title: Third Party System

text: The Republican Party emerged from the great political realignment of the mid-1850s. William Gienapp argues that the great realignment of the 1850s began before the Whig party demise, and was caused not by politicians but by voters at the local level. The central forces were ethno-cultural, involving tensions between pietistic Protestants versus liturgical Catholics, Lutherans and Episcopalians regarding Catholicism, prohibition, and nativism. Various prohibitionist and nativist movements emerged, especially the American Party, based originally on the secret Know Nothing lodges. It was a moralistic party that appealed to the middle-class fear of corruption—identifying that danger with Catholics, especially the recent Irish immigrants who seemed to bring crime, corruption, poverty and bossism as soon as they arrived. Anti-slavery did play a role but it was less important at first. The Know-Nothing party embodied the social forces at work, but its weak leadership was unable to solidify its organization, and the Republicans picked it apart. Nativism was so powerful that the Republicans could not avoid it, but they did minimize it and turn voter wrath against the threat that slave owners would buy up the good farm lands wherever slavery was allowed. The realignment was so powerful because it forced voters to switch parties, as typified by the rise and fall of the Know-Nothings, the rise of the Republican Party, and the splits in the Democratic Party during the transitional period of 1854-1858. The Republican Party was more driven, in terms of ideology and talent; it surpassed the hapless American Party in 1856. By 1858 the Republicans controlled majorities in every Northern state, and hence controlled the electoral votes for president in 1860.


title: Third Party System

text: The ideological force driving the new party was modernization, and opposition to slavery, that anti-modern threat. By 1856 the Republicans were crusading for "Free Soil, Free Labor, Frémont and Victory." The main argument was that a 'Slave Power' had seized control of the federal government and would try to make slavery legal in the territories, and perhaps even in the northern states. That would give rich slave owners the chance to go anywhere and buy up the best land, thus undercutting the wages of free labor and destroying the foundations of civil society. The Democratic response was to countercrusade in 1856, warning that the election of Republican candidate John C. Frémont would produce civil war. The outstanding leader of the Democrats was Illinois Senator Stephen Douglas; he believed that the democratic process in each state or territory should settle the slavery question. When President James Buchanan tried to rig politics in Kansas Territory to approve slavery, Douglas broke with him, presaging the split that ruined the party in 1860. That year, northern Democrats nominated Douglas as the candidate of democracy, while the southern wing put up John Breckinridge as the upholder of the rights of property and of states' rights, which in this context meant slavery. In the South, ex-Whigs organized an "ad hoc" "Constitutional Union" Party, pledging to keep the nation united on the basis of the Constitution, regardless of democracy, states' rights, property or liberty. The Republicans played it safe in 1860, passing over better-known radicals in favor of a moderate border-state politician known to be an articulate advocate of liberty. Abraham Lincoln made no speeches, letting the party apparatus march the armies to the polls. Even if all three of Lincoln's opponents had formed a common ticket–quite impossible in view of their ideological differences–his 40 percent of the vote was enough to carry the North and thus win the electoral college.


title: Third Party System

text: It was the measure of genius of President Lincoln not only that he won his war but that he did so by drawing upon and synthesizing the strengths of anti-slavery, free soil, democracy, and nationalism. The Confederacy abandoned all party activity, and thereby forfeited the advantages of a nationwide organization committed to support of the administration. In the Union, the Republican Party unanimously supported the war effort, finding officers, enlisted men, enlistment bonuses, aid to wives and widows, war supplies, bond purchases, and the enthusiasm that was critical to victory. The Democrats at first supported a war for Union, and in 1861 many Democratic politicians became colonels and generals. Announced by Lincoln in September 1862, the Emancipation Proclamation was designed primarily to destroy the economic base of the 'Slave Power'. It initially alienated many northern Democrats and even moderate Republicans. They were reluctant to support a war for the benefit of what they considered an inferior race. The Democrats made significant gains in the 1862 midterm elections, but the Republicans remained in control with the support of the Unionist Party. Success on the battlefield (especially the fall of Atlanta) significantly bolstered the Republicans in the election of 1864. The Democrats attempted to capitalize on negative reactions to the Emancipation, but by 1864 these had faded somewhat due to its success in undermining the South. Additionally, the Republicans made charges of treason against 'Copperheads' a successful campaign issue. Increasingly the Union Army became Republican in its makeup; probably a majority of Democrats who enlisted marched home Republican, including such key leaders as John Logan and Ben Butler.


title: Third Party System

text: The Civil War and Reconstruction issues polarized the parties until the Compromise of 1877 finally ended the political warfare. War issues resonated for a quarter century, as Republicans waved the "bloody shirt" (of dead union soldiers), and Democrats warned against non-existent "Black supremacy" in the South and plutocracy in the North. The modernizing Republicans who had founded the party in 1854 looked askance at the perceived corruption of Ulysses S. Grant and his war veterans, bolstered by the solid vote of freedmen. The dissenters formed a "Liberal Republican" Party in 1872, only to have it smashed by Grant's reelection. By the mid-1870s it was clear that Confederate nationalism was dead; all but the most ardent Republican 'Stalwarts' agreed that the southern Republican coalition of African-American freedmen, scalawags and carpetbaggers was helpless and hopeless. In 1874 the Democrats won big majorities in Congress, with economic depression a major issue. People asked how much longer the Republicans could use the Army to impose control in the South.


title: Third Party System

text: Rutherford Hayes became President after a highly controversial electoral count, demonstrating that the corruption of Southern politics threatened the legitimacy of the presidency itself. After Hayes removed the last federal troops in 1877, the Republican Party in the South sank into oblivion, kept alive only by the crumbs of federal patronage. It would be forty years before a Republican would win a former Confederate state in a presidential election.


title: Third Party System

text: New issues emerged in the late 1880s, as Grover Cleveland and the Bourbon Democrats made the low tariff "for revenue only" a rallying cry for Democrats in the 1888 election, and the Republican Congress in 1890 legislated high tariffs and high spending. At the state level moralistic pietists pushed hard for prohibition, and in some states for the elimination of foreign-language schools serving German immigrants. The Bennett Law in Wisconsin produced a bruising ethnocultural battle in that state in 1890, which the Democrats won. The millions of postwar immigrants divided politically along ethnic and religious lines, with enough Germans moving into the Democratic Party to give the Democrats a national majority in 1892. Party loyalties were starting to weaken, as evidenced by the movement back and forth of the German vote and the sudden rise of the Populists. Army-style campaigns of necessity had to be supplemented by "campaigns of education", which focused more on the swing voters.


title: Third Party System

text: Cleveland's second term was ruined by a major depression, the Panic of 1893, which also undercut the appeal of the loosely organized Populist coalitions in the south and west. A stunning Republican triumph in 1894 nearly wiped out the Democratic Party north of the Mason–Dixon line. In the 1896 election William Jennings Bryan and the radical silverites seized control of the Democratic Party, denounced their own president, and called for a return to Jeffersonian agrarianism (see Jeffersonian democracy). Bryan, in his Cross of Gold speech, talked about workers and farmers crucified by big business, evil bankers and the gold standard. With Bryan giving from five to 35 speeches a day throughout the Midwest, straw polls showed his crusade forging a lead in the critical Midwest. Republicans William McKinley and Mark Hanna then seized control of the situation; their countercrusade was a campaign of education making lavish use of new advertising techniques. McKinley warned that Bryan's bimetallism would wreck the economy and achieve equality by making everyone poor. McKinley promised prosperity through strong economic growth based on sound money and business confidence, and an abundance of high-paying industrial jobs. Farmers would benefit by selling to a rich home market. Every racial, ethnic and religious group would prosper, and the government would never be used by one group to attack another. In particular McKinley reassured the German-Americans, alarmed on the one hand by Bryan's inflation and on the other by prohibition. McKinley's overwhelming victory combined city and farm, Northeast and Midwest, businessmen and factory workers. He carried nearly every city of 50,000 population, while Bryan swept the rural South (which was off-limits to the Republicans) and Mountain states. McKinley's victory, ratified by an even more decisive reelection in 1900, thus solidified one of the central ideologies of twentieth-century American politics, pluralism.


title: Third Party System

text: By campaigning tirelessly with over 500 speeches in 100 days, William Jennings Bryan seized control of the headlines in the 1896 election. It no longer mattered as much what the editorial page said—most newspapers opposed him—as long as his speeches made the front page. Financing likewise changed radically. Under the Second and Third Party Systems, parties financed their campaigns through patronage; now civil service reform was undercutting that revenue, and entirely new, outside sources of funding became critical. Mark Hanna systematically told nervous businessmen and financiers that he had a business plan to win the election, and then billed them for their share of the cost. Hanna spent $3.5 million in three months for speakers, pamphlets, posters, and rallies that all warned of doom and anarchy if Bryan should win, and offered prosperity and pluralism under William McKinley. Party loyalty itself weakened as voters were switching between parties much more often. It became respectable to declare oneself an 'independent'.


title: Third Party System

text: Throughout the nineteenth century, third parties such as the Prohibition Party, Greenback Party and the Populist Party evolved from widespread antiparty sentiment and a belief that governance should attend to the public good rather than partisan agendas. Because this position was based more on social experiences than any political ideology, nonpartisan activity was generally most effective on the local level. As third-party candidates tried to assert themselves in mainstream politics, however, they were forced to betray the antiparty foundations of the movement by allying with major partisan leaders. These alliances and the factionalism they engendered discouraged nonpartisan supporters and undermined the third-party movement by the end of the nineteenth century. Many reformers and nonpartisans subsequently lent support to the Republican Party, which promised to attend to issues important to them, such as anti-slavery or prohibition.


title: Third Party System

text: The overwhelming Republican victory, repeated in 1900, restored business confidence, began three decades of prosperity for which the Republicans took credit, and swept away the issues and personalities of the Third Party System. The period 1896–1932 can be called the Fourth Party System. Most voting blocs continued unchanged, but others realigned themselves, giving a strong Republican dominance in the industrial Northeast, though the way was clear for the Progressive Era to impose a new way of thinking and a new agenda for politics.


