals 1 and 2, which includes a consolidated security area. The airport's shareholders are the City of Hamburg and AviAlliance.


title: Hamburg Airport

text: In May 2005 airTransat started a seasonal flight between Toronto and Hamburg. In June the same year Continental Airlines started a daily non-stop flight between Newark and Hamburg, Emirates started its then daily Dubai to Hamburg service in March 2006. In 2011 China Eastern Airlines added Hamburg to their route network. However, due to the lack of traffic rights they could only add a Tag-On to existing Shanghai to Frankfurt flights. The flight initially operated once a week only, was then increased to twice a week later. The stop in Frankfurt and the low frequency did not appeal to business travelers enough so China Eastern suspended the flight in 2013.


title: Hamburg Airport

text: The Radisson Blu Hotel Hamburg Airport was added in 2009, combined with new roadside access and a station and connection to the city's rapid transit system (Hamburg S-Bahn).


title: Hamburg Airport

text: In January 2016, TUIfly announced it was leaving Hamburg Airport entirely due to increasing competition from low-cost carriers. While the summer seasonal routes would not resume, all remaining destinations were cancelled by March 2016. A few weeks later, it was officially announced that the airport was to be named after Helmut Schmidt, a former Senator of Hamburg and chancellor of West Germany. On 10 November 2016, the airport was renamed "Hamburg Airport Helmut Schmidt".


title: Hamburg Airport

text: In October 2016, Air Berlin announced the closure of its maintenance facilities at the airport, due to cost-cutting and restructuring measures.


title: Hamburg Airport

text: In June 2017, easyjet announced it would close its base at Hamburg by March 2018 as part of a refocus on other base airports. While over half of the former services were cut, several routes remained in place as they are served from other easyJet bases. In October 2018, United Airlines announced the end of its seasonal service to Newark, leaving the airport with only three long-haul routes, all to the Middle East and no direct services to North America. The route was inaugurated by Continental Airlines back in 2005 and switched from year-round to seasonal in 2017 Also in October 2018 Emirates switched one of the two daily flights from Dubai to A380-service. This was the first ever commercial A380-service to Hamburg. The second daily flight remains operated by Boeing 777-300ER aircraft.


title: Hamburg Airport

text: In January 2020, Ryanair also closed its Hamburg base due to airport operating costs, late delivery of the Boeing 737-Max aircraft and its general downsizing of its German operations.


title: Hamburg Airport

text: Hamburg Airport originally covered . Since then, the site has grown more than tenfold to . The main apron covers and features 54 parking positions; the passenger terminals provide 17 jet bridges. As of July 2016, the airport had only three routes served with Wide-body aircraft; however, during that year three gates were upgraded with double-jet bridges to provide faster boarding and de-boarding for large planes like the Airbus A380. The runways, taxiways and aprons can accommodate large aircraft, including the Airbus A380. Emirates replaced one Boeing 777 with A380 aircraft on the route. On 28 May 2018, Emirates announced it would commence services from Dubai International Airport to Hamburg with the A380.


title: Hamburg Airport

text: Hamburg has two terminals, Terminal 1 and Terminal 2, connected by the Airport Plaza and the baggage claim area that extends through the lower levels of all three buildings. These three buildings were designed by Gerkan, Marg and Partners. Both terminals have a high, curved ceiling designed to emulate the shape of a wing. In all buildings level 1 is the departure level, while level 0 is arrivals. Hamburg Airport offers 12 baggage claim belts on the arrivals level.


title: Hamburg Airport

text: The Airport Plaza hosts the central security check as well as shops, restaurants, lounges and other service facilities. It houses the S-Bahn station (suburban railway) and was completed in December 2008.


title: Hamburg Airport

text: Terminal 1 was completed in 2005 and is highly similar to Terminal 2 in terms of design and size. It has numerous energy and water saving features like rain water collection for use in restrooms and a "ThermoLabyrinth", which uses ground temperature to help regulate the building's temperature and reduce loads on the air conditioning systems. Terminal 1 houses most of the airlines including those from the Oneworld and SkyTeam alliances.


title: Hamburg Airport

text: Terminal 2 (despite its name, the older facility) was completed in 1993. It houses Lufthansa with its Star Alliance partners, amongst others.


title: Hamburg Airport

text: The airport is around north of Hamburg city centre and south of Norderstedt in the borough of Fuhlsbüttel. S-Bahn service S1, operated by Deutsche Bahn operates every ten minutes between the airport, Ohlsdorf, Wandsbek, Hamburg central station, Altona, Blankenese and Wedel. It is part of the HVV fare organisation offering tickets for all modes of public transportation in Hamburg. Going towards the airport, S1 trains split at Ohlsdorf station, with one portion going to the airport and the other going to Poppenbüttel.


title: Hamburg Airport

text: By road, the airport can be reached from Federal Motorway A7 using the state motorway B433, which is the third ring road. Motorists from the east of the city must drive through Hamburg.


