title: Military call sign

text: Tactical voice communications ("combat net radio") use a system of call signs of the form "letter-digit-digit". Within a standard infantry battalion these characters represent companies, platoons and sections respectively, so that 3 Section, 1 Platoon of B Company might be F13. In addition, a suffix following the initial call sign can denote a specific individual or grouping within the designated call sign, so F13C would be the Charlie fire team. Unused suffixes can be used for other call signs that do not fall into the standard call sign matrix, for example the unused 33A call sign is used to refer to the Company Sergeant Major.


title: Military call sign

text: The letter part of the call sign is not the company's letter (B vs F in the above example). Instead, letter designations are randomly assigned using BATCO sheets, and appear on CEIs (communication electronic instructions), and change along with the BATCO codes every 24 hours. This, together with frequency changes and voice procedure aimed at making every unit sound the same, protects the military against simple traffic analysis and eavesdropping. Other radio users, like B20, do not fit into the standard battalion model but are also assigned a call sign for protection.


title: Military call sign

text: The controller of each net has the call sign 0 ("zero"). There may also be a second controller - either a backup station or a commander who has delegated communication tasks to a signaller but may occasionally wish to speak in person - using the call sign 0A ("zero alpha").


title: Military call sign

text: Pre-BATCO systems used a series of appointment titles to identify users and individuals, "Sunray", for instance, referring to the appropriate leader. Most appointment titles are no longer used by the British Army, but titles such as "Sunray" and "Sunray Minor" are still used; appointment titles also continue to be taught during Community Cadet Forces communications training. Several other Commonwealth militaries and cadet forces used or continue to use appointment titles, including those of Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe), and Sierra Leone, with some usage by the United States military and various NATO countries also occurring due to a list of appointment titles being included in ACP 125; Commonwealth and ACP 125 appointment titles have a high degree of commonality with those used in British service, though differences, additions, and subtractions can be found (the British themselves used an altered version of their appointment title list during Operation Banner where certain titles had different meanings than usual or were replaced by alternative titles). Where there is continued usage of appointment titles, they are usually regarded as only giving a low grade of security cover, with ACP 125 deeming them to be unclassified.


title: Oriental cockroach

text: The oriental cockroach (Blatta orientalis), also known as the waterbug (as they live in damp areas) or black cockroaches (as their bodies are mostly dark), is a large species of cockroach, adult males being and adult females being . It is dark brown or black in color and has a glossy body. The female has a somewhat different appearance from the male, appearing to be wingless at a casual glance, but is brachypterous, having non-functional wings just below her head. She has a wider body than the male. The male has long wings, which cover three quarters of the abdomen and are brown in color, and has a narrower body. Both of them are flightless. The female oriental cockroach looks somewhat similar to the Florida woods cockroach and may be mistaken for it. Originally endemic to the Crimean Peninsula and the region around the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, its distribution is now cosmopolitan.


title: Oriental cockroach

text: Oriental cockroaches tend to travel somewhat more slowly than other species. Often called "waterbugs" since they prefer dark, moist places, they can generally be found around decaying organic matter, in bushes, under leaf groundcover, or under mulch, and in sewer pipes, drains, basements, porches, and other damp locations in and around human habitations where they may be major pests.


title: Oriental cockroach

text: To thrive, cockroaches need a source of food/liquid and a place to hide, preferring warm places and relatively high humidity; the optimum temperature for oriental cockroaches is between . Female oriental cockroaches have vestigial tegmina (reduced fore wings) and males have longer tegmina. Oriental cockroaches are mainly nocturnal, and they can be elusive in that a casual inspection of an infested dwelling during the day may show no signs of roach activity.


title: Oriental cockroach

text: Signs of cockroaches are their oothecae, which are "egg cases". The blackish-brown oothecae are formed a day after mating, and are deposited typically a day or two after formation (but up to seven days later), in a sheltered area or attached to a substrate by oral secretion. About long, with indistinct egg compartments housing 16–18 eggs, they are initially a yellow-white, turning reddish- then blackish-brown. They hatch on their own in about 42 days at and 81 days at ; at temperatures below they lose viability.


title: Oriental cockroach

text: Like all cockroach species, the immature nymph lacks wings. The adult form is sexually dimorphic; the male has prominent wings, however the female is brachypterous, having very small non-functional wings. The female is shorter and wider than the male.


title: Oriental cockroach

text: Cockroaches transfer bacteria and viruses from their legs to food, dishes, utensils, and countertops and they are known to spread dysentery, "E. coli", "Salmonella", and food poisoning.


title: Oriental cockroach

text: They are major household pests in parts of the Northwest, Midwest, and Southern United States. They can also be found in Europe, Israel, Australia, and South America.


title: Oriental cockroach

text: Oriental cockroaches can be harder to get rid of than other roaches. Although adults can be fairly easily killed by the application of residual insecticide, the insecticides can get washed away, allowing new nymphs to survive.


title: Kim Jong-suk

text: Kim Jong-suk (; 24 December 1917  – 22 September 1949) was a Korean anti-Japanese guerrilla, a Communist activist, North Korean leader Kim Il-sung's first wife, former leader Kim Jong-il's mother, and current leader Kim Jong-un's grandmother.


title: Kim Jong-suk

text: Kim Jong-suk was born on 24 December 1917 in Hoeryong County, North Hamgyong Province, Japanese Korea. Suh Dae-sook writes that she was "the elder of two daughters of a poor farmer." However, the Korean Central News Agency (KCNA), states that she had a younger brother, Kim Ki-song (김기송), who was born 9 February 1921.


title: Kim Jong-suk

text: Kim Jong-suk followed her mother to Manchuria to look for her father, but they discovered that he had already died there. Soon after that, her mother died and she became an orphan. Most sources agree that Kim Jong-suk then joined Kim Il-sung’s guerrilla force in 1935 or 1936 as a kitchen helper. The KCNA, however, reports that Kim Jong-suk and Kim Ki-song joined the guerrilla forces after their mother and their elder brother’s wife were murdered by the Japanese.


title: Kim Jong-suk

text: During this time, Kim Jong-suk worked various odd jobs, and was arrested by the Japanese in 1937 in an undercover attempt to secure food and supplies. After her release, she rejoined the guerrillas, where she cooked, sewed, and washed.


title: Kim Jong-suk

text: It was around this time that Kim Jong-suk reportedly saved Kim Il-sung’s life. Baik Bong relates the story in Kim Il-sung's official biography:


title: Kim Jong-suk

text: Kim Jong-suk married Kim Il Sung in the Soviet Union, most likely in 1941. On 16 February 1941 (or 1942, sources vary), in the Soviet village of Vyatskoye, Kim Jong-suk had Kim Jong-il, who was given the Russian name "Yuri Irsenovich Kim," and the nickname "Yura." In 1944, Kim Jong-suk had Kim Man-il, in Korean and "Alexander" or "Shura" in Russian. In 1946, she gave birth to a daughter, Kim Kyŏng-hŭi. Augustina Vardugina, a woman from Vyatskoye, was in her teens when Kim Il-sung's guerrilla group camped there. She remembers Kim Jong-suk, and how she would come to the village to barter military rations for chicken and eggs. Her son, Kim Jong-il, would be holding her hand.


title: Kim Jong-suk

text: A year after the establishment of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK) and until her death, Kim Jong-suk was the first lady of North Korea. According to some accounts, Kim Jong-suk "was a small, quiet woman, not particularly well educated, but friendly and life-loving." Major General N.G. Lebedev, an executive Soviet officer during the Soviet occupation of North Korea, recalled Kim Jong-suk as "a vivacious and generous lady who always cooked enormous amounts of food for the hungry Soviet generals when they visited Kim’s home."


title: Kim Jong-suk

text: In commentary on one edition of Kim Il Sung's official autobiography, "With the Century", it is stated that she died of an ectopic pregnancy on September 22, 1949.


title: Kim Jong-suk

text: According to Harrold, she died from "the hardships she had endured during the years as a guerrilla fighter."


title: Kim Jong-suk

text: After Kim Jong-il succeeded Kim Il Sung, he began to make his mother, Kim Jong-suk, into "a revolutionary immortal." This campaign created "a holy trinity known as the ‘Three Generals.’" Instead of touting Kim Jong-suk as the quiet woman that she was, she became the heroine of the revolution. The website of the National Democratic Front of South Korea (NDFSK) says she was "a peerless heroine . . . an anti-Japanese heroine . . . a faithful retainer who faithfully carried out General Kim Il Sung’s [Kim Il-sung] will but also a lifeguard who safeguarded the General of every dangerous movement."


title: Kim Jong-suk

text: Kim Jong-suk was recorded to have "conducted on-the-spot guidance sessions" and was a "great strategist". In her home town of Hoeryong, "a museum, a library, a statue, a square and the house in which she was born" are "devoted to the 'Mother of Korea'". She arranged parachute training and won several shooting competitions. One story says that she would wash Kim Il-sung's socks and dry them in her bosom, or cut her hair and spread it in Kim Il-sung's shoes.


title: Kim Jong-suk

text: Michael Harrold, in his memoir "Comrades and Strangers", relates several stories he heard about Kim Jong-suk while in North Korea. According to him, there is a memorial near Mount Kumgang that marks where Kim Jong-suk stopped "when she realized she had forgotten to bring the great leader’s lunch, and had turned back to prepare something to eat for when he returned from the mountains." Kim Jong-suk is also credited with inspiring Kim Jong-il to build the Ryugyong Hotel. Harrold relates that Kim Jong-suk told a young Kim Jong-il that he "must build tall buildings for the people, of 30 or even 40 stories," and the son replied that he would build housing 100 stories high. This led to the construction of the 105-story Ryugyong Hotel, which is still not opened.


title: Kim Jong-suk

text: On 1 June 2015, the Daily NK reported that Kim Jong-suk's wedding ring had gone missing from Pyongyang's Korean Revolution Museum sometime in late May. Items belonging to key figures of the Kim family are of great importance. In 2010, state television aired a show dedicated to the story behind the ring, which was, purportedly, given to her by Kim Il-sung in 1938 for her role in the anti-Japanese guerrilla movement.


