title: 2009–10 Manchester United F.C. season

text: The semi-final draw was made on 2 December 2009 and paired United with local rivals Manchester City. The two-legged tie was the first time in nearly six years that the two sides had met in a cup tie, and the first time in over 40 years that they had played in a semi-final. The first leg was scheduled to take place at the City of Manchester Stadium on 6 January 2010, but although the pitch was playable, snow in the north of England the previous day caused the Greater Manchester Police to advise the postponement of the match for the safety of travelling supporters. The first leg was then scheduled for 19 January 2010 – the original date for the second leg, which was played on 27 January.


title: 2009–10 Manchester United F.C. season

text: United took the lead after 17 minutes of the first leg; Antonio Valencia was found in open space on the right wing and the Ecuadorian beat Craig Bellamy before putting in a low cross. Wayne Rooney reached the ball first, and although his shot was saved, the ball fell to Ryan Giggs, who was left with a simple finish from two yards out in the middle of the goal. City equalised shortly before half-time via a controversial penalty from Carlos Tevez; the penalty was awarded by referee Mike Dean for a pull on Bellamy by United right-back Rafael, but the Brazilian appeared to have let go of the City forward after the original foul had been committed outside the penalty area. City then took the lead halfway through the second half, Tevez again getting on the scoresheet after the United defence had failed to deal with a City corner. United pressed for an equaliser, but they were continually denied by reflex saves from City goalkeeper Shay Given, and City took a 2–1 lead into the second leg at Old Trafford.


title: 2009–10 Manchester United F.C. season

text: United set the pace at the start of the second leg, but it was City who made the better chances. Nevertheless, the first half passed without a goal, and United took the lead after seven minutes of the second half; City won a corner, which Craig Bellamy went across to take, but the Welsh forward was struck by missiles thrown from the United crowd. When the corner was eventually taken, the ball was cleared to Wayne Rooney, who beat his marker with a sharp turn before hitting a long diagonal ball to Ryan Giggs on the right wing. The Welshman played the ball into the box, where neither Nani nor Michael Carrick were able to get shots away, but the ball broke to Paul Scholes on the edge of the penalty area and the veteran hit a low shot into the bottom corner of the net. Carrick doubled United's lead with 20 minutes left to play, passing the ball in off the far post after a lay-off from man-of-the-match Darren Fletcher, but Carlos Tevez drew City level on aggregate five minutes later as he stretched his leg around Rio Ferdinand to flick home Craig Bellamy's left-wing cross. With the scores level going into injury time, the tie was set for a further 30 minutes of play, but Giggs played a short corner before receiving the return ball and crossing into the six-yard box, where Wayne Rooney had stolen in to head past Shay Given. The goal secured a 3–1 win for United (4–3 on aggregate) and a place in the 2010 Football League Cup Final, their second League Cup final in a row and their third in five years.


title: 2009–10 Manchester United F.C. season

text: In a repeat of the 1994 final, United's opponents in the final were Aston Villa. They beat Blackburn Rovers 7–4 on aggregate (including a 6–4 home win in the second leg) to reach their first League Cup final for 14 years and their first Wembley final since the 2000 FA Cup Final.


title: 2009–10 Manchester United F.C. season

text: United won the final 2–1. James Milner's fifth-minute penalty, awarded after Nemanja Vidić fouled Gabriel Agbonlahor, gave Aston Villa an early lead, but Michael Owen equalised seven minutes later after Richard Dunne gave the ball away. Park Ji-sung hit the post late in the first half, but Wayne Rooney's header from Antonio Valencia's cross gave United the win. Moments after he scored what turned out to be the winning goal, Rooney also hit the post with another header from another Valencia cross. But that counted for nothing as United held on to win their first silverware of the season. It was United's first successful cup tournament defence in history.


title: 2009–10 Manchester United F.C. season

text: The draw for the group stage of the Champions League took place in Monaco on 27 August 2009. As one of the top eight-ranked sides in Europe, Manchester United were seeded in Pot 1, meaning that, as well as the three other English sides in the competition, they would avoid Sevilla, Milan, Bayern Munich and their opponents in the 2009 UEFA Champions League Final, Barcelona. However, they could still be paired with clubs such as Real Madrid, Internazionale or Juventus, amongst others. Eventually, they were drawn into Group B with three clubs they had never played before: CSKA Moscow of Russia, Beşiktaş of Turkey and Wolfsburg of Germany.


title: 2009–10 Manchester United F.C. season

text: United opened their Champions League campaign with a 1–0 away win over Beşiktaş on 15 September. Paul Scholes headed in the winning goal in the 77th minute after Nani's shot had been saved by Hakan Arıkan. The Portuguese winger cut inside off the left wing, hit a shot that was too hot for the Beşiktaş goalkeeper to handle and the ball rebounded into the path of Scholes, whose header went in off the post.


title: 2009–10 Manchester United F.C. season

text: For the next match, two weeks later, United played host to the German champions, Wolfsburg, at Old Trafford. Wolfsburg began the game strongly, imposing themselves physically on the pitch, but although United had the upper hand by the end of the half, the teams went into the half-time interval at 0–0. After the break, United continued to create chances, but it was Wolfsburg who got the opening goal through striker Edin Džeko. Michael Carrick committed a foul on the edge of his penalty area, but the referee allowed play to continue as Wolfsburg were still in possession. The ball was crossed in by Makoto Hasebe and Džeko rose above Patrice Evra at the far post to head past Tomasz Kuszczak. United responded immediately through a Ryan Giggs free-kick that took a large deflection off Christian Gentner in the Wolfsburg wall, wrong-footing goalkeeper Diego Benaglio, and found the bottom corner of the goal for Giggs' 150th for Manchester United. In the 78th minute, United won a throw-in on the left side, from which Evra found Wayne Rooney. Rooney played the ball in to Dimitar Berbatov in the Wolfsburg penalty area, but the Bulgarian was unable to make room for a shot and laid the ball off to Giggs. Likewise, Giggs could not find a shooting angle and chose to nudge the ball back to Carrick, who curled it into the far corner from outside the area. United protected their lead for the remaining 12 minutes, and the win took them to the top of their group.


title: 2009–10 Manchester United F.C. season

text: For the first of their two matches against CSKA Moscow, on 21 October, United travelled to the Luzhniki Stadium, the venue for their 2008 UEFA Champions League Final victory. However, they were without Ryan Giggs, Patrice Evra, Park Ji-sung, Darren Fletcher and Wayne Rooney, who were all unavailable due to injury. The stadium's artificial pitch had caused some concern prior to the game, but although CSKA were more used to the surface, United also settled on the unfamiliar turf and the match became cagey, resulting in a goalless first half. The match remained goalless until the 86th minute, when Antonio Valencia fired a shot past CSKA goalkeeper Igor Akinfeev to secure a 1–0 win. The ball was flicked on to Valencia from Nani's left-wing cross by Dimitar Berbatov, and the Ecuadorian's shot was too powerful to stop. The result gave United their first win in six matches against Russian opposition. It also maintained their unbeaten away record in the UEFA Champions League, which stretched back 14 matches to May 2007, when they lost to Milan in the semi-finals. The streak drew United level with Ajax, whose streak was ended by Juventus in the 1996–97 semi-finals.


title: 2009–10 Manchester United F.C. season

text: The return match with CSKA Moscow was played at Old Trafford two weeks later, on 3 November. Following the birth of his first son, Wayne Rooney was dropped to the bench, and United had to continue without their first-choice centre-backs, Rio Ferdinand and Nemanja Vidić. Dimitar Berbatov was also absent through injury, meaning that Federico Macheda partnered Michael Owen up front for his first Champions League appearance. After Alan Dzagoev opened the scoring for CSKA with a powerful shot past Van der Sar from a narrow angle in the 25th minute, Owen equalised just four minutes later as the ball broke to him in the goal area and he passed it under the advancing Akinfeev. However, CSKA retook the lead almost immediately through Miloš Krasić, and Vasili Berezutski doubled their lead shortly after half-time. The score remained at 3–1 until the 84th minute, when Gary Neville crossed a free-kick, which deflected off Nani for Paul Scholes to head home. Antonio Valencia then salvaged a draw for United in injury time, firing in a long-range shot that looked to be going wide until it took a wicked deflection off Georgi Schennikov. With Wolfsburg beating Beşiktaş 3–0 in Istanbul, the draw was enough to secure United's passage through to the knockout stage of the competition, although they were yet to clinch top spot in the group.


title: 2009–10 Manchester United F.C. season

text: United lost their home game 1–0 to Beşiktaş but clinched first place in their group after beating Wolfsburg 3–1 away. Michael Owen scored all three goals, claiming his first Manchester United hat trick.


title: 2009–10 Manchester United F.C. season

text: The draw for the first knockout round of the Champions League was made in Nyon, Switzerland, on 18 December 2009. United, as group winners, could have faced such teams as Bayern Munich and Internazionale, but were ultimately paired with Milan. This presented the possibility of former player David Beckham facing United for the first time since he was sold to Real Madrid in 2003.


title: 2009–10 Manchester United F.C. season

text: Beckham started the first leg on the right side of the Milan midfield and played a major part in the build-up to the first goal of the game; in the third minute, Patrice Evra gave away a free-kick 35 yards from goal, which Beckham crossed into the penalty area. Evra himself attempted an acrobatic clearance, but the ball only went as far as Ronaldinho on the edge of the penalty area. The Brazilian forward volleyed the ball towards goal, and United goalkeeper Edwin van der Sar dropped to his right to block its trajectory; however, Michael Carrick got in the way first and it deflected off his legs and past Van der Sar. United then survived several lapses in concentration throughout the first half before Paul Scholes got their equaliser with 10 minutes left in the half; Darren Fletcher pulled a low cross back from the right side of the penalty area, and Scholes shaped to hit the ball with his right foot. He missed the ball, but it hit his standing leg and spun into the far corner of the goal past Dida's outstretched hand. United took the lead halfway through the second half via Wayne Rooney; Antonio Valencia was played the ball on the right wing, and he beat Milan left-back Giuseppe Favalli before standing up a cross to the far post, which Rooney headed looping back over Dida's head. Eight minutes later, Rooney was on the scoresheet again as he ran unmarked into the Milan penalty area and headed Fletcher's lobbed pass past a static Dida. Clarence Seedorf pulled a goal back for Milan with five minutes left in the game, flicking the ball behind his right leg with his left foot, but United held on to win the match 3–2 and take three away goals back to Old Trafford.


