title: Trick-taking game

text: In some games such as Piquet, Tarocchini, and Belote, before the taking of tricks commences, players can expose certain cards or melds (combinations) that they possess for bonus points. While this phase may seem to award players for pure chance, those who do declare risk letting their opponents develop strategies to counter the cards that they have revealed.


title: Trick-taking game

text: In many games, "following suit" is the obligatory action of playing a card of the same suit as that of the leading suit. A player must follow suit if that player has cards of the leading suit in his hands. There is a large variation of strictness in following suit among games.


title: Trick-taking game

text: In most modern games with trump suits, the rules for following suit do not distinguish between the trump suit and the "plain suits". If a trick begins with a plain suit card and a later player cannot follow suit, the player may choose freely to either "slough" (discard a card of another plain suit), or "ruff" ("trump" the trick by playing a trump card). Subsequent players to the trick must still follow the original suit, and may only discard or trump if they do not hold a card of the suit led. Certain games are "play to beat" or "must-trump"; if a player cannot follow suit but can play trump, they must play trump, and additionally if they are able they must beat any trump card already played to the trick. Pinochle and several of the Tarot card games have this rule.


title: Trick-taking game

text: Some games, notably French tarot and a variation of Rook, use a special card (in French Tarot's case, the Excuse) that can be played at any time. If not, he has the choice of playing a trump to possibly win the trick, or rough (waste) a different suit.


title: Trick-taking game

text: If unable to follow suit or trump, any card can be played. Each trick must contain one card per player, and hence a player unable to satisfy any other instruction is at liberty to play any card. Usually a low-ranking card or one from a short suit is sacrificed. The former is used to protect a higher ranking card while the latter is to help void a suit so as to allow trumping a future trick.


title: Trick-taking game

text: It is also possible that the specific deal has "no trump". In that case, any card other than the leading suit played has no value, in most trick-taking games. In some games such as Oh, hell, where the player may need to not get more tricks to win, playing cards other than the leading suit can be useful.


title: Trick-taking game

text: North leads the deal with . Now, all the other players must follow suit, i.e. play a spade card. East has a spade card, and thus must follow suit by playing . South, however, does not have any spade card, and thus is allowed to play any card he wants. If he desires to win the trick, he can override North's by playing a diamond card (diamond being the trump), for example . If he does not want to win the trick, he can slough any other suit, such as . Let us assume that he plays , overriding North's card. Now, West still has to follow suit, since he has a spade card, and plays . South's trump card, gives him an opportunity to escape following suit, and he wins the trick.


title: Trick-taking game

text: If a player who can follow suit does not do so, or in games with additional restrictions on card play, not following these restrictions is known as a revoke, or 'renege'. A revoke typically cannot be discovered at the time when it is committed, but when a player plays off-suit to a trick, competent opponents will make a mental note that the player does not hold the suit led, and will notice later if the player later plays a card of the suit they were thought to be void in. The situation is similar for other types of revoke. Most game rules prescribe a severe penalty for a revoke and may also result in the hand being voided (a "misdeal"). Decks of cards have been marketed for trick-taking games with the traditional French suit symbols, but in four colors; these are often called "no-revoke" decks, as the color contrast between each suit makes a potential revoking play easier to spot and harder to do accidentally.


title: Trick-taking game

text: In some trick games—typically ones in which players are not penalized for winning tricks, and there is no requirement for trumping or following suit when possible—players may "slough", or play a card face down. A card so played is incapable of winning the trick; but sloughing has the advantage that the other players cannot see what card is played. As this form of sloughing has the potential to be used to cheat in most games (i.e. playing a winning card face-down to avoid taking an "overtrick" or a trick containing penalty points) and is thus not allowed, "sloughing" in the vernacular more often refers to simply discarding an off-suit card on a trick, particularly one that could be dangerous to that player if kept. This form of sloughing is important in evasion games and in some contract games where "overtricks" are penalized; in Oh Hell, for instance, a player who cannot follow suit may elect to discard a card that would win if played to follow suit later, thus reducing the chance that the player will "bag", or take more tricks than needed. This is common in Hearts, where high-value cards (especially Spades and Hearts) are dangerous as they increase the chance of winning a trick with penalty points.