title: Kim Jong-suk

text: Many places in North Korea are named after her, including Kimjongsuk County, Kim Jong-suk Naval Academy, Kim Jong-suk Teacher Training College, Kim Jong-suk Rest Home, and Kim Jong-suk Pyongyang Silk Mill.


title: Kim Jong-suk

text: In North Korean News The KCNA regularly reports on Kim Jong-suk, either honoring her memory or describing her revolutionary activities. The following are headlines from articles relating to Kim Jong-suk from 2012:


title: Telephone numbers in Europe

text: Telephone numbers in Europe are managed by the national telecommunications authorities of each country. The country calling codes start primarily with "3" and "4", however, some countries that by the Copenhagen criteria are considered part of Europe have country codes from the Asia range, starting with "9".


title: Telephone numbers in Europe

text: The international access code (dial out code) has been standardized as "00," as recommended by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU).


title: Telephone numbers in Europe

text: † = Disputed state, may not be recognized as an independent state by some or all European Union members.


title: Telephone numbers in Europe

text: <nowiki>*</nowiki>A variable dialing plan has different dialing procedures for local and long-distance telephone calls. A call within the same city or within an area is dialed only by the subscriber number, while for calls outside the area, the number must be prefixed with the destination area code. For fixed dialing plan it is always required to dial all digits of the complete telephone number, including any area codes, if implemented.


title: Telephone numbers in Europe

text: Despite fulfilling the Copenhagen criteria for being part of Europe the following countries are in the Asian numbering group, having a country code starting with "9":


title: Telephone numbers in Europe

text: One country that is geographically in Asia but is considered part of Europe for cultural and historical reasons, belong to the European group "3":


title: Telephone numbers in Europe

text: In 1996, the European Commission proposed the introduction of a single telephone numbering plan, in which all European Union member states would use the code '3'. Calls between member states would no longer require the use of the international access code '00'. Instead the digit "1" was proposed for these calls, replaced by +3 for call from outside the EU. Each country would have a two-digit country code after the 1 or the +3. Calls inside each country would not be affected.


title: Telephone numbers in Europe

text: "Option 3 : Creation, in addition to providing numbers for special services, of a clear European numbering identity (three digit numbering codes) by using the number "3" to proceed current national country codes (e.g. "333" for France or "344" for the UK). This would liberate up to 50 new country codes within Europe and allow the current codes starting with number "4" to be recycled within the world-wide numbering plan."


title: Telephone numbers in Europe

text: This proposal would have required states like Germany, the United Kingdom, Denmark and others, whose country codes began with the digit '4', to return these to the International Telecommunication Union.


title: Telephone numbers in Europe

text: This would create four different ways of calling someone. For example, to call a number in Berlin, in Germany:


title: Telephone numbers in Europe

text: Such a scheme would also have affected Spain which uses +34. For example, to call someone in Barcelona:


title: Telephone numbers in Europe

text: States like Ireland, Portugal, Cyprus and Finland, which used codes in the '35x' range, would adopt a different format. For example, to call a number in Dublin, Ireland:


title: Telephone numbers in Europe

text: A Green Paper on the proposal was published, but it was felt by many in the industry that the disruption and inconvenience of such a scheme would outweigh any advantages.


title: Telephone numbers in Europe

text: A disadvantage would have been that every local number beginning with "1" would have had to be changed (except emergency number which would be kept).


title: Telephone numbers in Europe

text: Another disadvantage would be that people wanting to call France (e.g. Southeast France using +33 4...) using an old number would connect another country like Spain, or people wanting to call Spain (e.g. +34 9...) would end up in e.g. Germany if they use an old number.


title: Telephone numbers in Europe

text: The EU proposal should not be confused with the European Telephony Numbering Space (ETNS) scheme, which uses the country code +388, and was intended to complement, rather than replace, existing national numbering plans.


title: Yadava

text: The Yadava (literally, descended from Yadu) were an ancient Indian people who believed to be descended from Yadu, a legendary king of Chandravamsha lineage. The community was formed of various clans, being the Abhira, Andhaka, Vrishni, and Satvatas, who all worshipped Krishna. They are listed in ancient Indian literature as the segments of the lineage of Yadu ("Yaduvamsha"). At various times there have been a number of communities and royal dynasties of the Indian subcontinent that have claimed descent from the ancient Yadava clans and legendary Yadava personalities, thus describing themselves as the Yadavas. The sociologist M. S. A. Rao and historians such as P. M. Chandorkar and T. Padmaja say that epigraphical and historical evidence exists for equating the Ahirs with the ancient Yadava clan. The Yadavas of the Mahabharata period were known to be the followers of Vaishnavism, of which Krishna was the leader: they were Gopas (cowherd) by profession, but at the same time they held the status of the Kshatriyas, participating in the battle of Kurukshetra. The present Ahirs are also followers of Vaisnavism.


title: Yadava

text: Amongst the Yadava clans mentioned in ancient Indian literature, the Haihayas are believed to have descended from Sahasrajit, elder son of Yadu and all other Yadava clans, which include the Chedis, the Vidarbhas, the Satvatas, the Andhakas, the Kukuras, the Bhojas, the Vrishnis and the Surasenas are believed to have descended from Kroshtu or Kroshta, younger son of Yadu.


title: Yadava

text: It can be inferred from the "vamshanucharita" (genealogy) sections of a number of major Puranas that, the Yadavas spread out over the Aravalli region, Gujarat, the Narmada valley, the northern Deccan and the eastern Ganges valley. The "Mahabharata" and the Puranas mention that the Yadus or Yadavas, a confederacy comprising numerous clans were the rulers of the Mathura region. and were pastoral cowherds. The "Mahabharata" also refers to the exodus of the Yadavas from Mathura to Dvaraka owing to pressure from the Paurava rulers of Magadha, and probably also from the Kurus.


title: Yadava

text: The Haihayas were an ancient confederacy of five "gana"s (clans), who were believed to have descended from a common ancestor, Yadu. These five clans are Vitihotra, Sharyata, Bhoja, Avanti and Tundikera. The five Haihaya clans called themselves the Talajanghas According to the "Puranas", Haihaya was the grandson of Sahasrajit, son of Yadu. Kautilya in his "" mentioned about the Haihayas. In the Puranas, Arjuna Kartavirya conquered Mahishmati from Karkotaka Naga and made it his capital.


title: Yadava

text: Later, the Haihayas were also known by the name of the most dominant clan amongst them — the Vitihotras. According to the "Puranas", Vitihotra was the great-grandson of Arjuna Kartavirya and eldest son of Talajangha. Ripunjaya, the last Vitihotra ruler of Ujjayini was overthrown by his "amatya" (minister) Pulika, who placed his son, Pradyota on the throne. The "Mahagovindasuttanta" of the "Dighanikaya" mentions about an Avanti king Vessabhu (Vishvabhu) and his capital Mahissati (Mahishmati). Probably he was a Vitihotra ruler.


title: Yadava

text: In the Balakanda (70.28) of the Ramayana, the Shashabindus are mentioned along with the Haihayas and the Talajanghas. The Shashabindus or Shashabindavas are believed as the descendants of Shashabindu, a "Chakravartin" (universal ruler) and son of Chitraratha, great-great-grandson of Kroshtu.


title: Yadava

text: The Chedis or Chaidyas were an ancient Yadava clan, whose territory was conquered by a Kuru king Vasu, who thus obtained his epithet, "Chaidyoparichara" (the overcomer of the Chaidyas) or "Uparichara" (the overcomer). According to the Puranas, the Chedis were descendants of Chidi, son of Kaishika, grandson of Vidarbha, a descendant of Kroshta. And the son of king Chidi was Maharaja DamGoshi(Father of Shishupal in Mahabharata).And then the lineage was called Hindu Ghosis.


title: Yadava

text: According to the Puranas, the Vidarbhas or Vaidarbhas were descendants of Vidarbha, son of Jyamagha, a descendant of Kroshtu. Most well known Vidarbha king was Bhishmaka, father of Rukmin and Rukmini. In the Matsya Purana and the Vayu Purana, the Vaidarbhas are described as the inhabitants of Deccan ("Dakshinapatha vasinah").


title: Yadava

text: According to the Aitareya Brahmana (VIII.14), the Satvatas were a southern people held in subjection by the Bhojas. The Satapatha Brahmana (XIII.5.4.21) mentions that Bharata seized the sacrificial horse of the Satvatas. Panini, in his "Ashtadhyayi" mentions the Satvatas also as being of the "Kshatriya gotra", having a "sangha" (tribal oligarchy) form of government but in the Manusmriti (X.23), the Satvatas are placed in the category of the "Vratya Vaishyas".


title: Yadava

text: According to a tradition, found in the Harivamsa (95.5242-8), Satvata was a descendant of the Yadava king Madhu and Satvata's son Bhima was contemporary with Rama. Bhima recovered the city of Mathura from the Ikshvakus after the death of Rama and his brothers. Andhaka, son of Bhima Satvata was contemporary with Kusha, son of Rama. He succeeded his father to the throne of Mathura.


title: Yadava

text: The Andhakas, the Vrishnis, the Kukuras, the Bhojas and the Surasenas are believed to have descended from Satvata, a descendant of Kroshtu. These clans were also known as the Satvata clans.


title: Yadava

text: According to the "Ashtadhyayi" (IV.1.114) of Panini, the Andhakas were of the "Kshatriya gotra", having a "sangha" (tribal oligarchy) form of government In the "Drona Parva" (141.15) of the "Mahabharata", Andhakas were categorized as the "Vratya"s (deviators from orthodoxy). According to the Puranas, the Andhakas were the descendants of Bhajamana, son of Andhaka and grandson of Satvata.


title: Yadava

text: According to the "Mahabharata", the allied army of the Andhakas, the Bhojas, the Kukuras and the Vrishnis in the Kurukshetra War was led by Kritavarma, son of Hridika, an Andhaka. But, in the same text, he was also referred as a Bhoja of Mrittikavati.