title: 2009–10 Manchester United F.C. season

text: The second leg was played three weeks later on 10 March. Wayne Rooney had missed United's previous match against Wolverhampton Wanderers with an injury, but he was passed fit for the Milan game. Meanwhile, David Beckham was left on the bench for Milan, and so he would have to wait to make his Old Trafford return. At the start of play, Milan needed to score at least two goals to stand a chance of going through to the quarter-finals, but United put the tie almost beyond doubt in the 13th minute; captain Gary Neville swung in a pin-point cross from deep on the right side and Rooney nodded the ball past Christian Abbiati for his ninth consecutive headed goal. The score remained at 1–0 going into half-time, but Rooney doubled the lead within a minute of the restart, sliding the ball under the advancing Abbiati after Nani had played him in with a perfectly weighted cross with the outside of his right foot. Park Ji-sung made it three on the night with a low shot to the far corner of the net after Scholes played him in with a disguised pass in the 59th minute. Beckham came on to rapturous applause five minutes later, and forced a save from Edwin van der Sar with a powerful volley from the edge of the area, but Darren Fletcher sealed a 4–0 win (7–2 on aggregate) with a header from Rafael's deep cross.


title: 2009–10 Manchester United F.C. season

text: The draw for the quarter-finals, semi-finals and final took place in Nyon on 19 March 2010. Unlike the round of 16 draw, there was no seeding or country protection in this draw, meaning that United could be drawn against fellow English side Arsenal or their Group B opponents CSKA Moscow. However, they were eventually drawn against Group A runners-up Bayern Munich, who they had famously played in the 1999 final. The first leg of the quarter-final will be played on 30 March 2010, while the second leg will be played a week later on 7 April. The semi-final draw took place immediately after the quarter-final draw, and United and Bayern were paired with the winners of the all-French quarter-final between Lyon and Bordeaux.


title: 2009–10 Manchester United F.C. season

text: United got off to the perfect start as Wayne Rooney scored after just 64 seconds in the first leg at the Allianz Arena against Bayern. However, for the remainder of the game United were poor and Bayern looked very likely to score an equaliser. That the equaliser came was no surprise, but that it took over 70 minutes to come was. Franck Ribéry fired a free-kick which took a deflection off Rooney and into the back of the net. United managed to hold on until deep into injury-time when Ivica Olić scored from close range after Patrice Evra dithered on the ball. To make matters worse, Wayne Rooney was injured in the build-up to the late winner and was reported to be unavailable for the return leg at Old Trafford eight days later.


title: 2009–10 Manchester United F.C. season

text: However, the second leg saw Wayne Rooney get a surprise start after Sir Alex had claimed that he wouldn't risk making the injury any worse. The striker got involved early by setting up Darron Gibson's third-minute goal to give United the advantage. Four minutes later, Nani scored a second with a clever flick set up by Antonio Valencia. Nani netted again with a strike from range after Rooney had failed to control Rafael's cross. With a two-goal advantage on aggregate and an away goal from the first leg, United were in the driving seat but a close range goal from Olić before half time altered the mood, meaning that Bayern only needed one more goal to be heading through. In the second half, an early sending off for Rafael weakened the side and chances came few and far between, especially as Nani was left to play alone up front following Rooney being substituted for John O'Shea. The reds came close to perhaps sealing the game when Evra put Nani through on goal, but the winger was unable to beat the goalkeeper. With quarter of an hour to go, Arjen Robben volleyed into the low left hand corner and put Bayern Munich back in the driving seat, levelling the aggregate score. The score remained the same until the end and United were knocked out on away goals.


title: 2009–10 Manchester United F.C. season

text: United announced early in the transfer window that they had agreed a world record fee of £80 million to sell Cristiano Ronaldo to Real Madrid. Shortly after this, they confirmed that Carlos Tevez, who had been on loan with the club for two seasons, had not taken up the offer of a permanent contract. Tevez would later sign for United's local rivals, Manchester City. Lee Martin, Fraizer Campbell, Richard Eckersley and Manucho also left the club for an undisclosed fee.


title: 2009–10 Manchester United F.C. season

text: After the departures of Ronaldo and Tevez, United sought a new striker, and Karim Benzema (who eventually signed for Real Madrid) was one player they courted. Despite the record deal for Ronaldo, United opted for a cheaper deal in the end, signing free agent Michael Owen after his contract with Newcastle United had expired. The signing of a former Liverpool star caused some consternation amongst supporters of both clubs. Antonio Valencia and Gabriel Obertan also joined, and Alex Ferguson announced that his buying for the transfer window was over. However, a few days later, Mame Biram Diouf also signed; the club explained that Diouf was originally going to sign in the next January transfer window, but that they had hurried the signing after other clubs became interested in the player.


title: 2009–10 Manchester United F.C. season

text: In the winter transfer window, Danny Simpson left for Newcastle United. Goalkeeper Ben Foster left in May, signing for Birmingham City. Both Simpson and Foster left for undisclosed fees.


title: John Bowlby

text: Edward John Mostyn Bowlby, CBE, FBA, FRCP, FRCPsych (; 26 February 1907 – 2 September 1990) was a British psychologist, psychiatrist, and psychoanalyst, notable for his interest in child development and for his pioneering work in attachment theory. A "Review of General Psychology" survey, published in 2002, ranked Bowlby as the 49th most cited psychologist of the 20th century.


title: John Bowlby

text: Bowlby was born in London to an upper-middle-income family. He was the fourth of six children and was brought up by a nanny in the British fashion of his class at that time: the family hired a nanny who was in charge of raising the children, in a separate nursery in the house. Nanny Friend took care of the infants and generally had two other nursemaids to help her. Bowlby was raised primarily by nursemaid Minnie who acted as a mother figure to him and his siblings.


title: John Bowlby

text: His father, Sir Anthony Alfred Bowlby, was surgeon to the King's Household, with a history of early loss: at age five, Anthony's father, Thomas William Bowlby, was killed while serving as a war correspondent in the Second Opium War.


title: John Bowlby

text: Bowlby's parents met at a party in 1897 through a mutual friend. About one year after meeting, Mary (age 31) and Anthony (age 43) decided to get married in 1898. The start of their marriage was said to be difficult due to conflict with Anthony's sister and physical separation between Mary and Anthony. To resolve this prolonged separation, Mary decided to visit her husband for six months while leaving her firstborn daughter Winnie in the care of her nanny. This separation between Mary and her children was a theme found in all six of her children's lives as they were primarily raised by the nanny and nursemaids.


title: John Bowlby

text: Normally, Bowlby saw his mother only one hour a day after teatime, though during the summer she was more available. Like many other mothers of her social class, she considered that parental attention and affection would lead to dangerous spoiling of the children. Bowlby was fortunate in that the family nanny was present throughout his childhood. When Bowlby was almost four years old, the nursemaid Minnie, his primary caregiver in his early years, left the family. Later, he was to describe this as tragic as the loss of a mother. After Minnie left, Bowlby and his siblings were cared for by Nanny Friend, of a colder and sarcastic nature.


title: John Bowlby

text: During World War I, Bowlby's father Anthony was on military service. He came home once or twice a year and had little contact with him and his siblings. His mother received letters from Anthony but she did not share them with her children.


title: John Bowlby

text: At the age of seven, Bowlby was sent to [school ], as was common for boys of his social status. Bowlby's parents decided to send both him and his older brother Tony to a prep school, to protect them from the bombing attacks due to the ongoing war. In his 1973 work "Separation: Anxiety and Anger", Bowlby wrote that he regarded it as a terrible time for him. He later said, "I wouldn't send a dog away to boarding school at age seven". However, earlier Bowlby had considered boarding schools appropriate for children aged eight and older. In 1951, he wrote: If the child is maladjusted, it may be useful for him to be away for part of the year from the tensions which produced his difficulties, and if the home is bad in other ways the same is true. The boarding school has the advantage of preserving the child's all-important home ties, even if in slightly attenuated form, and, since it forms part of the ordinary social pattern of most Western communities today [1951], the child who goes to boarding school will not feel different from other children. Moreover, by relieving the parents of the children for part of the year, it will be possible for some of them to develop more favorable attitudes toward their children during the remainder.


title: John Bowlby

text: Bowlby married Ursula Longstaff, the daughter of a surgeon, on 16 April 1938, and they had four children, including Sir Richard Bowlby, who succeeded his uncle as third Baronet.


title: John Bowlby

text: In an interview with Dr. Milton Stenn in 1977, Bowlby explained that his career started off in the medical direction as he was following in his surgeon father's footsteps. His father was a well-known surgeon in London and Bowlby explained that he was encouraged by his father to study medicine at Cambridge. Therefore, he followed his father's suggestion, but was not fully interested in the lessons in anatomy and natural sciences that he was reading about. However, during his time at Trinity College, he became particularly interested in developmental psychology, which led him to give up medicine by his third year. When Bowlby gave up medicine, he took a teaching opportunity at a school called Priory Gates for six months where he worked with maladjusted children. Bowlby explained that one of the reasons why he went to work at Priory Gates was because of an intelligent staff member, John Alford. Bowlby explained that the experience at Priory Gates was extremely influential on him "It suited me very well because I found it interesting. And when I was there, I learned everything that I have known; it was the most valuable six months of my life, really. It was analytically oriented". He further explained that the experience at Priory Gates was extremely influential to his career in research as he learned that the problems of today should be understood and dealt with at a developmental level.


title: John Bowlby

text: Bowlby studied psychology and pre-clinical sciences at Trinity College, Cambridge, winning prizes for outstanding intellectual performance. After Cambridge, he worked with maladjusted and delinquent children until, at the age of twenty-two, he enrolled at University College Hospital in London. At twenty-six, he qualified in medicine. While still in medical school, he enrolled himself in the Institute for Psychoanalysis. Following medical school, he trained in adult psychiatry at the Maudsley Hospital. In 1936, aged 30, he qualified as a psychoanalyst.


title: John Bowlby

text: During the first six months of World War II, Bowlby worked at the London Child Guidance clinic in Canonbury as a physician. Later on in the war, Bowlby became a lieutenant colonel in the Royal Army Medical Corps, where he conducted research on psychological methods of officer selection (which contributed to the creation of War Office Selection Boards) and where he came into contact with members of the Tavistock Clinic. Alongside his job in the Royal Army Medical Corps, Bowlby explained that he also worked for the Emergency Medical Services (EMS) during the months of May and June in 1940 where he dealt with tragic war neurosis cases. Additionally, the children that were being treated at the Canonbury clinic were evacuated to the child guidance clinic in Cambridge, due to the air raids from the War. Bowlby explained in an interview that he spent time going back and forth from Cambridge to London, where he would see patients in private. From this experience, Bowlby was able to work with several children at Cambridge that were evacuated from London and separated from their families and nannies. This actually extended his research on separation that he was focused on pre-war.