title: Trick-taking game

text: Some games such as Pinochle use several decks shuffled together. In these games, there may be several equal winning cards in a trick; such games then use other rules to break ties. Common rules include:


title: Trick-taking game

text: A common additional rule to reduce these occurrences is that a player cannot play a card tying the current high card unless they would renege or fail to overtrump by making any other play.


title: Trick-taking game

text: When all tricks have been played, the winner of the hand and the players' scores can be determined. The determining factor in plain-trick games (the most popular form of trick-taking games in English-speaking countries) is simply how many tricks each player or partnership has taken. In point-trick games, certain card values are worth varying points, and the players sum the points from cards in their "scoring piles" that were accumulated by taking tricks. Points for cards, and the method of counting points, vary by game; in Rook, for example, the 5-card of each color is worth 5 points, the 10 and 14 (or Ace) is worth 10, and the Rook Bird (or Joker) is worth 20, while all other cards are worth nothing. Many Chinese card games like Finding Friends use a very similar system, in which each 5-card is worth 5 points, and the 10 and King are each worth 10 points. Pinochle has many popular scoring variants usually based on point values for face cards and Aces, while pip cards score no points. In French tarot, all cards have a value including a half-point, and are traditionally scored in pairs of a high-value and a low-value card which results in a whole-point value for the pair.


title: Trick-taking game

text: In the most common "positive" or "race" games, players seek to win as many tricks or card points as possible. To win a hand, a player typically needs to win a minimal number of tricks or card points; this minimal threshold is usually called the "contract", and may be defined by the game's rules (a simple majority of total available points or tricks, or tiered thresholds depending on which player or side has captured certain cards), or the result of an "auction" or "bidding" process. A player who wins more than the number of tricks or card points necessary for winning the hand may be rewarded with a higher score, or conversely (in exact-prediction games) they may be penalized.


title: Trick-taking game

text: There are also "negative" or "evasion" games, in which the object is to avoid tricks or card points. E.g. in Hearts each card point won in a trick contributes negatively to the score. A special type is "misère" games, which are usually variants of positive games which can only be won by not winning a single trick.


title: Trick-taking game

text: Other criteria also occur. Sometimes the last trick has special significance. In "marriage games" such as Pinochle the winner of the last trick receives 10 points in addition to the card points, while in "final-trick" games such as cắt tê only the winner of the last trick can win a hand. There are also blends between positive and negative games, e.g. the aim may be to win a certain prescribed number of tricks. Many card games, regardless of their normal scoring mechanism, give bonuses to players or partnerships who win all tricks or possible points in a hand, or conversely lose all tricks or points.


title: Trick-taking game

text: Games usually end after every player has had an equal chance to be the dealer. The number of rotations varies widely among games. Some games have a cumulative score where all points from each hand add up. Others assign only a set number of game points for winning a hand. For example, a player or side that wins one hand may be awarded one game point, two if they achieve a slam. The player or side with the most game points or the first to reach a certain number of card or game points, is considered the winner.


title: Trick-taking game

text: Numerous further variations to the basic rules may occur, and only a few examples can be mentioned here:


title: Trick-taking game

text: In games derived from Austria and Germany, trick-taking is governed by the rules called "Zwänge". The three main ones are "Farbzwang", "Stichzwang" and "Trumpfzwang". Although they broadly equate to rules in English-speaking countries, there are no single-word equivalents. For many games of this type, applying these rules correctly is crucial to the type of contract being played.


title: Trick-taking game

text: "Farbzwang" (or "Bedienzwang") literally means "suit compulsion" and is the rule that players must follow the suit of the first card to be led to the trick, provided that they have a card of that suit. If a player does not have a card of the led suit, they may play ('discard') a card of their choice. If a player has several cards of the led suit, they may choose which to play. In most cases it makes sense to play a higher ranking card.