title: Yadava

text: According to the Aitareya Brahmana (VIII.14), the Bhojas were a southern people, whose princes held the Satvatas in subjection. The Vishnu Purana (IV.13.1-61) mentions the Bhojas as a branch of the Satvatas. According to this text, Bhojas of Mrittikavati were descendants of Mahabhoja, son of Satvata. But, according to a number of other Puranic texts, the Bhojas were descendants of Babhru, grandson of Satvata. In the Adi Parva of the "Mahabharata" (85.3533) and in a passage of the "Matsya Purana" (34.30) the Bhojas are mentioned as the "mleccha"s. But another passage of the "Matsya Purana" (44.69) describes them as pious and the performers of the religious rites.


title: Yadava

text: Kautilya in his (XI.1.5), describes the Kukuras as a clan, having "sangha" (tribal oligarchy) form of government, whose leader uses the title of ' ('). According to the Bhagavata Purana, the Kukuras occupied the territory around Dwarka. The Vayu Purana mentions that the Yadava ruler Ugrasena belonged to this clan ("Kukurodbhava"). According to the Puranas, Ahuka, an Kukura, had two sons by a Kashi princess, Ugrasena and Devaka. Ugrasena had nine sons and five daughters, Kamsa being the eldest. Devaka had four sons and seven daughters, Devaki was one of them. Kamsa usurped the throne of Mathura after imprisoning Ugrasena. But later he was killed by Krishna, son of Devaki, who re-installed Ugrasena to the throne.


title: Yadava

text: The Nashik Cave Inscription of Gautami Balashri mentions that her son Gautamiputra Satakarni conquered the Kukuras. The Junagadh Rock Inscription of Rudradaman I includes the Kukuras in the list of the peoples conquered by him.


title: Yadava

text: The Vrishnis are mentioned in a number of Vedic texts, which include the Taittiriya Samhita (III.2.9.3), the Taittiriya Brahmana (III.10.9.15), the Satapatha Brahmana (III.1.1.4) and the Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana (I.6.1). The Taittiriya Samhita and the Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana mention about a teacher, Gobala belonging to this clan.


title: Yadava

text: Although, Panini, in his "Ashtadhyayi" (IV.1.114) includes the Vrishnis in the list of the clans of the "Kshatriya gotra", having a "sangha" (tribal oligarchy) form of government, but in the "Drona Parva" (141.15) of the "Mahabharata", the Vrishnis, like the Andhakas were categorized as the "Vratya"s (apsotates). In the "Shanti Parva" (81.25) of the "Mahabharata", the Kukuras, the Bhojas, the Andhakas and the Vrishnis are together referred as a "sangha", and Vasudeva Krishna as "Sanghamukhya" (seignor of the "sangha") According to the Puranas, Vrishni was one of the four sons of Satvata. Vrishni had three (or four) sons, Anamitra (or Sumitra), Yudhajit and Devamidhusha. Shura was son of Devamidhusha. His son Vasudeva was father of Balarama and Krishna.


title: Yadava

text: According to the Harivamsa (II.4.37-41), the Vrishnis worshipped goddess Ekanamsha, who, elsewhere in the same text (II.2.12), described as daughter of Nandagopa. The Mora Well Inscription, found from a village near Mathura and dated to the early decades of the Common era records the installation of the images of the five Vrishni "vira"s (heroes) in a stone shrine by a person, named Tosha. These five Vrishni heroes have been identified with Samkarshana, Vasudeva, Pradyumna, Aniruddha and Samba from a passage in the Vayu Purana (97.1-2).


title: Yadava

text: A unique silver coin of the Vrishnis was discovered from Hoshiarpur, Punjab. This coin is presently preserved in the British Museum, London. Later, a number of copper coins, clay seals and sealings issued by the Vrishnis were also discovered from Sunet, near Ludhiana.


title: Yadava

text: The Shaineyas are believed to have descended from Shini, son of Anamitra, son of Vrishni. In the "Mahabharata" and the Puranas, the most notable Shaineya was Yuyudhana, son of Satyaka and grandson of Shini. He was a contemporary of Krishna. According to the Puranas, Asanga and Yugandhara were his son and grandson respectively.


title: Yadava

text: A number of Puranas mention Akrura, a Vrishni, as the ruler of Dvaraka. His name is found in the Nirukta (2.2) as the holder of the jewel. In the Puranas, Akrura is mentioned as the son of Shvaphalka, who was great-grandson of Vrishni and Gandini. In the "Mahabharata", the "Bhagavata Purana" and the "Brahma Purana", he was mentioned as the keeper of the Syamantaka, the most well-known jewel of the Yadavas. According to the Puranas Akrura had two sons, Devavant and Upadeva.


title: Yadava

text: According to the "Mausala Parva" (7.185-253) of the "Mahabharata" a few years after the "Kurukshetra War", Andhaka-Vrsni Yadava clans of Dvaraka were destroyed due to a fratricidal war. Both Balarama and Krishna died soon after this war. Later, son of Kritavarma became ruler of Mrittikavati and grandson of Yuyudhana became ruler of the territory near the Sarasvati River. The rest of the surviving Yadavas took refuge in Indraprastha. Vajra, great-grandson of Krishna was installed as their king.


title: Yadava

text: Vajra is mentioned as the great-grandson of Krishna in the Vishnu Purana. According to a section of this text (IV.15.34-42), he was the son of Aniruddha and Subhadra. But according or another section (V.32.6-7), he was the son of Aniruddha and Usha, daughter of Bana and granddaughter of Bali. Bahu (or Pratibahu) was his son and Sucharu was his grandson. Elsewhere in this text (V.38.34), he was mentioned as installed as king in Mathura instead of Indraprastha.


title: Yadava

text: The narrative of the Yadava fratricidal war is also found in two Jataka tales of the Pali Buddhist canon: the "Ghata Jataka" and the "Samkicca Jataka". According to the "Ghata Jataka", Vasudeva, Baladeva and eight other "Andhaka-Venhu" (probably, a corrupt form of "Andhaka-Venhi", Pali equivalent to Sanskrit Andhaka-Vrishni) brothers seized Dvaravati and killed its king Kamsa. Later, these brothers fought amongst themselves and except Vasudeva and Baladeva everybody died. Vasudeva and Baladeva also died soon after. The "Samkicca Jataka" mentions that the "Andhaka-Venhu"s killed each other. Kautilya also in his (I.6.10) mentioned about the destruction of Vrishni clan because of their foolhardiness.


title: Yadava

text: According to a modern historian, Romila Thapar, the kinship system of the Yadavas shows traces of matrilineal structure, which is found from the mention of their cross-cousin marriages. This is particularly prohibited in the Indo Aryan kinship system. The Vishnu Purana mentions that Krishna married Rukmini, a Vidarbha princess. His son Pradyumna married Kakudvati, daughter of Rukmin, brother of Rukmini. Pradyumna's son Aniruddha married Subhadra, granddaughter of Rukmin.


title: Yadava

text: The Buddhist and Jaina texts list 16 powerful states ("shodasha mahajanapada"), which flourished in the early 6th century BCE. Shurasena was one of such states mentioned in the Anguttara Nikaya, a Buddhist text. The capital of the Shurasenas was Mathura, which was also known as Madura. Megasthenes (c. 350 – 290 BCE) mentions that the Sourasenoi (Shurasenas), who lived in the Mathura region, worshipped Herakles, by which he may have meant Vasudeva Krishna, the Indian god bearing the closest resemblance to Herakles. The worship of Vasudeva Krishna seems to have originated in the Mathura region.


title: Yadava

text: A number of traditions exist regarding the origin of the Shurasenas. According to a tradition, found in the Linga Purana (I.68.19), Shurasenas were descendants of Shurasena, son of Arjuna Kartavirya. According to another tradition found in the Ramayana (VII.62.6) and the Vishnu Purana (IV.4.46), the Shurasenas were descendants of Shurasena, son of Shatrughna, brother of Rama. According to the Devibhagavata Purana (IV.1.2), Shurasena was father of Vasudeva, father of Krishna. Alexander Cunningham in his "Ancient Geography of India" states that because of Surasena, his grandfather, Krishna and his descendants were known as the Surasenas. Bhasa, in his "Balacharita" mentions that the mother of Kamsa was a Shurasena ("Shaurasenimata").


title: Yadava

text: Besides chiefdoms and "jagirs", the "peethams" (seats) granted to them by virtue of their religious powers. For instance, there were fourteen seats ("peethams") among the Warangal according to a "sanad" granted in 1425 (Shaka Samvat), by Sree Pratapa Rudra, Maharaja of Warangal, to Sree Kondiah Guru, as the head of the fourteen seats. Subsequently when Bhagyanagar was founded by Sultan Abdulla of Qutub Shahi in AD 1560 the rights of the were acknowledged and recognized, and the name Golkonda was substituted for Manugal. According to the charter awarded by the Sultan Abdullah of Qutb Shahi dynasty in 1071 Hijri, Kondiah built the fort for the sultan by using his charisma in resolving the mystery of the site, and also discovered for him gold coins buried underground. In return, the sultan gave him the Charter conferring upon Kondiah the rights and privileges due to the head of the fourteen seats, and of twelve classes of and two classes of Kondiah, although a follower of, was the head of the "Peethams". Perhaps the at this time were under the influence of although they were incorporated into the category.


title: Work hardening

text: In materials science, work hardening, also known as strain hardening, is the strengthening of a metal or polymer by plastic deformation. Work hardening may be desirable, undesirable, or inconsequential, depending on the context.


title: Work hardening

text: This strengthening occurs because of dislocation movements and dislocation generation within the crystal structure of the material. Many non-brittle metals with a reasonably high melting point as well as several polymers can be strengthened in this fashion. Alloys not amenable to heat treatment, including low-carbon steel, are often work-hardened. Some materials cannot be work-hardened at low temperatures, such as indium, however others can be strengthened only via work hardening, such as pure copper and aluminum.


title: Work hardening

text: An example of undesirable work hardening is during machining when early passes of a cutter inadvertently work-harden the workpiece surface, causing damage to the cutter during the later passes. Certain alloys are more prone to this than others; superalloys such as Inconel require machining strategies that take it into account.


title: Work hardening

text: For metal objects designed to flex, such as springs, specialized alloys are usually employed in order to avoid work hardening (a result of plastic deformation) and metal fatigue, with specific heat treatments required to obtain the necessary characteristics.


