title: Pardon of Richard Nixon

text: After Ford left the White House in 1977, he privately justified his pardon of Nixon by carrying in his wallet a portion of the text of "Burdick v. United States", a 1915 U.S. Supreme Court decision which states that a pardon carries an imputation of guilt and that acceptance carries a confession of guilt. In 2001, the John F. Kennedy Library Foundation awarded the John F. Kennedy Profile in Courage Award to Ford for his pardon of Nixon. In presenting the award to Ford, Senator Ted Kennedy said that he had initially been opposed to the pardon of Nixon, but later stated that history had proven Ford to have made the correct decision.


title: Jail (2021 film)

text: Jail is a 2021 Indian Tamil-language action crime film written and directed by Vasanthabalan. The film is produced by Sridharan Mariathasan under the production banner of Krikes Cine Creations. The film stars G. V. Prakash Kumar, with debutant Abarnathi, Radhika Sarathkumar. G. V. Prakash Kumar has composed music for the film. The film is edited by Raymond Derrick Crasta. The film was released on 9 December 2021 and received negative reviews from critics but praising GV Prakash's performance and message.


title: Jail (2021 film)

text: It was announced that G. V. Prakash would act under the direction of Vasanthabalan. Prakash started his career as composer with Vasanthabalan's film "Veyil" (2006). Abarnathi, who rose to fame with the reality series "Enga Veetu Mapillai", is making her cinematic debut as actress with this film.


title: Jail (2021 film)

text: M.Suganth of "Times of India" who gave 2.5 out of 5 stars after reviewing the film stated that "Rather than sending chills, the climax only evokes a cold indifference." "Indiaglitz" gave a rating of 2.75 out of 5 stating that "Go for this one for the good performances and raw action." Srivatsan S of "The Hindu" after reviewing the film stated that "In the opening credits, Vasanthabalan credits a few people for their conversations. What a wonderful gesture I thought. Perhaps there is a downside too; you shouldn’t always go by hearsay."


title: Jail (2021 film)

text: Sudhir Srinivasan of "Cinema Express" gave 2 out of 5 stars stating that "The real jail, when you are exposed to such attempts at humour in a film that’s supposed to celebrate equality and empathy, is the movie theatre." Ashameera Aiyappan of "Firstpost" who gave 2.5 out of 5 stated after reviewing the film that "In an interview about Sarpatta Parambarai, director Pa Ranjith speaks about how his objective was to show how perishable progress is for people from vulnerable communities. They do not have space for mistakes or impulse; one minor misstep and the modest progress they had made can all come crashing down. Jail tries to explore this emotional landmine as well. In its writing, we see the frameworks of a strong emotional drama. But it never rises above that."


title: Jail (2021 film)

text: "Behindwoods" after reviewing the film gave 2.5 out of 5 stars stating that "Jail is a watchable drama for GV Prakash's acting and the message it delivers."


title: Aedes

text: Aedes is a genus of mosquitoes originally found in tropical and subtropical zones, but now found on all continents except perhaps Antarctica. Some species have been spread by human activity: "Aedes albopictus", a particularly invasive species, was spread to the New World, including the United States, in the 1980s, by the used-tire trade.


title: Aedes

text: First described and named by German entomologist Johann Wilhelm Meigen in 1818, the generic name comes from the Ancient Greek ἀηδής, "aēdēs", meaning "unpleasant" or "odious". The type species for "Aedes" is "Aedes cinereus".


title: Aedes

text: The genus was named by Johann Wilhelm Meigen in 1818. The generic name comes from the Ancient Greek ἀηδής, "aēdēs", meaning "unpleasant" or "odious".


title: Aedes

text: As historically defined, the genus contains over 700 species (see the list of "Aedes" species). The genus has been divided into several subgenera ("Aedes", "Diceromyia", "Finlaya", "Stegomyia", etc.), most of which have been recently treated by some authorities as full genera. The classification was revised in 2009.


title: Aedes

text: "Aedes" mosquitoes are visually distinctive because they have noticeable black and white markings on their bodies and legs. Unlike most other mosquitoes, they are active and bite only during the daytime. The peak biting periods are early in the morning and in the evening before dusk.


title: Aedes

text: Members of the genus "Aedes" are known vectors for numerous viral infections, including dengue fever, yellow fever, the Zika virus, and chikungunya, which are transmitted by species in the subgenus "Stegomyia", and by "A. aegypti" and "A. albopictus". Infections with these viruses are typically accompanied by a fever, and in some cases, encephalitis, which can lead to death. A vaccine to provide protection from yellow fever exists, and measures to prevent mosquito bites include insecticides such as DDT, mosquito traps, insect repellents, mosquito nets, and pest control using genetically modified insects. In Polynesia, the species "Aedes polynesiensis" is responsible for the transmission of human lymphatic filariasis.


title: Aedes

text: The genome of the yellow fever mosquito ("Aedes aegypti") was sequenced by the Broad Institute and the Institute for Genomic Research. The initial assembly was released in August 2005; a draft sequence of the genome and preliminary analysis was published in June 2007. The annotated genome is available at VectorBase. An updated and improved version of the "Aedes aegypti" genome was released in 2018.


title: Treaty of Berlin (1878)

text: The Treaty of Berlin (formally the Treaty between Austria-Hungary, France, Germany, Great Britain and Ireland, Italy, Russia, and the Ottoman Empire for the Settlement of Affairs in the East) was signed on 13 July 1878. In the aftermath of the Russian victory against the Ottoman Empire in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878, the major powers restructured the map of the Balkan region. They reversed some of the extreme gains claimed by Russia in the preliminary Treaty of San Stefano, but the Ottomans lost their major holdings in Europe. It was one of three major peace agreements in the period after the 1815 Congress of Vienna. It was the final act of the Congress of Berlin (13 June – 13 July 1878) and included Great Britain and Ireland, Austria-Hungary, France, Germany, Italy, Russia and the Ottoman Empire. Chancellor of Germany Otto von Bismarck was the chairman and dominant personality.


title: Treaty of Berlin (1878)

text: The most important task of the Congress was to decide the fate of Bulgaria, but Bulgaria itself was excluded from participation in the talks, at Russian insistence. At the time, as it was not a sovereign state, Bulgaria was not a subject of international law, and the same went for the Bulgarians themselves. The exclusion was already an established fact in the great powers' Constantinople Conference, which had been held one year before without any Bulgarian participation.


title: Treaty of Berlin (1878)

text: The most notable result of the conference was the official recognition of the newly independent states of Romania, Serbia and Montenegro (which had de facto been acting independently for decades).


title: Treaty of Berlin (1878)

text: The Paris Peace Treaty of 1856, which ended the Crimean War, had made the Black Sea a neutral territory. The treaty had protected the Ottoman Empire, ended the Holy Alliance (Austria, Prussia and Russia) and weakened Russia's overall position. In 1870, Russia invoked the doctrine of "rebus sic stantibus" and effectively terminated the treaty by breaching provisions concerning the neutrality of the Black Sea. The great powers became increasingly convinced that the Ottoman Empire would not be able to hold its territories in Europe.


title: Treaty of Berlin (1878)

text: In 1875, the Herzegovina uprising resulted in the Great Eastern Crisis. As the conflict in the Balkans intensified, atrocities during the 1876 April Uprising in Bulgaria inflamed anti-Turkish sentiments in Russia and Britain, which eventually culminated in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877.


title: Treaty of Berlin (1878)

text: The treaty formally recognized the independence of the "de facto" sovereign principalities of Romania, Serbia and Montenegro and the autonomy of Bulgaria although the latter "de facto" functioned independently and was divided into three parts: the Principality of Bulgaria, the autonomous province of Eastern Rumelia, and Macedonia, which was given back to the Ottomans, thus undoing Russian plans for an independent and Russophile "Greater Bulgaria". The Treaty of San Stefano had created a Bulgarian state, which was just what Britain and Austria-Hungary feared the most.


title: Treaty of Berlin (1878)

text: The Treaty of Berlin confirmed most of the Russian gains from the Ottoman Empire specified in the Treaty of San Stefano, but the valley of Alashkerd and the town of Bayazid were returned to the Ottomans. The was a further continuation of negotiations. It reaffirmed the provisions of the Treaty of San Stefano which had not been modified by the Berlin Treaty and established amounts of compensation that the Ottoman Empire owed to Russia for losses to businesses and institutions during the war. It granted amnesty to Ottoman subjects and for release of prisoners of war. In addition, Article VII of the treaty provided that in the territory acquired by Russia, subjects could choose whether they wished to be Ottoman or Russian subjects for a period of six months after the agreement became effective.


title: Treaty of Berlin (1878)

text: Despite the pleas of the Romanian delegates, Romania was forced to cede southern Bessarabia to the Russian Empire. As a compensation, Romania received Dobruja, including the Danube Delta. The treaty also limited the Russian occupation of Bulgaria to 9 months, which limited the time during which Russian troops and supplies could be moved through Romanian territory.


title: Treaty of Berlin (1878)

text: The three newly independent states subsequently proclaimed themselves kingdoms: Romania in 1881, Serbia in 1882 and Montenegro in 1910, and Bulgaria proclaimed full independence in 1908 after it had united with Eastern Rumelia in 1885. annexed Bosnia in 1908, sparking the Bosnian crisis, a major European crisis that reinforced alliances.


title: Treaty of Berlin (1878)

text: The Treaty of Berlin accorded special legal status to some religious groups and also would serve as a model for the Minority Treaties, which would be established within the framework of the League of Nations. It stipulated that Romania recognize non-Christians (Jews and Muslims) as full citizens. It also vaguely called for a border rectification between Greece and the Ottoman Empire, which occurred after protracted negotiations in 1881, with the transfer of Thessaly to Greece.


title: Treaty of Berlin (1878)

text: In the "Salisbury Circular" of 1 April, British Foreign Secretary, the Marquess of Salisbury, made clear his own and his government's objections to the Treaty of San Stefano and its favourable position of Russia. Historian AJP Taylor wrote, "If the treaty of San Stefano had been maintained, both the Ottoman Empire and Austria-Hungary might have survived to the present day. The British, except for Beaconsfield in his wilder moments, had expected less and were, therefore, less disappointed. Salisbury wrote at the end of 1878: 'We shall set up a rickety sort of Turkish rule again south of the Balkans. But it is a mere respite. There is no vitality left in them.