title: John Bowlby

text: During the first winter of World War II, Bowlby began working on his first published work "Forty-four Juvenile Thieves". Although he began working on this book at the beginning of the Second World War, it was not published until 1944. Bowlby studied several children during his time at the Canonbury clinic, and developed a research project based on case studies of the children's behaviors and family histories. Bowlby examined 44 delinquent children from Canonbury who had a history of stealing and compared them to "controls" from Canonbury that were being treated for various reasons but did not have a history of stealing. Bowlby categorized the delinquent children into six different character types which included: normal, depressed, circular, hyperthymic, affectionless, and schizoid.


title: John Bowlby

text: One of Bowlby's main findings through his research with these children was that 17 out of the 44 thieves experienced early and prolonged separation (six months or more) from their primary caregiver before the age of five. In comparison, only two out of the 44 children who did not steal had experienced prolonged separation from their primary caregiver before the age of five. More specifically, Bowlby found that 12 out of the 14 children who were categorized as affectionless were found to have experienced complete and prolonged separation before the age of five. These findings were important and brought more attention to the impact of early environmental experiences on healthy child development.


title: John Bowlby

text: After the war, he was deputy director of the Tavistock Clinic, and from 1950, Mental Health Consultant to the World Health Organization.


title: John Bowlby

text: Because of his previous work with maladapted and delinquent children, he became interested in the development of children and returned to work at the London Child Guidance Clinic in Islington. His interest was probably increased by a variety of wartime events involving separation of young children from familiar people. These included the rescue of Jewish children by the Kindertransport arrangements, the evacuation of children from London to keep them safe from air raids, and the use of group nurseries to allow mothers of young children to contribute to the war effort. Bowlby was interested from the beginning of his career in the problem of separation, the wartime work of Anna Freud and Dorothy Burlingham on evacuees, and the work of René Spitz with orphans. By the late 1950s, he had accumulated a body of observational and theoretical work to indicate the fundamental importance for human development of attachment from birth.


title: John Bowlby

text: Bowlby was interested in finding out the patterns of family interaction involved in both healthy and pathological development. He focused on how attachment difficulties were transmitted from one generation to the next. In his development of attachment theory, he proposed the idea that attachment behaviour was an evolutionary survival strategy for protecting the infant from predators. Mary Ainsworth joined Bowlby's research unit at Tavistock and further extended and tested his ideas. She played the primary role in suggesting that several attachment styles existed.


title: John Bowlby

text: There were certain groups who took to it with great enthusiasm, other groups were directly lukewarm and other hostile, each profession reacted differently. The social workers took to it with enthusiasm; the psychoanalysts treated it with caution, curiously and for me infuriatingly pediatricians were initially hostile but subsequently many of them became very supporting; adult psychiatrists totally uninterested, totally ignorant, totally uninterested.


title: John Bowlby

text: In 1949, Bowlby's earlier work on delinquent and affectionless children and the effects of hospitalised and institutionalised care led to his being commissioned to write the World Health Organization's report on the mental health of homeless children in post-war Europe. The result was "Maternal Care and Mental Health", published in 1951.


title: John Bowlby

text: Bowlby drew together such limited empirical evidence as existed at the time from across Europe and the US. His main conclusions, that "the infant and young child should experience a warm, intimate, and continuous relationship with his mother (or permanent mother substitute) in which both find satisfaction and enjoyment" and that not to do so may have significant and irreversible mental health consequences, were both controversial and influential. The 1951 WHO publication was highly influential in causing widespread changes in the practices and prevalence of institutional care for infants and children, and in changing practices relating to the visiting of infants and small children in hospitals by parents. The theoretical basis was controversial in many ways. He broke with psychoanalytic theories which saw infants' internal life as being determined by fantasy rather than real life events. Some critics profoundly disagreed with the necessity for maternal (or equivalent) love to function normally, or that the formation of an ongoing relationship with a child was an important part of parenting. Others questioned the extent to which his hypothesis was supported by the evidence. There was criticism of the confusion of the effects of "privation" (no primary attachment figure) and "deprivation" (loss of the primary attachment figure) and in particular, a failure to distinguish between the effects of the lack of a primary attachment figure and the other forms of deprivation and understimulation that may affect children in institutions.


title: John Bowlby

text: The monograph was also used for political purposes to claim any separation from the mother was deleterious to discourage women from working and leaving their children in daycare by governments concerned about maximising employment for returned and returning servicemen. In 1962 WHO published "Deprivation of maternal care: A Reassessment of its Effects" to which Mary Ainsworth, Bowlby's close colleague, contributed with his approval, to present the recent research and developments and to address misapprehensions. This publication also attempted to address the previous lack of evidence on the effects of paternal deprivation.


title: John Bowlby

text: According to Rutter, the importance of Bowlby's initial writings on "maternal deprivation" lay in his emphasis that children's experiences of interpersonal relationships were crucial to their psychological development.


title: John Bowlby

text: In his 1988 work "A Secure Base", Bowlby explained that the data was not, at the time of the publication of "Maternal Care and Mental Health", "accommodated by any theory then current and in the brief time of my employment by the World Health Organization there was no possibility of developing a new one". He then went on to describe the subsequent development of attachment theory. Because he was dissatisfied with traditional theories, Bowlby sought new understanding from such fields as evolutionary biology, ethology, developmental psychology, cognitive science and control systems theory and drew upon them to formulate the innovative proposition that the mechanisms underlying an infant's tie emerged as a result of evolutionary pressure. "Bowlby realised that he had to develop a new theory of motivation and behaviour control, built on up-to-date science rather than the outdated psychic energy model espoused by Freud." Bowlby expressed himself as having made good the "deficiencies of the data and the lack of theory to link alleged cause and effect" in "Maternal Care and Mental Health" in his later work "Attachment and Loss" published in 1969.


title: John Bowlby

text: From the 1950s, Bowlby was in contact with leading European ethologists, namely Niko Tinbergen, Konrad Lorenz, and Robert Hinde. Bowlby was inspired by the study Lorenz conducted on goslings, showing that they imprint on the first animate object they see. Bowlby was encouraged by an evolutionary biologist, Julian Huxley, to look further into ethology to help further his research in psychoanalysis as he introduced Bowlby to the impactful work by Tinbergen on "The Study of Instinct". Bowlby followed this guidance and became interested in ethology as he wanted to rewrite psychoanalysis in order to focus this research field around a concrete theory in which psychoanalysis was lacking. He admired the methodological approach to ethology that psychoanalysis was not familiar with (Van der Horst, 2011). From reading widely in ethology, Bowlby was able to learn that ethologists supported the theoretical ideas through concrete empirical data.


title: John Bowlby

text: Using the viewpoints of this emerging science and reading extensively in the ethology literature, Bowlby developed new explanatory hypotheses for what is now known as human attachment behaviour. In particular, on the basis of ethological evidence he was able to reject the dominant Cupboard Love theory of attachment prevailing in psychoanalysis and learning theory of the 1940s and 1950s. He also introduced the concepts of environmentally stable or labile human behaviour allowing for the revolutionary combination of the idea of a species-specific genetic bias to become attached and the concept of individual differences in attachment security as environmentally labile strategies for adaptation to a specific childrearing niche. Alternatively, Bowlby's thinking about the nature and function of the caregiver-child relationship influenced ethological research, and inspired students of animal behaviour such as Tinbergen, Hinde, and Harry Harlow.


title: John Bowlby

text: One of Harlow's students, Stephen Suomi, wrote about the contributions Bowlby's made to ethology, including that Harlow brought attachment research into animal research specifically with rhesus monkeys and various other species of monkeys and apes. Another contribution according to Suomi was that Bowlby influenced animal researchers to examine separation in animals. Furthermore, Suomi wrote that Bowlby brought to the field of ethology the acknowledgement of the consequences over time from different attachment styles that are prevalent in rhesus monkeys (specifically in the work of Harlow). According to Suomi, "Although Bowlby was a psychoanalyst by formal training, he was a true ethologist at heart".


title: John Bowlby

text: Van der Horst, Van der Veer, and Van IJzendoorn write:Bowlby spurred Hinde to start his ground breaking work on attachment and separation in primates (monkeys and humans), and in general emphasized the importance of evolutionary thinking about human development that foreshadowed the new interdisciplinary approach of evolutionary psychology. Obviously, the encounter of ethology and attachment theory led to a genuine cross-fertilization.


title: John Bowlby

text: Before the publication of the trilogy in 1969, 1972 and 1980, the main tenets of attachment theory, building on concepts from ethology and developmental psychology, were presented to the British Psychoanalytical Society in London in three now classic papers: "The Nature of the Child's Tie to His Mother" (1958), "Separation Anxiety" (1959), and "Grief and Mourning in Infancy and Early Childhood" (1960). Bowlby rejected psychoanalytic explanations for attachment, and in return, psychoanalysts rejected his theory. At about the same time, Bowlby's former colleague Mary Ainsworth was completing extensive observational studies on the nature of infant attachments in Uganda with Bowlby's ethological theories in mind. Her results in this and other studies contributed greatly to the subsequent evidence base of attachment theory as presented in 1969 in "Attachment", the first volume of the "Attachment and Loss" trilogy. The second and third volumes, "Separation: Anxiety and Anger" and "Loss: Sadness and Depression", followed in 1972 and 1980 respectively. "Attachment" was revised in 1982 to incorporate recent research.


title: John Bowlby

text: According to attachment theory, attachment in infants is primarily a process of "proximity seeking" to an identified "attachment figure" in situations of perceived distress or alarm for the purpose of survival. Infants become attached to adults who are sensitive and responsive in social interactions with the infant, and who remain as consistent caregivers for some months during the period from about 6 months to two years of age. Parental responses lead to the development of patterns of attachment which in turn lead to "internal working models" which will guide the individual's feelings, thoughts, and expectations in later relationships. More specifically, Bowlby explained in his three volume series on attachment (1973, 1980, & 1982) that all humans develop an internal working model of the self and an internal working model of others. The self-model and other-model are built off of early experiences with their primary caregiver and shape an individual's expectation on future interactions with others and interactions within interpersonal relationships. The self-model will determine how the individual sees themselves, which will impact their self-confidence, self-esteem, and dependency. The other-model will determine how an individual sees others, which will impact their avoidance or approach orientation, loneliness, isolation, and social interactions. In Bowlby's approach, the human infant is considered to have a need for a secure relationship with adult caregivers, without which normal social and emotional development will not occur.