title: Third Party System

text: Alarmed at the new rules of the game for campaign funding, the Progressives launched investigations and exposures (by the 'muckraker' journalists) into corrupt links between party bosses and business. New laws and constitutional amendments weakened the party bosses by installing primaries and directly electing senators. Theodore Roosevelt shared the growing concern with business influence on government. When William Howard Taft appeared to be too cozy with pro-business conservatives in terms of tariff and conservation issues, Roosevelt broke with his old friend and his old party. After losing the 1912 Republican nomination to Taft, he founded a new "Bull Moose" Progressive Party and ran as a third candidate. Although he outpolled Taft (who won only two states) in both the popular vote and the electoral college, the Republican split elected Woodrow Wilson and made pro-business conservatives the dominant force in the Republican Party.


title: Toponymy

text: Toponymy, toponymics, or toponomastics is the study of "toponyms" (proper names of places, also known as place names and geographic names), including their origins, meanings, usage and types. Toponym is the general term for a proper name of any geographical feature, and full scope of the term also includes proper names of all cosmographical features.


title: Toponymy

text: In a more specific sense, the term "toponymy" refers to an inventory of toponyms, while the discipline researching such names is referred to as "toponymics" or "toponomastics". Toponymy is a branch of onomastics, the study of proper names of all kinds. A person who studies toponymy is called "toponymist".


title: Toponymy

text: The "Oxford English Dictionary" records "toponymy" (meaning "place name") first appearing in English in 1876. Since then, "toponym" has come to replace the term "place-name" in professional discourse among geographers.


title: Toponymy

text: Probably the first toponymists were the storytellers and poets who explained the origin of specific place names as part of their tales; sometimes place-names served as the basis for their etiological legends. The process of folk etymology usually took over, whereby a false meaning was extracted from a name based on its structure or sounds. Thus, for example, the toponym of Hellespont was explained by Greek poets as being named after Helle, daughter of Athamas, who drowned there as she crossed it with her brother Phrixus on a flying golden ram. The name, however, is probably derived from an older language, such as Pelasgian, which was unknown to those who explained its origin. In his "Names on the Globe", George R. Stewart theorizes that "Hellespont" originally meant something like 'narrow Pontus' or 'entrance to Pontus', "Pontus" being an ancient name for the region around the Black Sea, and by extension, for the sea itself.


title: Toponymy

text: Especially in the 19th century, the age of exploration, a lot of toponyms got a different name because of national pride. Thus the famous German cartographer Petermann thought that the naming of newly discovered physical features was one of the privileges of a map-editor, especially as he was fed up with forever encountering toponyms like 'Victoria', 'Wellington', 'Smith', 'Jones', etc. He writes: "While constructing the new map to specify the detailed topographical portrayal and after consulting with and authorization of messr. [Theodor] v[on] Heuglin and count I have entered 118 names in the map: partly they are the names derived from celebrities of arctic explorations and discoveries, arctic travellers anyway as well as excellent friends, patrons, and participants of different nationalities in the newest northpolar expeditions, partly eminent German travellers in Africa, Australia, America ...".


title: Toponymy

text: How difficult it was to create a global system of naming toponyms was shown in the 11th edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica:


title: Toponymy

text: ‘Another form of the terminological problem, to which reference was made above, is found in the transliteration of foreign names, and the conversion of the names of foreign places and countries into English equivalents. As regards the latter, there is no English standard which can be said to be universal, though in particular cases there is a convention which it would be absurd to attempt to displace for any reason of supposed superior accuracy. It would be pragmatical in the extreme to force upon the English-speaking world a system of calling all foreign places by their local names, even though it might be thought that each nationality had a right to settle the nomenclature of its country and the towns or districts within it. In general the English conventions must stand. One of these days the world may agree that an international nomenclature is desirable and feasible, but not yet; and the country which its own citizens call Deutschland and the French l'Allemagne still remains Germany to those who use the English language. Similarly Cologne (Köln), Florence (Firenze), or Vienna (Wien) are bound to retain their English names in an English book. But all cases are not so simple. The world abounds in less important places, for which the English names have no standardized spelling; different English newspapers on a single day, or a single newspaper at intervals of a few weeks or months, give them several varieties of form; and in Asia or Africa the latest explorer always seems to have a preference for a new one which is unlike that adopted by rival geographers. When the Eleventh Edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica was started, the suggestion was made that the Royal Geographical Society of London — the premier geographical society of the world — might co-operate in an attempt to secure the adoption of a standard English geographical and topographical nomenclature. The Society, indeed, has a system of its own which to some extent aims at fulfilling this requirement, though it has failed to impose it upon general use; but unfortunately the Society's system breaks down by admitting a considerable number of exceptions and by failing to settle a very large number of cases which really themselves constitute the difficulty. The collaboration of the Royal Geographical Society for the purpose of enabling the Encyclopædia Britannica to give prominent literary expression to an authoritative spelling for every place-name included within its articles or maps was found to be impracticable; and it was therefore necessary for the Eleventh Edition to adopt a consistent spelling which would represent its own judgment and authority. It is hoped that by degrees this spelling may recommend itself in other quarters. Where reasonably possible, the local spelling popularized by the usage of post-offices or railways has been preferred to any purely philological system of transliteration, but there are numerous cases where even this test of public convenience breaks down and some form of Anglicization becomes essential to an English gazetteer having an organic unity of its own. Apart from the continuance of English conventions which appeared sufficiently crystallized, the most authoritative spelling of the foreign name has been given its simplest English transliteration, preference being given, in cases of doubt, to the form, for instance in African countries, adopted by the European nation in possession or control. In the absence of any central authority or international agreement, the result is occasionally different in some slight degree from any common English variant, but this cannot well be helped when English variants are so capricious, and none persistent; and the names selected are those which for purposes of reference combine the most accuracy with the least disturbance of familiar usage. Thus the German African colony of Kamerun is here called Cameroon, an English form which follows the common practice of English transliteration in regard to its initial letter, but departs, in deference to the official nomenclature, from the older English Cameroons, a plural no longer justifiable, although most English newspapers and maps still perpetuate it.’.


title: Toponymy

text: Toponyms may have different names through time, due to changes and developments in languages, political developments and border adjustments to name but a few. More recently many postcolonial countries revert to their own nomenclature for toponyms that have been named by colonial powers.


title: Toponymy

text: Place names provide the most useful geographical reference system in the world. Consistency and accuracy are essential in referring to a place to prevent confusion in everyday business and recreation.


title: Toponymy

text: A toponymist, through well-established local principles and procedures developed in cooperation and consultation with the United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names (UNGEGN), applies the science of toponymy to establish officially recognized geographical names. A toponymist relies not only on maps and local histories, but interviews with local residents to determine names with established local usage. The exact application of a toponym, its specific language, its pronunciation, and its origins and meaning are all important facts to be recorded during name surveys.


title: Toponymy

text: Scholars have found that toponyms provide valuable insight into the historical geography of a particular region. In 1954, F. M. Powicke said of place-name study that it "uses, enriches and tests the discoveries of archaeology and history and the rules of the philologists."


title: Toponymy

text: Toponyms not only illustrate ethnic settlement patterns, but they can also help identify discrete periods of immigration.


title: Toponymy

text: Toponymists are responsible for the active preservation of their region's culture through its toponymy. They typically ensure the ongoing development of a geographical names database and associated publications, for recording and disseminating authoritative hard-copy and digital toponymic data. This data may be disseminated in a wide variety of formats, including hard-copy topographic maps as well as digital formats such as geographic information systems, Google Maps, or thesauri like the Getty Thesaurus of Geographic Names.


title: Toponymy

text: In 2002, the United Nations Conference on the Standardization of Geographical Names acknowledged that while common, the practice of naming geographical places after living persons (toponymic commemoration) could be problematic. Therefore, the United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names recommends that it be avoided and that national authorities should set their own guidelines as to the time required after a person's death for the use of a commemorative name.


title: Toponymy

text: In the same vein, writers Pinchevski and Torgovnik (2002) consider the naming of streets as a political act in which holders of the legitimate monopoly to name aspire to engrave their ideological views in the social space. Similarly, the revisionist practice of


title: Toponymy

text: renaming streets, as both the celebration of triumph and the repudiation of the old regime is another issue of toponymy. Also, in the context of Slavic nationalism, the name of Saint Petersburg was changed to the more Slavic sounding "Petrograd" from 1914 to 1924, then to "Leningrad" following the death of Vladimir Lenin and back to "Saint-Peterburg" in 1991 after the fall of the Soviet Union. After 1830, in the wake of the Greek War of Independence and the establishment of an independent Greek state, Turkish, Slavic and Italian place names were Hellenized, as an effort of "toponymic cleansing." This nationalization of place names can also manifest itself in a postcolonial context.


title: Toponymy

text: In Canada, there have been initiatives in recent years "to restore traditional names to reflect the Indigenous culture wherever possible". Indigenous mapping is a process that can include restoring place names by Indigenous communities themselves.


title: Toponymy

text: Frictions sometimes arise between countries because of toponymy, as illustrated by the Macedonia naming dispute in which Greece has claimed the name "Macedonia", the Sea of Japan naming dispute between Japan and Korea, as well as the Persian Gulf naming dispute. On 20 September 1996 a note on the internet reflected a query by a Canadian surfer, who said as follows: 'One producer of maps labeled the water body


title: Toponymy

text: "Persian Gulf" on a 1977 map of Iran, and then "Arabian Gulf", also in 1977, in a map which focused on the Gulf States. I would gather that this is an indication of the "politics of maps", but I would be interested to know if this was done to avoid upsetting users of the Iran map and users of the map showing Arab Gulf States'. This symbolizes a further aspect of the topic, namely the spilling over of the problem from the purely political to the economic sphere.


title: Toponymy

text: A geographic names board is an official body established by a government to decide on official names for geographical areas and features.


title: Toponymy

text: Most countries have such a body, which is commonly (but not always) known under this name. Also, in some countries (especially those organised on a federal basis), subdivisions such as individual states or provinces will have individual boards.


title: Finland–Russia border

text: The Finnish–Russian border is the roughly north–south international border between the Republic of Finland and the Russian Federation. Some long, it runs mostly through uninhabited taiga forests and sparsely populated rural areas, not following any particular natural feature or river. It is an external border of the European Union.