title: Treaty of Berlin (1878)

text: The Kosovo Vilayet remained part of the Ottoman Empire. Austria-Hungary was allowed to station military garrisons in the Ottoman Vilayet of Bosnia and the Sanjak of Novi Pazar. The Vilayet of Bosnia was placed under Austro-Hungarian occupation although it formally remained part of the Ottoman Empire until it was annexed by Austria-Hungary thirty years later, on 5 October 1908. The Austro-Hungarian garrisons in the Sanjak of Novi Pazar were withdrawn in 1908, after the annexation of the Vilayet of Bosnia and the resulting Bosnian Crisis, to reach a compromise with the Ottoman Empire, which was struggling with internal strife because of the Young Turk Revolution (1908). The chaotic situation in the Ottoman Empire also allowed Bulgaria to formally declare its independence on 5 October 1908.


title: Third Intermediate Period of Egypt

text: The Third Intermediate Period of ancient Egypt began with the death of Pharaoh Ramesses XI in 1077 BC, which ended the New Kingdom, and was eventually followed by the Late Period. Various points are offered as the beginning for the latter era, though it is most often regarded as dating from the foundation of the Twenty-Sixth Dynasty by Psamtik I in 664 BC, following the departure of the Nubian Kushite rulers of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty after they were driven out by the Assyrians under King Ashurbanipal. The concept of a "Third Intermediate Period" was coined in 1978 by British Egyptologist Kenneth Kitchen.


title: Third Intermediate Period of Egypt

text: The period was one of decline and political instability, coinciding with the Late Bronze Age collapse of civilizations in the ancient Near East and Eastern Mediterranean (including the Greek Dark Ages). It was marked by division of the state for much of the period and conquest and rule by non-native Egyptians.


title: Third Intermediate Period of Egypt

text: The period of the Twenty-first Dynasty is characterized by the country's fracturing kingship. Already during Ramesses XI's reign, the Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt was losing its grip on the city of Thebes, whose priests were becoming increasingly powerful. After his death, his successor, Smendes I, ruled from the city of Tanis, but was mostly active only in Lower Egypt, which he controlled. Meanwhile, the High Priests of Amun at Thebes ruled Middle and Upper Egypt in all but name. However, this division was less significant than it seems, since both the priests and pharaohs came from the same family.


title: Third Intermediate Period of Egypt

text: The country was firmly reunited by the Twenty-second Dynasty founded by Shoshenq I in 945 BC (or 943 BC), who descended from Meshwesh immigrants, originally from ancient Libya. This brought stability to the country for well over a century, but after the reign of Osorkon II, particularly, the country had effectively split into two states, with Shoshenq III of the Twenty-second Dynasty controlling Lower Egypt by 818 BC while Takelot II and his son Osorkon (the future Osorkon III) ruled Middle and Upper Egypt. In Thebes, a civil war engulfed the city, pitting the forces of Pedubast I, who had proclaimed himself pharaoh, against the existing line of Takelot II/Osorkon B. The two factions squabbled continuously and the conflict was only resolved in Year 39 of Shoshenq III when Osorkon B comprehensively defeated his enemies. He proceeded to found the Upper Egyptian Libyan Twenty-third Dynasty of Osorkon III – Takelot III – Rudamun, but this kingdom quickly fragmented after Rudamun's death, with the rise of local city states under kings such as Peftjaubast of Herakleopolis, Nimlot of Hermopolis, and Ini at Thebes.


title: Third Intermediate Period of Egypt

text: The Nubian kingdom to the south took full advantage of this division and the ensuing political instability. Prior to Piye's Year 20 campaign into Egypt, the previous Nubian ruler – Kashta – had already extended his kingdom's influence into Thebes when he compelled Shepenupet, the serving Divine Adoratice of Amun and Takelot III's sister, to adopt his own daughter Amenirdis, to be her successor. Then, 20 years later, around 732 BC his successor, Piye, marched north and defeated the combined might of several native Egyptian rulers: Peftjaubast, Osorkon IV of Tanis, Iuput II of Leontopolis and Tefnakht of Sais.


title: Third Intermediate Period of Egypt

text: Piye established the Twenty-fifth Dynasty and appointed the defeated rulers as his provincial governors. He was succeeded first by his brother, Shabaka, and then by his two sons Shebitku and Taharqa. The reunited Nile valley empire of the 25th Dynasty was as large as it had been since the New Kingdom. Pharaohs of the dynasty, among them Taharqa, built or restored temples and monuments throughout the Nile valley, including at Memphis, Karnak, Kawa, and Jebel Barkal. The 25th Dynasty ended with its rulers retreating to their spiritual homeland at Napata. It was there (at El-Kurru and Nuri) that all 25th Dynasty pharaohs were buried under the first pyramids to be constructed in the Nile valley in hundreds of years. The Napatan dynasty led to the Kingdom of Kush, which flourished in Napata and Meroe until at least the 2nd century AD.


title: Third Intermediate Period of Egypt

text: The international prestige of Egypt had declined considerably by this time. The country's international allies had fallen firmly into the sphere of influence of Assyria and from about 700 BC the question became when, not if, there would be war between the two states as Esarhaddon had realised that a conquest of Lower Egypt was necessary to protect Assyrian interests in the Levant.


title: Third Intermediate Period of Egypt

text: Despite Egypt's size and wealth, Assyria had a greater supply of timber, while Egypt had a chronic shortage, allowing Assyria to produce more charcoal needed for iron-smelting and thus giving Assyria a greater supply of iron weaponry. This disparity became critical during the Assyrian invasions of Egypt over the period 670–663 BC. Consequently, pharaoh Taharqa's reign, and that of his successor Tantamani, were filled with constant conflict with the Assyrians. In 664 BC the Assyrians delivered a mortal blow, sacking Thebes and Memphis. Following these events, and starting with Atlanersa, no Kushite ruler would ever rule over Egypt again.


title: Third Intermediate Period of Egypt

text: Upper Egypt remained for a time under the rule of Taharqa and Tantamani, whilst Lower Egypt was ruled from 664 BC by the nascent 26th Dynasty, client kings established by the Assyrians. In 663 BC, Tantamani launched a full-scale invasion of Lower Egypt, taking Memphis in April of this year, killing Necho I of Sais in the process as Necho had remained loyal to Ashurbanipal. Tantamani barely had the time to receive the submission of some Delta kinglets and expel the remaining Assyrians that a large army led by Ashurbanipal and Necho's son Psamtik I came back. Tantamani was defeated north of Memphis and Thebes was thoroughly sacked shortly after. The Kushite king withdrew to Nubia while the Assyrian influence in Upper Egypt quickly waned. Permanently weakened by the sack, Thebes peacefully submitted itself to Psamtik's fleet in 656 BC. To affirm his authority, Psamtik placed his daughter in position to be the future Divine Adoratrice of Amun, thereby also submitting the priesthood of Amun and effectively uniting Egypt. Tantamani's successor Atlanersa was in no position to attempt a reconquest of Egypt as Psamtik also secured the southern border at Elephantine and may even have sent a military campaign to Napata. Concurrently, Psamtik managed to free himself from the Assyrian vassalage while remaining on good terms with Ashurbanipal, possibly owing to an ongoing rebellion in Babylon. By doing so, he brought increased stability to the country during his 54-year reign from the city of Sais.


title: Third Intermediate Period of Egypt

text: Four successive Saite kings continued guiding Egypt into another period of peace and prosperity from 610 to 525 BC. Unfortunately for this dynasty, a new power was growing in the Near East – the Achaemenid Empire of Persia. Pharaoh Psamtik III had succeeded his father Ahmose II for only 6 months before he had to face the Persian Empire at Pelusium. The Persians had already taken Babylon and Egypt was no match for them. Psamtik III was defeated and briefly escaped to Memphis, before he was ultimately imprisoned and, later, executed at Susa, the capital of the Persian king Cambyses, who now assumed the formal title of Pharaoh.


title: Third Intermediate Period of Egypt

text: The historiography of this period is disputed for a variety of reasons. Firstly, there is a dispute about the utility of a very artificial term that covers an extremely long and complicated period of Egyptian history. The Third Intermediate Period includes long periods of stability as well as chronic instability and civil conflict: its very name rather clouds this fact. Secondly, there are significant problems of chronology stemming from several areas, there are the difficulties in dating that are common to all of Egyptian chronology and are compounded by synchronisms with Biblical archaeology that also contain heavily disputed dates. James et al. argued contra Kitchen that the period lasted less than 200 years, starting later than 850 BC but ending at the conventional date, as the five dynasties had many years of overlap. Finally, some Egyptologists and biblical scholars, such as Kenneth Kitchen and David Rohl have novel or controversial theories about the family relationships of the dynasties comprising the period.


title: Leos Carax

text: Alex Christophe Dupont (born 22 November 1960), best known as Leos Carax (), is a French film director, critic and writer. Carax is noted for his poetic style and his tortured depictions of love. His first major work was "Boy Meets Girl" (1984), and his notable works include "Les Amants du Pont-Neuf" (1991), "Holy Motors" (2012) and "Annette" (2021). For the last, he won the Cannes Film Festival Award for Best Director at the 2021 Cannes Film Festival. His professional name is an anagram of his real name, 'Alex', and 'Oscar'.


title: Leos Carax

text: Carax was born Alex Christophe Dupont in Suresnes, Hauts-de-Seine, a commune in the suburbs of Paris, France. His mother is American and his father is French.


title: Leos Carax

text: Carax's film career began with a series of short films, and as a film critic, before he released "Boy Meets Girl" (1984), which established his reputation for a mature visual style. It also saw the first grouping of Carax with Denis Lavant and cinematographer Jean-Yves Escoffier. His next film was "Mauvais Sang" (literally "Bad Blood" but mostly known as "The Night is Young") in 1986, which alienated some of his audience, but continued to explore the complexities of love in the modern world, this time through a darker, more criminal viewpoint. The work was clearly an homage to French New Wave cinema, and his use of such actresses as Juliette Binoche was a tribute to his influences, especially Jean-Luc Godard. The film was entered into the 37th Berlin International Film Festival.


title: Leos Carax

text: Five years later, Carax returned to directing with "Les Amants du Pont-Neuf", an expensive undertaking as Parisian authorities granted him only 10 days to film on Pont Neuf. His initial reaction to the problems of filming on a public bridge had been to construct a model of the bridge in the community of Lansargues, in Southern France. But on the first day of filming Lavant severely injured his thumb, which pushed the movie back by a month. Subsequent financial difficulties further pushed filming over a much longer period than intended. The movie was released to critical acclaim and opened the door for Carax to enter more experimental waters with his fourth feature, "Pola X" (1999), an adaptation of Herman Melville's "".


title: Leos Carax

text: Carax's 2012 film "Holy Motors" also stars Lavant. The film competed for the Palme d'Or at the 2012 Cannes Film Festival. In 2021, Carax directed "Annette", a music-filled drama feature film written by Sparks and starring Adam Driver and Marion Cotillard. In 2017, Carax performed vocals and accordion on the Sparks track "When You're a French Director" from its album "Hippopotamus".