title: Work hardening

text: An example of desirable work hardening is that which occurs in metalworking processes that intentionally induce plastic deformation to exact a shape change. These processes are known as cold working or cold forming processes. They are characterized by shaping the workpiece at a temperature below its recrystallization temperature, usually at ambient temperature. Cold forming techniques are usually classified into four major groups: squeezing, bending, drawing, and shearing. Applications include the heading of bolts and cap screws and the finishing of cold rolled steel. In cold forming, metal is formed at high speed and high pressure using tool steel or carbide dies. The cold working of the metal increases the hardness, yield strength, and tensile strength.


title: Work hardening

text: Before work hardening, the lattice of the material exhibits a regular, nearly defect-free pattern (almost no dislocations). The defect-free lattice can be created or restored at any time by annealing. As the material is work hardened it becomes increasingly saturated with new dislocations, and more dislocations are prevented from nucleating (a resistance to dislocation-formation develops). This resistance to dislocation-formation manifests itself as a resistance to plastic deformation; hence, the observed strengthening.


title: Work hardening

text: In metallic crystals, this is a reversible process and is usually carried out on a microscopic scale by defects called dislocations, which are created by fluctuations in local stress fields within the material culminating in a lattice rearrangement as the dislocations propagate through the lattice. At normal temperatures the dislocations are not annihilated by annealing. Instead, the dislocations accumulate, interact with one another, and serve as pinning points or obstacles that significantly impede their motion. This leads to an increase in the yield strength of the material and a subsequent decrease in ductility.


title: Work hardening

text: Such deformation increases the concentration of dislocations which may subsequently form low-angle grain boundaries surrounding sub-grains. Cold working generally results in a higher yield strength as a result of the increased number of dislocations and the Hall–Petch effect of the sub-grains, and a decrease in ductility. The effects of cold working may be reversed by annealing the material at high temperatures where recovery and recrystallization reduce the dislocation density.


title: Work hardening

text: A material's work hardenability can be predicted by analyzing a stress–strain curve, or studied in context by performing hardness tests before and after a process.


title: Work hardening

text: Work hardening is a consequence of plastic deformation, a permanent change in shape. This is distinct from elastic deformation, which is reversible. Most materials do not exhibit only one or the other, but rather a combination of the two. The following discussion mostly applies to metals, especially steels, which are well studied. Work hardening occurs most notably for ductile materials such as metals. Ductility is the ability of a material to undergo plastic deformations before fracture (for example, bending a steel rod until it finally breaks).


title: Work hardening

text: The tensile test is widely used to study deformation mechanisms. This is because under compression, most materials will experience trivial (lattice mismatch) and non-trivial (buckling) events before plastic deformation or fracture occur. Hence the intermediate processes that occur to the material under uniaxial compression before the incidence of plastic deformation make the compressive test fraught with difficulties.


title: Work hardening

text: A material generally deforms elastically under the influence of small forces; the material returns quickly to its original shape when the deforming force is removed. This phenomenon is called "elastic deformation". This behavior in materials is described by Hooke's Law. Materials behave elastically until the deforming force increases beyond the elastic limit, which is also known as the yield stress. At that point, the material is permanently deformed and fails to return to its original shape when the force is removed. This phenomenon is called "plastic deformation". For example, if one stretches a coil spring up to a certain point, it will return to its original shape, but once it is stretched beyond the elastic limit, it will remain deformed and won't return to its original state.


title: Work hardening

text: Elastic deformation stretches the bonds between atoms away from their equilibrium radius of separation, without applying enough energy to break the inter-atomic bonds. Plastic deformation, on the other hand, breaks inter-atomic bonds, and therefore involves the rearrangement of atoms in a solid material.


title: Work hardening

text: In materials science parlance, dislocations are defined as line defects in a material's crystal structure. The bonds surrounding the dislocation are already elastically strained by the defect compared to the bonds between the constituents of the regular crystal lattice. Therefore, these bonds break at relatively lower stresses, leading to plastic deformation.


title: Work hardening

text: The strained bonds around a dislocation are characterized by lattice strain fields. For example, there are compressively strained bonds directly next to an edge dislocation and tensilely strained bonds beyond the end of an edge dislocation. These form compressive strain fields and tensile strain fields, respectively. Strain fields are analogous to electric fields in certain ways. Specifically, the strain fields of dislocations obey similar laws of attraction and repulsion; in order to reduce overall strain, compressive strains are attracted to tensile strains, and vice versa.


title: Work hardening

text: The visible (macroscopic) results of plastic deformation are the result of microscopic dislocation motion. For example, the stretching of a steel rod in a tensile tester is accommodated through dislocation motion on the atomic scale.


title: Work hardening

text: Increase in the number of dislocations is a quantification of work hardening. Plastic deformation occurs as a consequence of work being done on a material; energy is added to the material. In addition, the energy is almost always applied fast enough and in large enough magnitude to not only move existing dislocations, but also to "produce" a great number of new dislocations by jarring or working the material sufficiently enough. New dislocations are generated in proximity to a Frank–Read source.


title: Work hardening

text: Yield strength is increased in a cold-worked material. Using lattice strain fields, it can be shown that an environment filled with dislocations will hinder the movement of any one dislocation. Because dislocation motion is hindered, plastic deformation cannot occur at normal stresses. Upon application of stresses just beyond the yield strength of the non-cold-worked material, a cold-worked material will continue to deform using the only mechanism available: elastic deformation, the regular scheme of stretching or compressing of electrical bonds (without dislocation motion) continues to occur, and the modulus of elasticity is unchanged. Eventually the stress is great enough to overcome the strain-field interactions and plastic deformation resumes.


title: Work hardening

text: However, ductility of a work-hardened material is decreased. Ductility is the extent to which a material can undergo plastic deformation, that is, it is how far a material can be plastically deformed before fracture. A cold-worked material is, in effect, a normal (brittle) material that has already been extended through part of its allowed plastic deformation. If dislocation motion and plastic deformation have been hindered enough by dislocation accumulation, and stretching of electronic bonds and elastic deformation have reached their limit, a third mode of deformation occurs: fracture.


title: Work hardening

text: The strength, formula_1, of dislocation is dependent on the shear modulus, G, the magnitude of the Burgers vector, b, and the dislocation density, formula_2:


title: Work hardening

text: where formula_4 is the intrinsic strength of the material with low dislocation density and formula_5 is a correction factor specific to the material.


title: Work hardening

text: As shown in Figure 1 and the equation above, work hardening has a half root dependency on the number of dislocations. The material exhibits high strength if there are either high levels of dislocations (greater than 10 dislocations per m) or no dislocations. A moderate number of dislocations (between 10 and 10 dislocations per m) typically results in low strength.


title: Work hardening

text: For an extreme example, in a tensile test a bar of steel is strained to just before the length at which it usually fractures. The load is released smoothly and the material relieves some of its strain by decreasing in length. The decrease in length is called the elastic recovery, and the end result is a work-hardened steel bar. The fraction of length recovered (length recovered/original length) is equal to the yield-stress divided by the modulus of elasticity. (Here we discuss true stress in order to account for the drastic decrease in diameter in this tensile test.) The length recovered after removing a load from a material just before it breaks is equal to the length recovered after removing a load just before it enters plastic deformation.


title: Work hardening

text: The work-hardened steel bar has a large enough number of dislocations that the strain field interaction prevents all plastic deformation. Subsequent deformation requires a stress that varies linearly with the strain observed, the slope of the graph of stress vs. strain is the modulus of elasticity, as usual.


title: Work hardening

text: The work-hardened steel bar fractures when the applied stress exceeds the usual fracture stress and the strain exceeds usual fracture strain. This may be considered to be the elastic limit and the yield stress is now equal to the fracture toughness, which is much higher than a non-work-hardened steel yield stress.


title: Work hardening

text: The amount of plastic deformation possible is zero, which is less than the amount of plastic deformation possible for a non-work-hardened material. Thus, the ductility of the cold-worked bar is reduced.


title: Work hardening

text: There are two common mathematical descriptions of the work hardening phenomenon. Hollomon's equation is a power law relationship between the stress and the amount of plastic strain:


title: Work hardening

text: where "σ" is the stress, "K" is the strength index or strength coefficient, "ε" is the plastic strain and "n" is the strain hardening exponent. Ludwik's equation is similar but includes the yield stress:


title: Work hardening

text: If a material has been subjected to prior deformation (at low temperature) then the yield stress will be increased by a factor depending on the amount of prior plastic strain "ε":


title: Work hardening

text: The constant K is structure dependent and is influenced by processing while n is a material property normally lying in the range 0.2–0.5. The strain hardening index can be described by:


title: Work hardening

text: This equation can be evaluated from the slope of a log(σ) – log(ε) plot. Rearranging allows a determination of the rate of strain hardening at a given stress and strain:


title: Work hardening

text: Copper was the first metal in common use for tools and containers since it is one of the few metals available in non-oxidized form, not requiring the smelting of an ore. Copper is easily softened by heating and then cooling (it does not harden by quenching, e.g., quenching in cool water). In this annealed state it may then be hammered, stretched and otherwise formed, progressing toward the desired final shape but becoming harder and less ductile as work progresses. If work continues beyond a certain hardness the metal will tend to fracture when worked and so it may be re-annealed periodically as shaping continues. Annealing is stopped when the workpiece is near its final desired shape, and so the final product will have a desired stiffness and hardness. The technique of "repoussé" exploits these properties of copper, enabling the construction of durable jewelry articles and sculptures (such as the Statue of Liberty).


title: Work hardening

text: Much gold jewelry is produced by casting, with little or no cold working; which, depending on the alloy grade, may leave the metal relatively soft and bendable. However, a Jeweler may intentionally use work hardening to strengthen wearable objects that are exposed to stress, such as rings.


title: Work hardening

text: Devices made from aluminum and its alloys, such as aircraft, must be carefully designed to minimize or evenly distribute flexure, which can lead to work hardening and, in turn, stress cracking, possibly causing catastrophic failure. For this reason modern aluminum aircraft will have an imposed working lifetime (dependent upon the type of loads encountered), after which the aircraft must be retired.