title: Hamburg Airport

text: The airport is also linked by some local bus routes to nearby areas as well as regular coach services to the cities of Kiel and Neumünster.


title: Uncle

text: An uncle is usually defined as a male relative who is a sibling of a parent or married to a sibling of a parent. Uncles who are related by birth are second-degree relatives. The female counterpart of an uncle is an aunt, and the reciprocal relationship is that of a nephew or niece. The word comes from , the diminutive of "avus" (grandfather), and is a family relationship within an extended or immediate family.


title: Uncle

text: In some cultures and families, children may refer to the cousins of their parents as uncle (or aunt). It is also used as a title of respect for older relatives, neighbours, acquaintances, family friends, and even total strangers in some cultures, for example Aboriginal Australian elders. Using the term in this way is a form of fictive kinship.


title: Uncle

text: Any social institution where a special relationship exists between a man and his sisters' children is known as an avunculate (or avunculism or avuncularism). This relationship can be formal or informal, depending on the society. Early anthropological research focused on the association between the avunculate and matrilineal descent, while later research has expanded to consider the avunculate in general society.


title: Uncle

text: In Arabic, one's mother's brother is called "Khal" خال and the mother's sister is called "Khalah" خالة. On the father's side, one's father's brother is called "Amm" عم and the father's sister is called "Ammah" عمّة.


title: Uncle

text: In Turkish, one's mother's brother is called "dayi", father's brother is "amca", and aunt's husband is known as "enişte". One's mother's sister is called "teyze". Father's sister is "hala". Uncle's wife is "yenge".


title: Uncle

text: In some cultures, like Albanian, Slavic, or Persian, no single inclusive term describing both a person's kinship to their parental male sibling or parental male in-law exists. Instead, there are specific terms describing a person's kinship to their mother's brother ("dajë" in Albanian, "daiyee" in Persian, "wuj" (diminutive: "wujek") in Polish) or a person's kinship to their father's brother ("xhajë" in Albanian, "amou" in Persian, "stryj" (diminutive: "stryjek") in Polish). An analogous differentiation exists using separate terms to describe a person's kinship to their mother's female sibling ("teze" in Albanian, "khaleh" in Persian, "ciotka" (diminutive: "ciocia") in Polish), and a person's kinship to their father's female sibling, ("hallë" in Albanian, "ammeh" in Persian, "stryjna" (diminutive: "stryjenka") in Polish).


title: Uncle

text: Furthermore, in Persian culture the terms used to describe a person's kinship to their maternal or paternal in-laws bear clear and unambiguous descriptions of that relationship, differentiating the parental in-laws from blood-relatives. For example, there is a specific term describing a person's kinship to the spouse of their paternal uncle (i.e. "zan-amou", literally 'wife-of-' "amou"). This clarifies that kinship is to the spouse of the person's paternal male sibling, as opposed to a blood-relationship.


title: Uncle

text: Many Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples address male respected senior members of the community, known as Elders, as "uncle" (and women as "aunty") as a mark of seniority and respect, whether related or not, such as Uncle Archie (Roach) and Uncle Jack Charles.


title: Uncle

text: In India, unambiguous names are used for various uncles such as one's father's brother chacha (or kaka). If the brother of one's father is older than one's father then he is called Tauji (or taya or bapuji). One's mother's brother is called Mama. A paternal aunt's husband is called Fufa (or Fuva) and a maternal aunt's husband is called Mausa (or Masa) in Hindi (or Gujarati).


title: Uncle

text: Likewise, in neighbouring Bangladesh (and Pakistan), mother's brother is also Mama (or Mamu) as well father's brother as Chacha. A paternal aunt's husband is Phupha and maternal aunt's husband is Khalu.


title: Uncle

text: Due to the loving image of an old but wise and friendly uncle in many cultures the word has been used as a loving nickname for many people. In Tibetan mythology Akhu Tönpa ("Uncle Tompa") is a familiar and well-beloved figure. The American national personification Uncle Sam serves as an allegorical fatherly figure to many Americans. Various children's TV hosts have used "uncle" as their nickname, including Walt Disney ("Uncle Walt"), Bob Davidse ("Nonkel Bob", literally "Uncle Bob"), Edwin Rutten (who hosted a children's show named "De Show van Ome Willem" ("The Show of Uncle Willem"). The Dutch poet Ome Ko also used "uncle" as part of his pseudonym.


title: 5K resolution

text: 5K resolution refers to display formats with a horizontal resolution of around 5,000 pixels. The most common 5K resolution is , which has an aspect ratio of with around 14.7 million pixels (just over seven times as many pixels as 1080p Full HD), with exactly two times the linear resolution of 1440p and four times that of 720p. This resolution is typically used in computer monitors to achieve a higher pixel density, and is not a standard format in digital television and digital cinematography, which feature 4K resolutions and 8K resolutions.