title: Trick-taking game

text: "Stichzwang" means "trick compulsion" and is the rule that players must attempt to win the trick if they are able, either by playing a higher card of the led suit or by playing a trump card.


title: Trick-taking game

text: Some games apply "Farbzwang" and "Stichzwang" together, which means that a player, when it is his turn, must:


title: Trick-taking game

text: "Farbzwang", the requirement to follow suit, always takes precedence over "Stichzwang". A player is not allowed to take the trick with a trump if he can follow suit.


title: Trick-taking game

text: "Trumpfzwang" means "trump compulsion" and requires that a player "must" play a trump if he cannot follow suit. In other words, he may not simply discard, if he cannot follow suit.


title: Trick-taking game

text: "Example": Acorns are trumps. Forehand plays the 8 of Bells, middlehand trumps with a 10 of Acorns; rearhand has no Bells, but does have a trump card, the 8 of Acorns. He must play this and cannot discard another non-trump card in order to keep the trump for a subsequent trick.


title: Trick-taking game

text: "Tarockzwang" is used in tarock games such as Königrufen and Tapp-Tarock and means "Tarock compulsion" or the requirement to play a Tarock card if one is led to the trick or if a player is unable to follow suit. It is a form of "Trumpfzwang".


title: Trick-taking game

text: Trick-taking games may be divided into point-trick games and plain-trick games. Examples of each are as follows:


title: Trick-taking game

text: Point-trick game are those in which win or loss is determined by the total value of the "counters" in the tricks. The counters are cards with a point value, sometimes referred to as "card points" to avoid confusion with "game points" awarded for winning the game and/or bonuses.


title: Trick-taking game

text: Plain-trick games are those in which the outcome is determined by the number of tricks taken, regardless of their content.


title: Trick-taking game

text: In games that consist of several successive, different, trick-taking contracts, such as Herzeln or Quodlibet, it is not possible to categorise them as either point- or plain-trick games.


title: Trick-taking game

text: Trick-avoidance games are those in which the aim is to avoid taking certain tricks or to avoid taking all tricks. Misere or bettel are contracts in which the declarer undertakes to win no tricks. There are also contracts like Piccolo in which the aim is to take only one trick. Examples include:


title: Formula for primes

text: In number theory, a formula for primes is a formula generating the prime numbers, exactly and without exception. No such formula which is efficiently computable is known. A number of constraints are known, showing what such a "formula" can and cannot be.


title: Formula for primes

text: for positive integer formula_2, where formula_3 is the floor function, which rounds down to the nearest integer.


title: Formula for primes

text: By Wilson's theorem, formula_4 is prime if and only if formula_5. Thus, when formula_4 is prime, the first factor in the product becomes one, and the formula produces the prime number formula_4. But when formula_4 is not prime, the first factor becomes zero and the formula produces the prime number 2.


title: Formula for primes

text: This formula is not an efficient way to generate prime numbers because evaluating formula_9 requires about formula_10 multiplications and reductions modulo formula_4.


title: Formula for primes

text: This formula is also not efficient. In addition to the appearance of formula_15, it computes formula_14 by adding up formula_14 copies of formula_18; for example, formula_19.


title: Formula for primes

text: Because the set of primes is a computably enumerable set, by Matiyasevich's theorem, it can be obtained from a system of Diophantine equations. found an explicit set of 14 Diophantine equations in 26 variables, such that a given number "k" + 2 is prime if and only if that system has a solution in natural numbers:


title: Formula for primes

text: The 14 equations "α", …, "α" can be used to produce a prime-generating polynomial inequality in 26 variables:


title: Formula for primes

text: is a polynomial inequality in 26 variables, and the set of prime numbers is identical to the set of positive values taken on by the left-hand side as the variables "a", "b", …, "z" range over the nonnegative integers.