title: John Bowlby

text: As the toddler grows, it uses its attachment figure or figures as a "secure base" from which to explore. Mary Ainsworth used this feature in addition to "stranger wariness" and reunion behaviours, other features of attachment behaviour, to develop a research tool called the "strange situation" for developing and classifying different attachment styles.


title: John Bowlby

text: The attachment process is not gender specific as infants will form attachments to any consistent caregiver who is sensitive and responsive in social interactions with the infant. The quality of the social engagement appears to be more influential than amount of time spent.


title: John Bowlby

text: Bowlby's last work, published posthumously, is a biography of Charles Darwin, which discusses Darwin's "mysterious illness" and whether it was psychosomatic. In this work, Bowlby explained that:


title: John Bowlby

text: Bowlby pointed out that Darwin suffered a curious denial about his mother’s death, once writing in a condolence letter “never in my life having lost one near relation” and during a Scrabble-like game when another player added ‘M’ to ‘OTHER’, he stared long at the board then cried: ‘There's no such word as M-OTHER’.


title: John Bowlby

text: Although not without its critics, attachment theory has been described as the dominant approach to understanding early social development and it has given rise to a great surge of empirical research into the formation of children's close relationships. As it is presently formulated and used for research purposes, Bowlby's attachment theory stresses the following important tenets:


title: Firuz Shah Tughlaq

text: Sultan Firuz Shah Tughlaq (1309 – 20 September 1388) was a Muslim ruler from the Tughlaq dynasty, who reigned over the Sultanate of Delhi from 1351 to 1388. He succeeded his cousin Muhammad bin Tughlaq following the latter's death at Thatta in Sindh, where Muhammad bin Tughlaq had gone in pursuit of Taghi the ruler of Gujarat. For the first time in the history of Delhi Sultanate, a situation was confronted wherein nobody was ready to accept the reins of power. With much difficulty, the camp followers convinced Firoz to accept the responsibility. In fact, Khwaja Jahan, the Wazir of Muhammad bin Tughlaq had placed a small boy on throne claiming him to the son of Muhammad bin Tughlaq, who meekly surrendered afterwards. Due to widespread unrest, his realm was much smaller than Muhammad's. Tughlaq was forced by rebellions to concede virtual independence to Bengal and other provinces. He established Sharia across his realm.


title: Firuz Shah Tughlaq

text: His father's name was Rajab (the younger brother of Ghazi Malik) who had the title "Sipahsalar". His mother Naila was a Bhati Rajput princess (daughter of Rana Mal) from Dipalpur, Punjab.


title: Firuz Shah Tughlaq

text: We know of Firoz Shah Tughlaq in part through his 32-page autobiography, titled "Futuhat-e-firozshahi". He was 42 when he became Sultan of Delhi in 1351. He ruled until 1388. At his succession, after the death of Muhammad Tughlaq, he faced many rebellions, including in Bengal, Gujarat and Warangal. Nonetheless he worked to improve the infrastructure of the empire building canals, rest-houses and hospitals, creating and refurbishing reservoirs and digging wells. He founded several cities around Delhi, including Jaunpur, Firozpur, Hissar, Firozabad, Fatehabad. Most of Firozabad was destroyed as subsequent rulers dismantled its buildings and reused the spolia as building materials, and the rest was subsumed as New Delhi grew.


title: Firuz Shah Tughlaq

text: Tughlaq was a fervent Muslim and adopted sharia policies. He made a number of important concessions to theologians. He imposed Jizya tax on all non-Muslims. He tried to ban practices that the orthodox theologians considered un-Islamic, an example being his prohibition of the practice of Muslim women going out to worship at the graves of saints. He persecuted a number of sects which were considered heretical by the Muslim theologians.


title: Firuz Shah Tughlaq

text: Tughlaq took to heart the mistakes made during his uncle Muhammad's rule. He decided not to reconquer areas that had broken away, nor to keep further areas from taking their independence. He was indiscriminately benevolent and lenient as a sultan. He decided to keep nobles and the Ulema happy so that they would allow him to rule his kingdom peacefully.


title: Firuz Shah Tughlaq

text: "The southern states had drifted away from the Sultanate and there were rebellions in Gujarat and Sindh", while "Bengal asserted its independence." He led expeditions to against Bengal in 1353 and 1358. He captured Cuttack, desecrated the Jagannath Temple, Puri, and forced Raja Gajpati of Jajnagar in Orissa to pay tribute. He converted Chauhan Rajputs from Hinduism to Islam in the 14th century. They are now known as Qaimkhanis in Rajasthan.


title: Firuz Shah Tughlaq

text: He laid siege to Kangra Fort and forced Nagarkot to pay tribute, and did the same with Thatta. During his time Tatar Khan of Greater Khorasan attacked Punjab multiple times and during final battle in Gurdaspur his face was slashed by the sword given by Feroz Shah Tughlaq to Raja Kailash Pal of Mau-Paithan from Nagarkot region. Firuz Shah Tughlaq married off his daughter with Raja Kailash Pal, embraced him to Islam and sent the couple to rule Greater Khorasan, where eleven sons known by the caste of 'badpagey' were born to the queen.


title: Firuz Shah Tughlaq

text: Rather than awarding position based on merit, Tughlaq allowed a noble's son to succeed to his father's position and jagir after his death. The same was done in the army, where an old soldier could send his son, son-in-law or even his slave in his place. He increased the salary of the nobles. He stopped all kinds of harsh punishments such as cutting off hands. He also lowered the land taxes that Muhammad had raised. Tughlaq's reign has been described as the greatest age of corruption in medieval India: he once gave a golden tanka to a distraught soldier so that he could bribe the clerk to pass his sub-standard horse.


title: Firuz Shah Tughlaq

text: Tughlaq instituted economic policies to increase the material welfare of his people. Many rest houses ("sarai"), gardens and tombs(Tughluq tombs) were built. A number of madrasas (Islamic religious schools) were opened to encourage the religious education of Muslims. He set up hospitals for the free treatment of the poor and encouraged physicians in the development of Unani medicine. He provided money for the marriage of girls belonging to poor families under the department of Diwan-i-khairat. He commissioned many public buildings in Delhi. He built Firoz Shah Palace Complex at Hisar in 1354 CE, over 300 villages and dug five major canals, including the renovation of Prithviraj Chauhan era Western Yamuna Canal, for irrigation bringing more land under cultivation for growing grain and fruit. For day-to-day administration, Sultan Firuz Shah Tughlaq heavily depended on Malik Maqbul, previously commander of Warangal fort, who was captured and converted to Islam. When Tughlaq was away on a campaign to Sind and Gujarat for six months and no news was available about his whereabouts Maqbul ably protected Delhi. He was the most highly favoured among the significant number of the nobles in Tughlaq's court and retained the trust of the sultan. Sultan Firuz Shah Tughlaq used to call Maqbul as 'brother'. The sultan remarked that "Khan-i-Jahan" (Malik Maqbul) was the real ruler of Delhi.


title: Firuz Shah Tughlaq

text: Hindu religious works were translated from Sanskrit to Persian and Arabic. He had a large personal library of manuscripts in Persian, Arabic and other languages. He brought 2 Ashokan Pillars from Meerut, and Topra near Radaur in Yamunanagar district of Haryana, carefully cut and wrapped in silk, to Delhi in bullock cart trains. He re-erected one of them on the roof of his palace at Firoz Shah Kotla.


title: Firuz Shah Tughlaq

text: Transfer of capital was the highlight of his reign. When the Qutb Minar was struck by lightning in 1368 AD, knocking off its top storey, he replaced them with the existing two floors, faced with red sandstone and white marble. One of his hunting lodges, Shikargah, also known as Kushak Mahal, is situated within the Teen Murti Bhavan complex, Delhi. The nearby Kushak Road is named after it, as is the Tughlaq Road further on.


title: Firuz Shah Tughlaq

text: His eldest son, Fateh Khan, died in 1376. He then abdicated in August 1387 and made his other son, Prince Muhammad, king. A slave rebellion forced him to confer the royal title to his grandson, Tughluq Khan.


title: Firuz Shah Tughlaq

text: Tughlaq's death led to a war of succession coupled with nobles rebelling to set up independent states. His lenient attitude had strengthened the nobles, thus weakening the his position. His successor Ghiyas-ud-Din Tughlaq II could not control the slaves or the nobles. The army had become weak and the empire had shrunk in size. Ten years after his death, Timur's invasion devastated Delhi. His tomb is located in Hauz Khas (New Delhi), close to the tank built by Alauddin Khalji. Attached to the tomb is a madrasa built by Firoz Shah in 1352–53.


title: Sultan Abdul Aziz Shah Airport

text: Sultan Abdul Aziz Shah Airport (), (formerly Subang International Airport/Kuala Lumpur International Airport), often called Subang Airport or Subang Skypark, is an airport located in Subang, Petaling District, Selangor, Malaysia.


title: Sultan Abdul Aziz Shah Airport

text: Subang International Airport served as Kuala Lumpur's main airport from 1965 to 1998, before the Kuala Lumpur International Airport in Sepang was opened. Although plans existed to convert the airport into a low-cost carrier base, the change was opposed by Subang Jaya residents. The airport was repurposed to serve general aviation as well as turboprop domestic and international flights. In 1996, the airport was renamed after Sultan Salahuddin Abdul Aziz Shah Al-Haj (Salahuddin of Selangor), the eleventh Yang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaysia and eighth Sultan of Selangor.


title: Sultan Abdul Aziz Shah Airport

text: Subang Airport is currently the base for SKS Airways, Firefly and Batik Air Malaysia commercial turboprop services. Raya Airways is the only other non-passenger non-turbo prop aircraft landing and utilising Subang Airport Terminal 2. While heavily opposed by Ara Damansara residents of the noise of the jet engines, Raya Airways still operates out of SZB servicing DHL and other local hubs.


title: Sultan Abdul Aziz Shah Airport

text: Work on the Subang International Airport started in 1961 and finished in 1965 at a cost of $64 million. Its deceptively simple design consisted of a roof composed of floating concrete shells that was held aloft by mushroom-shaped columns. Partners in the Booty Edwards Architectural practice Kington Loo and C.H.R Bailey are typically attributed with the design. The open structure also featured a massive circular ramp, reminiscent of Berthold Lubetkin's penguin pavilion in London. Most of the structure was removed during a major reconstruction in 1983.