title: 5K resolution

text: In comparison to 4K UHD (), the 5K resolution of offers 1280 extra columns and 720 extra lines of display area, an increase of 33.% in each dimension. This additional display area can allow 4K content to be displayed at native resolution without filling the entire screen, which means that additional software such as video editing suite toolbars will be available without having to downscale the content previews.


title: 5K resolution

text: As of 2016, the world uses 1080p as the mainstream HD standard. However, there is a rapid increase in media content being released in 4K and even 5K resolution. Online streaming services such as Netflix and Amazon Video launched videos in 4K resolution in 2014 and are actively expanding their collection of videos in 4K resolution. As 4K content becomes more common, the usefulness of 5K displays in editing and content creation may lead to a higher demand in the future.


title: 5K resolution

text: On April 14, 2008, Red Digital Cinema Camera Company launched one of the first cameras capable of video capture at 5K resolutions. Red Epic uses the Mysterium X sensor which has a resolution of 51202700 and can capture at a framerate of up to 100fps. Cameras with 5K resolution are used occasionally for recording films in digital cinematography.


title: 5K resolution

text: Some photographic still cameras such as DSLRs can exceed 5K resolution when capturing still images, but not when capturing video. For example, the Canon EOS 5D Mark IV announced in August 2016 has a maximum resolution of pixels (around 30 megapixels in a aspect ratio) which is used for high resolution still images, but it can only capture video at a maximum of and a framerate of 30Hz.


title: 5K resolution

text: Samsung first demonstrated its 105-inch UN105S9W curved OLED TV at CES 2014. While Samsung lists the UN105S9W as a 4K UHD TV, it actually has native resolution of (a or aspect ratio) which classifies it as a 5K display due to the horizontal pixel count of ≈5,000.


title: 5K resolution

text: On September 5, 2014, Dell unveiled the first monitor with a 5K resolution, the UltraSharp UP2715K. This monitor featured a 27-inch display, giving it a pixel density of around 218px/in. The monitor only supported DisplayPort version 1.2, which is limited to at 30Hz. To work around this, the UP2715K implemented a system by which the bandwidth of two DisplayPort connections could be combined to achieve 60Hz, using a picture-by-picture mode to virtually treat the display as two smaller monitors side-by-side and driving each half with a separate DisplayPort connection.


title: 5K resolution

text: In order to fully utilize a display with a 5K resolution, the source and display both require support for advanced connection interfaces, since traditional interfaces such as VGA or DVI don't provide adequate bandwidth for 5K resolutions at acceptable framerates. The earliest interface to support at 30Hz or above was DisplayPort, using the HBR2 transmission speed introduced in version 1.2. This could support at 30Hz with 30bit/px color depth. HBR2 was first implemented in the AMD Radeon HD 6850 and 6870 in October 2010. NVIDIA introduced HBR2 support on their products with the Kepler family of GPUs, starting with the GeForce GTX 680 in March 2012.


title: 5K resolution

text: HDMI gained similar capability in version 2.0, which increased the maximum allowed transmission speed to 600MHz TMDS (18Gbit/s). The NVIDIA GeForce GTX 980, launched in late 2014, was the first graphics card to implement this capability, which was sufficient for at 30Hz with 30bit/px color depth.


title: 5K resolution

text: The NVIDIA GeForce GTX 1080 launched in mid 2016 and was the first graphics card to introduce support for the HBR3 transmission speed defined in version 1.3 of the DisplayPort standard, allowing it to support at 60Hz with 24bit/px color depth. It was followed shortly by the AMD Radeon RX 480, which introduced support for HBR3 and 600MHz HDMI transmission on the AMD side.


title: 5K resolution

text: Although 5K 60Hz over a single cable was only made possible in 2016 with the launch of the GeForce 1000 series and Radeon RX 400 series, monitors which predate version 1.3 of the DisplayPort standard such as the Dell UltraSharp UP2715K offer the ability to run at 5K 60Hz by using two HBR2 DisplayPort connections concurrently in a specialized picture-by-picture mode. The Apple Retina 5K iMac released in 2014 used a custom internal interface with 8 lanes of DisplayPort at HBR2 speed (a standard DP connection is 4 lanes) to drive its display panel at 60Hz.


title: The Cursed (TV series)

text: The Cursed () is a 2020 South Korean television series starring Uhm Ji-won, Jung Ji-so, Sung Dong-il, and Jo Min-su. It aired on tvN every Monday and Tuesday at 21:30 (KST) from February 10 to March 17, 2020.


title: The Cursed (TV series)

text: "The Cursed" is about a teenage girl who has the ability to bring death by using names, photos and belongings, and a just social issues reporter, fighting against the massive evil hidden behind an IT conglomerate.


title: Cassidy (rapper)

text: Barry Adrian Reese (born July 7, 1982), better known by his stage name Cassidy, is an American rapper from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. He is perhaps best known for his singles "Hotel" (featuring R. Kelly), "Get No Better" (featuring Mashonda), "I'm a Hustla", "B-Boy Stance", and "My Drink n My 2 Step" (featuring Swizz Beatz).