title: Once Upon a Mattress

text: Once Upon a Mattress is a musical comedy with music by Mary Rodgers, lyrics by Marshall Barer, and book by Jay Thompson, Dean Fuller, and Marshall Barer. It opened off-Broadway in May 1959, and then moved to Broadway. The play was written as a humorous adaptation of the 1835 Hans Christian Andersen fairy tale "The Princess and the Pea".


title: Once Upon a Mattress

text: "Once Upon a Mattress" was first written as a shorter play at the Tamiment adult summer camp resort. The play was later expanded for the Broadway stage. Initial reviews of the play were mixed, but critics and actors alike were surprised by the show's enduring popularity. "Once Upon a Mattress" is a popular choice for high school drama programs and community theatre groups.


title: Once Upon a Mattress

text: The original production opened on May 11, 1959, at the off-Broadway Phoenix Theatre (now transformed into a multi-plex cinema, located on the Lower East Side), transferred later in the year to Broadway at the Alvin Theatre (now known as the Neil Simon Theatre) and then to several other Broadway theaters, finally playing at the St. James Theatre, for a total run of 470 performances. The musical was directed by George Abbott and choreographed by Joe Layton. "Once Upon A Mattress" marked the Broadway debut of later stage and TV personality Carol Burnett, who originated the role of Princess Winnifred. Also featured were Joseph Bova, Allen Case, Jack Gilford and Matt Mattox. Jane White played the role of Queen Aggravain. Jack Gilford played King Sextimus The Silent and was later replaced by Will Lee, Gilford's standby, prior to the show's move to Broadway. The musical received a Tony Award nomination for Best Musical as well as a Best Leading Actress nomination for Carol Burnett. When Burnett left the show, veteran television actress Ann B. Davis took over the leading role.


title: Once Upon a Mattress

text: In August 1960, soon after the closing of the Broadway run, rehearsals were called for a seven-month US tour which would move from city to city by train, truck and bus. Jack Sydow stepped from his role as King into the position of Director. Dody Goodman played Winnifred at first, then Imogene Coca picked up the role. Carol Arthur understudied them both, and played the Nightingale of Samarkand. Fritzi Burr played the Queen and Buster Keaton played the King. Keaton's wife Eleanor was placed in the chorus. Keaton warmed up to the cast of younger actors, dispensing grandfatherly advice and chocolates freely.


title: Once Upon a Mattress

text: A London production of the musical opened at the Adelphi Theatre on September 20, 1960 where it ran for 24 performances. The cast included Jane Connell as Winnifred, Robin Hunter as Dauntless, Milo O'Shea as the King, Bill Kerr as the Wizard and Max Wall as the Jester. EMI Records took the cast into the recording studio and recorded a London Cast album. This was issued on an HMV LP. The album was included on a CD titled “Once upon a Mattress” issued by Sepia Records in 2010.


title: Once Upon a Mattress

text: A Broadway revival opened on December 19, 1996, at the Broadhurst Theatre and closed on May 31, 1997 after 188 regular performances and 35 previews. It starred Sarah Jessica Parker as Winnifred, David Aaron Baker as Dauntless, Lewis Cleale as Sir Harry, Heath Lamberts as the King, Tom Alan Robbins as the Wizard, David Hibbard as the Jester, Tom Alan Robbins as Master Merton and Jane Krakowski as Lady Larken. The production was nominated for the 1997 Tony Award for Best Revival of a Musical.


title: Once Upon a Mattress

text: The musical opened Off-Broadway, produced by the Transport Group, at the Abrons Arts Center on December 13, 2015 for a limited run which ended on January 3, 2016. Directed by Jack Cummings III, the cast featured Jackie Hoffman as Princess Winnifred, John Epperson as Queen Aggravain, Jessica Fontana as Lady Larken, David Greenspan as The King, and Hunter Ryan Herdlicka as The Minstrel.


title: Once Upon a Mattress

text: The first television adaptation was aired on June 3, 1964, on CBS. The production was videotaped in black and white in front of a live audience and featured Burnett, Bova, Gilford, and White from the original Broadway cast, as well as new principals Bill Hayes as the Minstrel, Shani Wallis as Lady Larken and Elliott Gould (in his first appearance on any screen) as the Jester. Due to the reduced running time of 90 minutes, several songs and scenes were either cut or shortened. The conflict concerning Sir Harry and Lady Larken was downplayed to that they were married in secret.


title: Once Upon a Mattress

text: The second television adaptation was broadcast on December 12, 1972, on CBS. This production, videotaped in color, included original Broadway cast members Burnett, Gilford and White, and also featured Bernadette Peters as Lady Larken, Ken Berry as Prince Dauntless, Ron Husmann as Harry, and Wally Cox as The Jester. It was directed by Ron Field and Dave Powers. Again, several songs were eliminated and characters were combined or altered. Since the parts of the Minstrel and the Wizard were cut from this adaptation, a new prologue was written with Burnett singing "Many Moons Ago" as a bedtime story. In 2016, the special was included as a bonus feature on the DVD "Carol + 2: The Original Queens of Comedy".


title: Once Upon a Mattress

text: The third television version, which aired on December 18, 2005, on ABC in the United States as part of "The Wonderful World of Disney" and was released on DVD two days later, starred Carol Burnett as Queen Aggravain, Denis O'Hare as Prince Dauntless, Tom Smothers as King Sextimus, Tracey Ullman as Princess Winnifred, Zooey Deschanel as Lady Larken, and Matthew Morrison as Sir Harry. It was directed by Kathleen Marshall and executive produced by Burnett and Martin Tudor. The beginning portion, cut from the DVD release, features a girl, who meets Cinderella, telling her mother the story of that story. The Minstrel was cut from this version, negating and also cutting most of the songs featuring the Minstrel except "Normandy," which was changed to describe Larken's and Sir Harry's honeymoon. Additional plot changes include the King hiding to overhear the Queen and Wizard plotting the test, then collaborating with the Jester, Larken, and Harry.


title: Once Upon a Mattress

text: A fictional medieval kingdom in 15th-Century Europe is ruled by the devious Queen Aggravain and the mute King Sextimus the Silent. King Sextimus suffers from a curse that can only be reversed "when the mouse devours the hawk." The Minstrel sings of the Princess and the Pea ("Many Moons Ago"), but reveals the story to be fake, though he knows the true tale because he was there when it happened. The princess in the story is not the first princess tested to see if she is worthy of marrying Prince Dauntless the Drab—she is the thirteenth princess. The day the Minstrel arrives, the Queen, alongside her confidante, the Wizard, is testing Princess #12 with an unfair quiz. To the Queen's delight, the princess misses the last question: "What was the middle name of the daughter-in-law of the best friend of the blacksmith who forged the sword that killed the Beast?" and is given a rubber chicken by Sir Studley. The populace of the castle complains about an unjust law levied by Queen Aggravain: "Throughout the land no one may wed, 'till Dauntless shares his wedding bed." However, every petitioning princess is sent away after failing unfair tests devised by the Queen. It seems that no one is good enough to marry Prince Dauntless ("An Opening for a Princess").


title: Once Upon a Mattress

text: The crisis escalates when the leading knight of the realm, Sir Harry, discovers that his girlfriend, Lady Larken, is pregnant. Though Lady Larken says that she will run away so he will never have to face embarrassment and the loss of his station, Sir Harry decides that he will set out to find a princess himself ("In a Little While"). He petitions the Queen who immediately says no, but when Dauntless manages to speak up and beg, she gives in.


title: Once Upon a Mattress

text: The Minstrel tells the audience that in the original story, the princess arrived at the castle on a stormy night ("Many Moons Ago - Reprise"), but it is not night at all-and the princess only "looked" as though she went through a storm. Princess Winnifred the Woebegone, a brash and unrefined princess from the marshlands, was so eager to arrive that she swam the castle moat. She immediately charms Dauntless, Studley, and the knights and most of the kingdom ("Shy"). However, she also earns the utter loathing of the evil Queen, who vows to stop her.


title: Once Upon a Mattress

text: The King discovers Larken's pregnancy and pantomimes this to his confidantes, the Minstrel and the Jester. He tells them to not say a word, but they both are more worried about the King letting it slip, because even though he is mute, he can still communicate ("The Minstrel, the Jester, and I"). Later, the Queen, assisted by the Wizard, designs a test for Winnifred based on something they are sure she has not got at all—sensitivity. They will place a tiny pea beneath twenty thick downy mattresses. If Winnifred is unable to sleep due to the pea, then she will be sensitive enough to marry Dauntless ("Sensitivity").


title: Once Upon a Mattress

text: Meanwhile, Winnifred tells Dauntless and the ladies in waiting about her home in the swamp ("The Swamps of Home") and meets the King, and they immediately like each other. Then, after spilling a purple vase filled with fresh new baby's breath, Winnifred is caught cleaning the mess by Lady Larken who mistakes her for a chambermaid. Soon Harry gets mad at Larken for her mistake and they get in a fight. Larken vows that she will run far far away where she will never see him again.


title: Once Upon a Mattress

text: The King, the Minstrel and the Jester catch Larken trying to run away, and they try to stop her but in the end decide to help her escape to Normandy ("Normandy"). Later that night, the Queen throws a ball so Winnifred can dance the most exhausting dance in the world, "The Spanish Panic". The Queen hopes that Winnifred will tire herself, but the plan fails. Winnifred is the last one standing as everyone collapses from exhaustion at the dance's climax. She asks Dauntless to try to give her a clue as to what the test might be, but he's not sure. He brings out a huge barbell that one of the princesses was asked to lift, but even he cannot lift it. Winnifred does easily and Dauntless admits that he loves her. Winnifred mentions that her nickname is Fred and Dauntless sings of his love for her as she practices numerous tasks she might have to do for the test, including singing, dancing, wrestling, acting, playing the Minstrel's lute, pantomiming and drinking herself unconscious ("Song of Love").


title: Once Upon a Mattress

text: Later that night the Queen leads the knights and ladies as they carry the twenty mattresses to Fred's room ("Quiet"), and she catches the Minstrel, the Jester, the King, and Larken (disguised in Dauntless' clothes) running away. The Minstrel tries to protect Larken by saying he was escaping with Larken against her will. The Queen declares that the Minstrel will be banished by daybreak. Fred and Dauntless study for the test, and Fred convinces Larken to fix things with Harry. Larken leaves to find Harry, Dauntless bids Fred goodnight, and now she is left alone. While studying a fairytale, she complains about how other fairy tale princesses had it easy and how she wants to live happily ever after ("Happily Ever After"). King Sextimus has a man to man talk with Dauntless about the birds and the bees completely in pantomime ("Man to Man Talk"). The Jester and Minstrel trick the Wizard into telling them of the test and the Jester reminisces about his father's dancing days ("Very Soft Shoes").