title: Sultan Abdul Aziz Shah Airport

text: The airport was officially opened to traffic on 30 August 1965, and had the longest runway (3.7 km long, 45m wide – runway 15 – 33) in Southeast Asia, replacing Sungai Besi Airport. By the 1990s, the airport had three terminals – Terminal 1 for international flights, Terminal 2 for Singapore – Kuala Lumpur shuttle flights by Singapore Airlines and Malaysia Airlines, and Terminal 3 for domestic flights. Toward the end of service, the airport suffered at least two major fires that forced traffic to be diverted to other airports. By the end of 1997, Subang Airport had handled 15.8 million passengers. In 2003 terminal 1 was demolished.


title: Sultan Abdul Aziz Shah Airport

text: In July 2002, AirAsia began flying from KLIA, and in 2004, AirAsia considered utilising the airport as a primary hub in Malaysia. However, the plan was rejected and the Malaysian government planned to turn the airport into an international conference centre. Since Firefly started operations in the airport, AirAsia has been lobbying the government to allow AirAsia to use Subang Airport. As of December 2007, the government still maintains its policy of only allowing general aviation and turbo-prop flights out of Subang Airport.


title: Sultan Abdul Aziz Shah Airport

text: The airport underwent renovation works at Terminal 3 from February 2008 and was finished in October 2009. Terminal 3 was renamed to Subang Skypark.


title: Sultan Abdul Aziz Shah Airport

text: Raya Airways, a national cargo carrier, chose Subang Airport as its main cargo operation center. Several companies offer chartered flights and helicopter services from the airport. One of the largest FBO (Fixed-Base Operator) in the region (with covered hangar space of more than 100,000 sqft), Dnest Aviation Services is also based in this airport. Their newest hangar boast a "first of its kind" infrastructure capable of taking in either a 737 BBJ or A319 ACJ and 2 basement floors directly underneath it with ample of office space, lecture rooms, carpark and a cafeteria. A number of flying clubs are also located at Sultan Abdul Aziz Shah airport, the most famous of these being Subang Flying Club, Air Adventure Flying Club, Eurocopter (An EADS Company), ESB Flying Club(Eurodynamic Sdn Bhd). With Eurocopter, the airport serves as a maintenance and support facility for Malaysian Maritime Enforcement Agency helicopters.


title: Sultan Abdul Aziz Shah Airport

text: Berjaya Air's head office is in the Berjaya Hangar in the SkyPark Terminal Building. Previously the head office was in Terminal 3. Transmile Air Services has its head office in the Transmile Centre in the Cargo Complex. The main headquarters of Malaysia Airlines was previously in Subang, consisting of administrative departments & its maintenance, repair and overhaul subsidiary, MAS Aerospace. In addition, another MAS subsidiary, Firefly also operates a fleet of ATR 72 out of Subang.


title: Sultan Abdul Aziz Shah Airport

text: Apart from that, Sultan Abdul Aziz Shah Airport was to be a hub for Global Flying Hospitals, but the humanitarian medical charity made the decision to close down Malaysian Operations, stating that the elements to make the correct formula for the GFH model were not present.


title: Sultan Abdul Aziz Shah Airport

text: On 4 December 2007, Subang SkyPark Sdn Bhd announce a RM 300 million plan to transform the Terminal 3 building into an ultra-modern general and corporate aviation hub. The plan includes upgrading the terminal, creation of regional aviation center and finally the establishment of a commercial nexus. Under an agreement with Malaysia Airports, Subang Skypark will serve private aviation while Malaysia Airports will serve Berjaya Air and Firefly Airlines. Subang Skypark recently signed a lease agreement with Malaysia Airports for the land in the Airport in Langkawi.


title: Sultan Abdul Aziz Shah Airport

text: On the next day, VistaJet, a business jet service provider, has announced that it will use the airport as a base of operations in Malaysia. It has chosen Terminal 3, which is being operated by Subang Skypark to be the hub in Asia.


title: Sultan Abdul Aziz Shah Airport

text: The operator announce that construction works for a , five-star executive lounge begins in February 2008. The construction works was awarded to ArcRadius Sdn Bhd. It is expected that the lounge works will be done by end of March 2008. The transformation plans also calls for a construction of two 42 meters by 47 meters maintenance, repair and overhaul hangars and ten 36-meter by 36-meter parking hangars. The construction of the MRO hangars will complete by end of 2008 while two of the ten parking hangars will complete by end of 2009.


title: Sultan Abdul Aziz Shah Airport

text: On 8 August 2008, VistaJet Holding SA started operations from the airport. It provides private jet travel from Malaysia to anywhere in the world.


title: Sultan Abdul Aziz Shah Airport

text: Subang Airport underwent a RM40 million facelift on the check-in terminals. The facelift did nothing much to address the lack of parking spots, although a valet service is provided. Parking cost RM25 on daily basis. A rail link was added in 2018 to connect to the airport to Kuala Lumpur Sentral via KTM Komuter; travellers can also catch a local bus out of Central Market bus hub.


title: Sultan Abdul Aziz Shah Airport

text: The airport was officiated by Prime Minister Datuk Seri Najib Tun Razak on 28 October 2009. The Prime Minister has expressed confidence that the airport will reach 2 million annual passenger and emerge as a regional hub of ASEAN.


title: Sultan Abdul Aziz Shah Airport

text: The next phase of development will entail the refurbishment of the former Terminal 2 (T2) of the SAAS airport into an extension of the SkyPark Terminal 3. Works are scheduled to commence end of 2017 with an estimated construction period of 24 months. The combined capacity of T2 and T3 will be 5 million passengers.


title: Sultan Abdul Aziz Shah Airport

text: With a retail extension of 320,000 sq ft, the project will include airport facilities and services and a multilevel car park of 350,000 sq ft with 1,155 bays. The extension will also include an entertainment / event deck that overlooks the runway, a first of its kind, open to public, in Malaysia.


title: Sultan Abdul Aziz Shah Airport

text: Skypark Commercial Nexus is a mixed development commercial project sited on a plot adjoined to the main terminal. Among the proposed highlights of the Nexus would be a hotel, entertainment outlets, aviation museum and an aviation theme park (subject to approval from authority). A multi-storey car park is also included. Construction work is expected to commence in early 2014. The upcoming railway line is planned to connect SkyPark Nexus to Subang Jaya KTMB station.


title: Sultan Abdul Aziz Shah Airport

text: There is a taxi booth inside the terminal building, so arriving passengers can directly go to the booth and get on a taxi.


title: Sultan Abdul Aziz Shah Airport

text: Buses from Subang Skypark towards Pasar Seni (Central Market) in Kuala Lumpur city center are Rapid KL bus No. 772 (also stops at Asia Jaya LRT station and KL Sentral). The bus ticket costs RM2.50 (Asia Jaya) & RM3.00 (Pasar Seni), and the route operates from 6:00 am till midnight.


title: Sultan Abdul Aziz Shah Airport

text: To serve the newly opened Kelana Jaya extension line and MRT Kajang Line, there is a Rapid KL feeder bus No. T773 route between Ara Damansara LRT Station and Subang Skypark and MRT feeder bus No. T804 route between Kwasa Sentral station and Subang Airport. Fares are fixed at RM1.00.


title: Sultan Abdul Aziz Shah Airport

text: There is also a bus shuttle service between Subang Skypark and Kuala Lumpur International Airport KLIA & KLIA2. The service departs from Subang Skypark from 5am until 7pm. The one-way journey takes around one hour (subject to traffic) and costs RM10 per passenger.


title: Sultan Abdul Aziz Shah Airport

text: A KTM Komuter shuttle service connecting KL Sentral through Subang Jaya to the terminal has been in operation since 1 May 2018. This extension is a branch line of the Port Klang Line and provides rail connectivity to the airport that is currently only served by other kinds of road transportation. The line is 26 km long and has three stations: KL Sentral, Subang Jaya, and with two planned stations - Glenmarie, Sri Subang.


title: SOSUS

text: The Sound Surveillance System (SOSUS) was a submarine detection system based on passive sonar developed by the United States Navy to track Soviet submarines. The system's true nature was classified with the name and acronym SOSUS themselves classified. The unclassified name "Project Caesar" was used to cover the installation of the system and a cover story developed regarding the shore stations, identified only as a Naval Facility (NAVFAC), being for oceanographic research. In 1985, as the fixed bottom arrays were supplemented by the mobile Surveillance Towed Array Sensor System (SURTASS) and other new systems were coming on line, the name itself changed to Integrated Undersea Surveillance System (IUSS). The commands and personnel were covered by the "oceanographic" term until 1991 when the mission was declassified. As a result, the commands, Oceanographic System Atlantic and Oceanographic System Pacific became Undersea Surveillance Atlantic and Undersea Surveillance Pacific, and personnel were able to wear insignia reflecting the mission.


title: SOSUS

text: The system was capable of oceanic surveillance with the long ranges made possible by exploiting the deep sound channel, or SOFAR channel. An indication of ranges is the first detection, recognition and reporting of a Soviet nuclear submarine coming into the Atlantic through the Greenland-Iceland-United Kingdom (GIUK) gap by an array terminating at NAVFAC Barbados on 6 July 1962. The linear arrays with hydrophones placed on slopes within the sound channel enabled beamforming processing at the shore facilities to form azimuthal beams. When two or more arrays held a contact, triangulation provided approximate positions for air or surface assets to localize.


title: SOSUS

text: SOSUS grew out of tasking in 1949 to scientists and engineers to study the problem of antisubmarine warfare. It was implemented as a chain of underwater hydrophone arrays linked by cable, based on commercial telephone technology, to shore stations located around the western Atlantic Ocean from Nova Scotia to Barbados. The first experimental array was a six-element test array laid at Eleuthera in the Bahamas in 1951, followed, after successful experiments with a target submarine, in 1952 by a fully-functional , forty-hydrophone array. At that time the order for stations was increased from six to nine. The then-secret 1960 Navy film "Watch in the Sea" describes the production arrays as being long. In 1954, the order was increased by three more Atlantic stations and an extension into the Pacific, with six stations on the West Coast and one in Hawaii.