title: Cassidy (rapper)

text: Cassidy first garnered attention for his freestyles and competitions as a battle rapper in the late 1990s. American record producer Swizz Beatz found Cassidy in 2002 and signed him to his Full Surface Records imprint under Ruff Ryders Entertainment and J Records, which helped him gain major recognition. He rose to prominence with his debut studio album "Split Personality", which was released in March 2004 and debuted at number two on the US "Billboard" 200.


title: Cassidy (rapper)

text: In 2002, Cassidy signed a recording contract with American music producer Swizz Beatz's Full Surface imprint, under the aegis of Ruff Ryders Entertainment and J Records. On November 29, 2003, he released his commercial debut single, "Hotel", featuring R. Kelly. The song reached the Top 10 of the US "Billboard" Hot 100 chart. The second single, "Get No Better", features Mashonda. On March 16, 2004, Cassidy released his debut album, "Split Personality". It was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), the following month.


title: Cassidy (rapper)

text: On April 15, 2005, Cassidy released the single "I'm a Hustla". The next single, "B-Boy Stance", features vocals and production from his mentor, Swizz Beatz. On June 28, 2005, Cassidy released his second studio album, "I'm a Hustla". It debuted at number five on the US "Billboard" 200 chart, with 93,000 copies sold in the first week.


title: Cassidy (rapper)

text: In 2006, after his release from prison and recovering from an auto wreck, Cassidy began work on his third studio album, "B.A.R.S. The Barry Adrian Reese Story". The album was released on November 6, 2007, debuting at number 10 on the "Billboard" 200, with 63,000 copies sold in the first week. The album was led by the single "My Drink n My 2 Step", featuring vocals and production from Swizz Beatz.


title: Cassidy (rapper)

text: In late 2009, Cassidy signed with Carmelo Anthony's label Kross Over Entertainment. While preparing his fourth studio album, he released a mixtape series entitled "Apply Pressure". On August 24, 2010, Cassidy released the five-track EP "Face 2 Face", with the promotional single "Face 2 Face". On November 16, 2010, Cassidy's fourth studio album, "C.A.S.H. (Cass a Straight Hustla)" was released. On its first week it had sold about 5,200 copies, much lower than his previous studio albums. "Drumma Bass" was the only official single from the album.


title: Cassidy (rapper)

text: On May 21, 2012, Cassidy hosted a release party for his mixtape "Mayhem Music". On July 8, 2012, he released the mixtape "Mayhem Music: AP3". After fellow Philly rapper Meek Mill said he would battle Cassidy, which Cassidy later said he would accept if the money was right. They participated in a "twitter beef" after which Cassidy released "The Diary of a Hustla" which was originally thought to be a diss towards Meek. This was later refuted by Cassidy. They both were asking for $100,000 each for the battle to take place. However, after Meek Mill dissed Cassidy's song "Condom Style" (a remake of Psy's "Gangnam Style") Cassidy released a song titled "Me, Myself & iPhone" where he took shots at Meek Mill. Afterwards, Meek Mill responded with the diss track "Repo" which Mill later said would be the final diss record he would release against Cassidy. Cassidy later said the feud was not personal, saying it was all in the spirit of hip hop. On January 6, 2013 Cassidy released a 10-minute-long diss response titled "Raid". On October 6, Cassidy released his album Da Science.


title: Cassidy (rapper)

text: In 2007, Cassidy signed a deal as the "new face" for Lot 29's fall clothing line. In 2009, Cassidy appeared in the comedy film, "Next Day Air".


title: Cassidy (rapper)

text: In late 2012, Cassidy remade South Korean singer Psy's international hit single "Gangnam Style, re-titling it "Condom Style". The remake reportedly earned Cassidy an endorsement deal with Trojan.


title: Cassidy (rapper)

text: In late 2014, Cassidy returned to battle rap by battling Los Angeles-based veteran Dizaster, on December 6, 2014 at Filmon.com's "Ether" event.


title: Cassidy (rapper)

text: On April 15, 2005 three men, including Cassidy, armed with pistols and an AK-47 assault rifle, fired on three unarmed men during an argument that occurred in the West Oak Lane neighborhood in Northwest Philadelphia. Desmond Hawkins was killed by a shot in the back. Hawkins' two other friends were treated at hospitals for gunshot wounds and released.


title: Cassidy (rapper)

text: On June 9, a warrant was issued for Cassidy's arrest on charges of murder, attempted murder, reckless endangerment, aggravated assault, conspiracy and weapons possession. Cassidy surrendered to Philadelphia police on the afternoon of June 17. At his arraignment on Saturday, June 18, he was denied bail, and sent to Philadelphia's Curran-Fromhold Correctional Facility, a high-security prison, where he would serve his time during the trial and after he was sentenced.