title: Once Upon a Mattress

text: Sir Harry and Lady Larken run into each other and they confess that their love is stronger than ever ("Yesterday I Loved You"). When Fred is finally ready for bed, the Queen brings in various people, including the Nightingale of Samarkand, to sing her to sleep ("Nightingale Lullaby") but Winnifred is kept wide awake. It seems that there is some "lump" under the mattresses that is keeping her from relaxing. She starts counting sheep.


title: Once Upon a Mattress

text: Dauntless dresses in his finest to see Winnifred pass the test, but the Queen tells him to his great disappointment that the test has already happened and what it was. Dauntless is heartbroken until Winnifred drowsily stumbles into the throne room while still counting sheep. Everyone is ecstatic that Winnifred has passed but the Queen insists that Dauntless should not throw himself away on Winnifred. Dauntless has had enough of his mother's attempts to control his life and finally yells, "I told you to "shut up"!". The curse on King Sextimus is lifted (the "mouse"- Dauntless, has metaphorically devoured the "hawk"- Queen Aggravain). Aggravain discovers that she cannot talk and the King can, so Dauntless and Winnifred are free to be married. The King forces the Queen to hop, skip, and jump around the room to everyone's amusement, and with this, she is forced to step down.


title: Once Upon a Mattress

text: Finally the real reason why Winnifred passed the test is revealed. After learning about the test, the King, Minstrel, and Jester stuffed the mattresses full of weapons, jousting equipment, and other sharp items. All the items are removed by the Jester in the finale ("Finale"). After the items are removed Winnifred still has trouble sleeping until Dauntless takes the pea out from under the mattress, when she then falls asleep almost immediately. Everyone, in classic fairy-tale tradition, lives happily ever after.


title: Events of Revelation

text: The events of Revelation are the events that occur in the Book of Revelation of the New Testament. An outline follows below, chapter by chapter.


title: Events of Revelation

text: The first vision that the author experiences is that of entering Heaven and seeing God's throne (). In Revelation, God is described as "having the appearance like that of jasper and carnelian with a rainbow-like halo as brilliant as emerald". Around God's throne are twenty four other thrones, on which sit elders in white robes. From the throne come thunder and lightning and, in front of the throne, the author sees seven torches and a sea of crystal.


title: Events of Revelation

text: The author then sees four creatures which have six wings and are covered in eyes (). The creatures are giving eternal thanks to God and, whenever one of them bows down to worship God, the twenty four elders around God's throne bow down to worship God.


title: Events of Revelation

text: In the traditional historicist view, Joseph Mede (1627) identified the war of Michael the Archangel and "the Dragon" as the fall of Paganism by Christianity. This concept was adopted by Campegius Vitringa (1705), Dr. Charles Daubuz (1720), Bishop Newton, John Cunninghame, and Edward Bishop Elliott (1837). Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet (17th Century), even marks the fall of Paganism to the death of Galerius Maximus in the year 311.


title: Events of Revelation

text: A woman gives birth to a son who is to "rule the nations with an iron scepter". She is then pursued by a Dragon with seven heads and ten horns, which wants to kill her baby. However, the child was taken away by God. Immediately after this, Michael and his angels fought the Dragon and his followers in Heaven. The Dragon lost the war, and was thrown down to Earth along with all of its followers. The Dragon pursued the woman and tried to drown her, but the water drained away into the ground. The woman grew wings and flew away. The Dragon was enraged, and went to war with the remainder of her offspring, who keep the commandments of God.


title: Events of Revelation

text: A beast with ten horns atop seven heads rises out of the sea and is given authority to rule the Earth by the Dragon. The people of Earth marvel at the beast's abilities and worship it and the Dragon. (). The beast is able to control the entire planet, and goes to war against the saints. Following this, another beast arises, this time from the ground. This beast, which resembles a lamb but speaks like a dragon, exercises authority on behalf of the previous, and causes ""great and miraculous signs"" by which to make people follow the original beast. The second beast, also known as the false prophet, forces all to receive the Mark of the Beast on their right hand or forehead, declaring that ""no one could buy or sell unless he had the mark, which is the name of the beast or the number of his name."" ().


title: Events of Revelation

text: John writes of seven angels with seven plagues, the last plagues ever to occur. He states that until the plagues are complete no one can enter the Temple of God.


title: Events of Revelation

text: The seven Vial/Bowl judgments are similar in nature to the Trumpet judgments, but far more serious for there will be no warning when they come. In addition, there are three key differences between the Trumpet judgments and the Vial/Bowl judgments: firstly, the Trumpet judgments are plagues that bring partial devastation and plagues upon 1/3 of nature and people, while the Vial/Bowl judgments are more severe direct assaults against humanity and nature, thus bringing more chaos on the earth than the Trumpet judgments. Lastly, the Trumpet judgments offer a possibility of redemption and repentance, while the Vial judgments do not; the Vial judgments are a literal assault on those who have taken the mark of the Beast, and to those who are considered incorrigibles and arrogantly unrepentant, thus making them impossible to save. The Vial/Bowl judgments are listed below.


title: Events of Revelation

text: Some Christians believe that the seals and trumpets will occur during the first half of the tribulation. The vial judgments will occur during the second half, as the first judgment refers to those with the mark of the beast. The mark will not be implemented until the Antichrist appears to be dead after suffering a fatal wound, only to be miraculously healed by Satan, and after he defiles the Temple; and this will happen precisely at the midpoint of the tribulation. Thus, the vial judgments will be more severe.


title: Events of Revelation

text: Others, such as many historicists, argue that the seals generally cover man's history from after the first coming of Christ up to the End time, with the trumpets generally covering the Tribulation, and the Bowls reserved for the Wrath of God period — preceding the Millennium.)


title: Events of Revelation

text: Next, seven angels are given vials or bowls to pour out upon the earth which contain "the seven last plagues". These last judgments will complete God's wrath. The first bowl produces unbearable sores on humanity. The second bowl results in the death of every living thing in the sea. The third bowl turns the inland waters into blood. The fourth bowl causes the sun to scorch man. The fifth bowl brings darkness over the beast's kingdom. The sixth bowl dries up the river Euphrates to prepare the way for the kings of the east and causes the armies of the Antichrist being gathered together to wage the battle of Armageddon. The seventh bowl results in a devastating earthquake followed by giant hailstones ().


title: Events of Revelation

text: The woman who rides on the beast is introduced in the seventeenth chapter. The entire chapter is quite symbolic, but an angel explains to John the meaning of what he is seeing. The woman, who is referred to as "the great prostitute", "is the great city who rules over the kings of the earth" (), who is envied by the ten kings who give power to the beast and is destroyed by those ten kings. "They will bring her to ruin and leave her naked; they will eat her flesh and burn her with fire. For God has put it into their hearts to accomplish his purpose by agreeing to give the beast their power to rule, until God's words are fulfilled" ().


title: Events of Revelation

text: Babylon falls. This causes the merchants of the earth to weep because no one is able to buy their products anymore.


title: Events of Revelation

text: The marriage between Jesus and his bride, who has prepared herself and clothed in white linen, occurs ().


title: Events of Revelation

text: A "white horse, whose rider is called Faithful and True" is introduced. "With Justice he makes war" (). Jesus Christ is the rider mentioned in chapter twelve. John references Psalm 2:9 when he writes "He will rule them with an iron scepter" (). This is when the first war between the people of God and the rest of the world takes place. After the war has finished the beast and the false prophet are taken captives and thrown into the lake of fire, while all other enemy combatants are killed and their corpses left out on the field for the birds of the sky to devour their flesh ().


title: Events of Revelation

text: Jesus returns to earth followed by the armies of Heaven, which are seen riding white horses dressed in fine linen. The Beast and his False Prophet make war with the armies of Christ but are defeated. In the aftermath of their defeat, the Antichrist and False Prophet are cast alive into the Lake of Fire, which burns forever.


title: Events of Revelation

text: Satan is bound in the Abyss for a thousand years. The Saints who died are resurrected (Resurrection of the Saints) and begin their thousand-year reign with Christ (). After the thousand years, Satan is released from the Abyss to deceive the nations and gather Gog and Magog and the people of the world to encircle the camp of the saints and the city of Jerusalem. A fire comes down from God out of heaven and devours them and Satan is finally destroyed forever (). The wicked dead and all of those who died during the thousand-year reign of Christ are resurrected and judged ().


title: Events of Revelation

text: A new heaven and a new earth with the New Jerusalem (the World to Come) replace the old heaven and earth (). This is a reference to "Genesis 1:1" and "Isaiah 65:17". Many theologians interpret it allegorically as explaining the drastic difference in this world and 'heaven' when Christ has been acknowledged as having returned. "He will wipe away every tear from their eyes. There will be no more death or mourning or crying or pain, for the old order of things has passed away." ().


title: Events of Revelation

text: A description of the heavenly state, under the figures of the water of life and the tree of life, and of the throne of God and the Lamb. () The truth and certain fulfilling of all the prophetic visions, The Holy Spirit and the wife/bride of the Lamb, invite, and say, "Come". () The closing blessing. ().


title: Nintendogs

text: "Nintendogs" uses the DS's touchscreen and built-in microphone. The touch screen allows the player to pet a dog, as well as to use various items that can be found or purchased. These range from balls and frisbees, to toys, to grooming supplies to keep the dogs happy. The microphone is used to call to the player's dog by speaking the name given to the dog in the beginning of the game as well as to teach the dog tricks such as "sit" or "roll over". Players can bring their dogs on walks and to the park if they so choose. They may interact with other players in multi-player by using the DS's wireless linkup. It also uses the DS's internal clock and calendar to allow the dog to grow hungrier or dirtier based on the elapsed time.


title: Nintendogs

text: "Nintendogs" received critical acclaim and won many awards, including the 2006 Innovation Award from "PC World" and Best Handheld Game from the Associated Press. All versions of "Nintendogs" have sold a combined 23.96 million copies worldwide, making it the second highest-selling game on the Nintendo DS, behind "New Super Mario Bros." Because of "Nintendogs" success, Nintendo has made several related products, including "Nintendogs" toys and a series of "Nintendogs" trading cards. A sequel, titled "Nintendogs + Cats", was released for the Nintendo 3DS in 2011.


title: Nintendogs

text: "Nintendogs" uses the DS' touchscreen, where the owner can: play with, train, pet, walk, brush and wash a virtual dog. The game also utilizes the built-in microphone, where the player can call their puppy or teach the puppy tricks. Money can be earned by placing in competitions or selling items at the secondhand shop and can be used to purchase supplies, puppies and home decor. Dogs can be walked and can be taken to the park where they can practice disc catching skills for disc competitions and to the gymnasium to practice dog agility for agility trials. While walking, question mark icons on the map point out areas that may contain neighborhood dogs or presents, though presents can be found unmarked as well.