title: SOSUS

text: In September 1954, Naval Facility Ramey was commissioned in Puerto Rico. Others of the first Atlantic phase followed, and in 1957 the original operational array at Eleuthera got an operational shore facility as the last of the first phase of Atlantic systems. The same year, the Pacific systems began to be installed and activated. Over the next three decades, more systems were added; NAVFAC Keflavik, Iceland in 1966 and NAVFAC Guam in 1968 being examples of expansion beyond the western Atlantic and eastern Pacific. Shore upgrades and new cable technology allowed system consolidation until by 1980 that process had resulted in many closures of the NAVFACs with centralized processing at a new type facility, Naval Ocean Processing Facility (NOPF), that by 1981 saw one for each ocean and mass closing of the NAVFACs.


title: SOSUS

text: As the new mobile systems came on line, SOSUS arrays themselves were deactivated and some turned over for scientific research. The surveillance aspect continues with new systems under Commander, Undersea Surveillance.


title: SOSUS

text: SOSUS history began in 1949 when the US Navy approached the Committee for Undersea Warfare, an academic advisory group formed in 1946 under the National Academy of Sciences, to research antisubmarine warfare. As a result, the Navy formed a study group designated "Project Hartwell", named for the University of Pennsylvania's Dr. G.P. Hartwell who was the Deputy Chairman of the Committee for Undersea Warfare, under at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) leadership. The Hartwell panel recommended spending of annually to develop systems to counter the Soviet submarine threat consisting primarily of a large fleet of diesel submarines.


title: SOSUS

text: That group also recommended a system to monitor low-frequency sound in the SOFAR channel using multiple listening sites equipped with hydrophones and a processing facility that could calculate submarine positions over hundreds of miles.


title: SOSUS

text: As a result of the Hartwell group's recommendations, the Office of Naval Research (ONR) contracted with American Telephone and Telegraph Company (AT&T), with its Bell Laboratories research and Western Electric manufacturing elements, to develop a long range, passive detection system, based on bottom arrays of hydrophones. The system, using equipment termed Low Frequency Analyzer and Recorder and a process termed Low Frequency Analysis and Recording, both with the acronym LOFAR, was to be based on AT&T's sound spectrograph, developed for speech analysis and modified to analyze low-frequency underwater sounds. This research and development effort was given the name "Project Jezebel". The origin of the project name was explained by Dr. Robert Frosch to Senator Stennis during a 1968 hearing. It was because of the low frequencies, "about the A below middle C on the piano" (about 100-150 cycles) and "Jezebel" being chosen because "she was of low character."


title: SOSUS

text: Jezebel and LOFAR branched into the localization of submarines with the AN/SSQ-28 passive omnidirectional Jezebel-LOFAR sonobuoy introduced in 1956 for use by the air antisubmarine forces. That sonobuoy gave the aircraft cued by SOSUS access to the same low frequency and LOFAR capability as SOSUS. Bell Telephone Laboratories time delay correlation was used to fix target position with two or more sonobuoys in a technique named COrrelation Detection And Ranging (CODAR). This, and later specialized, sonobuoys equipped with a small explosive charge could be used in an active mode to detect the echo off the target. The active mode was named by engineers developing the technique "Julie" after a burlesque dancer whose "performance could turn passive buoys active."


title: SOSUS

text: Related research, based at Columbia University's Hudson Laboratory, was designated "Project Michael". Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution and the Scripps Institution of Oceanography were also tasked to develop an understanding of long-range sound transmission under "Project Michael". The need to better understand the acoustic environment drove much of the oceanographic research by both the Navy and institutions with Navy funding for oceanography. A major, long-term research program spanning over 25 years, the Long Range Acoustic Propagation Program (LRAPP), made significant progress in such understanding and influenced decisions in SOSUS, significantly the SOSUS expansion into the eastern Atlantic.


title: SOSUS

text: The hardware technology was largely that of the commercial telephone system and oil exploration. Cable laying was a capability AT&T and other entities had developed for decades for commercial communications cables. The understanding of the ocean acoustic environment made the system possible rather than development of new technology. SOSUS was a case of new understanding of the environment and then application of largely existing technology and even equipment to the problem.


title: SOSUS

text: The forty hydrophones spaced on the array provided the aperture for signal processing to form horizontal azimuthal beams of two to five degrees wide, each beam with a LOFAR analyzer and capability to do narrow-band frequency analysis to discriminate signal from ocean noise and to identify specific frequencies associated with rotating machinery. The NAVFAC watch floor had banks of displays using electrostatic paper, similar to that used for echograms in depth finders.


title: SOSUS

text: The product of these displays was the LOFARgram which graphically represented acoustic energy and frequency against time. Those were examined by the personnel trained to identify submarine signatures. When two or more arrays held a target the bearings from each array gave an estimated target position by triangulation. The system could provide cuing information on the presence of the submarines and an approximate location for air or surface antisubmarine warfare assets to localize the target. The first Atlantic stations, ranging from Nova Scotia to Barbados, formed a long line semicircle looking into the Western Atlantic basin with geographic separation for contact correlation and triangulation.


title: SOSUS

text: The combination of research and engineering under "Jezebel" and "Michael" into an actual broad area surveillance system as seen by Project Hartwell's Frederick V. Hunt became the Sound Surveillance System with the acronym SOSUS. Both the full name and acronym were classified. There were occasional slips. A contractor for the Office of Naval Research, Fleet Analysis and Support Division published an unclassified report with "SOSUS" in association with the system acronym "SOSS", defined as "Sound Search Station," and a capability to display data from sonobuoys side by side on either aircraft or SOSS displays in contact classification as either friendly or unfriendly targets. The unclassified name "Project Caesar" was given to cover development and installation of the resulting system.


title: SOSUS

text: A cover story was developed to explain the visible shore installations, the Naval Facilities, and the commands under which they fell. The cover explained that data gathered by oceanographic and acoustic surveys with ships could at times be collected "more expeditiously and more economically by means of shore stations. These are the U. S. Naval Facilities." The cover extended to the names of the commands and training of personnel with overall commands designated Ocean Systems Atlantic and Ocean Systems Pacific, and terms such as Ocean Technician [OT] and Oceanographic Research Watch Officer given to Naval Facility personnel. Despite being qualified for a warfare specialty and its symbols, the Navy personnel in the small SOSUS community could not do so for the sake of secrecy until the mission became public in 1991. The Ocean System commands, COMOCEANSYSLANT (COSL) and COMOCEANSYSPAC (COSP), then began to reflect their true nature as Undersea Surveillance commands COMUNDERSEASURVLANT (CUSL) and COMUNDERSEASURVPAC (CUSP) under the Integrated Undersea Surveillance System (IUSS) name that had come into effect in 1985 as systems other than fixed emerged.


title: SOSUS

text: SOSUS was closely held on a strict need-to-know basis that was close to Sensitive Compartmented Information even though it was classified at the Secret level. Even the Fleet had little knowledge of the system or its function. Contact data reaching the fleet was in a strictly formatted message designated RAINFORM, hiding the source, that the fleet often did not understand without reference to publications to understand the form's fields and codes. As a result, people in the fleet often did not know of the system's dedicated antisubmarine mission. Even when they knew they often did not know of its actual performance or exact role. This later had implications as the Cold War ended and budgets became an issue. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, the system was opened to tactical use and the fleet began to see the contact information in other formats readily understandable by fleet antisubmarine forces. In 1997 the RAINFORM was abandoned and replaced.


title: SOSUS

text: For much of the system's operation, direct action based on SOSUS contacts was avoided. An example was subject to a box piece in the January 5, 1981 issue of "Newsweek" titled "A Soviet War of Nerves" concerning an incident from August 1978. An alert to Atlantic Fleet, Strategic Air Command (SAC) and the Pentagon came from "underwater listening devices at several secret Navy installations" that two Yankee class nuclear-armed submarines had left their usual patrol areas 1,200 miles out in the Atlantic and were getting dangerously close. That approach raised the threat level to several SAC bases along the coast. Rather than prosecute the contacts and reveal how closely the system could track the submarines, the SAC bases put more bombers on ready alert assuming the Soviets would notice. The submarines did not withdraw so SAC dispersed the bombers to bases as far away as Texas. Though there is no positive proof that action was the cause, the Yankees moved back to their usual areas and had not moved close to the U.S. coast again at the time of the piece.


title: SOSUS

text: The original Naval Facilities and later, consolidated, processing centers were high security installations characterized by an outer security fence and gate checkpoint. The terminal buildings within were double fenced with separate entry security. Not all personnel assigned to the facility had access to the operational part of the installations. The early arrangement can be seen in the vertical photograph of Naval Facility Nantucket and later in the photograph of Naval Facility Brawdy below. Equipment in the terminal buildings was installed by specially cleared Western Electric Company personnel.


title: SOSUS

text: Western Electric and ONR representatives met on 29 October 1950 to draft a contract that was signed as a letter contract on 13 November to build a demonstration system. The contract was managed by Bureau of Ships (BuShips) with then Ensign Joseph P. Kelly, later Captain and termed "Father of SOSUS," assigned. An experimental six-element hydrophone array was installed on the island of Eleuthera in the Bahamas during 1951. Meanwhile, "Project Jezebel" and "Project Michael" focused on studying long range acoustics in the ocean.


title: SOSUS

text: From 2–19 January 1952 the British cable layer installed the first full sized, long, forty transducer element operational array in off Eleuthera in the Bahamas. Successful tests with a target submarine resulted in the order to install a total of nine arrays along the coast of the Western North Atlantic. The 1960 secret, limited distribution Navy film "Watch in the Sea", contains a segment at about 9:22 minutes into the film concerning the search for a suitable array location and laying the array. It describes the operational arrays as being long. In 1954 ten additional arrays were ordered with three more in the Atlantic, six on the Pacific coast and one in Hawaii.


title: SOSUS

text: The cable ships "Neptune" and "Albert J. Myer" were acquired to support "Project Caesar" with later addition of the cable ships "Aeolus" and "Thor". Other ships were added for acoustic and bathymetric surveys and cable support.


title: SOSUS

text: SOSUS systems consisted of bottom-mounted hydrophone arrays connected by underwater cables to facilities ashore. The individual arrays were installed primarily on continental slopes and seamounts at the axis of the deep sound channel and normal to the direction in which they were to cover. The combination of location within the ocean and the sensitivity of arrays allowed the system to detect acoustic power of less than a single watt at ranges of several hundred kilometres. SOSUS shore terminal processing stations were designated with the vague, generic name of Naval Facility (NAVFAC). By the 1980s improved communications technology allowed the array data once processed in individual Naval Facilities to be sent to central processing centers (Naval Ocean Processing Facility (NOPF)) for centralized processing of multiple fixed and mobile array information.