title: Formula for primes

text: A general theorem of Matiyasevich says that if a set is defined by a system of Diophantine equations, it can also be defined by a system of Diophantine equations in only 9 variables. Hence, there is a prime-generating polynomial as above with only 10 variables. However, its degree is large (in the order of 10). On the other hand, there also exists such a set of equations of degree only 4, but in 58 variables.


title: Formula for primes

text: The first such formula known was established by , who proved that there exists a real number "A" such that, if


title: Formula for primes

text: is a prime number for all positive integers "n". If the Riemann hypothesis is true, then the smallest such "A" has a value of around 1.3063778838630806904686144926... and is known as Mills' constant. This value gives rise to the primes formula_38, formula_39, formula_40, ... . Very little is known about the constant "A" (not even whether it is rational). This formula has no practical value, because there is no known way of calculating the constant without finding primes in the first place.


title: Formula for primes

text: Note that there is nothing special about the floor function in the formula. Tóth proved that there also exists a constant formula_41 such that


title: Formula for primes

text: In the case formula_44, the value of the constant formula_41 begins with 1.24055470525201424067... The first few primes generated are:


title: Formula for primes

text: "Without" assuming the Riemann hypothesis, Elsholtz developed several prime-representing functions similar to those of Mills. For example, if formula_47, then formula_48 is prime for all positive integers formula_2. Similarly, if formula_50, then formula_51 is prime for all positive integers formula_2.


title: Formula for primes

text: Another prime-generating formula similar to Mills' comes from a theorem of E. M. Wright. He proved that there exists a real number "α" such that, if


title: Formula for primes

text: Wright gives the first seven decimal places of such a constant: formula_58. This value gives rise to the primes formula_59, formula_60, and formula_61. formula_62 is even, and so is not prime. However, with formula_63, formula_64, formula_65, and formula_66 are unchanged, while formula_62 is a prime with 4932 digits. This sequence of primes cannot be extended beyond formula_62 without knowing more digits of formula_69. Like Mills' formula, and for the same reasons, Wright's formula cannot be used to find primes.


title: Formula for primes

text: The initial constant formula_79 given in the article is precise enough for equation () to generate the primes through 37, the formula_80th prime.


title: Formula for primes

text: The "exact" value of formula_81 that generates "all" primes is given by the rapidly-converging series


title: Formula for primes

text: where formula_14 is the formula_2th prime, and formula_85 is the product of all primes less than formula_14. The more digits of formula_81 that we know, the more primes equation () will generate. For example, we can use 25 terms in the series, using the 25 primes less than 100, to calculate the following more precise approximation:


title: Formula for primes

text: As with Mills' formula and Wright's formula above, in order to generate a longer list of primes, we need to start by knowing more digits of the initial constant, formula_81, which in this case requires a longer list of primes in its calculation.


title: Formula for primes

text: In 2018 Simon Plouffe conjectured a set of formulas for primes. Similarly to the formula of Mills, they are of the form


title: Formula for primes

text: where formula_91 is the function rounding to the nearest integer. For example, with formula_92 and formula_93, this gives 113, 367, 1607, 10177, 102217... Using formula_94 and formula_95 with formula_96 a certain number between 0 and one half, Plouffe found that he could generate a sequence of 50 probable primes (with high probability of being prime). Presumably there exists an ε such that this formula will give an infinite sequence of actual prime numbers. The number of digits starts at 501 and increases by about 1% each time.


title: Formula for primes

text: It is known that no non-constant polynomial function "P"("n") with integer coefficients exists that evaluates to a prime number for all integers "n". The proof is as follows: suppose that such a polynomial existed. Then "P"(1) would evaluate to a prime "p", so formula_97. But for any integer "k", formula_98 also, so formula_99 cannot also be prime (as it would be divisible by "p") unless it were "p" itself. But the only way formula_100 for all "k" is if the polynomial function is constant.


title: Formula for primes

text: The same reasoning shows an even stronger result: no non-constant polynomial function "P"("n") exists that evaluates to a prime number for almost all integers "n".