title: Nintendogs

text: Only three dogs may be kept at the player's house at one time and up to five dogs can stay at the dog hotel, where dogs can be swapped, dropped off and picked up at any time. The player can also choose to part ways with a dog by donating a dog to the hotel.


title: Nintendogs

text: As time passes without the dog being cared for, its condition will slowly deteriorate as it becomes more hungry and dirty. The condition of the player's dogs can be found by clicking its name. Hunger is listed as: "Full", "Normal", "Hungry" and "Famished". Thirst is listed as: "Quenched", "Normal", "Thirsty" and "Parched". The condition of the dog's coat is listed as: "Beautiful", "Clean", "Normal", "Dirty" and "Filthy".


title: Nintendogs

text: "Nintendogs" features a variety of contests, which are the player's main method of earning money and trainer points. There are three contests Disc Competition, Agility Trial and Obedience Trial. In each of them, there are 5 classes: "Beginner", "Open", "Expert", "Master" and "Championship". Each contest is commented on by two men, named Ted Rumsworth and Archie Hubbs. If the player's dog places 3rd or higher in its class, the dog will proceed to the next class, where the contest increases in difficulty level. Prize money earned differs depending on which contest has been entered, what place is finished and the class the dog is in. If the player does not place in the top three, they will be dropped to the previous difficulty level.


title: Nintendogs

text: "Nintendogs" allows users to communicate wirelessly to other "Nintendogs" users through Bark Mode. Before activating Wireless Mode, the player can choose to give the other user a present. When another user with Bark Mode activated is nearby, the player will have an opportunity to play with the other trainer's dog and if the user has recorded a voice message on their White Record, the other user will hear the voice message.


title: Nintendogs

text: First publicly mentioned in 1997, Shigesato Itoi (designer of "EarthBound"), Tsunekazu Ishihara (designer of "Pokémon") and Shigeru Miyamoto codeveloped a Nintendo 64 prototype of a pet creature breeding game called "Cabbage". Its four-year development was fundamentally enabled by the realtime clock and mass writability introduced in the requisite 64DD peripheral "such that even if the power is cut, [the game] can still raise the creature" and with optionally purchasable enhancement data. A subset of creature maintenance functionality is made portable on the Game Boy and can be synchronized back to the 64DD disk, via the Transfer Pak. It was expected for release in 1998 and then, in 2000, but all further development was distracted. In 2006, Miyamoto concluded: "It disappeared, didn't it ... However, the conversations and design techniques that popped up when we were making "Cabbage" are, of course, connected to "Nintendogs" and other things that we're doing now."


title: Nintendogs

text: The project which ultimately became "Nintendogs" began as a technical demo on the Nintendo GameCube long before it was considered for the DS. It was migrated to the DS when the handheld was still in development. Shigeru Miyamoto originally came up with the idea for the game when he and his family bought a dog, which inspired him to create the project. The game's producer, Hideki Konno, looking for a game to take full advantage of all of the Nintendo DS's features, decided on a dog simulation game. "Nintendogs", first called "Puppy Times", was originally designed to have fifteen different versions, one for each breed of dog. Satoru Iwata suggested this to convey the feel that the player was choosing a dog from a kennel. However, the debugging process for each version was deemed too time-consuming to be feasible. After going back and forth between several versions, they eventually settled on three, with six dogs each and the rest available after completing in-game goals.


title: Nintendogs

text: In late 2005, Nintendo of America released the first series of "Nintendogs" "6-Card Fun Paks". Three different pack designs (each based on the US-released designs of the DS game) contains an assortment of "Collectible cards, stickers & more!". Each pack randomly contains two of 18 different "Breed" cards, one of nine different "Dog in Training" tip cards, one of six different "Miscellaneous" cards, one of 18 different "Pop-Up" Cards, one of six sundry sheets of stickers, one of four temporary tattoos and one "Sweepstakes" card. Another series of these cards were released in early 2007 by Enterplay, LLC. These cards, officially licensed by Nintendo, were created by the same individuals who worked on the first series. As such, the cards greatly resemble the first series. Keeping the "6-Card Fun Pak" name, each package contains two of 20 different "At the Kennel" cards (which feature all eighteen breeds from the games, including the Dalmatian and Jack Russell Terrier), one of nine "Dog in Training" tip cards, one of four "Miscellaneous" cards, one of 20 "Pop-Up" Cards, one of six sheets of stickers, one of four temporary tattoos and one "Sweepstakes" card. The next series also features three sundry packages, this time with a Dalmatian, Beagle and Pug on the front of the package.


title: Nintendogs

text: A line of "Nintendogs" plush toys were released in Japan, featuring the most popular breeds in each game. They are also available at the Nintendo World Store. Various "Nintendogs" T-shirts were also made available at the Nintendo World Store. In Europe and Australia, a series of plush toys with an electronic sensor were released, and when the owner shook the bone, the dog would walk and bark. Nintendo has also released a set of plushes through Earthwood Toys.


title: Nintendogs

text: The game has been well received by critics, with an average score of 85% at Game Rankings. In the May 2005 edition of the "Famitsu", Japan's most popular gaming magazine, "Nintendogs" received a perfect 40/40 score. Only four other games had attained this score at the time. It also received an 8.5 out of 10 in "Nintendo Power". "Game Informer" gave "Nintendogs" an 8 out of 10, reflecting on the game's lack of an ending. Game Oracle gave it 85% and a recommendation saying that unlike most sims, it has a lot of depth.


title: Nintendogs

text: In the first week of its release in Japan (April 18, 2005 to April 24, 2005), the three versions, "Shiba Inu & Friends", "Miniature Dachshund & Friends" and "Chihuahua & Friends", sold 75,000, 49,000 and 44,000, respectively, totalling 168,000 units. This title game also boosted the Nintendo DS system sales by over 4.2 times the previous week to 95,000 units, up from 22,000. It was the 91st best-selling game in Japan in 2008, selling 142,591 copies combined, with cumulative Japanese sales of 1,850,984 combined by 2008.


title: Nintendogs

text: In Europe, it was the top-selling Nintendo game of 2005 with copies sold that year. The game went on to sell copies worldwide, making it the second best-selling Nintendo DS game of all time. According to Nintendo, the majority of "Nintendogs" owners were female.


title: Nintendogs

text: In addition to recognitions from publications such as "Entertainment Weekly", "BusinessWeek" and the "Chicago Sun Times", "Nintendogs" also won a wide variety of awards.


title: Nintendogs

text: "Nintendogs" also had very successful launches in North America and Europe, with first week sales of over 250,000 and 160,000 respectively. "Lab & Friends" received a "Double Platinum" sales award from the Entertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association (ELSPA), indicating sales of at least 600,000 copies in the United Kingdom. ELSPA also gave "Dalmatian & Friends" a "Platinum" award, for at least 300,000 sales in the United Kingdom. By August 2006, in the United States, "Chihuahua & Friends" had sold 570,000 copies and earned $17 million; "Labrador & Friends" had sold 620,000 copies and earned $19 million; and "Dachshund & Friends" had sold 730,000 copies and earned $22 million. During the period between January 2000 and August 2006, the games were respectively the 50th, 44th and 32nd highest-selling games launched for the Game Boy Advance, Nintendo DS or PlayStation Portable in the United States.


title: Nintendogs

text: On March 23, 2006 at GDC 2006, Nintendo's president Satoru Iwata announced that international sales of "Nintendogs" sales had reached 6 million. By March 31, 2008, the game was the best-selling Nintendo DS game published by Nintendo. As of March 31, 2015, the combined sales of all versions has reached 23.96 million and it is now second on the Nintendo DS best-sellers list behind "New Super Mario Bros.".


title: Nintendogs

text: In 2010, 1UP.com included "Nintendogs" in their list of five "Essential Newcomers" of the decade, describing it as one of "five revolutionary new games" of the past 10 years, for its impact on drawing "non-gamers to console and portable systems" and establishing the "new" Nintendo. Despite derision from many hardcore gamers, "Nintendogs" sold tens of millions, mostly among casual gamers and paved the way for the Nintendo DS's worldwide success. This gave rise to a non-game trend, previously limited to PCs, on consoles and portables. Nintendo followed it up with more casual games such as "Brain Age", "Wii Sports" and "Wii Fit", establishing Nintendo as the most successful developer and publisher of the decade.


title: Nintendogs

text: It was announced during Nintendo's 2010 E3 presentation that Shigeru Miyamoto was working on a new "Nintendogs" project, involving some new innovations. The game, titled "Nintendogs + Cats" was finished in 2011 for the Nintendo 3DS and was released as a launch title in all regions.


title: Nintendogs

text: A microgame based on "Nintendogs" appears in the game "". A "Nintendogs" Labrador Retriever puppy also appears in "Super Smash Bros. Brawl" as an assist trophy; owing to the nonviolent nature of the "Nintendogs" game, rather than fighting actively, the dog "plays" in front of the screen, blocking view. Also, there are multiple "Nintendogs" downloadable content available in the game "". A French bulldog appears in "Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS" and "Wii U", taking the role of the Labrador Retriever. There is also a "Nintendogs + Cats" stage on the 3DS version. Both the assist trophy and the stage from this game reappear in "Super Smash Bros. Ultimate".


title: Multinational state

text: A multinational state or a multinational union is a sovereign entity that comprises two or more nations or states. This contrasts with a nation state, where a single nation accounts for the bulk of the population. Depending on the definition of "nation" (which touches on ethnicity, language, and political identity), a multinational state is usually multicultural or multilingual, and is geographically composed of more than one country, eg Countries of the United Kingdom.


title: Multinational state

text: Historical multinational states that have since split into multiple sovereign states include the Ottoman Empire, British India, Czechoslovakia, the Soviet Union, Yugoslavia and Austria-Hungary (a dual monarchy of two multinational states). Some analysts have described the European Union as a multinational state or a potential one.


title: Multinational state

text: Many attempts have been made to define what a multinational state is. One complicating factor is that it is possible for members of a group that could be considered a nation to identify with two different nationalities simultaneously. As Ilan Peleg wrote in "Democratizing the Hegemonic State":


title: Multinational state

text: A state may also be a society, and a multiethnic society has people belonging to more than one ethnic group, in contrast to societies that are ethnically homogeneous. By some definitions of "society" and "homogeneous", virtually all contemporary national societies are multiethnic. The scholar David Welsh argued in 1993 that fewer than 20 of the 180 sovereign states then in existence were ethnically and nationally homogeneous, if a homogeneous state was defined as one in which minorities made up less than 5 percent of the population. Sujit Choudhry therefore argues that "[t]he age of the agriculturally homogeneous state, if ever there was one, is over".