title: SOSUS

text: The first systems were limited by the commercial telephone cable technology for the application requiring a shore facility within about from the array and thus within that distance from the continental shelf locations suitable for the array. The cable of the time consisted of multi-pair wire connected to the forty hydrophones of the array. New coaxial multiplexed commercial telephone system cable, designated SB, using a single wire for all hydrophones allowed major changes with the prototype installed in 1962 at Eleuthera. The upgrades made possible by the multiplexed coaxial cable were designated Caesar Phase III. Caesar Phase IV was associated with major upgrades in shore processing with Digital Spectrum Analysis (DSA) backfits at the stations replacing original equipment during the late 1960s. In September 1972 a third generation coaxial cable, again based on commercial developments at Bell Labs and designated SD-C, was installed for the system terminating at Naval Facility Centerville Beach, California. The SD-C cable was the basis for a fourth generation of sonar sets with installation of the Lightweight Undersea Components (LUSC) involving new shore equipment in 1984. In June 1994 an entirely new cable system was introduced with fiber optic cable.


title: SOSUS

text: Cable technology and signal processing improved and upgrades were made to the original installations. Cable technology made it possible to site arrays further from shore into the ocean basins. New signal processing capabilities allowed for innovations such as the split array in which a single line array was divided into segments, each separately processed, then electronically recombined to form narrower beams for better bearing and cross fixes between arrays. Augmenting these local improvements was the increased central processing in centers that eventually became the Naval Oceanographic Processing Facilities. There the contacts of multiple arrays were correlated with other intelligence sources in order to cue and provide the search area for air and surface antisubmarine assets to localize and prosecute.


title: SOSUS

text: The system was considered a strategic, not tactical, system at the time and part of continental defense. In military construction hearings during 1964 before the Senate Committee on Armed Services the request for funding of recreational and other support buildings for the Naval Facility Cape Hatteras the Navy noted it was part of a program supporting continental air and missile defense forces without mention of its role in tracking Soviet missile submarines.


title: SOSUS

text: In 1954 the Fleet Sonar School at Key West established a Sound Search Course for training personnel. The highly classified program was behind the "Green Door" which became a name for the program itself as well as being seen as a term for the secrecy.


title: SOSUS

text: In 1954 three full systems to include a NAVFAC terminus were installed with arrays terminating at NAVFACs at Ramey Air Force Base, Puerto Rico in September, Grand Turk in October, and San Salvador in December. Systems terminating at Naval Facility Bermuda, Canadian Forces Station (CFS) Shelburne, Nova Scotia, Nantucket, and Cape May were installed during 1955. Systems terminating at Naval Facility Cape Hatteras and Naval Facility Antigua and two Evaluation Centers, forerunners of NOPFs, were established in New York and Norfolk during 1956. The initial array at Eleuthera got a fully functioning NAVFAC with an additional system for the Atlantic at Barbados and the first of the Pacific systems at San Nicolas Island came in 1957. During 1958 the remainder of the Pacific stations at Naval Facility Point Sur and Centerville Beach in California and Pacific Beach, Washington, and Coos Head near Coos Bay, Oregon were installed.


title: SOSUS

text: Six Pacific coast systems had been planned but only five Naval Facilities were constructed. The northernmost system off Vancouver Island was to terminate in Canada but a change in government there precluded a facility in Canada at the time. The sixth array, requiring redesign of the cable and repeater system, was thus terminated at Naval Facility Pacific Beach, making it a dual array facility.


title: SOSUS

text: From 1958 to 1960 Project Caesar assets began work installing the Missile Impact Location System (MILS), based on technology and installation methods similar to those for SOSUS, in support of Air Force ICBM tests. The survey and installation focus in that period was on installation of MILS in the Atlantic and Pacific test ranges. Arrays of hydrophones placed around the target area located the missile warhead by means of measuring arrival times of the explosion at the various hydrophones of a SOFAR charge in the test warhead. During that period an atypical SOSUS system was installed in 1959 at Argentia, Newfoundland to provide surveillance for approaches to Hudson Bay. It was a shallow water, curved array with ten eight-element arrays installed on two cables with each cable having the capacity for the usual forty elements.


title: SOSUS

text: In 1962 a new system was installed terminating at Naval Facility Adak in the Aleutians. The system terminating at Cape May was rerouted to a new Naval Facility Lewes, Delaware, with upgraded processing, after the NAVFAC Cape May had been destroyed in the "Ash Wednesday" Storm.


title: SOSUS

text: NAVFAC Argentia got a 2X20 element array in 1963. A 1965 decision to deploy systems to the Norwegian Sea was followed in 1966 with a system terminating at Keflavik, Iceland with the first 3X16 array system while Western Electric installed data links by land line to OCEANSYSLANT and OCEANSYSPAC. New systems were installed during 1968 at Midway Island and Guam. COMOCEANSYSPAC relocated to Ford Island, Hawaii from Treasure Island, California. The shallow water system at Argentia was deactivated.


title: SOSUS

text: In 1965 was acquired as a bathymetric survey ship. The satellite communications ship joined the project in 1967 for acoustic and bathymetric work.


title: SOSUS

text: The first NAVFAC decommissioning took place with the isolated duty station at NAVFAC San Salvador, Bahamas shut down on 31 January 1970. The old station is now home of the Gerace Research Center. NAVFAC Barbers Point is commissioned. A system wide modernization began in 1972. Argentia became a joint Canadian Forces and U.S. Navy facility. NAVFAC Ramey becomes NAVFAC Punta Borinquen in 1974. Further NAVFACs shut down in 1976 with NAVFACs Punta Borinquen and Nantucket decommissioned. NAVFAC Barbados was decommissioned in 1979.


title: SOSUS

text: In 1974 Naval Facility Brawdy, Wales was established as the terminus of new arrays covering the eastern Atlantic. NAVFAC Brawdy became the first "super NAVFAC" with some four hundred U.S. and United Kingdom military and civilian personnel assigned. The facility () was adjacent to the Royal Air Force Station Brawdy which had returned to RAF control during February 1974 after closure in 1971.


title: SOSUS

text: In 1975 left Naval Research Laboratory service and joined Project Caesar. In April 1974 the ship was reported as already being funded by Naval Electronics Systems Command (NAVELEX), where the project program management resided, and no longer funded as an oceanographic ship. By 1979 it was the most recently built ship of the five project ships that then included cable repair ships "Albert J. Myer" and "Neptune" due for modernization and the larger repair ship "Aeolus" that was uneconomical to repair and marginal as a cable ship. "Kingsport" was still with the project. The Navy was requesting four fully functional cable ships, the modernized "Albert J. Myer" and "Neptune" and two large new ships. The two new ships were to be designed as modern cable ships, fully capable of cable and survey work.


title: SOSUS

text: In 1980 consolidation and elimination of expensive individual facilities was made possible by the Wideband Acoustic Data Relay (WADR) first installed at Midway Island in January 1982 so that the two Midway arrays could eventually be remoted directly to NOPF Ford Island. This first generation WADR was used to consolidate array data from the California facilities at San Nicolas Island and Point Sur in 1984. Those were followed by remoting Hawaii's Barber's Point in 1985, the Pacific Northwest arrays at Pacific Beach and Coos Head in 1987, and Bermuda in the Atlantic in 1992. A second generation WADR allowed the consolidation of the Aleutian station at Adak in 1993, the North Atlantic's Argentia in 1995, and those termed "Special Projects" in 1997 and 1998.


title: SOSUS

text: The western Atlantic system consolidation was centered on the establishment of the Naval Ocean Processing Facility (NOPF) at Dam Neck, Virginia beginning with closure of NAVFACs Eleuthera and Grand Turk. During 1981 Naval Ocean Processing Facility (NOPF), Ford Island became operational and the decommissioning of NAVFAC Midway with that system's data routed to NAVFAC Barbers Point was completed. NAVFAC Lewes, Delaware closed that year. NAVFAC Cape Hatteras closed in 1982 and in 1983 Midway acoustic data was rerouted directly to Naval Ocean Processing Facility, Ford Island.


title: SOSUS

text: In 1984 the first SURTASS vessel, arrives at Little Creek, Virginia. , the one new cable ship of the requested two, enters the "Caesar fleet" for operations. Atlantic NAVFAC Antigua and Pacific NAVFACs at San Nicolas Island and Point Sur in California closed. Point Sur acoustic data was routed to NAVFAC Centerville. Consolidation and new systems brought further change in 1985. NAVFAC Barbers Point closes with acoustic data directed to NOPF, Ford Island. The Fixed Distributed System (FDS) test array, a new type of fixed bottom system, terminus was made at NAVFAC Brawdy, Wales. "Stalwart" makes first SURTASS operational patrol and system name is changed from SOSUS to Integrated Undersea Surveillance System (IUSS). Consolidation continued in 1987 with NAVFAC Whidbey Island, Washington, established with NAVFAC Pacific Beach's acoustic data routed to that facility. During 1991 NAVFAC Guam, Mariana Islands closed.


title: SOSUS

text: USNS "Stalwart" and monohull SURTASS ships were withdrawn with SWATH hull accepted by the Navy during 1992. That year the system got Chief of Naval Operations tasking to report whale detections.


title: SOSUS

text: More original NAVFACs closed during 1993 with NAVFACs Centerville Beach, California and Adak, Alaska closing with their acoustic data routed to NAVFAC Whidbey Island. The facility at Whidbey, with multiple systems terminating there became Naval Ocean Processing Facility (NOPF) Whidbey. During 1994 Canadian Forces Shelburne, Nova Scotia closes as does NAVFAC Argentia with HMCS "Trinity" established at Halifax Nova Scotia with operation as Canadian Forces IUSS Centre (CFIC). NAVFAC Bermuda data is routed to Naval Ocean Processing Facility (NOPF) at Dam Neck. The new Advanced Deployable System enters as a part of IUSS and NAVFAC Brawdy, Wales closes with equipment and operation transferred to Joint Maritime Facility St Mawgan during 1995. During 1996 NAVFAC Keflavik Iceland closes and the new Fixed Distributed System Initial Operational Capability is accomplished. In 1997 the Adak system reverts to "wet storage."


title: SOSUS

text: is commissioned as the first SURTASS/Low Frequency Active (LFA) surveillance ship in 2000. In 2003 the new Advanced Deployable System (ADS) completes dual array testing. Extensive changes both with shore and sea assets take place over the following years as post Cold War missions change and systems are applied in new ways. Further consolidation takes place such as in 2009 when Joint Maritime Facility, St. Mawgan in the U.K. has data remoted directly to NOPF Dam Neck and is decommissioned. British and US Forces then begin joint, combined operations at NOPF Dam Neck.