title: Formula for primes

text: is prime for the 40 integers "n" = 0, 1, 2, ..., 39, with corresponding primes 41, 43, 47, 53, 61, 71, ..., 1601. The differences between the terms are 2, 4, 6, 8, 10... For "n" = 40, it produces a square number, 1681, which is equal to 41 × 41, the smallest composite number for this formula for "n" ≥ 0. If 41 divides "n", it divides "P"("n") too. Furthermore, since "P"("n") can be written as "n"("n" + 1) + 41, if 41 divides "n" + 1 instead, it also divides "P"("n"). The phenomenon is related to the Ulam spiral, which is also implicitly quadratic, and the class number; this polynomial is related to the Heegner number formula_102. There are analogous polynomials for formula_103 (the lucky numbers of Euler), corresponding to other Heegner numbers.


title: Formula for primes

text: Given a positive integer "S", there may be infinitely many "c" such that the expression "n" + "n" + "c" is always coprime to "S". The integer "c" may be negative, in which case there is a delay before primes are produced.


title: Formula for primes

text: It is known, based on Dirichlet's theorem on arithmetic progressions, that linear polynomial functions formula_104 produce infinitely many primes as long as "a" and "b" are relatively prime (though no such function will assume prime values for all values of "n"). Moreover, the Green–Tao theorem says that for any "k" there exists a pair of "a" and "b", with the property that formula_105 is prime for any "n" from 0 through "k" − 1. However, the best known result of such type is for "k" = 27:


title: Formula for primes

text: is prime for all "n" from 0 through 26. It is not even known whether there exists a univariate polynomial of degree at least 2, that assumes an infinite number of values that are prime; see Bunyakovsky conjecture.


title: Formula for primes

text: where gcd("x", "y") denotes the greatest common divisor of "x" and "y". The sequence of differences "a" − "a" starts with 1, 1, 1, 5, 3, 1, 1, 1, 1, 11, 3, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 23, 3, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 47, 3, 1, 5, 3, ... . proved that this sequence contains only ones and prime numbers. However, it does not contain all the prime numbers, since the terms gcd("n" + 1, "a") are always odd and so never equal to 2. 587 is the smallest prime (other than 2) not appearing in the first 10,000 outcomes that are different from 1. Nevertheless, in the same paper it was conjectured to contain all odd primes, even though it is rather inefficient.


title: Formula for primes

text: Note that there is a trivial program that enumerates all and only the prime numbers, as well as more efficient ones, so such recurrence relations are more a matter of curiosity than of any practical use.


title: Vero Rodríguez

text: Verónica Rodríguez (born 26 March 1987) is a Mexican sports journalist and television host. She is best known for her tenure with Fox Sports Mexico and Fox Deportes, where she anchored programs such as "Agenda Fox Sports" and "Lo Mejor de Fox Sports" from 2014 to 2021.


title: Vero Rodríguez

text: Verónica Rodríguez was born on 26 March 1987 in Mexico City. As a child, she became deeply fascinated with sports and the emotions it evokes. She studied communications at Universidad Iberoamericana and graduated with honors in 2010.


title: Vero Rodríguez

text: Rodríguez began her career as a reporter on Pumas TV in 2007. On the show, she covered the daily life of her favorite football club, UNAM Pumas. She hosted the show while she was in university, and was invited to join by a classmate, who was a producer for the show. After graduating from university, she worked for MVS Televisión, where she co-hosted the program "Locas por el Fútbol." She has also contributed to the sports website "Medio Tiempo".


title: Vero Rodríguez

text: Rodríguez was signed to Fox Sports Latin America in 2014 after several years of auditioning. She began hosting the sports entertainment program "Fox Para Todos" and "La Previa del fin de Semana", which were previews of upcoming Pachuca and León matches and were aired before each game. She also became a sideline reporter for Liga MX and Liga MX Feminil matches.