title: Multinational state

text: Most countries in Sub-Saharan Africa are former colonies and, as such, are not drawn along national lines, making them truly multinational states.


title: Multinational state

text: There is no ethnic majority in Ghana. The plurality group, the Akan people, are a meta-ethnicity (that is, a collection of similar but distinct ethnicities). While Akan is the most-widely spoken language in Ghana, English is the official language of government


title: Multinational state

text: Kenya is home to more than 70 ethnic groups, the most populous of which are the Kikuyu, at about 20 percent of the population. Together, the five largest groups—the Kikuyu, Luo, Luhya, Kamba, and Kalenjin—account for 70 percent of Kenyans.


title: Multinational state

text: The largest nation in Nigeria is the Hausa-Fulani, which accounts for 29 percent of the country's population. However, the group actually encompasses two distinct ethnicities: the Hausa and the Fulani (or Fulbe). While both ethnicities are found in large areas of West Africa, it is only in Nigeria that they are classified as a single ethnic group for political expediency. Nigeria is also made up of many other ethnic groups like the Yoruba, Igbo and Ibibio. Prior to colonialism, they were not self identified as one ethnic nationality but are so today along with the three Hausa-Fulani, Yoruba, and Igbo which classification does carry between each group of who is part of and not part of the group aside from them Nigeria as about 250–500 other ethnic nationalities considered minorities with some large enough to control the outcomes of elections in states such as the Igala and Urhobo. While some are so small that they only show up in one local Government area


title: Multinational state

text: Present-day South Africa is the successor state to the Union of South Africa, which was formed from four British colonies in 1910.


title: Multinational state

text: South Africa has eleven official languages (Afrikaans, English, Ndebele, Pedi, Sotho, Swazi, Tsonga, Tswana, Venda, Xhosa, and Zulu) and formally recognises several other languages spoken by minority nations. Speakers of each language may be of a different nationality—for example, some members of the Ndebele and Tswana nations speak Zulu, and groups such as the Thembu and Hlubi speak Xhosa.


title: Multinational state

text: As is the case throughout Africa, the nations of South Africa mostly correspond to specific regions. However, large cities such as Johannesburg are home to a mixture of national groups, leading to a "melting pot" of cultures. The government has continuously attempted to unify the country's various nationalities and to foster a South African identity.


title: Multinational state

text: Many of the nationalities found in South Africa are also found in bordering countries, and in some cases, more members live in South Africa than in the country where the group originated. For example, there are more Sotho, Tswana, and Swazi people living in South Africa than in the bordering nation states of Lesotho, Botswana, and Eswatini, respectively. In the past, this has led to conflict. Lesotho still claims large swathes of South Africa, and attempts have been made to cede some South African territory to Botswana and Eswatini. All three states were intended to be incorporated in the Union of South Africa, but those plans never came to fruition because of power struggles within their apartheid governments.


title: Multinational state

text: Since 2010, under the presidency of Evo Morales, Bolivia has been officially defined as a plurinational state, which recognizes the national distinctiveness of various indigenous peoples.


title: Multinational state

text: Whether Canada should be described as "multinational" is an ongoing topic in academia and popular discourse. The current policy of the federal government is that Canada is bilingual—English and French are both official languages—and multicultural. In 2006, the House of Commons of Canada voted in favor of "Government Business No. 11", which states that the Québécois "form a nation within a united Canada". According to Canadian political philosopher Charles Blattberg, Canada should be seen as a multinational country. All Canadians are members of Canada as a civic or political community, a community of citizens, and this is a community that contains many other kinds within it. These include not only communities of ethnic, regional, religious, and civic (the provincial and municipal governments) sorts, but also national communities, which often include or overlap with many of the other kinds. He thus recognizes the following nations within Canada: those formed by the various First Nations, that of francophone Quebecers, that of the anglophones who identify with English Canadian culture, and perhaps that of the Acadians.


title: Multinational state

text: The People's Republic of China (PRC) is a multinational state consisting of 56 ethnic groups with the Han people the largest ethnic group in mainland China. As of 2010, 91.51% of the population were classified as Han (~1.2 billion). Besides the Han Chinese majority, 55 other ethnic (minority) groups are categorized in present China, numbering approximately 105 million people (8%), mostly concentrated in the bordering northwest, north, northeast, south and southwest but with some in central interior areas.


title: Multinational state

text: The major minority ethnic groups in China are Zhuang (16.9 million), Hui (10.5 million), Manchu (10.3 million), Uyghur (10 million), Miao (9.4 million), Yi (8.7 million), Tujia (8.3 million), Tibetan (6.2 million), Mongolian (5.9 million), Dong (2.8 million), Buyei (2.8 million), Yao (2.7 million), Bai (1.9 million), Korean (1.8 million), Hani (1.6 million), Li (1.4 million), Kazakh (1.4 million) and Dai (1.2 million). At least 126,000 people from Canada, the US and Europe are living in Mainland China. In addition, there are also unrecognized ethnic groups, for example: Chuanqing people (穿青人), and others, who comprise over 730,000 people.


title: Multinational state

text: However, the Republic of China (ROC), which ruled mainland China from 1912 to 1949 and currently governs the island of Taiwan since 1945, had recognized five main ethnic groups under Five Races Under One Union: Han, Hui, Manchu, Mongol and Tibetan. Since retreating to Taiwan, the ROC government recognizes 16 groups of Taiwanese aborigines, which constitutes a number 569,000 or 2.38% of the island's population. The PRC classifies them as "Gaoshan".


title: Multinational state

text: India has more than 2,000 ethnic groups and over 80,000 subcultures, and every major religion is represented, as are four major language families (Indo-European, Dravidian, Austroasiatic, and Sino-Tibetan) and a language isolate (Nihali).


title: Multinational state

text: Each state and union territory of India has one or more official languages, and the Constitution of India recognizes in particular 22 "scheduled languages". It also recognizes 212 scheduled tribal groups, which together constitute about 7.5% of the country's population.


title: Multinational state

text: Most of its states are based on a linguistic ethnicity, including Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, and Chhattisgarh (Hindustani), Tamil Nadu (Tamil), Andhra Pradesh and Telangana (Telugu), Karnataka (Kannadigas), Odisha (Odia), Jammu and Kashmir (Dogras and Kashmiris), Goa (Konkanis), Gujarat (Gujarati), West Bengal (Bengali), Maharashtra (Marathi), Punjab (Punjabi), Haryana (Haryanvi), Rajasthan (Rajasthani), Kerala (Malayali), Manipur (Manipuris), Mizoram (Mizos) and Nagaland (Nagas).


title: Multinational state

text: Furthermore, several Indian states are themselves ethnically, religiously, and linguistically diverse. Bihar and Jharkhand are home to the Maithils, Santalis and the Hindustani language speaking people. Karnataka is home to the Tulu and Kannada people; Assam includes the Assamese, Bodo, and Karbi people and Arunachal Pradesh having various tribes like Nyishis, Apatanis, Monpas and others.


title: Multinational state

text: Indonesia is a very diverse country with over 1,300 ethnic groups. The predominant ethnic group of in Indonesia is Javanese which makes up 40% of the population. Most of Javanese people reside in Java island, the most populous island in the country, however, there are other numerous ethnic groups from the island such as Sundanese, Betawi (Jakartans), Banten people and many more. Generally, people who live outside of Jakarta still retain the ethnic language and utilize it in daily conversations. As a result, formation of distinct dialects each unique to the regions, is prominently used among the population.


title: Multinational state

text: When it was formed on 16 September 1963, Malaysia comprised four independent, self-governing nations: Malaya, Singapore, Sabah, and Sarawak. In 1965, Singapore seceded from the federation. Today, Malaya, Sabah, and Sarawak each have their own ethnic majority. Generally, however, Malaysia is considered to have three major ethnic groups: Malays, Chinese, and Indians. The Iban people are the majority in Sarawak, while Sabah is dominated by the Kadazan-Dusun, Murut, and Bajau peoples. Malay is the primary national language, followed by English. In Sabah and Sarawak, English is the official language, although many locals speak a dialect of Malay.


title: Multinational state

text: Present-day Pakistan arose out of the Pakistan Movement, which demanded a separate state for the Muslims of the British Raj. The movement was based on the two-nation theory put forward by Muhammad Ali Jinnah: the idea that Hindus and Muslims in British India represented not only different religious communities but also distinct nations, and hence that, in the event of Indian independence, they should be divided into two nation states. Jinnah (known in Pakistan as "Quaid-e-Azam", meaning "the great leader") outlined the theory as follows:


title: Multinational state

text: This movement culminated in the creation of Pakistan in 1947 through the partition of India. Urdu was then promoted as the national language of all South Asian Muslims. However, Pakistan remains ethnically diverse. Punjabis are the largest language group, but at 45 percent of the population, they do not make up an absolute majority. Furthermore, only 8 percent of Pakistanis speak the national language, Urdu, as their mother tongue. As a result, many nationalist movements that oppose the two-nation theory have emerged, arguing that Pakistan is not only a linguistically diverse state but also a multinational one, and that, therefore, each ethnolinguistic group of Pakistan is a distinct nation. Common grievances of these movements include the idea that Punjabis dominate Pakistan politically and economically, thus marginalizing other groups, and that the establishment of Urdu as the country's sole official language is a form of cultural imperialism that ignores the heritage of Pakistan's diverse peoples.


title: Multinational state

text: The most successful of these movements was Bengali nationalism, which led to the creation of the Bengali-speaking nation-state of Bangladesh. The movement asserted that Urdu's official status gave an unfair advantage to Muhajirs (most of whom speak Urdu as their mother tongue) and Punjabis (whose mother tongue, Punjabi, is similar to Urdu, and many of whom were educated in Urdu under British rule). Bengalis feared they would be marginalized despite their demographic strength as, at the time, the largest ethnic group of Pakistan. These grievances culminated in the secession of East Bengal (which had been part of the administrative unit of East Pakistan) and the creation of Bangladesh.


title: Multinational state

text: Today, nationalist movements within Pakistan include those of the Sindhis, Pashtuns, Balochs, Mohajirs, and Kashmiris. The members of these movements assert that Islam cannot be considered the sole basis for nationhood, and that Pakistan is therefore a multinational state. Their demands range from increased autonomy or the transformation of Pakistan into a federation, to the recognition of language rights for non-Urdu-speaking populations, to outright secession.