title: Institute of technology

text: An institute of technology (also referred to as: technological university, technical university, university of technology, technological educational institute, technical college, polytechnic university or just polytechnic) is an institution of tertiary education (such as a university or college) that specializes in engineering, technology, applied science, and natural sciences.


title: Institute of technology

text: The institutes of technology and polytechnics have been in existence since at least the 18th century, but became popular after World War II with the expansion of engineering and applied science education, associated with the new needs created by industrialization. The world's first institution of technology, the Berg-Schola (today its legal successor is the University of Miskolc), was founded by the Court Chamber of Vienna in Selmecbánya, Kingdom of Hungary (now Banská Štiavnica, Slovakia), in 1735 in order to train specialists of precious metal and copper mining according to the requirements of the industrial revolution in Hungary. The oldest German Institute of Technology is the Braunschweig University of Technology, founded in 1745 as "Collegium Carolinum". Another exception is the "École Polytechnique", which has educated French "élites" since its foundation in 1794. In some cases, polytechnics or institutes of technology are engineering schools or technical colleges.


title: Institute of technology

text: In several countries, like Germany, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Turkey and Taiwan, institutes of technology are institutions of higher education and have been accredited to award academic degrees and doctorates. Famous examples are the Istanbul Technical University, ETH Zurich, Delft University of Technology, RWTH Aachen and National Taiwan University of Science and Technology all considered universities.


title: Institute of technology

text: In countries like Iran, Finland, Malaysia, Portugal, Singapore or the United Kingdom, there is often a significant and confused distinction between polytechnics and universities. In the UK, a binary system of higher education emerged consisting of universities (research orientation) and polytechnics (engineering and applied science and professional practice orientation). Polytechnics offered university equivalent degrees mainly in STEM subjects from bachelor's, master's and PhD that were validated and governed at the national level by the independent UK Council for National Academic Awards. In 1992, UK polytechnics were designated as universities which meant they could award their own degrees. The CNAA was disbanded. The UK's first polytechnic, the Royal Polytechnic Institution (now the University of Westminster), was founded in 1838 in Regent Street, London. In Ireland the term "institute of technology" is the more favored synonym of a "regional technical college" though the latter is the legally correct term; however, Dublin Institute of Technology is a university in all but name as it can confer degrees in accordance with law, Cork Institute of Technology and other Institutes of Technology have delegated authority from HETAC to make awards to and including master's degree level—Level 9 of the Republic of Ireland's National Framework for Qualifications (NFQ)—for all areas of study and Doctorate level in a number of others.


title: Institute of technology

text: In a number of countries, although being today generally considered similar institutions of higher learning across many countries, polytechnics and institutes of technology used to have a quite different statute among each other, its teaching competences and organizational history. In many cases, "polytechnic" were elite technological universities concentrating on applied science and engineering and may also be a former designation for a vocational institution, before it has been granted the exclusive right to award academic degrees and can be truly called an "institute of technology". A number of polytechnics providing higher education is simply a result of a formal upgrading from their original and historical role as intermediate technical education schools. In some situations, former polytechnics or other non-university institutions have emerged solely through an administrative change of statutes, which often included a name change with the introduction of new designations like "institute of technology", "polytechnic university", "university of applied sciences" or "university of technology" for marketing purposes. Such emergence of so many upgraded polytechnics, former vocational education and technical schools converted into more university-like institutions has caused concern where the lack of specialized intermediate technical professionals lead to industrial skill shortages in some fields, being also associated to an increase of the graduate unemployment rate. This is mostly the case in those countries, where the education system is not controlled by the state and any institution can grant degrees. Evidence have also shown a decline in the general quality of teaching and graduate's preparation for the workplace, due to the fast-paced conversion of that technical institutions to more advanced higher level institutions. Mentz, Kotze and Van der Merwe argue that all the tools are in place to promote the debate on the place of technology in higher education in general and in universities of technology specifically and they posit several questions for the debate.


title: Institute of technology

text: In the so-called "Latin American docta" the main higher institution advocates to the study of technology is the National Technological University which has brand ramifications through all the country geographic space in the way of "Regional Faculties". The Buenos Aires Institute of Technology (ITBA) is other important recognized institute of technology with renowned and prestige in the country.


title: Institute of technology

text: During the 1970s to early 1990s, the term was used to describe state owned and funded technical schools that offered both vocational and higher education. They were part of the College of Advanced Education system. In the 1990s most of these merged with existing universities or formed new ones of their own. These new universities often took the title University of Technology, for marketing rather than legal purposes. AVCC report The most prominent such university in each state founded the Australian Technology Network a few years later.


title: Institute of technology

text: Since the mid-1990s, the term has been applied to some technically minded technical and further education (TAFE) institutes. A recent example is the Melbourne Polytechnic rebranding and repositioning in 2014 from Northern Melbourne Institute of TAFE. These primarily offer vocational education, although some like Melbourne Polytechnic are expanding into higher education offering vocationally oriented applied bachelor's degrees. This usage of the term is most prevalent historically in NSW and the ACT. The new terminology is apt given that this category of institution are becoming very much like the institutes of the 1970s–1990s period.


title: Institute of technology

text: Several universities have faculties of technology that are entitled to confer habilitation and doctoral degrees and which focus on research.


title: Institute of technology

text: Fachhochschule is a German type of tertiary education institution and adopted later in Austria and Switzerland. They do not focus exclusively on technology, but may also offer courses in social science, medicine, business and design. They grant bachelor's degrees and master's degrees and focus more on teaching than research and more on specific professions than on science.


title: Institute of technology

text: There are some general, technological and specialized universities in Bangladesh offer engineering programs:


title: Institute of technology

text: There are numerous private and other universities as well as science and technology universities providing engineering education. Most prominent are:


title: Institute of technology

text: There are numerous government-funded as well as private polytechnic institutes, engineering colleges and science and technology institutes providing engineering education. Most prominent are:


title: Institute of technology

text: In Belgium and in the Netherlands, "Hogescholen" or "Hautes écoles" (also translated into "colleges", "university colleges" or "universities of applied science") are applied institutes of higher education that do not award doctorates and do not focus on research but some research does happen. They are generally limited to Bachelor-level education, with degrees called professional bachelors, and only minor Master's programmes. The hogeschool thus has many similarities to the "Fachhochschule" in the German language areas and to the "ammattikorkeakoulu" in Finland. A list of all "hogescholen" in the Netherlands, including some which might be called polytechnics, can be found at the end of this list.


title: Institute of technology

text: In Cambodia, there are institutes of technology/polytechnic institutes and Universities that offer instruction in a variety of programs that can lead to: certificates, diplomas and degrees. Institutes of technology/polytechnic institutes and universities tend to be independent institutions.


title: Institute of technology

text: In Canada, there are affiliate schools, colleges, institutes of technology / polytechnic institutes and universities that offer instruction in a variety of programs that can lead to engineering and applied science degrees, apprenticeship and trade programs, certificates and diplomas. Affiliate schools are polytechnic divisions belonging to a national university and offer select technical and engineering programs. Colleges, institutes of technology / polytechnic institutes and universities tend to be independent institutions.


title: Institute of technology

text: Credentials are typically conferred at the undergraduate level; however, university-affiliated schools like the École de technologie supérieure and the École Polytechnique de Montréal (both of which are located in Quebec), also offer graduate and postgraduate programs, in accordance with provincial higher education guidelines. Canadian higher education institutions, at all levels, undertake directed and applied research with financing allocated through public funding, private equity or industry sources.


title: Institute of technology

text: Some of Canada's most esteemed colleges and polytechnic institutions also partake in collaborative institute-industry projects, leading to technology commercialization, made possible through the scope of Polytechnics Canada, a national alliance of eleven leading research-intensive colleges and institutes of technology.


title: Institute of technology

text: China's modern higher education began in 1895 with the Imperial Tientsin University which was a polytechnic plus a law department. Liberal arts were not offered until three years later at Capital University. To this day, about half of China's elite universities remain essentially polytechnical. Harbin Institute of Technology is among the best engineering school in China and the world.


title: Institute of technology

text: In Croatia there are many polytechnic institutes and colleges that offer a polytechnic education. The law about polytechnic education in Croatia was passed in 1997.


title: Institute of technology

text: EPN is known for research and education in the applied science, astronomy, atmospheric physics, engineering and physical sciences. The Geophysics Institute monitors the country's seismic, tectonic and volcanic activity in the continental territory and in the Galápagos Islands.


title: Institute of technology

text: One of the oldest observatories in South America is the Quito Astronomical Observatory. It was founded in 1873 and is located 12 minutes south of the Equator in Quito, Ecuador. The Quito Astronomical Observatory is the National Observatory of Ecuador and is located in the Historic Center of Quito and is managed by the National Polytechnic School.


title: Institute of technology

text: The Nuclear Science Department at EPN is the only one in Ecuador and has the large infrastructure, related to irradiation facilities like cobalt-60 source and electron beam processing.


title: Institute of technology

text: Universities of technology are categorised as universities, are allowed to grant B.Sc. (Tech.), Diplomi-insinööri M.Sc. (Tech.), Lic.Sc. (Tech.), Ph.D. and D.Sc. (Tech.) degrees and roughly correspond to Instituts de technologie of French-speaking areas and Technische Universität of Germany in prestige. In addition to universities of technology, some universities, e.g. University of Oulu and Åbo Akademi University, are allowed to grant the B.Sc. (tech.), M.Sc. (tech.) and D.Sc. (Tech.) degrees.


title: Institute of technology

text: Polytechnic schools are distinct from academic universities in Finland. "Ammattikorkeakoulu" is the common term in Finland, as is the Swedish alternative ""yrkeshögskola"" – their focus is on studies leading to a degree (for instance "insinööri", engineer; in international use, Bachelor of Engineering) in kind different from but in level comparable to an academic bachelor's degree awarded by a university. Since 2006 the polytechnics have offered studies leading to master's degrees (Master of Engineering). After January 1, 2006, some Finnish ammattikorkeakoulus switched the English term "polytechnic" to the term "university of applied sciences" in the English translations of their legal names. The ammattikorkeakoulu has many similarities to the "hogeschool" in Belgium and in the Netherlands and to the "Fachhochschule" in the German language areas.