title: Vero Rodríguez

text: In 2016, Rodríguez covered the Summer Olympics held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, as well as the UEFA Champions League Final held in Milan, Italy. In 2017, she began hosting the sports entertainment program "Lo Mejor de Fox Sports," and the wrestling news program "WWE Saturday Night" alongside Jimena Sánchez. Through "WWE Saturday Night", she covered several editions of "Wrestlemania," "Summerslam," "Monday Night Raw," and live events across Mexico.


title: Vero Rodríguez

text: In 2018, Rodríguez began anchoring "Agenda Fox Sports", a morning sports news program that airs in Latin America on Fox Sports and in the United States on Fox Deportes. She has also served as a reporter for Formula 1 and Formula E races. In 2019, she covered the UEFA Champions League Final held in Madrid, Spain.


title: Vero Rodríguez

text: In January 2020, Rodríguez announced that she would be taking a short break from Fox Sports because she was moving from Mexico to the United States. Because of the COVID-19 pandemic, she was able to continue hosting her usual programs for a while at home. However, due to personal issues, she had to continue her break. During her absence, she contributed to other sports websites, podcasts, and shows. She returned to Fox Sports on 3 May 2021, during an episode of "Agenda Fox Sports". In addition to hosting programs and covering events for Fox Sports Mexico, Rodríguez was a Spanish broadcaster and ambassador for the English football club Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C. Rodríguez was laid off from Fox Sports Mexico and Fox Deportes in November 2021.


title: Vero Rodríguez

text: Rodríguez identifies as a feminist. In 2017, she helped launch Versus, a non-profit, non-government organization, co-founded by her colleague Marion Reimers, devoted to combating gender, racial, and class discrimination in sports journalism. Rodríguez was featured in the organization's video launch alongside Reimers and Jimena Sánchez, as they show how they are met with a string of harmful and sexist messages on their social media accounts, because of their role as women in sports.


title: Vero Rodríguez

text: Rodríguez has been featured in numerous publications — including "EstiloDF", "NYLON Español", and "Quien". In June 2019, she was featured in that month's issue of "Maxim Mexico."


title: Vero Rodríguez

text: Rodríguez is an avid supporter of the Mexican football club UNAM Pumas, and has credited the club for sparking her love for sports. She is also a supporter of the Italian football club Juventus. Her hobbies include spending time at the beach, surfing, art, and photography.


title: Vero Rodríguez

text: On 19 August 2019, Rodríguez married Irish professional wrestler Fergal Devitt, better known as Finn Bálor, in a private ceremony in Tulum. They had confirmed their relationship in June that year, during an interview at the UEFA Champions League final, and Devitt proposed to Rodríguez the following day. They reside in Orlando, Florida.


title: Line level

text: Line level is the specified strength of an audio signal used to transmit analog audio between components such as CD and DVD players, television sets, audio amplifiers, and mixing consoles.


title: Line level

text: Line level sits between other levels of audio signals. There are weaker signals such as those from microphones (microphone level or mic level) and instrument pickups (instrument level), and stronger signals, such as those used to drive headphones and loudspeakers (speaker level). The "strength" of these various signals does not necessarily refer to the output voltage of the source device; it also depends on its output impedance and output power capability.


title: Line level

text: Consumer electronic devices concerned with audio (for example sound cards) often have a connector labeled "line in" and/or "line out". "Line out" provides an audio signal output and "line in" receives a signal input. The line in/out connections on consumer-oriented audio equipment are typically unbalanced, with a (0.14 inch, but commonly called "eighth inch") 3-conductor TRS minijack connector providing ground, left channel, and right channel, or stereo RCA jacks. Professional equipment commonly uses balanced connections on (1/4 inch) TRS phone jacks or XLR connectors. Professional equipment may also use unbalanced connections with (1/4 inch) TS phone jacks.


title: Line level

text: A line level describes a line's nominal signal level as a ratio, expressed in decibels, against a standard reference voltage. The nominal level and the reference voltage against which it is expressed depend on the line level being used. While the nominal levels themselves vary, only two reference voltages are common: for consumer applications, and for professional applications.