title: Finland–Russia border

text: Border crossings are controlled and patrolled by the Finnish Border Guard and the Border Guard Service of Russia, who also enforce border zones ( on the Finnish side, at least of Border Security Zone on the Russian side). Entry to a border zone requires a permit. The electronic surveillance on the Finnish side is concentrated most heavily on the "southernmost 200 kilometers"(125 Miles) and is constantly growing in sophistication. The Finnish Border Guard conducts "regularly irregular" dog patrols (that is to say there are several patrols each day but exactly when is not easily predicable or published in advance) to catch anyone venturing into the border zone. Russia maintains its 500-year-old border patrol in the Arctic region as elsewhere, and plans to upgrade Soviet Union-era border technologies to both save on cost and to fully maximize the efficiency of the Border Service by the year 2020. However, Lieutenant-General Vladimir Streltsov, deputy head of the Russian border service, noted that electronic surveillance will never replace the human element.


title: Finland–Russia border

text: The border can be crossed only at official checkpoints, and at least one visa is required for most people. Major border checkpoints are found in Vaalimaa and Nuijamaa, where customs services on both sides inspect and levy fees on imported goods.


title: Finland–Russia border

text: The northern endpoint of the border between Norway, Finland, and Russia form a tripoint marked by Treriksrøysa, a stone cairn near Muotkavaara (). On the south, the boundary is on the shore of Gulf of Finland, in which there is a maritime boundary between the respective territorial waters, terminating in a narrow strip of international waters between Finnish and Estonian territorial waters.


title: Finland–Russia border

text: The first border treaty concerning this border was signed in Nöteborg in 1323, between Sweden (to which Finland belonged) and the Novgorod Republic. The Treaty of Teusina in 1595 moved the border eastward. In conclusion to the Ingrian War, Sweden gained a large tract of land through the acquisition of the Nöteborg fortress, the Kexholm and its large province, southwest Karelia and the province of Ingria in the Treaty of Stolbovo (1617). The Treaty of Nystad in 1721 and the Treaty of Åbo in 1743 moved the border westward.


title: Finland–Russia border

text: The main difference between the different sides of the border at the time was religion. The Russian side was Russian Orthodox, the Swedish side was Catholic, later Lutheran Protestant. Generally the native population was ethnically Finnish and Finnish-speaking immediately on both sides of the border. However, after the peace of Stolbovo in 1617, the Orthodox population was persecuted and either fled to Tver or converted to Lutheranism and started speaking Finnish instead of the closely related Karelian. The population was largely replaced by immigrants from Finland, most of which were Savonians.


title: Finland–Russia border

text: After the Finnish War, the Treaty of Fredrikshamn converted all of Finland from Swedish territory to a Russian possession, the Grand Duchy of Finland. The Finnish–Russian border was moved back to the pre-1721 location, so that the Grand Duchy gained the so-called "Old Finland", territories previously held by Sweden, in 1812.


title: Finland–Russia border

text: After Finland became independent in 1917, there was the Finnish Civil War in 1918, and even after this war, the Russian Civil War continued. Finnish activists often crossed the border into Soviet territory in order to fight in the "heimosodat", wars aiming at Finnish ethnic self-determination and possible annexation into Finland. However, this came to an end in 1920, when the Russian/Finnish Treaty of Tartu in 1920 defined Finland as independent and demarcated the countries' common border. However, Finnish fighters would still take part in the East Karelian uprising and Soviet–Finnish conflict of 1921–22. Finally, the Finnish government closed the border from the volunteers and food and munitions shipments in 1922.


title: Finland–Russia border

text: During World War II, Stalin severely suppressed the native Finnish-speaking population (Ingrian Finns) by population transfers, collectivization and purges, such that border zones were to be free of Finnish peoples.


title: Finland–Russia border

text: The USSR invaded Finland in the Winter War which concluded with the signing of the Moscow Peace Treaty in 1940. Finland was forced to cede several border areas to the USSR.


title: Finland–Russia border

text: The land border was later demarcated in the Treaty of Paris (1947) following the Continuation War (1941–44), in which approximately half of Finnish Karelia (including Finland's fourth-largest city Vyborg), parts of Salla, and all of Petsamo were ceded to the Soviet Union. The new border cut through Finnish territory proper, severing many rail lines and isolating many Karelian towns from Finland. The Soviet Union demanded emptying the territories first. Finns were evacuated from the area and resettled elsewhere in Finland; almost nobody was willing to stay. The areas were resettled by Soviet immigrants. The Porkkala naval base was leased by the Soviet Union, but returned to the Finnish government in 1956. The naval border was established in 1940 and more accurately defined in 1965.


title: Finland–Russia border

text: The border is uncontroversial and clearly defined by law. Both states verified the inviolability of borders and territorial integrity in the first Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe in 1975.


title: Finland–Russia border

text: During the Cold War, the border constituted part of the perimeter of the Iron Curtain. Crossing the border was not possible for much of its length. Only a very limited number of border crossing points existed, and the Soviet government permitted only escorted trips to select cities; border zones were off limits to tourists. There was little contact between cities that were relatively close to each other on opposite sides of the border, such as Imatra and Svetogorsk. On the Finnish side, there was a border zone where entry was allowed only with a permit, but habitation was permitted and residents could continue living in the area. The Soviet side had extensive electronic systems and patrols to prevent escapes. Soviet border surveillance began at a great distance from the actual border, and was as extensive as elsewhere along the Iron Curtain. The first surveillance was already in railway stations in cities, where the "militsiya" monitored potentially suspicious traffic. The border zone began at from the border. A special permit was required for entry, and the first line of control had electronic alarms. At , there was a raked sand strip (to detect footprints) and a thin alarmed tripwire. At , there was a tall barbed wire fence, with a top that curved inwards towards Soviet territory (to keep people from leaving the USSR). The fence had an electronic alarm system. However, it was not protected underground and tunnelling under it was possible. Finally, at the international border, there was a border vista. In the north, this was followed by a Finnish reindeer fence. Unlike other Western countries, the government of Finland did not protect illegal border crossers but returned them to the Soviet authorities if captured. Illegal border crossers had to get through Finland to e.g. Sweden in order to defect to the West.


title: Finland–Russia border

text: In the Moscow Armistice signed in 1944 between Finland, the Soviet Union and the United Kingdom, a small peninsula towards the Gulf of Finland, Porkkala, was rented to the Soviet Union as a military base. This created in effect a southern border crossing to the Soviet exclave, operating all the way to 1956. Border crossings were in and . In 1947, Finnish trains were allowed to pass through the base, but the passenger car windows were blinded and locomotive replaced while crossing through. Earlier between 1940 and 1941, the Soviet Union had rented Hanko Peninsula as a military base. Apparently there was also a border crossing to the exclave at the time.


title: Finland–Russia border

text: On 26 November 1939, the Soviet Union's Red Army shelled the Soviet village of Mainila, and blamed Finland. The Soviets used this false flag operation as the pretext to provoke the Winter War four days later.


title: Finland–Russia border

text: According to a Russian media report, Finland closed its border crossing with Russia, a counterpart to the Russian border post, on 4 December 2015, an hour and a half before the day's scheduled closing time and thus prevented fifteen people of Mid-East origin from crossing the border. According to the same source, some Finnish border officials confirmed that Raja-Jooseppi had closed early that day while a spokesman for the same department said the checkpoint closed at its regular time of 21:00 hours. Note the time zone difference between the checkpoints (Eastern European Time and Moscow Time), one hour in winter.


title: Finland–Russia border

text: On 27 December 2015, Finland blocked access for people to cross over Russian border on bicycles via and Salla. According to the Finnish Border Guard, this measure was to limit illegal immigration and ensure safety on slippery roads. The Finnish Border Guard stated that organized traffickers had their clients cross the border by biking in order to avoid being captured on the Finnish side and prosecuted for organizing illegal immigration, which is a felony in Finnish law. In response, asylum seekers started to cross the border by car.


title: Finland–Russia border

text: On 23 January 2016, Finnish Foreign Minister Timo Soini, member of the Finns Party was reported discussing at the northern border of Salla about inward "people smuggling", and noting that the conclusion that somebody at the Russian side was organizing and regulating the inflow of immigrants was in his mind apparently true. He further noted, that it is imminent that the process is an act of procession. Furthermore, a communal representative of the same Finns Party noted, that the inflow of immigrants causes disturbance for Finns driving to the Russian side to purchase petrol, as the border stays stuck due to immigration proceedings.


title: Finland–Russia border

text: In March 2016, Finland and Russia temporarily closed the Raja-Jooseppi border crossing at Inari and the Salla border crossing from third country nationals. Only Finnish, Russian and Belarusian citizens were allowed to use these crossings for a period of six months. The measure proved temporary.


title: Toyota Caldina

text: The is an automobile manufactured by Toyota for the Japanese market from 1992 to 2007. It replaced the Corona and Carina wagons, and was sold at "Toyota Store" and "Toyopet Store" locations in Japan. While the Caldina has never been officially exported by Toyota, its All-Trac 4WD capability and large capacity have made it a popular grey import in Australia, New Zealand, Russia and many South American countries. When it was discontinued in 2007, the T270 series Avensis wagon/estate assumed its market position.


title: Toyota Caldina

text: According to Toyota, the name "Caldina" is inspired by the Italian (and English) adjective "cardinal", meaning "essential" or "fundamental".


title: Toyota Caldina

text: The first-generation Caldina is a 5-door wagon and commercial van version (1992–2002) of the Corona/Carina sedan in Japan. It became treated as a separate line, with a new emphasis on the passenger-oriented station wagon model as a response to the runaway success of the Subaru Legacy wagon in Japan. The wagon has independent strut rear suspension while the commercial wagon has semi-independent leaf springs. Van models' chassis numbers are in the 196-199 range and receive a "V" suffix, while the wagons are 190-195 and carry a "G" suffix. In January 1996, the Caldina underwent a very gentle facelift, including a new dashboard and a new grille. The new dashboard was the same design as installed in the simultaneously introduced Corona Premio (T210), enabling the fitment of a passenger airbag. At this time, the 1.8-litre engine was also changed over from the 4S to the lean-burn 7A engine.


title: Toyota Caldina

text: Special versions of the Caldina Wagon included the Aerial, which has a taller roof to accommodate a long sunroof, and the Field Hunter, which cashed in on Japan's so-called "RV boom" - versions of station wagons and small vans with offroad pretensions. The Field Hunter received an externally mounted spare wheel, which increased the overall length to the point that it was no longer classified as a "compact car", placing it in a much higher tax category. The popularity of the light commercial segment was waning at this time in Japan, with the Mark II van (X70) being discontinued without a direct successor in 1997, leaving only the Crown and Caldina Vans. While sales of the Caldina Wagon ended in September 1997, the Van continued to be sold until July 2002.