title: Cassidy (rapper)

text: Cassidy's murder case took a turn when the primary witness withdrew his confession. This resulted in the judge stating that Cassidy would stand trial for third-degree murder. On August 16, 2005, Municipal Judge Marsha Neifield ruled that prosecutors had sufficient evidence to charge Cassidy with third-degree murder, attempted murder and weapons offenses. This was later overturned to the original, first degree charge - negating the possibility of parole. On January 25, 2006, Cassidy was convicted of involuntary manslaughter, two counts of aggravated assault and possession of an instrument of crime for his involvement in the shooting. He was sentenced to 11 to 23 months in prison plus probation and was credited with the 7 months he had already served.


title: Cassidy (rapper)

text: Cassidy was released from Pennsylvania's Curran-Fromhold Correctional Facility on March 2, 2006 after serving eight months.


title: Cassidy (rapper)

text: Cassidy talks about his arrest and time in prison in the 2011 film "Rhyme and Punishment", which documents various hip-hop artists who have done county jail or state/federal prison time.


title: Cassidy (rapper)

text: Cassidy was seriously injured in a vehicle wreck on the night of October 5, 2006, when a commercial truck collided with his SUV, in which he was a passenger. He was taken to the Jersey City Medical Center, where he was diagnosed with a fractured skull and several broken bones on the left side of his face. He still has visible scars from the wreck.


title: Mesoamerican chronology

text: Mesoamerican chronology divides the history of prehispanic Mesoamerica into several periods: the Paleo-Indian (first human habitation until 3500 BCE); the Archaic (before 2600 BCE), the Preclassic or Formative (2500 BCE – 250 CE), the Classic (250–900 CE), and the Postclassic (); as well as the post European contact Colonial Period (1521–1821), and Postcolonial, or the period after independence from Spain (1821–present).


title: Mesoamerican chronology

text: The periodisation of Mesoamerica by researchers is based on archaeological, ethnohistorical, and modern cultural anthropology research dating to the early twentieth century. Archaeologists, ethnohistorians, historians, and cultural anthropologists continue to work to develop cultural histories of the region.


title: Mesoamerican chronology

text: The Paleo-Indian (less frequently, Lithic) period or era is that which spans from the first signs of human presence in the region, to the establishment of agriculture and other practices (e.g. pottery, permanent settlements) and subsistence techniques characteristic of proto-civilisations. In Mesoamerica, the termination of this phase and its transition into the succeeding Archaic period may generally be reckoned at between 10,000 and 8000 BCE. This dating is approximate only and different timescales may be used between fields and sub-regions.


title: Mesoamerican chronology

text: During the Archaic Era agriculture was developed in the region and permanent villages were established. Late in this era, use of pottery and loom weaving became common, and class divisions began to appear. Many of the basic technologies of Mesoamerica in terms of stone-grinding, drilling, pottery etc. were established during this period.


title: Mesoamerican chronology

text: During the Preclassic Era, or Formative Period, large-scale ceremonial architecture, writing, cities, and states developed. Many of the distinctive elements of Mesoamerican civilisation can be traced to this period, including the dominance of corn, the building of pyramids, human sacrifice, jaguar-worship, the complex calendar, and many of the gods.


title: Mesoamerican chronology

text: The Olmec civilisation developed and flourished at such sites as La Venta and San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán, eventually succeeded by the Epi-Olmec culture between 300–250 BCE. The Zapotec civilization arose in the Valley of Oaxaca, the Teotihuacan civilisation arose in the Valley of Mexico. The Maya civilization began to develop in the Mirador Basin (in modern-day Guatemala) and the Epi-Olmec culture in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec (in modern-day Chiapas), later expanding into Guatemala and the Yucatan Peninsula.


title: Mesoamerican chronology

text: The Classic Period was dominated by numerous independent city-states in the Maya region and also featured the beginnings of political unity in central Mexico and the Yucatán. Regional differences between cultures grew more manifest. The city-state of Teotihuacan dominated the Valley of Mexico until the early 8th century, but little is known of the political structure of the region because the Teotihuacanos left no written records. The city-state of Monte Albán dominated the Valley of Oaxaca until the late Classic, leaving limited records in their script, which is as yet mostly undeciphered. Highly sophisticated arts such as stuccowork, architecture, sculptural reliefs, mural painting, pottery, and lapidary developed and spread during the Classic era.


title: Mesoamerican chronology

text: In the Maya region, under considerable military influence by Teotihuacan after the "arrival" of Siyaj K'ak' in 378 CE, numerous city states such as Tikal, Uaxactun, Calakmul, Copán, Quirigua, Palenque, Cobá, and Caracol reached their zeniths. Each of these polities was generally independent, although they often formed alliances and sometimes became vassal states of each other. The main conflict during this period was between Tikal and Calakmul, which fought a series of wars over the course of more than half a millennium. Each of these states declined during the Terminal Classic and were eventually abandoned.