title: Institute of technology

text: Collegiate universities grouping several engineering schools or multi-site clusters of French grandes écoles provide sciences and technology curricula as autonomous higher education engineering institutes. They include:


title: Institute of technology

text: The universities of technology () are public institutions awarding degrees and diplomas that are accredited by the French Ministry of Higher Education and Research. Although called "universities", the universities of technology are in fact non-university institutes ("écoles extérieures aux universités"), as defined by Chapter I, Section II (Articles 34 through 36) of French law 84-52 of 26 January 1984 regarding higher education (the "loi Savary").


title: Institute of technology

text: In addition, France's education system includes many institutes of technology, embedded within most French universities. They are referred-to as "institut universitaire de technologie" (IUT). Instituts universitaires de technologie provide undergraduate technology curricula. 'Polytech institutes', embedded as a part of eleven French universities provide both undergraduate and graduate engineering curricula.


title: Institute of technology

text: In the French-speaking part of Switzerland exists also the term "haute école specialisée" for a type of institution called "Fachhochschule" in the German-speaking part of the country. (see below).


title: Institute of technology

text: Higher education systems, that are influenced by the French education system set at the end of the 18th century, use a terminology derived by reference to the French "École polytechnique". Such terms include "Écoles Polytechniques" (Algeria, Belgium, Canada, France, Switzerland, Tunisia), Escola Politécnica (Brasil, Spain), Polytechnicum (Eastern Europe).


title: Institute of technology

text: In French language, higher education refers to "écoles polytechniques", providing science and engineering curricula:


title: Institute of technology

text: "Fachhochschulen" were first founded in the early 1970s. They do not focus exclusively on technology, but may also offer courses in social science, medicine, business and design. They grant bachelor's degrees and master's degrees and focus more on teaching than research and more on specific professions than on science.


title: Institute of technology

text: "Technische Universität" (abbreviation: "TU") is the common term for universities of technology or technical university. These institutions can grant habilitation and doctoral degrees and focus on research.


title: Institute of technology

text: The nine largest and most renowned "Technische Universitäten" in Germany have formed TU9 German Institutes of Technology as community of interests. Technische Universitäten normally have faculties or departements of natural sciences and often of economics but can also have units of cultural and social sciences and arts. RWTH Aachen, TU Dresden and TU München also have a faculty of medicine associated with university hospitals (Klinikum Aachen, University Hospital Dresden, Rechts der Isar Hospital).


title: Institute of technology

text: There are 17 universities of technology in Germany with about 290,000 students enrolled. The four states of Bremen, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Saxony-Anhalt and Schleswig-Holstein are not operating a "Technische Universität". Saxony and Lower Saxony have the highest counts of "TUs", while in Saxony three out of four universities are universities of technology.


title: Institute of technology

text: Greece has Technical Universities (also known as Polytechnic Universities) with 5 years of study legally equivalent to Bachelor's and master's degree 300 ECTS, ISCED 7 and has the full professional rights of the Engineer. and had Technological Educational Institutes (TEIs) (1982–2019) also known as Higher Educational Institute of Technology, Technological Institute, Institute of Technology (provides at least 4-year undergraduate degree qualification πτυχίο, Latinised version: Ptychion, in line with the Bologna Process legally equivalent to Bachelor's honours degree 240 ECTS, ISCED 6. Previoulsy it was three and a half years studies from 1983 to 1995, 210 ECTS). All the Technical Universities and Technological Educational Institutes are Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) with university title (UT) and degree awarding powers (DAPs). TEIs existed from 1983 to 2019; they were reformed between 2013 and 2019 and their departments incorporated into existing higher education institutions (HEIs).


title: Institute of technology

text: The two Polytechnic Universities (Technical Universities) in Greece (Greek: Πολυτεχνείο) are the National Technical University of Athens and the Technical University of Crete. However, many other universities have a faculty of engineering that provides an equivalent diploma of engineerings with an integrated master and the full professional rights as well.


title: Institute of technology

text: Many TEIs that got dismantled created engineering faculty with 5 years of study and 300 ECTS, ISCED 6. But those faculty are not under the general term of Polytechnics nor they have an integrated master's degree yet waiting evaluation to be characterised as equivalent. These have been named School of Engineers for the time being and not Technical Universities or Polytechnic.


title: Institute of technology

text: In Greece, all Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) are public university owned and government-funded, with free education undergraduate programmes that can be attended without any payment of tuition fee. About 1 out of 4 (one-fourth of) HEIs postgraduate programmes are offered free without any payment of tuition fee, especially about a 30% percentage of students can be entitled without tuition fee to attend all the HEIs statutory tuition fee postgraduate programmes after they be assessed on an individual basis of determined criteria as set out in the Ministry of Education.


title: Institute of technology

text: The first polytechnic in Hong Kong is The Hong Kong Polytechnic, established in 1972 through upgrading the Hong Kong Technical College (Government Trade School before 1947). The second polytechnic, the City Polytechnic of Hong Kong, was founded in 1984. These polytechnics awards diplomas, higher diplomas, as well as academic degrees. Like the United Kingdom, the two polytechnics were granted university status in 1994 and renamed The Hong Kong Polytechnic University and the City University of Hong Kong respectively. The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, a university with a focus in applied science, engineering and business, was founded in 1991.


title: Institute of technology

text: The world's first Institute of Technology the Berg-Schola (Bergschule) established in Selmecbánya, Kingdom of Hungary, by the Court Chamber of Vienna in 1735 providing Further education to train specialists of precious metal and copper mining. In 1762 the institute ranked up to be Academia providing Higher Education courses. After the Treaty of Trianon the institute had to be moved to Sopron.


title: Institute of technology

text: There are Indian Institutes of Technology, Indian Institutes of Information Technology, and National Institutes of Technology in India which are autonomous public institutions. These institutions are Institutes of National Importance, and hence each of the institutions are autonomous. All Indian Institutes of Technology, Indian Institutes of Information Technology, and National Institutes of Technology have their own councils which are headed by President of India. The activities of these institutions are generally governed by the institutes alone, but sometimes they are bound to follow the directives of Ministry of Education (India) and are answerable to Ministry of Education (India) and President of India. Some departments of some of these institutions are bound to follow certain guidelines of National Board of Accreditation (NBA) if they receive the accreditation from NBA. However, unlike other institutions, it is not mandatory for these institutes to follow guidelines of All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) and NBA completely.


title: Institute of technology

text: The authority controlling technical education, other than the Institutes of National Importance, in India is All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) and National Board of Accreditation (NBA).


title: Institute of technology

text: There are four public institutes of technology in Indonesia that are owned by the government of Indonesia. Other than that, there are hundreds of other institutes that are owned by private or other institutions.


title: Institute of technology

text: Public state-owned polytechnics also available and provides vocational education offers either three-year Diploma degrees, which is similar to an associate degree or four-year bachelor's degree in applied sciences (). The more advanced vocational Master's are also available and doctoral degrees are still in progress.


title: Institute of technology

text: Some notable polytechnics in Indonesia includes State Polytechnic of Jakarta, State Polytechnic of Bandung, State Polytechnic of Malang, State Electronics Polytechnic of Surabaya, and State Naval and Shipbuilding Polytechnic of Surabaya. These polytechnics are known to be departed from Indonesian prestigious universities and institute of technologies, e.g. the State Polytechnic of Jakarta was departed from the University of Indonesia while both Surabaya Polytechnics were departed from Sepuluh Nopember Institute of Technology.


title: Institute of technology

text: An "Institute of Technology" was formerly referred to as Regional Technical College (RTCs) system. The abbreviation IT is now widely used to refer to an Institute of Technology. These institutions offer sub-degree, degree and masters level studies. Unlike the Irish university system an Institute of Technology also offers sub-degree programmes such as 2-year Higher Certificate programme in various academic fields of study. Some institutions have "delegated authority" that allows them to make doctoral awards in their own name, after authorisation by the Quality and Qualifications Ireland.


title: Institute of technology

text: Dublin Institute of Technology developed separately from the Regional Technical College system and after several decades of association with the University of Dublin it acquired the authority to confer its own degrees before becoming a member of the T.U. Dublin.


title: Institute of technology

text: The Technological Higher Education Association is the representative body for the various Institutes of Technology in Ireland.


title: Institute of technology

text: The approval of Ireland's first Technological University, TU Dublin was announced in July 2018. It is the result of a merger of three of the ITs in the County Dublin area.


title: Institute of technology

text: In Italy, the term "technical institute" generally refers to a secondary school which offers a five-year course granting the access to the university system.


title: Institute of technology

text: In higher education, "Politecnico" refers to a technical university awarding bachelor, master and PhD degrees in engineering. Historically there were two "Politecnici", one in each of the two largest industrial cities of the north:


title: Institute of technology

text: In 2003, the Ministry of Education, Universities and Research (Italy) and the Ministry of Economy and Finance (Italy) jointly established the Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia (Italian Institute of Technology), headquartered in Genoa with 10 laboratories around Italy, which however focuses on research, not entirely in the fields of engineering and does not offer undergraduate degrees.


title: Institute of technology

text: In Japan, an is a type of university that specializes in the sciences. See also the Imperial College of Engineering, which was the forerunner of the University of Tokyo's engineering faculty.


title: Institute of technology

text: In Kenya, Technical Universities are special Universities that focus on technical and engineering courses and offer certifications in the same from Artisan, Craft, Diploma, Higher Diploma, Degree, Masters and Doctorate levels. They are former national polytechnics and are the only institutions of learning that offer the complete spectrum of tertiary education programs.


title: Institute of technology

text: The first polytechnic in Macau is the Polytechnic Institute of the University of East Asia which was established in 1981, as an institute of a private university. In 1991, following the splitting of the University of East Asia into three (University of Macau, Macao Polytechnic Institute, Asia International Open University), a public and independent Polytechnic Institute, Macao Polytechnic Institute, was officially established. The first private technology university Macau University of Science and Technology is established in 2000. Macao Polytechnic Institute has renamed Macao Polytechnic University in 2022.