title: Toyota Caldina

text: The Caldina Van received another light facelift in August 1999, which is also when the naturally aspirated diesel was upgraded to a 2.2-liter version (the turbo-diesel had only been available in the Caldina Wagon). ABS brakes were made standard, while crash protection was improved. The 2-liter 3S-FE gasoline engine also became available in the Caldina Van, only in combination with the electronically controlled four-speed automatic transmission (ECT) and four-wheel drive.


title: Toyota Caldina

text: In Europe, the wagon was part of the Carina E family, while in New Zealand it was sold as the Corona. The vans were generally not exported. The 1.6-litre 4A engine (AT190) was only installed in export versions.


title: Toyota Caldina

text: The second-generation Caldina is the Japanese version of the European Avensis wagon with door handles taken from the E110 series Corolla and the T210 series Corona Premio, launched in Japan in September 1997.


title: Toyota Caldina

text: The four-wheel drive models are coded ST215, and were also offered as Active Sports GT models with the "3S-GE" engine. The top-of-the-line GT-T came with the turbocharged fourth-generation "3S-GTE" engine, and included a four-wheel drive system similar to the Celica GT-Four. The GT-T also came with optional electronic stability control (standard on Active Sports versions). The Aerial version features a large sunroof and contoured roof racks as standard. Weighing , the manual Caldina GT-T has a time of 6.4 seconds, with the automatic version only 0.1 seconds slower. A refresh was given in 2000 with new plastic bumpers and plastic headlights. The mostly-plastic interior was also updated. In 2001, an extra lug was added to the turbo manifold to prevent the manifold from warping which had been a common issue on GT-T models. Reliability of the GT-T engines proved to be a concern throughout the lifespan of the "3S" powered GT-Ts, with spun main bearings and shattered oil pump gears being common issues amongst owners.


title: Toyota Caldina

text: Engines for the more common lesser models are the 1.8 L "7A-FE" petrol, the 2.0 L "3S-FE" petrol and the 2.2 L "3C-TE" turbo-diesel.


title: Toyota Caldina

text: The third-generation Caldina launched in September 2002 was marketed as a pure sports wagon and does not share body panels with Allion, Premio and Avensis.


title: Toyota Caldina

text: Engines for the Caldina are 1.8 L "1ZZ-FE", 2.0 L "1AZ-FSE" and 2.0 L turbocharged "3S-GTE". Trim levels are 1.8 X, 1.8 Z, 2.0 Z, 2.0 ZT and GT-Four (the latter is coded ST246). All models have an automatic transmission and the GT-Four model only comes in a tiptronic transmission.


title: Toyota Caldina

text: As a tribute to Toyota's motorsports development guru and the creator of the first GT-Four, Hiromu Naruse, a special edition Caldina GT-Four was produced, the Caldina GT-Four N Edition (N for Naruse). This model was equipped with several performance enhancements specified by Naruse:


title: Toyota Caldina

text: Production of the third-generation Caldina ended in mid-2007 without a direct successor, but is indirectly replaced with the T270 series Avensis wagon/estate imported from the UK.


title: Stalin (2006 film)

text: Stalin is a 2006 Indian Telugu-language action political drama film directed by A. R. Murugadoss. It stars Chiranjeevi and Trisha while Prakash Raj, Sharada, Khushbu Sundar, Pradeep Rawat, and Brahmanandam play supporting roles. The film was screened at the International Film Festival of India in the mainstream section.


title: Stalin (2006 film)

text: The film released on 20 September 2006. The film producer Nagendra Babu won for Nandi Special Jury Award. The film was also dubbed and released into Tamil under the same title, and remade into Hindi as "Jai Ho" in 2014. The core plot of the movie was reported to be based on the 2000 movie "Pay It Forward".


title: Stalin (2006 film)

text: The only mission in Stalin's life is to help others and make the world a better place. It turns out that he served as a Major in the Indian Army. Although a war hero, he quit the army after a rift with Lt. Col. Iqbal Kakar when he transfers him to the administrative division from the battlefield as a disciplinary action. His family includes his mother and sister Jhansi, who is not in talking terms with their mother since she married a Punjabi.


title: Stalin (2006 film)

text: Stalin keeps helping a physically challenged girl named Sumati write her intermediate examination, and her suicide disturbs him. The death occurs as none of the people around her extend help. Stalin then plans a chain system. The theme works on a principle that everyone should help others, and in return, they should not seek a mere thanks but tell those who get the help to help three more, with a condition that those who get help from them should also demand the same. Stalin thinks that this chain will develop helping attitude among the people but unfortunately finds that the chain did not work. On one occasion, he bashes a rich boy who injured a beggar.


title: Stalin (2006 film)

text: This goes in a chain reaction, and the rich boy employs goons to attack Stalin. As Stalin disappears from the scene, the goons take Jhansi and her friend Chitra into their custody. Stalin reaches the spot and hacks the hand of one goon which happens to be the henchman of an MLA, who is the son-in-law of Home Minister Muddu Krishnayya. Krishnayya takes it as a prestige issue and tries to eliminate Stalin but loses his son in the process. When the Chief Minister intervenes to bring in a patch-up, Krishnayya plans to kill him and implicate Stalin in the murder. Stalin saves the injured Chief Minister but experiences a severe chest pain due to exertion.


title: Stalin (2006 film)

text: The reason for the chest pain is a bullet which remained in his chest, very near to his heart. Stalin sustains the bullet injury in the Kargil War, and that was why Iqbal shifted him to the administrative department. Finally, the truth prevails, and the CM returns to the hospital to visit Stalin. The "help three people" concept was his brainchild, which saved him from death in the form of a schoolgirl. Finally, the doctors successfully remove the bullet in a very delicate surgery. Krishnayya also gets arrested. Stalin realises that his "help three people" concept worked well, and the same theme saved his life in the form of an auto driver. He thanks everyone for making his concept a success.


title: Stalin (2006 film)

text: Audio of Stalin was launched on 22 August 2006 at a jam pack auditorium of Lalitha Kala Vedika in Public Gardens, Hyderabad. Pawan Kalyan launched the audio of gave the first cassette to Nimmagadda Prasad (Matrix Labs) and Murali Krishnam Raju (MAA TV). The film has six songs composed by Mani Sharma, with lyrics by Anantha Sriram, Pedada Murthy, Kadikonda & Suddala Ashok Teja.


title: Stalin (2006 film)

text: The film received mixed to positive reviews. Jeevi of "idlebrain.com" praised the performances of Chiranjeevi and Khushboo and stated that "First half of the film is pretty mediocre as there is no conflict thread in terms of villain. Second half is better from the moment villain enters the scene. The last 20 minutes of the film stands out with very good emotions." "Sify.com" gave it 3 on 5 stars as well and stated "The much hyped Murugadoss directed Stalin does not have Chiru as the comic book superhero in the first half. He is basically a do-gooder for his fellow-men as he attempts to make the world a better place to live. Chiru in such a role may or may not work with the masses but in this refreshingly different role, he is cool with a capital C." "Indiaglitz.com" also commented "Director Murugadoss, who made us all sit up and take notice through Tagore (story) and Ghajini, once again underlines his talent for making a wholesome and powerful mass masala movie. In Chiranjeevi, he has somebody who can bring to life any kind of idea he (Murugadoss) has. Chiranjeevi, it seems, has been particular about the 'message' aspect — at his stature and seniority, he had every reason to be."


Visa requirements for Venezuelan citizens are administrative entry restrictions by the authorities of other states placed on citizens of Venezuela. As of 7 September 2021, Venezuelan citizens had visa-free or visa on arrival access to 130 countries and territories, ranking the Venezuelan passport 40th in terms of travel freedom (tied with Tonga) according to the Henley Passport Index.


title: Visa requirements for Venezuelan citizens

text: Citizens of Venezuela do not need to use a passport when traveling to Argentina and Brazil, as they may use their ID card. Moreover, Venezuelans may also travel to the United States, Canada, Spain and several Latin American countries using expired passports.


text: Since 2017, 19 countries in Latin America and Caribbean (El Salvador, Panama, Honduras, Guatemala, St Lucia, Peru, Trinidad and Tobago, Chile, Ecuador, Dominican Republic, Aruba, Bonaire, Curaçao, St Marteen, St Eustatius, Saba, Mexico, Costa Rica and Belize) have stopped providing visa-free access to Venezuelans following the ongoing refugee crisis and reinstated visa requirements for those seeking to enter these countries. Some countries will still allow Venezuelans to enter visa-free if holding a valid visa/residence permit from a particular third country, such as Canada, the Schengen Area, Japan or the United States; and in the case of Mexico offers visa-free if holding a residence from a country of the Pacific Alliance (Chile, Colombia and Peru).


text: Visa requirements for Venezuelan citizens for visits to various territories, disputed areas, partially recognized countries not mentioned in the list above, and restricted zones:


title: Kara-class cruiser

text: The Kara class, Soviet designation Project 1134B Berkut B (golden eagle), was a class of guided missile cruisers (large anti-submarine warfare ship in Soviet classification) built in the Soviet Union for the Soviet Navy. The NATO lists the class as "cruisers" mainly due to the Metel (SS-N-14 "Silex") anti-ship missile system capable of striking not only submarines, but also surface vessels.


title: Kara-class cruiser

text: These ships were enlarged versions of the , with gas turbine engines replacing the steam turbines. These ships were fitted as flagships with improved command, control and communications facilities. These are dedicated ASW ships with significant anti-aircraft capability including both SA-N-3 and SA-N-4 surface-to-air missiles.


title: Kara-class cruiser

text: The specifications for the class were issued in 1964 with the design being finalised in the late 1960s. The gas turbine engine was chosen instead of steam for greater efficiency and quietness, and because the main Soviet gas turbine plant had a long association with the Nikolayev shipyards.


title: Kara-class cruiser

text: The cruiser "Azov" was constructed as a trials ship for the SA-N-6 missile system and was also fitted with the associated "Top Dome" Radar. During the Cold War she was confined to the Black Sea.


title: Pilgrimage (2017 film)

text: Pilgrimage is a 2017 Irish medieval film directed by Brendan Muldowney. The film stars Tom Holland, Richard Armitage, and Jon Bernthal. It was screened April 23, 2017 at Tribeca Film Festival in its "Viewpoint" section.


title: Pilgrimage (2017 film)

text: In 55 A.D. Cappadocia, Saint Matthias is dragged in chains by a group of men to be stoned to death. Before the final stone is thrown, lightning begins to crackle overhead.