title: Mesoamerican chronology

text: In the Postclassic Period many of the great nations and cities of the Classic Era collapsed, although some continued, such as in Oaxaca, Cholula, and the Maya of Yucatan, such as at Chichen Itza and Uxmal. This is sometimes thought to have been a period of increased chaos and warfare.


title: Mesoamerican chronology

text: The Postclassic is often viewed as a period of cultural decline. However, it was a time of technological advancement in architecture, engineering, and weaponry. Metallurgy (introduced c. 800) came into use for jewelry and some tools, with new alloys and techniques being developed in a few centuries. The Postclassic was a period of rapid movement and population growth—especially in Central Mexico post-1200—and of experimentation in governance. For instance, in Yucatan, 'dual rulership' apparently replaced the more theocratic governments of Classic times, while oligarchic councils operated in much of central Mexico. Likewise, it appears that the wealthy "pochteca" (merchant class) and military orders became more powerful than was apparently the case in Classic times. This afforded some Mesoamericans a degree of social mobility.


title: Mesoamerican chronology

text: The Toltec for a time dominated central Mexico in the 9th–10th century, then collapsed. The northern Maya were for a time united under Mayapan. Oaxaca was briefly united by Mixtec rulers in the 11th–12th centuries.


title: Mesoamerican chronology

text: The Aztec Empire arose in the early 15th century and appeared to be on a path to asserting dominance over the Valley of Mexico region not seen since Teotihuacan. By the 15th century, the Mayan 'revival' in Yucatan and southern Guatemala and the flourishing of Aztec imperialism evidently enabled a renaissance of fine arts and science. Examples include the 'Pueblan-Mexica' style in pottery, codex illumination, and goldwork, the flourishing of Nahua poetry, and the botanical institutes established by the Aztec elite.


title: Mesoamerican chronology

text: Spain was the first European power to contact Mesoamerica. Its conquistadors, aided by numerous native allies, conquered the Aztecs.


title: Mesoamerican chronology

text: The Colonial Period was initiated with the Spanish conquest (1519–1521), which ended the hegemony of the Aztec Empire. It was accomplished with Spaniards' strategic alliances with enemies of the empire, most especially Tlaxcala, but also Huexotzinco, Xochimilco, and even Texcoco, a former partner in the Aztec Triple Alliance. Although not all parts of Mesoamerica were brought under control of the Spanish Empire immediately, the defeat of the Aztecs marked the dramatic beginning of an inexorable process of conquest in Mesoamerica and incorporation that Spain completed in the mid-seventeenth century. Indigenous peoples did not disappear, although their numbers were greatly reduced in the sixteenth century by new infectious diseases brought by the Spanish invaders; they suffered high mortality from slave labor, and during epidemics. The fall of Tenochtitlan marked the beginning of the three-hundred-year colonial period and the imposition of Spanish rule.


title: Mesoamerican chronology

text: Mesoamerican civilisation was a complex network of different cultures. As seen in the time-line below, these did not necessarily occur at the same time. The processes that gave rise to each of the cultural systems of Mesoamerica were very complex and not determined solely by the internal dynamics of each society. External as well as endogenous factors influenced their development. Among these factors, for example, were the relations between human groups and between humans and the environment, human migrations, and natural disasters.


title: Mesoamerican chronology

text: Historians and archaeologists divide pre-Hispanic Mesoamerican history into three periods. The Spanish conquest of the Aztec empire (1519–1521) marks the end of indigenous rule and the incorporation of indigenous peoples as subjects of the Spanish Empire for the 300 year colonial period. The postcolonial period began with Mexican independence in 1821 and continues to the present day. European conquest did not end the existence of Mesoamerica's indigenous peoples, but did subject them to new political regimes. In the chart below of prehispanic cultures, it is important to note that the dates mentioned are approximations, and that the transition from one period to another did not occur at the same time nor under the same circumstances in all societies.


title: Mesoamerican chronology

text: The Preclassic period ran from 2500 BCE to 200 CE. Its beginnings are marked by the development of the first ceramic traditions in the West, specifically at sites such as Matanchén, Nayarit, and Puerto Marqués, in Guerrero. Some authors hold that the early development of pottery in this area is related to the ties between South America and the coastal peoples of Mexico. The advent of ceramics is taken as an indicator of a sedentary society, and it signals the divergence of Mesoamerica from the hunter-gatherer societies in the desert to the north.


title: Mesoamerican chronology

text: The Preclassic Era (also known as the Formative Period) is divided into three phases: the Early (2500–1200 BCE), Middle (1500–600 BCE), and Late (600 BCE – 200 CE). During the first phase, the manufacture of ceramics was widespread across the entire region, the cultivation of maize and other vegetables became well-established, and society started to become socially stratified in a process that concluded with the appearance of the first hierarchical societies along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico. In the early Preclassic period, the Capacha culture acted as a driving force in the process of civilizing Mesoamerica, and its pottery spread widely across the region.