title: Multinational state

text: Despite the fact that Punjabis are widely seen as the dominant ethnic group in Pakistan, both economically and politically, there is also a small Punjabi movement that asserts that the Punjabi language has been unfairly subordinated to Urdu and supports the reestablishment of cultural and economic links with East Punjab in India.


title: Multinational state

text: The Philippines has 175 distinct ethnic groups, with the Visayans, Tagalogs, Ilocanos, Bicolanos, Kapampangans, Pangasinans, Moro and Igorots being the most prevalent.


title: Multinational state

text: Sri Lanka is inhabited by Sinhalese, Sri Lankan Tamils, Indian Tamils, Moors, Veddas, Burghers, and other small ethnic groups.


title: Multinational state

text: Montenegro is the only European state with no ethnic majority, but many others have ethnic minorities that form a majority within a province or region (see multilingual countries and regions of Europe).


title: Multinational state

text: Russia is a nation state, but it is home to over 193 ethnic groups. In the 2010 Census, roughly 81% of the population were ethnic Russians, while rest of the 19% of the population were minorities; while around 84.93% of the Russia's population was of European descent, of which the vast majority were Slavs, with minorities of Germanic, Baltic-Finns and other peoples. There are 22 republics in Russia, designated to have their own ethnicities, cultures, and languages. In 13 of them, ethnic Russians consist a minority. According to the United Nations, Russia's immigrant population is the third-largest in the world, numbering over 11.6 million; most of which are from post-Soviet states, mainly Ukrainians.


title: Multinational state

text: The Tatars, Bashkirs, and the Chechens are three predominantly Muslim minorities in the country. Russia is also home to small Buddhist populations, such as the nomadic Buryats in Buryatia, and the Kalmyks; native to Kalmykia, the only Buddhist region in Europe. There are also the Shamanistic peoples of Siberia and the Far North; the Finnic peoples of Northwest Russia and the Volga region; the Korean inhabitants of Sakhalin; and the diverse peoples of the North Caucasus.


title: Multinational state

text: Russia's official language is Russian. However, Russia's 193 minority ethnic groups speak over 100 languages. According to the 2002 Census, 142.6 million people speak Russian, followed by Tatar with 5.3 million, and Ukrainian with 1.8 million speakers. The constitution gives the individual republics of the country the right to establish their own state languages in addition to Russian.


title: Multinational state

text: The territory of Belgium is almost equally divided between the two linguistic groups of Dutch-speaking Flanders and French-speaking Wallonia and Brussels. This led to political unrest throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, and in the aftermath of the difficult 2007–08 Belgian government formation, the Belgian media envisaged a partition of Belgium as a potential solution. There is also a German-speaking minority in the east.


title: Multinational state

text: Bosnia and Herzegovina is home to three ethnic "constituent peoples": Bosniaks (50.11%), Serbs (30.78%), and Croats (15.43%). The country's political divisions were created by the Dayton Agreement, which recognized a second tier of government comprising two entities: the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (mostly Bosniaks and Croats) and the Republika Srpska (mostly Serbs), with each governing roughly half of the state's territory. A third region, the Brčko District, was governed locally. Today, all three ethnic groups have an equal constitutional status over the entire territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The country has a bicameral legislature and a three-member presidency composed of one member of each major ethnic group.


title: Multinational state

text: In order to maintain a nation state, France does not recognize any national identity or language other than French in its territory. However, many of its current and former territories—Alsace, Brittany, Corsica, Flanders, Moselle, Northern Catalonia, Occitania, Savoy, and the Basque Country—were not fully French in cultural terms until they underwent Francization in the late 19th century. According to WikiLeaks, former Prime Minister Michel Rocard told the American ambassador to France, Craig Roberts Stapleton, in 2005, "France created itself by destroying five [ethnic] cultures: Breton, Occitan, Alsatian, Corsican, and Flemish."


title: Multinational state

text: Montenegro is a multiethnic state in which no ethnic group forms a majority. The preamble of the Constitution of Montenegro identifies numerous nationalities—Montenegrins, Serbs, Bosniaks, Albanians, Muslims, Croats, and others—as citizens of a civic and democratic state. The largest ethnic groups are Montenegrins (45%), Serbs (28.7%), Bosniaks (8.6%), Albanians (4.9%), and Muslims (3.3%).


title: Multinational state

text: The official language is Montenegrin, but Serbian, Bosnian, Albanian, and Croatian are also in official use. In the 2011 census, Serbian was the most common mother tongue (42.88%), Montenegrin the second (36.97%), and Bosnian the third (5.33%).


title: Multinational state

text: Official policy states that Norway was founded on the territory of two peoples, Norwegians and Samis. In addition, Forest Finns, Kvens, Jews, Romani, and the Norwegian and Swedish Travellers are recognised as national minorities.


title: Multinational state

text: Nineteen ethnic groups are officially recognised as national minorities in Serbia. Serbs are the largest ethnic group in the country, constituting 83.3 percent of the population (excluding Kosovo). The largest national minorities are Hungarians, Roma, and Bosniaks, and there are also significant populations of Croats, Montenegrins, Albanians, Slovaks, Romanians, Vlachs, Rusyns, Gorani, Macedonians, and Bulgarians. Since 2002, minorities have been entitled to organize their own national councils. Through those councils, members of national minorities can exercise their rights in the spheres of culture, education, information, and the official use of their own languages and scripts.


title: Multinational state

text: Vojvodina is a multiethnic autonomous province in northern Serbia, with more than 26 ethnic groups and six official languages.


title: Multinational state

text: Definitions of ethnicity and nationality in Spain are politically fraught, particularly since the transition from Francoist Spain to the (restored) Kingdom of Spain in the 1970s, when local regionalisms and peripheral nationalisms became a major part of national politics.


title: Multinational state

text: The term Spanish people (Spanish: "pueblo español") is defined in the Spanish Constitution of 1978 as the political sovereign, i.e., the citizens of the Kingdom of Spain. The same constitution, in its preamble, speaks of "peoples and nationalities of Spain" ("pueblos y nacionalidades de España") and their respective cultures, traditions, languages, and institutions.


title: Multinational state

text: The "CIA World Factbook" (2011) describes Spain's ethnic makeup as a "composite of Mediterranean and Nordic types", instead of the usual breakdown of ethnic composition. This reflects the formation of the modern Kingdom of Spain by the accretion of numerous independent Iberian realms: Andalusia, Aragon, Asturias, Castile, Catalonia, Galicia, León, Majorca, Navarre, and Valencia. Thus, today's Spaniards include Andalusians, Aragonese, Asturians, Basques, Cantabrians, Castilians, Catalans, Galicians, Leonese, and Valencians, and individual members of these groups may or may not consider them distinct nations.


title: Multinational state

text: While the Office for National Statistics describes the United Kingdom as a nation state, other people, including former Prime Minister Gordon Brown, describe it as a multinational state. The term "Home Nations" is used to describe the national teams that represent the four nations of the United Kingdom: England, Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales in various sports.


title: Multinational state

text: The Kingdom of Great Britain was created on 1 May 1707 by the political union of the kingdoms of England and Scotland. This unification was the result of the Treaty of Union, which was agreed on 22 July 1706 and then ratified by the parliaments of England and Scotland in the 1707 Acts of Union. The two kingdoms, along with the Kingdom of Ireland, had already been in a personal union as a result of the 1603 Union of the Crowns, in which James VI, King of Scots, inherited the Kingdoms of England and Ireland and moved his court from Edinburgh to London. However, until 1707, all three had remained separate political entities with separate political institutions.


title: Multinational state

text: Prior to the Acts of Union, the Kingdoms of England and Scotland both had minority populations of their own that could themselves be called nations. Wales and Cornwall were part of the Kingdom of England (Wales had been officially incorporated into England by the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542, although it had been a "de facto" English territory since the 13th century; Cornwall had been conquered during the Anglo-Saxon period). The Northern Isles, with their Norse-derived culture, were part of Scotland, having been pledged by Norway as security against the payment of a dowry for Margaret of Denmark and then integrated in 1471. When the Kingdom of Great Britain was created, many of its inhabitants retained a sense of English, Scottish, or Welsh identity. Many of them also spoke languages other than English: principally Scottish Gaelic, Scots, Welsh, Cornish, and Norn.


title: Multinational state

text: Almost a century later, the Kingdom of Ireland merged with the Kingdom of Great Britain to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland under the 1800 Acts of Union. The United Kingdom thus became the union of the kingdoms of England, Ireland, and Scotland. Eventually, disputes within Ireland over the terms of Irish home rule led to the partition of the island: The Irish Free State received dominion status in 1922, while Northern Ireland remained part of the UK. As a result, in 1927, the formal title of the UK was changed to its current form, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.


title: Multinational state

text: Political, ethnic, and religious tensions between Irish and British groups in Northern Ireland culminated in The Troubles. This period of armed conflict erupted in 1966 between loyalist paramilitaries, seeking to maintain the country's position in the UK, and republican paramilitaries, seeking to unify Ireland as a 32-county independent republic. The British Army also played a key role. Following the deaths of over 3,500 people, a peace treaty was reached in 1998, although divisions remain high in some areas and sporadic violence still occurs.


title: Multinational state

text: The end of the 20th century brought major governing changes, with the establishment of devolved national administrations for Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales following pre-legislative referendums.


title: Multinational state

text: The Scottish National Party, the largest political party in Scotland, is committed to the goal of an independent Scotland within the European Union, but this is opposed by the leadership of the next three largest parties in the Scottish Parliament. A referendum on Scottish independence was held in September 2014, and 55% of the electorate rejected independence in favour of retaining the union. Plaid Cymru, a Welsh nationalist party, has a similar ambition for Wales. Plaid Cymru is currently the second- or third-largest party in Wales depending on how it is measured. Several parties in Northern Ireland, including the second- and third-largest, seek to establish an independent United Ireland, and have repeatedly called for border polls. The d'Hondt system used in Northern Ireland means that either the First Minister or Deputy First Minister will be from one of these parties.


title: Multinational state

text: Austria-Hungary, which succeeded the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary, was a historical monarchy composed by two multinational states. The centrifugal forces within it, coupled with its loss in World War I, led to its breakup in 1918. Its successor states de jure included the First Austrian Republic, the Kingdom of Hungary, while part from her former territories entirely new states were created such as Czechoslovakia, or other parts incorporated into the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, Poland, Kingdom of Romania, Kingdom of Italy and the Soviet Union.


title: Multinational state

text: The principal languages of Austria-Hungary were German, Hungarian, Polish, Czech, and Croatian, but there were also many minor languages, including Ukrainian, Romanian, Slovak, Serbian, Slovene, Rusyn, Italian, and Yiddish.