title: Pilgrimage (2017 film)

text: In 1209 A.D. Medieval Ireland, French Cistercian monk Frère Geraldus arrives at a remote monastery with a charter from Pope Innocent III, commanding the monks to undertake a pilgrimage to transport their holiest relic to Rome. The monks reluctantly agree as legend tells that the relic's holy power will destroy any not pure-hearted enough to possess it. A handful of monks set out, including multilingual Brother Ciarán and novice Brother Diarmuid, accompanied by a mute laborer. As the group is caught in a rainstorm, the golden reliquary is struck by lightning but shows no damage, further reinforcing the notion of its mystical power.


title: Pilgrimage (2017 film)

text: Ireland, at the time reeling under successive Norman invasions, is a dangerous place; in fear of Gaelic Irish warriors, Geraldus leads several monks to a Norman encampment led by Baron de Merville, who believes that assisting the pilgrims will enable his forgiveness for atrocities committed as a crusader in service of the Church. The monks are disgusted by the violent nature of the soldiers, especially the Baron's son Raymond de Merville, despite Geraldus' claim of their protection being a necessary evil. It is revealed that the reliquary contains not the remains of the apostle Matthias, but rather the stone used to martyr him and that the Pope believes its tremendous power will benefit an upcoming crusade.


title: Pilgrimage (2017 film)

text: A larger caravan of armed men, led by Raymond, sets out escorting the monks to the boat that awaits them in Waterford. Raymond, speaking French, tells the mute laborer that some of his men recognize him as a former crusader but not from where; only Brother Ciarán speaks French, and the rest of the monks are left in the dark. En route, the caravan finds that a necessary bridge has been burned and its guards slaughtered, and Raymond takes most of the soldiers with him to give chase, leaving the monks with a token guard.


title: Pilgrimage (2017 film)

text: The monks continue but are quickly ambushed by a group of Gaelic warriors, who quickly slaughter the soldiers and several monks. The Mute dives to protect the young Diarmuid, but is stunned by a rock from a sling. As the Gaels make off with the cart bearing the reliquary, the Mute regains consciousness, grabs a sword from a fallen soldier, and quickly kills several of the Gaels, including their chieftain; the rest scatter in fear. The two surviving monks, Diarmuid and the timid Cathal, are astonished until Geraldus claims the Mute's fierce actions as holy wrath on the Gaels for desecrating the reliquary. They choose to follow after the stolen relic, as it is too dangerous to wait for rescue by Raymond's troops.


title: Pilgrimage (2017 film)

text: The Mute tracks the stolen cart, finding the reliquary gone; he then spots a Gaelic scout and quietly kills him. They have found the Irish camp, and there are too many men to fight. To their dismay, their leader Brother Ciarán is tied hostage to a tree. Diarmuid insists they rescue Ciarán, but Geraldus insists that their holy duty is to the relic and not to their comrade; further, that Ciarán would surely also say the same. Diarmuid volunteers to after nightfall sneak into the camp and steal the relic, abandoning the ornate golden reliquary to the Gaels.


title: Pilgrimage (2017 film)

text: As the Mute and Diarmuid prepare to sneak into the camp, Raymond and his lieutenants appear. They are there for the relic, as they hired the Gaels to murder the pilgrims such that King John of England could claim the relic instead of the Pope. He says that John has become distrustful of his nobles in Ireland, thinking that they are more loyal to their relatives in Normandy and the King of France than himself. During their discussion Diarmuid sneaks to Ciarán's side and attempts to cut his bonds; Brother Ciarán insists the boy let him go. Ciarán, who was driving the cart bearing the reliquary during the ambush, tells Diarmuid that he threw the relic from the cart before he and the cart were taken and that Diarmuid must find the relic and leave him to his fate.


title: Pilgrimage (2017 film)

text: Devastated, Diarmuid leaves his mentor behind. The monks watch in horror as Raymond discovers the reliquary is empty. Raymond offers Ciarán a quick death if he tells where the relic has gone. Ciarán refuses and calls out Jesus' name as Raymond brutally kills him with a multi-pronged barb.


title: Pilgrimage (2017 film)

text: The monks escape and find the relic near where Brother Ciarán threw it. Geraldus fanatically insists that they continue their pilgrimage despite their desperate situation. As dawn breaks and horns sound in the distance, the group sees a fog-shrouded river. Geraldus interprets this as a divine sign, and they race to the river before Raymond and his men can find them. They ford the river, losing their pursuers until Geraldus shouts back insults at Raymond in French. Raymond replies in English, telling the group that Geraldus is such a fanatic that he sent his own father to be burned at the stake for heresy. Diarmuid pulls the relic out of his sack and prays to it. The others join him, and before long, they hear distant chiming.


title: Pilgrimage (2017 film)

text: The chime is the bell of a river ferry. Geraldus suggests that the Mute murder the ferrymen to enable their escape, but Brother Cathal barters with pearls he recovered from when they fell loose of the reliquary. The boat takes them almost to the coast, but as the tide is out, the estuary is too shallow to pass. Behind them, Raymond and his men cross into a clearing on the shore. The ferrymen, realizing their own danger, throw their cargo out of the boat, and all push the boat through the shallows. Geraldus, speaking French, convinces the Mute to turn around and buy the pilgrims time to escape, as God will forgive the former Crusader's sins, no matter how great. Diarmuid is crushed and tries to stop the Mute, but Geraldus holds him back as the boat begins to float.


title: Pilgrimage (2017 film)

text: The Mute takes on Raymond and his men alone, killing several. Raymond's archer fires at the fleeing boat, killing one of the ferrymen. Raymond engages the bare-chested and winded Mute and ultimately gains the upper hand. Raymond stabs the Mute with his barbed torture prong, asking where he comes from. The Mute responds with his only word of the film: "Hell." The Mute grabs Raymond and bites him in the throat, severing his artery, leaving him twitching on the ground. The Mute stands up, grabs his sword, and advances on the remaining three soldiers.


title: Pilgrimage (2017 film)

text: On the boat, Cathal reveals that he was struck with the last arrow in and slumps over. Hearing the clang of swords ashore, Geraldus tells Diarmuid that the holy relic will inspire a thousand men like the Mute to holy violence. In disgust, Diarmuid moves to throw the relic overboard. Geraldus struggles with him and goes overboard with the relic, sinking to the ocean floor.


title: Pilgrimage (2017 film)

text: Filming started in April 2015. Filming locations included the West Coast of Ireland and Ardennes in Belgium.


title: Pilgrimage (2017 film)

text: Katie Walsh of "Los Angeles Times" wrote, "For all its bloody and violent genre trappings, "Pilgrimage" [...] is a gorgeously shot film that carefully renders the details of this fascinating historical period."


title: National Film Award for Best Feature Film

text: The National Award for Best Feature Film is one of the categories in the National Film Awards presented annually by the Directorate of Film Festivals, the organisation set up by Ministry of Information and Broadcasting in India. It is one of several awards presented for feature films and awarded with the "Golden Lotus" ("Swarna Kamal"). The award is announced for films produced in a year across the country, in all Indian languages. , the award comprises a "Swarna Kamal", a certificate, and a cash prize of 2,50,000 and is presented to the producer and the director of the film.


text: The National Film Awards were established in 1954 to "encourage production of the films of a high aesthetic and technical standard and educational and culture value" and also planned to include awards for regional films. The awards were instituted as "State Awards for Films" but were renamed to "National Film Awards" at the 15th National Film Awards in 1967. , the award is one of six "Swarna Kamal" awards presented for the feature films. The award winning film is included at the annual International Film Festival of India. Only the films made in any Indian language and silent films which are either shot on 35 mm, in a wider gauge, or digital format but released on a film or Video/Digital format and certified by the Central Board of Film Certification as a feature film or featurette are made eligible for the award.


text: The inaugural award was named as "President's Gold Medal for the All India Best Feature Film" and was awarded to Marathi film, "Shyamchi Aai" ("Shyam's Mother"), produced and directed by Pralhad Keshav Atre and is based on Pandurang Sadashiv Sane's Marathi novel of the same name. , sixty seven feature films have been awarded which are made in twelve different languages: Bengali (twenty-two), Hindi (fourteen), Malayalam (twelve), Kannada (six), Marathi (five), Tamil (three), Assamese, English, Gujarati and Sanskrit (two each), Beary and Telugu (one each). At the 26th National Film Awards (1978), no feature film was awarded with the Best Feature film award as the jury headed by filmmaker Chetan Anand scrutinised eighty films but did not consider any film to be "worthy of merit" and "measured up to the standard of excellence set forth by the jury". At the 59th National Film Awards, two feature films shared the award; Marathi film "Deool" ("Temple") and Beary film "Byari". Most recently, the award is presented to Tamil film "Soorarai Pottru", directed by Sudha Kongara.


text: Satyajit Ray is the most honoured director where six of his films"Pather Panchali" (1955), "Apur Sansar" (1959), "Charulata" (1964), "Goopy Gyne Bagha Byne" (1968), "Seemabaddha" (1971), and "Agantuk" (1991)won the award, followed Buddhadeb Dasgupta (five), Girish Kasaravalli and Mrinal Sen (four each), Shaji N. Karun (three), and Adoor Gopalakrishnan, Tapan Sinha, G. V. Iyer and Priyadarshan (two each). As of 2022, the award was presented to the films of Eleven debutant directors; Satyajit Ray ("Pather Panchali", 1955), Adoor Gopalakrishnan ("Swayamvaram", 1972), M. T. Vasudevan Nair ("Nirmalyam", 1973), Girish Kasaravalli ("Ghatashraddha", 1977), charan ("Piravi", 1988), Sandeep Sawant ("Shwaas", 2003), Salim Ahamed ("Adaminte Makan Abu", 2010), Suveeran ("Byari", 2011), Anand Gandhi ("Ship of Theseus", 2013), Chaitanya Tamhane ("Court", 2015), Abhishek Shah ( Hellaro 2018). Five films awarded with the Best Feature film award were also the Indian submission for the Academy Award for the Best Foreign Language Film; "Apur Sansar" (1959), "Shwaas" (2004), "Adaminte Makan Abu" (2011), "Court" (2015) and "Village Rockstars" (2018) . "Adi Shankaracharya" (1983), the first film made in Sanskrit language, and "Byari" (2011), the first film made in Beary language, won the award at the 31st National Film Awards and 59th National Film Awards, respectively.