title: Institute of technology

text: Polytechnics in Malaysia has been operated for almost 53 years. The institutions provide courses for bachelor's degree & Bachelor of Science (BSc) (offer at Premier Polytechnics for September 2013 & 2014 intake), Advanced Diploma, Diploma and Special Skills Certificate. It was established by the Ministry of Education with the help of UNESCO in 1969. The amount of RM24.5 million is used to fund the pioneer of Politeknik Ungku Omar located in Ipoh, Perak from the United Nations Development Program (UNDP).


title: Institute of technology

text: There are four technical universities in Malaysia and all are belongs to Malaysian Technical University Network:


title: Institute of technology

text: The only technical university in Mauritius is the University of Technology, Mauritius with its main campus situated in La Tour Koenig, Pointe aux Sables. It has a specialized mission with a technology focus. It applies traditional and beyond traditional approaches to teaching, training, research and consultancy. The university has been founded with the aim to play a key role in the economic and social development of Mauritius through the development of programmes of direct relevance to the country's needs, for example in areas like technology, sustainable development science and public sector policy and management.


title: Institute of technology

text: In Mexico there are different Institutes and Colleges of Technology. Most of them are public institutions.


title: Institute of technology

text: The National Technological Institute of Mexico (in Spanish: , TecNM) is a Mexican public university system created on 23 July 2014 by presidential decree with the purpose to unify 263 public institutes of technology that had been created since 1948 and are found all around Mexico.


title: Institute of technology

text: Another important institute of technology in Mexico is the National Polytechnic Institute ("), which is located in the northern region of Mexico City.


title: Institute of technology

text: New Zealand polytechnics are established under the Education Act 1989 as amended and are typically considered state-owned tertiary institutions along with universities, colleges of education and wānanga; there is today often much crossover in courses and qualifications offered between all these types of Tertiary Education Institutions. Some have officially taken the title 'institute of technology' which is a term recognized in government strategies equal to that of the term 'polytechnic'. One has opted for the name 'Universal College of Learning' (UCOL) and another 'Unitec New Zealand'. These are legal names but not recognized terms like 'polytechnic' or 'institute of technology'. Many if not all now grant at least bachelor-level degrees. Some colleges of education or institutes of technology are privately owned, however, the qualification levels vary widely.


title: Institute of technology

text: Since the 1990s, there has been consolidation in New Zealand's state-owned tertiary education system. In the polytechnic sector: Wellington Polytechnic amalgamated with Massey University. The Central Institute of Technology explored a merger with the Waikato Institute of Technology, which was abandoned, but later, after financial concerns, controversially amalgamated with Hutt Valley Polytechnic, which in turn became Wellington Institute of Technology. Some smaller polytechnics in the North Island, such as Waiarapa Polytechnic, amalgamated with UCOL. (The only other amalgamations have been in the colleges of education.)


title: Institute of technology

text: The Auckland University of Technology is the only polytechnic to have been elevated to university status; while Unitec has had repeated attempts blocked by government policy and consequent decisions; Unitec has not been able to convince the courts to overturn these decisions.


title: Institute of technology

text: In mid-February 2019, the Minister of Education Minister Chris Hipkins proposed merging the country's sixteen polytechnics into a "NZ Institute of Skills and Technology" in response to deficits and a decline in domestic enrollments. The proposed merger will be subject to a six-week consultation period until 27 March.


title: Institute of technology

text: Virtually, every state in Nigeria has a polytechnic university operated by either the federal or state government. In Rivers State for example, there are two state-owned polytechnic universities; Kenule Beeson Saro-Wiwa Polytechnic, Bori City and the Rivers State College of Arts and Science, Port Harcourt. The former was established on 13 May 1988 while the latter–though founded in 1984–was approved by the NBTE in 2006. The first private polytechnic university in the state is the Eastern Polytechnic, established in 2008.


title: Institute of technology

text: The polytechnic institutes in Pakistan offer Diploma in Engineering spanning three years in different engineering branches. This diploma is known as Diploma of Associate Engineering (DAE). Students are admitted to the diploma program based on their results in the 10th grade standardized exams. The main purpose of the diploma offered in polytechnic institutes is to train people in various trades.


title: Institute of technology

text: After successfully completion of diploma at a polytechnic, students can either get employment or enroll in Bachelor of Technology (B.Tech) and Bachelor of Engineering (BE) degree programs.


title: Institute of technology

text: Universities of Engineering & Technology in Pakistan offer undergraduate (BE/BS/BSc Engineering) and postgraduate (ME/MS/MSc Engineering and PhD) degree programs in engineering. BE/BS/BSc Engineering is a professional degree in Pakistan. It is a four-year full-time program after HSSC (higher secondary school certificate).


title: Institute of technology

text: University College of Applied Sciences University College of Applied Sciences (UCAS) is a technical college in Gaza founded in 1998. The College offers undergraduate degrees in a number of unique specializations such as education technology, technological management and planning, and geographic information systems


title: Institute of technology

text: Politechnika (translated as a "technical university" or "university of technology") is the designation of a technical university in Poland. Here are some of the larger polytechnics in Poland:


title: Institute of technology

text: Till recently, there was a Technical University of Lisbon (UTL). It included several of the most prestigious schools, including, an engineering school (Instituto Superior Tecnico) and one of the most ancient business schools in the world (ISEG Lisbon). But UTL merged with the University of Lisbon. In this field, here are also a number of non-university higher educational institutions which are called polytechnic institutes since 1970s. Some of these institutions existed since the 19th century with different designations (industrial and commercial institutes, agricultural managers, elementary teachers and nurses schools, etc.). In theory, the polytechnics higher education system is aimed to provide a more practical training and be profession-oriented, while the university higher education system is aimed to have a stronger theoretical basis and be highly research-oriented. The polytechnics are also oriented to provide shorter length studies aimed to respond to local needs. The Portuguese polytechnics can then be compared to the US community colleges.


title: Institute of technology

text: Since the implementation of Bologna Process in Portugal in 2007, the polytechnics offer the 1st cycle (licentiate degree) and 2nd cycle (master's degree) of higher studies. Until 1998, the polytechnics only awarded bachelor () degrees (three-year short-cycle degrees) and were not authorized to award higher degrees. They however granted post-bachelor diplomas in specialized higher studies (DESE, ), that could be obtained after the conclusion of a two-year second cycle of studies and were academical equivalent to the university's licentiate degrees ("). After 1998, they started to be allowed to confer their own licentiate degrees, which replaced the DESE diplomas.


title: Institute of technology

text: The Polytechnics in Singapore do not offer bachelors, masters or PhD degrees. However, the Polytechnics in Singapore offers three-year diploma courses in fields such as information technology, engineering subjects and other vocational fields, like psychology and nursing. The Polytechnic diploma certification in Singapore is equivalent to a junior college in the UK or a community college in the United States. There are 5 polytechnics in Singapore. They are namely: Singapore Polytechnic, Ngee Ann Polytechnic, Temasek Polytechnic, Nanyang Polytechnic and Republic Polytechnic.


title: Institute of technology

text: A Polytechnic diploma in Singapore is known to be parallel and sometimes equivalent to the first years at a bachelor's degree-granting institution, thus, Polytechnic graduates in Singapore have the privilege of being granted transfer credits or module exemptions when they apply to local and overseas universities, depending on the university's policies on transfer credits.


title: Institute of technology

text: The only university in Singapore with the term "institute of technology", most notably the Singapore Institute of Technology were developed in 2009 as an option for Polytechnic Diploma graduates who desire to pursue a bachelor's degree. Other technological university in Singapore includes the Nanyang Technological University (1981) and the Singapore University of Technology and Design (2009).


title: Institute of technology

text: The world's first institution of technology or technical university with tertiary technical education is the Banská Akadémia in Banská Štiavnica, Slovakia, founded in 1735, Academy since December 13, 1762 established by queen Maria Theresa in order to train specialists of silver and gold mining and metallurgy in neighbourhood. Teaching started in 1764. Later the department of Mathematics, Mechanics and Hydraulics and department of Forestry were settled. University buildings are still at their place today and are used for teaching. University has launched the first book of electrotechnics in the world.


title: Institute of technology

text: In South Africa, there was a division has existed in South Africa between universities and technikons (polytechnics), as well between institutions servicing particular racial and language groupings.


title: Institute of technology

text: By the mid-2000s, former technikons have either been merged with traditional universities to form comprehensive universities or have become universities of technology; however, the universities of technology have not to date acquired all of the traditional rights and privileges of a university (such as the ability to confer a wide range of degrees).


title: Institute of technology

text: The question of Taiwanese college education is, the students either from high school (the aims is to go to normal college) or tech high school(the aims is to go to work or technology university), almost all of the students take the same test(the score can go to two kinds of school), and the school would not care what kind of high school you are from.


title: Institute of technology

text: Most of Thailand's institutes of technology were developed from technical colleges, in the past could not grant bachelor's degrees; today, however, they are university level institutions, some of which can grant degrees to the doctoral level. Examples are Pathumwan Institute of Technology (developed from Pathumwan Technical School), King Mongkut's Institute of Technology Ladkrabang (Nondhaburi Telecommunications Training Centre) and King Mongkut's Institute of Technology North Bangkok (Thai-German Technical School).


title: Institute of technology

text: There are two former institutes of technology, which already changed their name to "University of Technology": Rajamangala University of Technology (formerly Institute of Technology and Vocational Education) and King Mongkut's University of Technology Thonburi (Thonburi Technology Institute).


title: Institute of technology

text: Institutes of technology with different origins are Asian Institute of Technology, which developed from SEATO Graduate School of Engineering and Sirindhorn International Institute of Technology, an engineering school of Thammasat University. Suranaree University of Technology is the only government-owned technological university in Thailand that was established (1989) as such; while Mahanakorn University of Technology is the most well known private technological institute. Technology/Technical colleges in Thailand is associated with bitter rivalries which erupts into frequent off-campus brawls and assassinations of students in public locations that has been going on for nearly a decade, with innocent bystanders also commonly among the injured and the military under martial law still unable to stop them from occurring.