title: Multinational state

text: The Ottoman Empire was the dynastic state of the Turkish House of Osman. At its peak in the 16th and 17th centuries, it controlled much of Southeast Europe, Western Asia, the Caucasus, North Africa, and the Horn of Africa.


title: Multinational state

text: In addition to Turks, the ethnic groups of the Ottoman Empire included Albanians, Amazighs, Arabs, Armenians, Assyrians, Bosnians, Bulgarians, Circassians, Georgians, Greeks, Jews, Kurds, Laz, Macedonians, Romanians, Serbs, Tatars, and Zazas.


title: Multinational state

text: Through millet courts, confessional communities were allowed to rule themselves under their own legal systems: for example, sharia law for Muslims, Canon law for Christians, and halakha law for Jews. After the Tanzimat reforms from 1839–76, the term "millet" was used to refer to legally protected religious minority groups, similar to the way other countries use the word "nation". (The word "millet" comes from the Arabic word "millah" (ملة), which literally means "nation".) The millet system has been called an example of pre-modern religious pluralism.


title: Multinational state

text: The Soviet Union was a state composed of the Soviet republics (of which there were 15 after 1956), with the capital in Moscow. It was founded in December 1922, when the Russian SFSR—which formed during the Russian Revolution of 1917 and emerged victorious in the ensuing Russian Civil War—unified with the Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, and Belarusian SSRs. Addressing the Extraordinary Eighth Congress of Soviets of the Soviet Union on 25 November 1936, Joseph Stalin stated that "within the Soviet Union there are about sixty nations, national groups, and nationalities. The Soviet state is a multinational state." Among the 15 republics were the Baltic states of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, which they were illegally annexed into the Soviet Union in 1940 and the Soviet occupation of the Baltic states was not recognized by a number of Western governments including the United States.


title: Multinational state

text: In the late 1980s, some of the republics sought sovereignty over their territories, citing Article 72 of the USSR Constitution, which stated that any constituent republic was free to secede. On 7 April 1990, a law was passed allowing a republic to secede if more than two-thirds of its residents voted for secession in a referendum. Many held free elections, and the resulting legislatures soon passed bills that contradicted Soviet laws, in what became known as the War of Laws.


title: Multinational state

text: In 1989, the Russian SFSR—the largest constituent republic, with about half of the USSR's population—convened a new Congress of People's Deputies and elected Boris Yeltsin its chairman. On 12 June 1990, the Congress declared Russia's sovereignty over its territory and proceeded to pass legislation that attempted to supersede Soviet laws. Legal uncertainty continued through 1991 as constituent republics slowly gained "de facto" independence.


title: Multinational state

text: In a referendum on 17 March 1991, majorities in nine of the 15 republics voted to preserve the Union. The referendum gave Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev a minor boost, and in the summer of 1991, the New Union Treaty was designed and agreed upon by eight republics. The treaty would have turned the Soviet Union into a much looser federation, but its signing was interrupted by the August Coup—an attempted coup d'état against Gorbachev by hardline Communist Party members of the government and the KGB, who sought to reverse Gorbachev's reforms and reassert the central government's control over the republics. When the coup collapsed, Yeltsin—who had publicly opposed it—came out as a hero, while Gorbachev's power was effectively ended.


title: Multinational state

text: As a result, the balance of power tipped significantly toward the republics. In August 1991, Latvia and Estonia had regained their independence (following Lithuania's 1990 example), while the other twelve republics continued to discuss new, increasingly loose models for the Union.


title: Multinational state

text: On 8 December 1991, the presidents of Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus signed the Belavezha Accords, which declared the Soviet Union dissolved and established the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) in its place. Doubts remained about the authority of the Belavezha Accords to dissolve the Union, but on 21 December 1991, representatives of every Soviet republic except Georgia—including those that had signed the Belavezha Accords—signed the Alma-Ata Protocol, which confirmed the dissolution of the USSR and reiterated the establishment of the CIS. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev yielded, resigning as the president of the USSR and declaring the office extinct. He turned the powers vested in the Soviet presidency over to Yeltsin, the president of Russia.


title: Multinational state

text: The following day, the Supreme Soviet, the highest governmental body of the Soviet Union, dissolved itself. Many organizations, such as the Soviet Army and police forces, remained in place in the early months of 1992, but were slowly phased out and either withdrawn from or absorbed by the newly independent states.


title: Multinational state

text: The first country to be known by this name was the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, known until 3 October 1929 as the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes. It was established on 1 December 1918 by the union of the State of Slovenes, Croats, and Serbs and the Kingdom of Serbia (to which the Kingdom of Montenegro had been annexed on 13 November 1918), and the Conference of Ambassadors gave international recognition to the union on 13 July 1922.


title: Multinational state

text: The Kingdom of Yugoslavia was invaded by the Axis powers in 1941 and abolished as a result of World War II. It was succeeded by Democratic Federal Yugoslavia, proclaimed in 1943 by the Yugoslav Partisans resistance movement. When a communist government was established in 1946, the country was renamed the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia. In 1963, it was renamed again, becoming the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY). This was the largest Yugoslav state, with Istria and Rijeka having been added after World War II.


title: Multinational state

text: The country consisted of six constituent "socialist republics" (SR Bosnia and Herzegovina, SR Croatia, SR Macedonia, SR Montenegro, SR Slovenia, and SR Serbia) and two "socialist autonomous provinces" (SAP Vojvodina and SAP Kosovo, which became largely equal to other members of the federation after 1974).


title: Multinational state

text: Starting in 1991, the SFRY disintegrated in the Yugoslav Wars, which followed the secession of most of the country's constituent entities. The next Yugoslavia, known as the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, existed until 2003, when it was renamed Serbia and Montenegro. In 2006, this last vestige separated into Serbia and Montenegro, but only to go further in 2008 after Kosovo unilaterally declared its independence but with limited recognition.


title: Negligee

text: The negligee or négligée ( ; ), also known in French as déshabillé (), is a form of see-through clothing for women consisting of a sheer, usually long, dressing gown. It is a form of nightgown intended for wear at night and in the bedroom. It was introduced in France in the 18th century, where it mimicked the heavy head-to-toe style of women's day dresses of the time.


title: Negligee

text: By the 1920s, the negligee began to mimic women's satin single-layer evening dress of the period. The term "negligee" was used on a Royal Doulton run of ceramic figurines in 1927, showing women wearing what appears to be a one-piece knee-length silk or rayon slip, trimmed with lace. Although the evening-dresses style of nightwear made moves towards the modern negligee style—translucent bodices, lace trimming, bows, exemplified in 1941 by a photo of Rita Hayworth in "Life"—it was only after World War II that nightwear changed from being primarily utilitarian to being primarily sensual or even erotic; the negligee emerged strongly as a form of lingerie.


title: Negligee

text: Modern negligees are often much looser and made of sheer and diaphanous fabrics and trimmed with lace or other fine material and bows. Multiple layers of fabric are often used. The modern negligee thus perhaps owes more to women's fine bedjackets or bed-capes, and up-market slips than to the nightgown. It spread to a mass market, benefiting from the introduction of cheap synthetic fabrics such as nylon and its finer successors. From the 1940s to the 1970s, the trend was for negligees to become shorter in length (e.g. the babydoll of the 1970s). Negligees made from the 1940s to the 1970s are now collectible vintage items.


title: Negligee

text: In the UK in 2004, negligees accounted for only four percent of women's nightwear sales, women's pyjamas having dominated since the mid-1980s. However, UK negligee sales are said to have been the fastest increasing sector of the market since 1998.


title: Richard Brooks (actor)

text: Richard L. Brooks (born December 9, 1962) is an American actor, singer, and director. He played the eccentric bounty hunter Jubal Early in the space-western "Firefly" and assistant district attorney Paul Robinette in the NBC drama series "Law & Order" from 1990 to 1993, later appearing as a defense attorney on that same show. In 2013, he began starring as Patrick Patterson in the BET drama series, "Being Mary Jane".


title: Richard Brooks (actor)

text: Born and raised in Cleveland, Ohio, Brooks studied acting, dance, and voice work at Interlochen Academy of Arts in Michigan. Later, he moved to New York City and was a student of the Circle in the Square Professional Theater School.


title: Richard Brooks (actor)

text: While in New York, Brooks performed in the Eugene O'Neill Theater Conference production of August Wilson's "Fences", which gained him a positive reputation. A subsequent move to Los Angeles found the actor landing television roles in "Hill Street Blues" and "The Russians Are Coming", along with made-for-TV features such as "Badge of the Assassin" (1985) and "Resting Place" (1986). With "Teen Wolf" (1985), "The Hidden" (1987), "Off Limits" (1988), "Shakedown" (1988), and "Shocker" (1989), Brooks began his work in the world of feature films. Brooks appeared as OD in the award-winning film "84C MoPic" (1989), directed by Patrick Sheane Duncan.


title: Richard Brooks (actor)

text: Throughout the 1990s, most of his popularity came from his widespread exposure in his role as Paul Robinette on "Law & Order". However, the actor would constantly find himself alternating between the feature films, television, and the stage. After appearing in "The Substitute" and playing the villain in "" (both 1996), Brooks opted to try his hand at directing, and the result was "Johnny B Good" (1998). It is about a young, urban black man who makes a positive change after suffering amnesia. Brooks returned to television for the short-lived series "G vs E" in 1999. In 2001 he made a guest appearance in "NYPD Blue". Brooks is also well known by some science fiction fans for his appearance on Joss Whedon's "Firefly", as a bounty hunter named Jubal Early in the existentialist series finale "Objects in Space". He also appeared as Hasdrabul Skaras in "Slayer", the fifth episode of the series "Brimstone". He also appeared as Detective Ehrle in the short-lived Fox series "Drive", alongside Nathan Fillion, with whom Brooks had worked on "Firefly".


title: Richard Brooks (actor)

text: In addition to his film work, Brooks also founded his own production company, Flat Top Entertainment LLC. At the dawn of the millennium, Brooks released his first solo R&B album, "Smooth Love", on Flat Top Records.


title: Richard Brooks (actor)

text: In March 2011, Brooks played the role of Harmond Wilkes in "Radio Golf", written by August Wilson, at Geva Theatre Center in Rochester, New York. He played Frederick Douglass in the 2013 PBS series "The Abolitionists".


title: Richard Brooks (actor)

text: Brooks played Warden Wolfe in season 4 of "The Flash", and Dwight Wise in Seasons 5 and 6 of the show "Bosch".


title: Richard Brooks (actor)

text: Brooks plays Augustus Barringer on the UMC network comedy "The Rich and the Ruthless" (2017–present).


title: Wendy James

text: Wendy James (born 21 January 1966) is an English singer-songwriter most notable for her work with the pop band Transvision Vamp.