text: Since its inception in 1953, the producer of the film is awarded with the gold medal and a certificate. A cash prize of 20,000 was introduced at the 5th National Film Awards (1957) and was revised to 40,000 at the 18th National Film Awards (1970), to 50,000 at the 28th National Film Awards (1980), to 2,50,000 at the 54th National Film Awards (2006).


text: From 1953 till 1956, the director of the film was awarded with the Gold medal which was later changed in 1957 to a cash prize of 5,000. From 1967 till 1973, a plaque was also awarded to the director and cash prize was revised to 10,000 in 1970. At the 22nd National Film Awards (1974), the award for the director was changed to "Rajat Kamal" ("Silver Lotus") and a cash prize of 15,000 which was later revised to 20,000 at the 25th National Film Awards (1977). Since 28th National Film Awards (1980), the director is awarded with the "Swarna Kamal" and a cash prize of 25,000 which was later revised to 50,000 at the 28th National Film Awards (1980), to 2,50,000 at the 54th National Film Awards (2006).


text: In 1973 and 1974, the lead actor and actress of the film were also awarded. P. J. Antony and Sumithra received a souvenir for Malayalam film "Nirmalyam" at the 21st National Film Awards (1973). Antony was also awarded the Best Actor, then known as the "Bharat Award for the Best Actor". Utpal Dutt and Gita Sen were awarded with a medallion for Bengali Film "Chorus" at 22nd National Film Awards (1974).


title: Pitbull discography

text: American rapper Pitbull has released eleven studio albums, four compilation albums, one soundtrack album, four official mixtapes, over 300 singles (including features), over 1,000 songs (in total), and over 200 music videos. Pitbull has the most collaborations among any other music artist.


title: Pitbull discography

text: "M.I.A.M.I.", Pitbull's debut album, was released on August 24, 2004, on TVT Records. It peaked at number fourteen on the US "Billboard" 200 albums chart. The album's lead single, "Culo", peaked at No. 32 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100, becoming his first entry on the chart. The album spawned an additional four singles: "That's Nasty", "Back Up", "Toma", and "Dammit Man". "Money Is Still a Major Issue", a remix album of content from "M.I.A.M.I.", was released on November 15, 2005. "El Mariel", Pitbull's second studio album, was released on October 30, 2006, and spawned four singles: "Bojangles", "Ay Chico (Lengua Afuera)", a remix of "Dime", and "Be Quiet".


title: Pitbull discography

text: "The Boatlift", Pitbull's third studio album, was released on November 27, 2007. The album's second single, "The Anthem", peaked at No. 36 on the "Billboard" Hot 100, becoming his most successful entry on the chart at the time since "Culo". The single also garnered commercial success in several European territories. Helmed by the success of the single, "The Boatlift" became his first album to garner commercial success outside of the United States, peaking on the national album charts of France, Spain, and Switzerland. The album also spawned three singles: "Secret Admirer", "Go Girl", and "Sticky Icky".


title: Pitbull discography

text: "Pitbull Starring in Rebelution", Pitbull's fourth studio album, was released on September 1, 2009. It was his first album to be released by the Polo Grounds/J Records label, following his signing to the label through his own imprint, Mr. 305. The album was preceded by three singles: "Krazy", "I Know You Want Me (Calle Ocho)", and "Hotel Room Service". "I Know You Want Me (Calle Ocho)" became Pitbull's breakout into international success, peaking at number two on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and reaching the top ten in several European territories. "Hotel Room Service" and the subsequent single "Shut It Down" also achieved significant commercial success. The album also spawned a fifth single, "Can't Stop Me Now". "Armando", Pitbull's fifth studio album, was released on November 2, 2010. It was his first primarily Spanish album and spawned four singles: "Watagatapitusberry", "Maldito Alcohol", "Bon, Bon", and "Tu Cuerpo".


title: Pitbull discography

text: "Planet Pit", Pitbull's sixth studio album, was released on June 17, 2011. It has become his most commercially successful album to date, peaking at number seven on the "Billboard" 200 and peaking in the top ten on the national album charts of several territories. The album was preceded by two singles, the international hits "Hey Baby (Drop It to the Floor)", which peaked at No. 7 on the "Billboard" Hot 100, and "Give Me Everything", which peaked at number one on the "Billboard" Hot 100 as well as in the United Kingdom. It became his first number-one single in both countries. The album's subsequent singles, "Rain Over Me" and "International Love", also garnered significant commercial success. The Pitbull song "Back in Time" was released in 2012 as the lead single from the soundtrack to the film "Men in Black 3", peaking at No. 11 on the "Billboard" Hot 100. His seventh studio album, "Global Warming", was released on November 16, 2012, and produced the hit singles "Get It Started", "Don't Stop the Party", and "Feel This Moment". On October 7, 2013, he released a song with Kesha, named "Timber" which was followed by the "Meltdown" EP. Pitbull later released "Global Warming: The Meltdown" which combined "Global Warming" and the "Meltdown" EP.


title: Pitbull discography

text: On November 21, 2014, Pitbull released his eighth studio album that was titled "Globalization". The album was preceded by the singles "Wild Wild Love", "We Are One (Ole Ola)", "Fireball" and "Time of Our Lives". The album also features the lead single from the 2014 animated film, "Penguins of Madagascar", titled "Celebrate". Pitbull later released the single "Fun" with American R&B recording artist Chris Brown.


title: Pitbull discography

text: Pitbull released his ninth studio album and second Spanish album "Dale" in 2015. It won Pitbull his first Grammy Award. He followed this with his tenth studio album, "Climate Change", on March 17, 2017. Pitbull's fourth compilation album, "Greatest Hits", was released on December 1, 2017, and features two new recordings.


title: Pitbull discography

text: Pitbull released his first full-length soundtrack album for the film "Gotti" alongside Jorge Gómez on June 16, 2018. Pitbull's vocals are featured on two tracks on the album, "So Sorry" and "Amore" (featuring Leona Lewis), both of which were released as singles following the album's release.


title: Pitbull discography

text: Pitbull released his latest album "Libertad 548" on September 27, 2019. The new album includes the RIAA Latin 9× Platinum hit single "No Lo Trates" featuring Daddy Yankee and Natti Natasha. The album spawned RIAA Latin Platinum single "Me Quedaré Contigo" with frequent collaborator Ne-Yo, and was certified RIAA Latin Platinum on January 28, 2021.


title: Pitbull discography

text: Pitbull has sold over 25 million studio albums and over 100 million singles worldwide. He has over 15 billion views on YouTube as of May 2020. Pitbull was ranked by Billboard as the 45th Top Artist of the 2010s and the 24th Top Latin Artist of the 2010s.


title: The Rookie (1990 film)

text: The Rookie is a 1990 American buddy cop action film directed by Clint Eastwood and produced by Howard G. Kazanjian, Steven Siebert and David Valdes. It was written from a screenplay conceived by Boaz Yakin and Scott Spiegel. The film stars Charlie Sheen, Clint Eastwood, Raul Julia, Sônia Braga, Lara Flynn Boyle, and Tom Skerritt. Eastwood plays a veteran police officer teamed up with a younger detective played by Sheen (the rookie), whose intent is to take down a German crime lord in downtown Los Angeles, following months of investigation into an exotic car theft ring.


title: The Rookie (1990 film)

text: "The Rookie" premiered in the United States and Canada on December 7, 1990, grossing $21,633,874 in ticket receipts, just under its budget of $30 million. The film was overshadowed by the continuing success of "Home Alone", which opened three weeks earlier and ended up being one of the top 100 highest-grossing films of all time. A financial disappointment, "The Rookie" was met with generally lackluster reviews. Critics considered it formulaic and shallow, and expressed bewilderment at the casting of the Puerto Rican Julia and the Brazilian Braga as Germans; a scene in which Eastwood is raped by Braga also generated some controversy. There was, however, some praise for the stunts and special effects.


title: The Rookie (1990 film)

text: Nick Pulovski and his partner are assigned to the case of taking down the criminal empire of a German felon, Strom, who engages in grand theft auto for his chop shop operations. During an encounter with Strom and his men, who are loading a semi-trailer truck with stolen cars, Pulovski's partner is shot dead by Strom. Nick, despite efforts to catch the criminals on the highway, ends up losing them and is subsequently taken off the case by Lt. Raymond Garcia, who assigns him a new partner, David Ackerman, a rookie cop only recently promoted to detective.


title: The Rookie (1990 film)

text: Against orders, Nick continues investigating Strom's gang and dealing with David's lack of experience, particularly a bar brawl during which David's badge is stolen by one of Strom's men, Loco. While attending the birthday party of David's mother, Nick meets David's wealthy father, Eugene, who attempts to bribe Nick to protect David no matter what. Nick threatens one of Strom's men, Morales, into helping him. Morales manages to plant a two-way radio inside Strom's house, but he is found out and killed by Strom and his lover, Liesl. While listening in on Strom's plans to flee the country, Nick and David ambush Strom at a casino, but David botches the operation when he cannot bring himself to shoot Liesl. He is shot in the back, but survives with his bulletproof vest, while Strom takes Nick hostage and demands a $2 million ransom.


title: The Rookie (1990 film)

text: Haunted by accidentally causing his little brother's death during their childhood and by his failure to help Nick, David finally snaps and goes on a brutal rampage, interrogating as many of Strom's associates as possible. He finds another of Strom's men, Little Felix, garroted to death in his own shop, and barely escapes the same fate by Loco, who escapes before David can subdue him. In desperation, David approaches his father to supply the ransom money in case he fails. David calls his girlfriend, Sarah, who tells him that Garcia is waiting to speak to him at their home, but detectives sent by Garcia intercept David for police brutality. Realizing that Loco is posing as Garcia, David escapes and races home to intercept Loco before he kills Sarah. They clash violently until Sarah shoots Loco dead. Though David needed Loco alive, Loco's car directs him to a garage where he and Nick had previously seen it.


title: The Rookie (1990 film)

text: At Strom's garage, Nick manages to free himself, steals a revolver and attempts to escape but is cornered by Strom and Liesl. David arrives and chases them off, and they barely escape the garage before Strom detonates the explosives inside it. Catching Strom's contact sent to collect the money, Nick and David reach Strom at the airport and a long chase ensues. Strom's pilot is shot in the head, causing him to crash into another plane, while Nick and David pursue Strom and Liesl into the airport. David shoots and kills Liesl, while Nick runs out of bullets and is shot by Strom. David shoots Strom in the shoulder while Strom shoots David in the leg. Heedless to Strom's request for medical aid, Nick shoots him dead.