title: Institute of technology

text: In Turkey and the Ottoman Empire, the oldest technical university is Istanbul Technical University. Its graduates contributed to a wide variety of activities in scientific research and development. In the 1950s, two technical universities were opened in Ankara and Trabzon. In recent years, Yıldız University is reorganized as Yıldız Technical University and two institutes of technology were founded in Kocaeli and Izmir. In 2010, another technical university named Bursa Technical University was founded in Bursa. Moreover, a sixth technical university is about to be opened in Konya named Konya Technical University.


title: Institute of technology

text: Polytechnics were tertiary education teaching institutions in England, Wales and Northern Ireland. The comparable institutions in Scotland were collectively referred to as Central Institutions.


title: Institute of technology

text: From 1965 to 1992, UK polytechnics operated under the binary system of education along with universities. Polytechnics offered diplomas and degrees (bachelor's, master's, PhD) validated at the national level by the Council for National Academic Awards (CNAA). Initially they excelled in engineering and applied science degree courses and other STEM subjects similar to technological universities in the US and continental Europe. Polytechnics were associated with innovations including women's studies, the academic study of communications and media, sandwich degrees and the rise of management and business studies.


title: Institute of technology

text: Britain's first polytechnic, the Royal Polytechnic Institution later known as the Polytechnic of Central London (now the University of Westminster) was established in 1838 at Regent Street in London and its goal was to educate and popularize engineering and scientific knowledge and inventions in Victorian Britain "at little expense". The London Polytechnic led a mass movement to create numerous polytechnic institutes across the UK in the late 19th century. Most polytechnic institutes were established at the centre of major metropolitan cities and their focus was on engineering, applied science and technology education.


title: Institute of technology

text: The designation "institute of technology" was occasionally used by polytechnics (Bolton), Central Institutions (Dundee, Robert Gordon's) and postgraduate universities, (Cranfield and Wessex), most of which later adopted the designation university and there were two "institutes of science and technology": UMIST and UWIST (part of the University of Wales). Loughborough University was called Loughborough University of Technology from 1966 to 1996, the only institution in the UK to have had such a designation.


title: Institute of technology

text: Polytechnics were granted university status under the Further and Higher Education Act 1992. This meant that polytechnics could confer degrees without the oversight of the national CNAA organization. These institutions are sometimes referred to as post-1992 universities.


title: Institute of technology

text: In 1956, some colleges of technology received the designation college of advanced technology. They became universities in 1966 meaning they could award their own degrees.


title: Institute of technology

text: Institutions called "technical institutes" or "technical schools" that were formed in the early 20th century provided further education between high school and university or polytechnic. Most technical institutes have been merged into regional colleges and some have been designated university colleges if they are associated with a local university.


title: Institute of technology

text: In 2016 the UK government announced plans to establish new "Institutes of Technology" in England as part of its reforms to post-16 skills provision "to provide technical education in STEM subjects at levels 3, 4 and 5. Each IoT is likely to build on infrastructure that already exists but will have its own independent identity, governance arrangements which directly involve employers and national branding". The first wave of 12 institutes was announced in 2019. Bidding for a second wave started in 2020.


title: Institute of technology

text: Polytechnic institutes in the USA are elite technological universities, many dating back to the mid-19th century. A handful of American universities include the phrases "Institute of Technology", "Polytechnic Institute", "Polytechnic University" or similar phrasing in their names; these are generally research-intensive universities with a focus on engineering, science and technology. The earliest of these institutions include: Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (RPI, 1824), Rochester Institute of Technology (RIT, 1829), Brooklyn Collegiate and Polytechnic Institute (1854), Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT, 1861), Worcester Polytechnic Institute (1865), Stevens Institute of Technology (1870), Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (VPI or VT, 1872), Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology (RHIT, 1874), Case Institute of Technology (1881), New Jersey Institute of Technology (NJIT, 1881), Georgia Institute of Technology (1885), California Institute of Technology (Caltech, 1891), Carnegie Institute of Technology (1900) and Industry (1891), Cal Poly San Luis Obispo (1901), and Cal Poly Pomona (1938). Conversely, schools dubbed "technical colleges" or "technical institutes" generally provide post-secondary training in technical and mechanical fields, focusing on training vocational skills primarily at a community college level, parallel and sometimes equivalent to the first two years at a bachelor's degree-granting institution.


title: Institute of technology

text: Institutes of technology in Venezuela were developed in the 1950s as an option for post-secondary education in technical and scientific courses, after the "polytechnic" French concepts. At that time, technical education was considered essential for the development of a sound middle class economy.


title: Institute of technology

text: Nowadays, most of the "Institutos de Tecnología" are privately run businesses, with varying degrees of quality.


title: Institute of technology

text: Most of these institutes award diplomas after three or three and a half years of education. The institute of technology implementation (IUT, from ) began with the creation of the first IUT at Caracas, the capital city of Venezuela, called IUT. Dr. Federico Rivero Palacio adopted the French "Institut Universitaire de Technologie"s system, using French personnel and study system based on three-year periods, with research and engineering facilities at the same level as the main national universities to obtain French equivalent degrees. This IUT is the first and only one in Venezuela having French equivalent degrees accepted, implementing this system and observing the high-level degrees some other IUTs were created in


title: Institute of technology

text: Venezuela, regardless of this the term IUT was not used appropriately resulting in some institutions with mediocre quality and no equivalent degree in France. Later, some private institutions sprang up using IUT in their names, but they are not regulated by the original French system and award lower quality degrees.


title: Joseline's Cabaret

text: Joseline's Cabaret is a reality television series, starring Joseline Hernandez. It premiered on January 19, 2020 on Zeus Network in partnership with The Shade Room.


title: Joseline's Cabaret

text: On June 1, 2017, Joseline Hernandez quit "" after six seasons, amid tensions with creator Mona Scott-Young and the show's producers. On January 8, 2018, it was reported that Hernandez had signed a deal with We TV to star in her own docu-series, produced by Carlos King. The project, then titled "Joseline Takes Miami", initially began filming in July 2018. On March 4, 2019, it was reported that production on "Joseline Takes Miami" had been stalled and that the network was requesting reshoots.


title: Joseline's Cabaret

text: On October 11, 2019, it was announced that Joseline had signed a deal with Zeus Network, a subscription-based influencer-driven streaming service, to star and produce her own projects. On October 22, 2019, Zeus released a teaser of "Joseline's Cabaret". On December 18, 2019, Zeus released an official trailer. On January 10, 2020, it was announced that "Joseline's Cabaret: Miami", the first incarnation of a planned reality television franchise, would premiere January 19, 2020. "Joseline's Cabaret: Miami" would be one of three shows featuring Joseline to air simultaneously throughout January and February 2020, she would also appear VH1's "" and We TV's "Marriage Boot Camp: Hip Hop Edition".


title: Joseline's Cabaret

text: On February 8, 2020, Joseline announced that season two of "Joseline's Cabaret" would be filmed in Atlanta. On September 21, 2020, Zeus confirmed that they had renewed the series. The show's second incarnation, "Joseline's Cabaret: Atlanta", premiered on April 18, 2021. On December 10, 2020, We TV announced they are acquired the television rights to both "Joseline's Cabaret: Miami" and "The Real Blac Chyna", which aired from April 15, 2021, albeit in censored form.


title: Joseline's Cabaret

text: On March 2, 2021, Joseline confirmed that the third season will be filmed in Las Vegas. On December 20, 2021, Zeus announced that the show's third incarnation, "Joseline's Cabaret: Las Vegas", which premiered on January 16, 2022.


title: Joseline's Cabaret

text: "Joseline's Cabaret: Miami" chronicles the everyday life of Joseline Hernandez as she struggles to launch a cabaret show in Miami, Florida. The show is set in G5ive Miami, a strip club where Joseline worked a decade ago, and provides an inside look into the every day lives of strippers and sex workers, reminiscent of the 1998 film "The Players Club". The dancers featured in the cabaret appear as supporting cast members in confessional interview segments throughout the series. They include Daisy (Seanyce Bishop), Joseline's friend and self-professed "bottom bitch", as well as dancers Ms. JaaDreams (Coriana Singleton), Lucky Hustla (Nieja Howell), Chazzity Leslie and Sapphire Eden (Tierra Williams). The show also features interludes with original music by Joseline and her fiancé Balistic Beats (Robin Ingouma), who is credited as the show's music producer.


title: Joseline's Cabaret

text: "Joseline's Cabaret: Atlanta" is set in a mansion in Atlanta, Georgia, and chronicles Joseline's second attempt to launch a cabaret show. The show introduces a reality competition element, with ten girls living together in the mansion with Joseline and Balistic; the top four dancers are cast in the cabaret performance, with an overall winner given a cash prize of $10,000 and the opportunity to perform the cabaret in Vegas. Lucky and Sapphire return, along with eight new cast members who previously appeared in "Joseline's Cabaret: Auditions". They include Blue Face Barbie (Lauren Woods) from Miami, Aqua (Kasie McCalvin) from Detroit, Lexi Blow from York, Pennsylvania, BossTec (Fonda Foster) from Atlanta, Big Lex (Alexius Ray) from South Carolina, Mz Natural (Ariel Robinson) from Gary, Indiana, Chanel Tso (Anaiah Wilson) from Houston and Yummie P (Alexandria Lynn) from Long Beach, California. Blue Face Barbie and Aqua quit the show early into the season, while Joseline rewards one of the girls with the title of a "cabaret captain", first Lucky, then Yummie, and finally Sapphire. Ultimately, Natural, Chanel, Lexi Blow and Lucky are chosen to perform with Joseline in the cabaret, with Chanel winning the $10,000 prize.


title: Joseline's Cabaret

text: "Joseline's Cabaret: Las Vegas" is set in Las Vegas, Nevada with Chanel and Lexi Blow returning, alongside ten new cast members. They include Jordan Monroe (Jordan Lawrence) from New Jersey, ReRe (Rio Danielle O'Dell), Lollipop (Jeni Pollard) from Denver, Amber Ward from Chicago, Raven Diaz from Miami, BlckDiamond (Amanda) from Kissimmee, Florida, K. Kapri from Atlanta, Henny (Genesis) from New York City, Gaia Love from Tennessee and Ms. Wet Wet from the Bay Area.