title: SOSUS

text: Project Caesar, from initial bathymetric and acoustical surveys through cable installation and turnover to operations, was managed by Bureau of Ships (BuShips) from 1951 until 1964. All the direct support through contracts with Western Electric, Bell Labs and ship schedules was under this management. In 1964 the project was placed under Industrial Manager, Potomac River Command and then Naval District Washington in 1965. In 1966 the project came under Naval Electronics Systems Command (NAVELEX PME-124) where it remained through the name change in 1986 to Space and Naval Warfare Systems Command (SPAWARSYSCOM PMW 180) and a move from Arlington to San Diego in 1997.


title: SOSUS

text: The Navy operational side, taking over when the systems were accepted and turned over for operation, came under Commander, Oceanographic System Atlantic (COMOCEANSYSLANT) in 1954. Commander, Oceanographic System Pacific (COMOCEANSYSPAC) was established for the Pacific systems in 1964. Within the Office of Chief of Naval Operations the Director ASW Programs OP-95 was established in 1964. In 1970 COMOCEANSYSLANT and COMOCEANSYSPAC were designated as major commands by the Chief of Naval Operations.


title: SOSUS

text: With the new, mobile systems Towed Array Sensor System (TASS) and the Surveillance Towed Array Sensor System (SURTASS) entering the system, the SOSUS name was changed in 1984 to Integrated Undersea Surveillance System (IUSS) to reflect the change from bottom fixed systems alone. In 1990 officers were authorized to wear IUSS insignia. Finally, with "undersea surveillance" so openly displayed, the mission is declassified in 1991 and the commands reflect that with replacement of the "oceanographic systems" with the accurate "under sea surveillance," the commands renamed as Commander, Undersea Surveillance Atlantic and Commander, Undersea Surveillance Pacific. In 1994 the Atlantic and Pacific commands were merged into Commander Undersea Surveillance at Dam Neck, Virginia. In 1998 that command was placed under Commander, Submarine Force, U.S. Atlantic Fleet.


title: SOSUS

text: The LOFARgram representation of acoustics in black, gray and white with an operator trained and adapted to interpreting that display was the critical link in the system. Experienced operators that could detect subtle differences and with practice could detect faint signatures of targets were vital to detection. It was even found that color blindness could be an advantage. It was soon apparent that the Navy's practice of short term tours and transfer out of the system was a problem. Commander Ocean Systems Atlantic launched an effort in 1964 to create a rating peculiar to SOSUS and allow personnel to remain within the community. It took five years for Bureau of Personnel to create the rating of Ocean Technician [OT]. That bureau did not do the same for officers thus forcing those with experience to either leave for new duties or leave the Navy. Some did so and remained in the system as civil service or contractor personnel.


title: SOSUS

text: The first women were assigned to NAVFAC Eleuthera when an officer and ten enlisted women were assigned in 1972. Due to the fact that the SOSUS community departed from the usual Navy cultural routine, with repeat assignments within the small community, women were able to serve in a warfare specialty without shipboard duty that was still being denied. That opened a new field for women outside the usual medical, education, or administrative specialties. SOSUS assignment qualified as important as sea duty on a Cold War front line.


title: SOSUS

text: In 1961 the system proved its effectiveness when it tracked on her first North Atlantic transit to the United Kingdom. The first detection of a Soviet nuclear submarine occurred on 6 July 1962 when NAVFAC Barbados recognized and reported contact #27103, a Soviet nuclear submarine west of Norway coming into the Atlantic through the Greenland-Iceland-United Kingdom (GIUK) gap. When sank in 1963, SOSUS helped determine its location. In 1968, the first detections of and class Soviet submarines were made, while in 1974 the first was observed. In 1968, SOSUS played a key role in locating the wreckage of the US nuclear attack submarine , lost near the Azores in May. Moreover, SOSUS data from March 1968 facilitated the discovery, and clandestine retrieval six years later, of parts of the Soviet Golf II-class ballistic missile submarine , that foundered that month north of Hawaii.


title: SOSUS

text: The secrecy of the system meant that it did not have the widespread fleet support of successful tactical systems despite its actual success. It was the primary cuing system which antisubmarine forces used to localize and potentially destroy targets for over forty years but secrecy largely kept that fact from the fleet. The lack of strong fleet support was a factor when budget cuts after the Cold War fell heavily on the surveillance program.


title: SOSUS

text: The system's first station came on line before there was any signature library of Soviet submarine acoustic characteristics while submerged. The operators had no information on which to identify a hostile submerged submarine's unique signature while snorkeling on the LOFARgram. The signatures available were of surfaced submarines from other sources. It was not until the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962, when the quarantine reduced other shipping noises, that operators recognized unusual signatures that were confirmed to be Soviet snorkeling submarines when aircraft sighted snorkels and sonobuoys confirmed the unusual acoustics as being from that submarine. Even then, others had doubts until 1963–1964 Norwegian data on submarines deploying or returning collected correlated signatures. SOSUS then became the major collector of Soviet submarine signatures and "boot strapped" itself to becoming the primary signature library for itself and becoming the major intelligence source for all other Navy acoustic sensor systems.


title: SOSUS

text: Both undersea surveillance and the operation of U.S. submarines were tightly held secrets within the communities. That secrecy led to misunderstandings and even potential breaches of security. Despite periods of realization both communities fell back into assumptions as a result of secrecy. On the submarine force side, there was a recurrent idea that SOSUS/IUSS could not detect U.S. submarines despite early SOSUS tracking USS "George Washington" across the Atlantic in its early days. Realization SOSUS could detect U.S. nuclear submarines led to the Navy's quieting program for those submarines and the assumption returned.


title: SOSUS

text: The opposite occurred when the surveillance community did not have information on U.S. submarine operations, and assumed they held a Soviet or unknown contact. In 1962 and 1973, US submarines conducting covert operations off of the Soviet submarine base at Petropavlovsk were detected by NAVFAC Adak. In 1962, the detections were published at the secret level by Commander, Alaskan Sea Frontier, and these reports were pushed up the chain of command. Commander, Submarine Force, U.S. Pacific Fleet (COMSUBPAC) recognized the contacts as US submarines engaged in highly classified operations, and immediate changes were ordered for the reporting procedures. In 1973 such contacts were again almost published, but were stopped only when information was identified by a visiting civilian expert who recognized the acoustic signatures as that of a U.S. submarine. When that submarine put into Adak for a medical emergency the detection events were matched to the submarine's logs ending the disbelief the "Soviet" contact was actually a U.S. submarine.


title: SOSUS

text: Other ships are mentioned as having "cameo" appearances and the project apparently made use of other Navy survey and civilian cable ships on occasion. The core fleet appears to be those listed below.


title: SOSUS

text: In 1988, Stephen Joseph Ratkai, a Hungarian-Canadian recruited by Soviet Intelligence, was arrested, charged and convicted in St. John's, Newfoundland for attempting to obtain information on the SOSUS site at Naval Station Argentia. John Anthony Walker, a US Navy Chief Warrant Officer and communications specialist, divulged SOSUS operational information to the Soviet Union during the Cold War which compromised its effectiveness.


title: SOSUS

text: By 1998 cable technology and shore processing allowed consolidation of shore stations to a few central processing facilities. Changes in Soviet operations, few hostile nuclear submarines at sea and the ending of the Cold War in the 1990s meant the need to maintain IUSS/SOSUS at full capability decreased. The focus of the US Navy also turned toward a new fixed system, the Fixed Distributed System, and systems deployable on a theater basis such as the Surveillance Towed Array Sensor System and Advanced Deployable System. Although officially declassified in 1991, by that time IUSS and SOSUS had long been an open secret.


title: SOSUS

text: Alternate or dual-use partnerships exist with a number of agencies and institutions. The Applied Physics Laboratory, University of Washington has used the system for Ocean Acoustic Tomography.


title: SOSUS

text: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Vents program at its Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory was granted access to the system at the Naval Ocean Processing Facility at Whidbey Island in October 1990 to combine raw analog data from specific hydrophones with NOAA systems for continuous monitoring of the northeast Pacific Ocean for low-level seismic activity and detection of volcanic activity along the northeast Pacific spreading centers.


title: SOSUS

text: Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute detected and tracked a lone whale with a unique call over a period of years in the Pacific.


title: SOSUS

text: Texas Applied Research Laboratories, and several other organizations have used the system for research.


title: SOSUS

text: Jezebel research had developed an additional short range, high frequency, upward-looking system using active transducers for direct plotting of ships passing over the array. Colossus was intended to be installed in narrows and straits.


title: SOSUS

text: "Artemis" was an experiment with a large active source. It was not a part of the SOSUS development. The system used very large towers and unwieldy components while SOSUS provided more than adequate warning and coverage and thus the system did not come into operation. The word "Artemis" had been used as a code word in the first days before "Jezebel", "Michael" and "Caesar" as an unclassified name. "Artemis", goddess of the hunt, stood for those cleared for Frederick V. Hunt and his idea of a passive system like SOSUS in his May 1950 report. That old application of "Artemis" caused some confusion.


title: William Kemmler

text: William Francis Kemmler (May 9, 1860 – August 6, 1890) was an American peddler, alcoholic, and murderer, who, in 1890, became the first person in the world to be executed by electric chair. He was convicted of murdering Matilda "Tillie" Ziegler, his common-law wife, a year earlier. Although electrocution had previously been successfully used to kill a horse, Kemmler's execution did not go smoothly.


title: William Kemmler

text: William Kemmler was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania in 1860. Both of his parents were immigrants from Germany, and both were alcoholics. After dropping out of school at age 10, unable to read or write, Kemmler worked in his father's butcher shop. Kemmler's father died from an infection he received after a drunken brawl, and his mother from complications of alcoholism. In the late 1870s Kemmler was reportedly slender, with dark brown hair. He spoke both English and German.


title: William Kemmler

text: After his parents' deaths, he went into the peddling business, and earned enough money to buy a horse and cart. At this point, however, he was also becoming a heavy drinker. In one episode involving him and his friends, after a series of drunken binges, he said he could jump his horse and cart over an eight-foot fence, with the cart attached to the horse. The attempt was a failure, and his cart and goods were destroyed in the incident. He was known to friends as "Philadelphia Billy", and his drinking binges were very well known around the saloons in his Buffalo neighborhood.