title: Mesoamerican chronology

text: By 2500 BCE, small settlements were developing in Guatemala's Pacific Lowlands, places such as Tilapa, La Blanca, Ocós, El Mesak, Ujuxte, and others, where the oldest ceramic pottery from Guatemala have been found. From 2000 BCE a heavy concentration of pottery in the Pacific Coast Line has been documented. Recent excavations suggest that the Highlands were a geographic and temporal bridge between Early Preclassic villages of the Pacific coast and later Petén lowlands cities. In Monte Alto near La Democracia, Escuintla, in the Pacific lowlands of Guatemala, some giant stone heads and potbelly sculptures () have been found, dated at c. 1800 BCE, of the so-named Monte Alto Culture.


title: Mesoamerican chronology

text: Around 1500 BCE, the cultures of the West entered a period of decline, accompanied by an assimilation into the other peoples with whom they had maintained connections. As a result, the Tlatilco culture emerged in the Valley of Mexico, and the Olmec culture in the Gulf. Tlatilco was one of the principal Mesoamerican population centers of this period. Its people were adept at harnessing the natural resources of Lake Texcoco and at cultivating maize. Some authors posit that Tlatilco was founded and inhabited by the ancestors of today's Otomi people.


title: Mesoamerican chronology

text: The Olmecs, on the other hand, had entered into an expansionist phase that led them to construct their first works of monumental architecture at San Lorenzo and La Venta. The Olmecs exchanged goods within their own core area and with sites as far away as Guerrero and Morelos and present day Guatemala and Costa Rica. San José Mogote, a site that also shows Olmec influences, ceded dominance of the Oaxacan plateau to Monte Albán toward the end of the middle Preclassic Era. During this same time, the Chupícuaro culture flourished in Bajío, while along the Gulf the Olmecs entered a period of decline.


title: Mesoamerican chronology

text: One of the great cultural milestones that marked the Middle Preclassic period is the development of the first writing system, by either the Maya, the Olmec, or the Zapotec. During this period, the Mesoamerican societies were highly stratified. The connections between different centers of power permitted the rise of regional elites that controlled natural resources and peasant labor. This social differentiation was based on the possession of certain technical knowledge, such as astronomy, writing, and commerce. Furthermore, the Middle Preclassic period saw the beginnings of the process of urbanization that would come to define the societies of the Classic period. In the Maya area, cities such as Nakbe c. 1000 BCE, El Mirador c. 650 BCE, Cival c. 350 BCE, and San Bartolo show the same monumental architecture of the Classic period. In fact, El Mirador is the largest Maya city. It has been argued that the Maya experienced a first collapse c. 100 CE, and resurged c. 250 in the Classic period. Some population centers such as Tlatilco, Monte Albán, and Cuicuilco flourished in the final stages of the Preclassic period. Meanwhile, the Olmec populations shrank and ceased to be major players in the area.


title: Mesoamerican chronology

text: Toward the end of the Preclassic period, political and commercial hegemony shifted to the population centers in the Valley of Mexico. Around Lake Texcoco there existed a number of villages that grew into true cities: Tlatilco and Cuicuilco are examples. The former was found on the northern bank of the lake, while the latter was on the slopes of the mountainous region of Ajusco. Tlatilco maintained strong relationships with the cultures of the West, so much so that Cuicuilco controlled commerce in the Maya area, Oaxaca, and the Gulf coast. The rivalry between the two cities ended with the decline of Tlatilco. Meanwhile, at Monte Albán in the Valley of Oaxaca, the Zapotec had begun developing culturally independent of the Olmec, adopting aspects of that culture but making their own contributions as well. On the southern coast of Guatemala, Kaminaljuyú advanced in the direction of what would be the Classic Maya culture, even though its links to Central Mexico and the Gulf would initially provide their cultural models. Apart from the West, where the tradition of the Tumbas de tiro had taken root, in all the regions of Mesoamerica the cities grew in wealth, with monumental constructions carried out according to urban plans that were surprisingly complex. The circular pyramid of Cuicuilco dates from this time, as well as the central plaza of Monte Albán, and the Pyramid of the Moon in Teotihuacan.


title: Mesoamerican chronology

text: Around the start of the common era, Cuicuilco had disappeared, and the hegemony over the Mexican basin had passed to Teotihuacan. The next two centuries marked the period in which the so-called "city of the gods" consolidated its power, becoming the premier Mesoamerican city of the first millennium, and the principal political, economic, and cultural center for the next seven centuries.