title: The Rookie (1990 film)

text: Sometime later, Nick, David and Garcia have been promoted. As the new lieutenant, Nick assigns David another rookie partner.


title: The Rookie (1990 film)

text: Within California, filming was done primarily on location in Saratoga, San Jose and Los Angeles. Various filming sites included Interstate 680 and State Route 87 in San Jose for the opening chase sequence featuring the semi-tractor trailer, the famous Villa Montalvo mansion for the henchmen meeting scene in the Santa Cruz Mountains of Saratoga, and the San Jose International Airport as well as the Mojave Air & Space Port for the final action climax scene, which author Laurence F. Knapp described as "both purgative and objectionable—a vivid, personal exchange of camera angles and vantage points that complicate, rather than conclude." A furniture warehouse on the corner of 4th and Hewitt streets in downtown Los Angeles, stood in as the hideaway for Strom's illegal theft operation. But in relation to same hideaway's demise later in the film, a different building was used in the City of Commerce. A warehouse previously occupied by an auto agency slated for demolition on Flower near 12th Street, stood in for the impending explosion-filled destruction. During an introductory scene, where Eastwood's character pulls up in an unmarked squad car to foil the plans of the car thieves, a z-shaped thoroughfare called Santa Fe Street, provided the perfect secluded background at night which also happened to overlook the Los Angeles skyline. For the action sequences involving aircraft at the San Jose airport, a Hansa twin-engine jet was used to collide with a Convair 880 that was briefly disguised as a 150-passenger Evergreen International Airlines Boeing 727.


title: The Rookie (1990 film)

text: In keeping with the continuity of the subject matter and storyline, the filming was punctuated with the use—and in some cases the destruction—of expensive and alluring foreign automobiles; including a Ferrari Daytona, a Porsche 928, a Jaguar XJ, as well as brief appearances of a Cadillac Allante and a Rolls-Royce Silver Spirit. A vintage gull-wing Mercedes-Benz 300SL is also presented in the film, being personally driven by Braga's character in an introductory sequence before a large-scale climactic car chase scene. In addition to driving a newly redesigned Mercedes-Benz 500SL for the 1990 model year, Eastwood's character is also seen conveying his distaste for the Lime Green color on the Lotus Esprit and later driving said vehicle during a criminal pursuit. Sheen's character also takes part in a scene involving an older, rare Harley-Davidson, riding head-on through the front door of a residential home.


title: The Rookie (1990 film)

text: Coordination of the lighting along with the capturing of all other photographic elements in the film were achieved by cinematographer Jack N. Green. Stunt coordinator Terry Leonard and second unit director Buddy Van Horn, oversaw the task of integrating the scope of stunt people working to produce the action which numbered over twice as many actors in the film (said to be over 80 stuntmen), while supervisor John Frazier controlled the special effects. Green, Van Horn, Leonard, Frazier, and production manager Valdez began close pre-production discussions three months before principal photography. To meet his stylistic lighting objectives in shaping the scenery environment, Green utilized powerful Musco Lighting developed during the 1980s. Commenting on a production scene surrounding the character of Pulovski at his residence, Green noted the home was characteristic of ""359 degrees"" of accessible turns of the camera. He detailed how the crew would "go in with these little ceiling units, as close to the ceiling as we could get them, little accent lights onto the place the actors would be. It would look like it was coming from those practicals but, again, at a dramatic angle." Describing a stunt-related sequence early in the film performed by Eastwood himself, Van Horn, who had been a stunt associate for almost 35 years, took the opportunity to commend the actor on his contributions saying, "Clint likes to do everything live, ... When you read the script, you know everything is going to be pretty much live action. Sometimes you have to talk him out of something that just might be a little too risky. Not that he couldn't do it, but if something even minor should happen, you couldn't afford to suspend the production." The sequence which Van Horn alluded to, was a scene that involved Eastwood behind the driver's seat racing a Chevrolet Blazer through stop-and-go traffic, while swerving to avoid oncoming cars from the opposite direction. The scene included 20 other stunt drivers operating a carefully rehearsed formation through a head-on collision course. According to Van Horn, who engineered the sequence with Leonard, he noted, "The whole thing is like a football play, ... We all sit down and figure out where the cars are, where Clint makes the break out of traffic, where the other cars are going, and just the whole cause and effect for how and why he pulls into (the intersection) and decides to head on through. That's all worked out ahead of time." Leonard added, "In a situation where your rehearsal time is extremely limited, it becomes that old expression: experience, ... It becomes a seat of the pants kind of thing, about 20 drivers and Clint who know where the close calls are going to be and who's going to be in what position when. But once you get going, there's always the element of surprise, where maybe a car is 10 feet closer than it was expected to be, and a driver must react to that."


title: The Rookie (1990 film)

text: Speaking on the origins of the film, Eastwood mentioned "I have a project for this spring that will be full of action. It's another cop picture, very different from this one. It has its own character and if it's done well it can turn out to be something good. Charlie Sheen will play the rookie and I'll play the mature cop." During the initial production phase of the film, Sheen was also dealing with alcohol and drug related issues, as Eastwood took it upon himself as a fatherly figure, in trying to discipline the younger actor into proper behavior and responsibility. Certain critics such as author Daniel O'Brien, failed to understand why director Eastwood used Hispanic actors Julia and Braga, to portray German villains. Puzzled, he mused, "Why Eastwood thought that the Puerto Rican Julia and the Brazilian Braga would make convincing German "schweinehund" is difficult to determine, with Braga in particular suffering the indignities of awful dialogue ..." In summing up the filming experience, Frazier said, "You know, things went really well, but you have to give credit to everyone involved. Clint Eastwood and David Valdez really gave us the time and their confidence to do it right. We were never really rushed, which is so important. We were able to do every one of the major shots in one take: the car out of the building, the carrier turning over and the planes colliding. That says something. These guys respect the crew and every job being done. It makes a big difference."


title: The Rookie (1990 film)

text: In an interview with "Orange Coast Magazine", co-star Braga confessed she had "never done action before" in film, while also stating, "I had to learn running and kicking and hitting." Under Eastwood's direction, Braga commented, "When you act with the director, you don't have any barriers because you're giving and taking at the same time." On a separate note, author Marc Eliot described the graphic rape scene in the film that gained much publicity as being, "an explosive sequence, and the only one in the film that people talked about. As obviously provocative and exploitative as it was, "ars gratia artis" the scene may also be read as conveying Clint's feeling victimized at the hands of a beautiful but bad woman." Offering another take on the scene, author John H. Foote noticed, "Braga looks somewhat embarrassed during the rape sequence, leaving us to wonder why Eastwood the director did not handle the sequence in a different manner. Was he hoping that the film would offer audiences something new?" Author Douglas Thompson bluntly referred to the rape scene as "sadomasochistic" and Braga as a "kinky nymphomaniac" while adding, "before she rapes Eastwood she plays around his chest with a razor blade, then gets into torrid action." Author Howard Hughes indicated that the event was one of Eastwood's "most distasteful scenes in [his] entire career". (Ironically, while the rape scene attracted considerable attention, little apparent notice was paid to the scene in which protagonist Pulovski commits murder by summarily executing Strom.


title: The Rookie (1990 film)

text: The major stunt scenes were executed before the camera with no miniatures, no blue screens, while mostly being shot at night. Completed during May 1990, the centerpiece stunt of the film involved a Mercedes-Benz convertible driving through the fourth-floor window of an exploding warehouse. For the scene, a 1,500 pound Mercedes auto mock-up was connected by 150 feet of quarter-inch pulleyed cable to a Ford 4×4 pickup on the ground. The truck would drive straight ahead and pull the Mercedes through the windows as the cable that connected the two vehicles exhibited a tensile strength of 8,000 pounds. Once the pull on the cable started, both vehicles would move in precise proportion to one another. After the mock-up launched through the windows, the hook connecting the Mercedes would drop. As Frazier explained, "The hook is very similar to the kind used to launch jets on aircraft carriers, ... Once the hook falls away, the Mercedes is propelled by its own momentum." Aerodynamics played a key role in the execution, as Frazier referred to the stunt saying, "When the car left the building it was very important that it exit and travel flat, ... A lot of times it doesn't matter. In this case, if the car didn't travel flat, you would know that the car could not have survived into the next sequence where it landed on the rooftop. We had to set up aerodynamics on that car, so that every time it went out the window, including the tests, it flew out without the nose dipping down." The explosion filled destruction of the warehouse was produced by 9 separate 18-inch steel mortars on each of the 4 floors. When fully discharged, all 36 mortars produced the largest orchestrated explosion ever allowed in Los Angeles city limits permitted at the time.


title: The Rookie (1990 film)

text: Another major stunt sequence consisted of a , 21-ton two-tiered automobile carrier flipping over on its side, flinging its automotive cargo onto a freeway of traffic. In the sequence, the carrier is scripted to disconnect from the primary cab at highway speed, so that the carrier veers off to one side while eventually flipping over. Frazier explained how "Clint did not want the car carrier rolling over and over down the freeway, ... He just wanted it to go over on its side and then slide until it stopped. It would have been easier to load that thing up (with cars), get up to speed and 'barrel' roll it down the freeway. But it wouldn't have looked realistic for his character to have survived it." A semi-truck which was trailing 150 feet behind the carrier, held on to it by means of a cable. After the carrier became detached from the passenger cab, the semi-truck came to a stop yanking the carrier from the cab. Frazier demonstrated how gravity played a significant and key role during the scene. He noted, "By itself, the carrier would not have come off the (cab), ... It could ride there forever, even though it's been released, just due to the weight of the carrier. So we needed the 'holdback' cable to the truck behind, and on cue, the driver locked his brakes." After the carrier disengaged from the cab, steel castor wheels attached to the underside of the carrier directed it to the center embankment. A stuntman who was riding in the carrier fired 3 cannons to physically lift it over on its side.


title: The Rookie (1990 film)

text: A small jet aircraft, (Hansa-Jet), pursuing the lead characters played by Eastwood and Sheen, complements another tightly coordinated stunt scene (aerial coordinators James W. Gavin and Eric W. Gray). After chasing the two detectives through a grassy area, the Hansa-Jet is hit by a Convair 880 depicted as landing, (the initial sequence showing the aircraft on approach uses a BAe 146). Both the San Jose and Mojave airports were scripted as LA International Airport during filming of the scene. Right before the impact, the Hansa-Jet was actually stationary being pulled by a 150-foot steel cable attached to a 4-wheel drive pickup truck right before the explosion erupted. Frazier explained, "The reason we did that is because if the planes collide first, it's likely they'll upend all our wires and the explosion wouldn't occur at all. Another reason is that had the Hansa-Jet not demolished before impact, it could have spun the other plane around, and we might have ended up with the 880 in our shot instead. The ensuing explosion after the Convair dissects the Hansa-Jet was powered by 10 gallons of gasoline and 4 separate 18-inch mortars. The detonation device included a 125-foot electrical cable set off by a bull switch to help achieve the desired effect.


title: The Rookie (1990 film)

text: The score for the film which included elements of jazz music and considerable use of the trumpet, was originally composed by American saxophonist Lennie Niehaus. The music score was mixed by Robert Fernandez and edited by Donald Harris. The sound effects in the film were supervised by Robert G. Henderson and Alan Robert Murray. The mixing of the sound effects were orchestrated by Donald F. Johnson and Michael Evje. Although not officially released, music from the soundtrack included songs entitled ""All The Things You Are"" written by Jerome Kern and Oscar Hammerstein II as well as the ""Red Zone"" written by Kyle Eastwood and Michael Stevens.


title: The Rookie (1990 film)

text: The film received mostly negative reviews from critics. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B" on an A+ to F scale.


title: The Rookie (1990 film)

text: Among the reviews, Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun Times", mildly complimented the stunts and special effects mentioning, "There are some good ones, including a chase down an expressway, with Eastwood driving his car right up the loading ramp of a semi auto-carrier" and noting that the film was "... jammed with material and the budget was obviously large, but somehow not much pays off. It's all there on the screen, but lifeless." On another negative front, Ebert also criticized Sheen's performance, saying he kept "a poker face and laconic voice through much of the movie, and doesn't generate the kind of vigor and intensity the role needs; a more nervous actor might have been a better choice." Ebert's partner Gene Siskel voiced his agreement; "It's a very depressing experience. Everyone's wasted in the film. The Latino stereotypes, when they get out on the street, are just awful." He went on to state, "... nobody has a good role. Raul Julia is wasted, Sônia Braga is tawdry. This was gonna be a classy international star, it's a joke." Hal Hinson of the "Washington Post" solidly concurred saying, "Eastwood runs his patented American macho numbers, plays the same limited repertoire of squints, but he's gotten way too long in the tooth to pull them off and the thrill is long gone." Incidentally, another "Washington Post" staff writer Desson Howe, dismissed the film as well. He openly wondered whether the film "will have something original about it. Maybe there's a twist somewhere, something to set it apart from the 20,595 other buddies-in-uniform movies made in recent years." In contrast with the buddy film genre though, Pat Collins of WWOR-TV, enthusiastically proclaimed the film to be "The best buddy cop movie of the year." The "Variety" staff however, added to the general dismay with the film saying, "Overlong, sadistic and stale even by the conventions of the buddy pic genre, Clint Eastwood's "The Rookie" is actually "Dirty Harry 5" since Eastwood's tough-as-nails cop Nick Pulovski could just as easily be named Harry Callahan, ..."


title: The Rookie (1990 film)

text: Vincent Canby of "The New York Times", expressed his dissatisfaction with the film too. He mused, ""The Rookie" is an astonishingly empty movie to come from Mr. Eastwood. The screenplay for "The Rookie" seems to have been pumped up from a script originally intended as a segment for a half-hour television series. There's not much of a story." He wasn't impressed with the special effects either saying, "the movie devotes itself to extended set pieces, mostly chases, which are so lazily thought out and edited that the audience is always ready for the twists that are supposed to surprise." Also in regards to the stunt work, author MK of "Time Out" in London commented, the "movie is full of caricatured cops and robbers, and punctuated with interminably dull car-chases."


title: The Rookie (1990 film)

text: Alternatively though, Dave Kehr of the "Chicago Tribune" felt the quality of the stunt work was superb, commenting that they were, "the most spectacular action sequences Eastwood has ever filmed." Noted critic Leonard Maltin gave the film a star and a half, somewhat approving of the stuntwork by figuratively mentioning, "there's one good freeway crackup" but in the end, felt the theme amounted to "Formula filmmaking that even bored its intended audience."


title: The Rookie (1990 film)

text: Other movie critics, like Jeffrey Lyons of WPIX, applauded the performances of the lead characters and called the film "Tough and gritty. Fires with a full clip. Eastwood and Sheen are terrific together." Equally swayed in opinion was film critic Susan Granger of American Movie Classics: "This slam-bam, action-packed thriller packs a wallop." Giving the film a "C+" rating, critic Owen Gleiberman from "Entertainment Weekly" posted, ""The Rookie" is like a series of garish exploitation set pieces jammed into the shape of a buddy movie." He went further in his criticism saying, "as moviemaking goes, "The Rookie" is on the slovenly side. The plot makes almost no sense, and Eastwood directs in his usual toneless fashion." But on a lighter note, relating to the film's comedic appeal, he stated, "in this case, the fact that you can't always tell the intentional comedy from the unintentional isn't necessarily a drawback." In agreement on the lack of plausibility surrounding the plot, author Marshall Julius still offered though an almost entirely positive review, giving the film "three and a half guns", exclaiming, "As directed by Eastwood, "The Rookie" is a deliberately silly, knockabout adventure which aims for outrageous and hits a bullseye. We're talking good, dumb, fun. Get your brains out and the beers in, and you're all set."


title: The Rookie (1990 film)

text: The film premiered in cinemas on December 7, 1990. At its widest distribution in the U.S., the film was screened at 1,862 theaters grossing $5,510,056 in its opening weekend. During that first weekend in release, the film opened in third place behind "Home Alone" and "Misery". The film's revenue dropped by 36% in its second week of release, earning $3,512,765. During its final weekend showing in theaters, the film grossed $1,224,696. The film went on to top out at $21,633,874 in total ticket sales through a 5-week theatrical run. For 1990 as a whole, the film would cumulatively rank at a box office performance position of 56.


title: The Rookie (1990 film)

text: The film was initially released in VHS video format on May 27, 1992. The Region 1 Code widescreen edition of the film was released on DVD in the United States on September 2, 2003 and includes a digital transfer soundtrack remastered in Dolby Digital 5.1, interactive menus, Eastwood film highlights, scene access, and the theatrical trailer. The film was released on Blu-ray Disc on June 1, 2010.


title: The Rookie (1990 film)

text: In January 1991, a novelization based on the screenplay was released. Distributed by Warner Books, it was written by Tom Philbin.


title: Herman's Head

text: Herman's Head is an American sitcom that aired on the Fox network from September 8, 1991, until April 21, 1994. The series was created by Andy Guerdat and Steve Kreinberg, and produced by Witt/Thomas Productions in association with Touchstone Television. William Ragsdale stars as the title character, Herman Brooks. Herman's thought processes are dramatized in a "Greek chorus"-style interpretation, with four characters representing different aspects of his personality (played by Molly Hagan, Ken Hudson Campbell, Rick Lawless and Peter Mackenzie).


title: Herman's Head

text: Research assistant Herman Brooks (William Ragsdale) works in the fact-checking department of a major magazine publisher, Waterton Publishing, in Manhattan. Herman, from all outward appearances, embodies the young man on the fast track—ambitious, clever and sensible—but viewers are shown that a struggle of contrasting personality traits are constantly working, and most often arguing, inside his head. His decisions and actions are dramatized with a "Greek chorus"-style interpretation of his thought processes.


title: Herman's Head

text: The series begins with Herman as mild-mannered, giving in to every passing sexual desire, bedding a lot of women and not being above bending the truth about his life or career status in order to impress women. He makes attempts to settle down every once in a while, which he does not find hard due to his overall willingness to turn a strictly physical connection into love. However, despite his romantic repertoire with women, he sometimes loses them over comical misunderstandings that are often never resolved. These usually occur as a result of Herman's boyish innocence getting him into trouble. During the next couple of seasons, Herman evolves into a more edgy character, more apt to developing outlandish schemes in an attempt to further his career as well as with women, and he becomes more opinionated in situations where previously, he would have conformed to rules, or have been a sycophant.


title: Herman's Head

text: The four characters acting out Herman's emotions each represent a different aspect of his personality, or psyche. As they were intended to be one-dimensional, they often lack in other areas of their character, which leads to frequent squabbles. The characters act in unison when Herman's body is affected, such as having to sneeze, or crying out in pain after being punched in the stomach. They also team up and form factions.


title: Herman's Head

text: Herman's "head" characters exist in a large attic room filled with toys, a lit Christmas tree, a rose-covered bower, theater seats, neon signs, arcade games, pennants and memorabilia from Ohio State University, old furniture, and numerous file cabinets (with labels like "memories", "fantasies" and "sexual past"). They watch "films" of past events and enact possible scenarios for what might happen in Herman's various life situations, occasionally venturing into Hammer Films movie territory or (in the case of Animal) pornographic films.


title: Herman's Head

text: Much of the show's action is situated at the Waterton research department, where personal situations (ranging from old friends from the past, various dates, sexual liaisons, and the like) seem to cross professional ones for Herman on a daily basis. Herman also has a studio apartment located downtown, which, in a first-season episode, is indicated as being a somewhat lengthy subway ride from the Waterton offices. The only other recurring setting is MacAnally's, a restaurant and pub, which presumably is located between Herman's residence and the Waterton offices. It attracts a rather upscale clientele, and it most often sets the stage for Herman's and the other characters' romantic pursuits. The regular real-life characters are as follows:


title: Herman's Head

text: Dave Madden provided voice-over narration of the show's concept during the first season's opening title sequence.


title: Herman's Head

text: The original working title for the series was "It's All in Your Head", and the producers also attempted to use the title "Inside Herman's Head". Creators Andy Guerdat and Steve Kreinberg had first worked for Witt/Thomas as writers on "It's a Living"; in the midst of this writing stint, Guerdat and Kreinberg additionally landed their first producing job, on the first-run syndication revival of "9 to 5". It was their experience in workplace comedy on "9 to 5" that led the two into situating "Herman's Head" largely in the same setting.