title: Mesoamerican chronology

text: For many years, the Olmec culture was thought to be the 'mother culture' of Mesoamerica, because of the great influence that it exercised throughout the region. However, more recent perspectives consider this culture to be more of a process to which all the contemporary peoples contributed, and which eventually crystallized on the coasts of Veracruz and Tabasco. The ethnic identity of the Olmecs is still widely debated. Based on linguistic evidence, archaeologists and anthropologists generally believe that they were either speakers of an Oto-Manguean language, or (more likely) the ancestors of the present-day Zoque people who live in the north of Chiapas and Oaxaca. According to this second hypothesis, Zoque tribes emigrated toward the south after the fall of the major population centers of the Gulf plains. Whatever their origin, these bearers of Olmec culture arrived at the leeward shore some eight thousand years BCE, entering like a wedge among the fringe of proto-Maya peoples who lived along the coast, a migration that would explain the separation of the Huastecs of the north of Veracruz from the rest of the Maya peoples based in the Yucatán Peninsula and Guatemala.


title: Mesoamerican chronology

text: The Olmec culture represents a milestone of Mesoamerican history, as various characteristics that define the region first appeared there. Among them are the state organization, the development of the 260-day ritual calendar and the 365-day secular calendar, the first writing system, and urban planning. The development of this culture started 1600 to 1500 BCE, though it continued to consolidate itself up to the 12th century BCE. Its principal sites were La Venta, San Lorenzo, and Tres Zapotes in the core region. However, throughout Mesoamerica numerous sites show evidence of Olmec occupation, especially in the Balsas river basin, where Teopantecuanitlan is located. This site is quite enigmatic, since it dates from several centuries earlier than the main populations of the Gulf, a fact which has continued to cause controversy and given rise to the hypothesis that the Olmec culture originated in that region.


title: Mesoamerican chronology

text: Among the best-known expressions of Olmec culture are giant stone heads, sculptured monoliths up to three meters in height and several tons in weight. These feats of Olmec stonecutting are especially impressive when one considers that Mesoamericans lacked iron tools and that the heads are at sites dozens of kilometers from the quarries where their basalt was mined. The function of these monuments is unknown. Some authors propose that they were commemorative monuments for notable players of the ballgame, and others that they were images of the Olmec governing elite.


title: Mesoamerican chronology

text: The Olmec are also known for their small carvings made of jade and other greenstones. So many of the Olmec figurines and sculptures contain representations of the were-jaguar, that, according to José María Covarrubias, they could be forerunners of the worship of the rain god, or maybe a predecessor of the future Tezcatlipoca in his manifestation as Tepeyolohtli, the "Heart of the Mountain"


title: Mesoamerican chronology

text: In the Pacific lowlands of the Maya Area, Takalik Abaj c. 800 BCE, Izapa c. 700 BCE, and Chocola c. 600 BCE, along with Kaminaljuyú c. 800 BCE, in the central Highlands of Guatemala, advanced in the direction of what would be the Classic Maya culture. Apart from the West, where the tradition of the Tumbas de tiro had taken root, in all the regions of Mesoamerica the cities grew in wealth, with monumental constructions carried out according to urban plans that were surprisingly complex. La Danta in El Mirador, the San Bartolo murals, and the circular pyramid of Cuicuilco date from this time, as do the central plaza of Monte Albán and the Pyramid of the Moon in Teotihuacan.


title: Mesoamerican chronology

text: Toward the end of the Preclassic period, political and commercial hegemony shifted to the population centers in the Valley of Mexico. Around Lake Texcoco there existed a number of villages that grew into true cities: Tlatilco and Cuicuilco are examples. The former was found on the northern bank of the lake, while the latter was on the slopes of the mountainous region of Ajusco. Tlatilco maintained strong relationships with the cultures of the West, so much so that Cuicuilco controlled commerce in the Maya area, Oaxaca, and the Gulf coast. The rivalry between the two cities ended with the decline of Tlatilco. Meanwhile, at Monte Albán in Oaxaca, the Zapotec had begun developing culturally independent of the Olmec, adopting aspects of that culture and making their own contributions as well.


title: Mesoamerican chronology

text: In Peten, the great Classic Maya cities of Tikal, Uaxactun, and Seibal, began their growth at c. 300 BCE.


title: Mesoamerican chronology

text: Cuicuilco's hegemony over the valley declined in the period 100 BCE to 1 CE. As Cuicuilco declined, Teotihuacan began to grow in importance. The next two centuries marked the period in which the so-called "City of the gods" consolidated its power, becoming the premier Mesoamerican city of the first millennium, and the principal political, economic, and cultural center in Central Mexico for the next seven centuries.


title: Mesoamerican chronology

text: The Classic period of Mesoamerica includes the years from 250 to 900 CE. The end point of this period varied from region to region: for example, in the center of Mexico it is related to the fall of the regional centers of the late Classic (sometimes called Epiclassic) period, toward the year 900; in the Gulf, with the decline of El Tajín, in the year 800; in the Maya area, with the abandonment of the highland cities in the 9th century; and in Oaxaca, with the disappearance of Monte Albán around 850. Normally, the Classic period in Mesoamerica is characterized as the stage in which the arts, science, urbanism, architecture, and social organization reached their peak. This period was also dominated by the influence of Teotihuacan throughout the region, and the competition between the different Mesoamerican states led to continuous warfare.