title: Line level

text: The decibel volt reference voltage is . The decibel unloaded reference voltage, , is the AC voltage required to produce of power across a impedance (approximately ). This awkward unit is a holdover from the early telephone standards, which used 600 Ω sources and loads, and measured dissipated power in decibel-milliwatts (dBm). Modern audio equipment does not use 600 Ω matched loads, hence "dBm unloaded" ("dBu").


title: Line level

text: The most common nominal level for professional equipment is (by convention, decibel values are written with an explicit sign symbol). For consumer equipment it is , which is used to reduce manufacturing costs.


title: Line level

text: Expressed in absolute terms, a signal at is equivalent to a sine wave signal with a peak amplitude (V) of approximately , or any general signal at root mean square (V). A signal at is equivalent to a sine wave signal with a peak amplitude of approximately , or any general signal at approximately 1.228 V.


title: Line level

text: Peak-to-peak (sometimes abbreviated as "p-p") amplitude (V) refers to the total voltage swing of a signal, which is double the peak amplitude of the signal. For instance, a signal with a peak amplitude of has a of .


title: Line level

text: The line level signal is an alternating current signal without a DC offset, meaning that its voltage varies with respect to signal ground from the peak amplitude (for example ) to the equivalent negative voltage ().


title: Line level

text: A line driver is typically used to drive line-level analog signal outputs. As cables between line output and line input are generally extremely short compared to the audio signal wavelength in the cable, transmission line effects can be disregarded and impedance matching need not be used. Instead, line level circuits use the impedance bridging principle, in which a low impedance output drives a high impedance input. A typical line out connection has an output impedance from 100 to , with lower values being more common in newer equipment. Line inputs present a much higher impedance, typically or more.


title: Line level

text: The two impedances form a voltage divider with a shunt element that is large relative to the size of the series element, which ensures that little of the signal is shunted to ground and that current requirements are minimized. Most of the voltage asserted by the output appears across the input impedance and almost none of the voltage is dropped across the output. The line input acts similarly to a high impedance voltmeter or oscilloscope input, measuring the voltage asserted by the output while drawing minimal current (and hence minimal power) from the source. The high impedance of the line in the circuit does not load down the output of the source device.


title: Line level

text: These are voltage signals (as opposed to current signals) and it is the signal information (voltage) that is desired, not power to drive a transducer, such as a speaker or antenna. The actual information that is exchanged between the devices is the variance in voltage; it is this alternating voltage signal that conveys the information, making the current irrelevant.


title: Line level

text: Line outputs usually present a source impedance of 100 to 600 ohms. The voltage can reach 2 volts peak-to-peak with levels referenced to −10 dBV (300 mV) at . The frequency response of most modern equipment is advertised as at least 20 Hz to 20 kHz, which corresponds to the conventional range of human hearing. Line outputs are intended to drive a load impedance of


title: Line level

text: Connecting a low-impedance load such as a loudspeaker (usually ) to a line out will essentially short circuit the output circuit. Such loads are around 1/1000 the impedance a line out is designed to drive, so the line out is usually not designed to source the current that would be drawn by a 4 to 8 ohm load at normal line out signal voltages. The result will be very weak sound from the speaker and possibly a damaged line out circuit.


title: Line level

text: Different make and model headphones have widely varying impedances, from as little as to a few hundred ohms; the lowest of these will have results similar to a speaker, while the highest may work acceptably if the line out impedance is low enough and the headphones are sensitive enough.


title: Line level

text: Conversely, a headphone output generally has a source impedance of only a few ohms (to provide a bridging connection with 32 ohm headphones) and will easily drive a line input.


title: Line level

text: For similar reasons, "wye"-cables (or "Y-splitters") should not be used to combine two line out signals into a single line in.


title: Line level

text: again resulting in a much heavier load than designed for. This will result in signal loss and possibly even damage.


title: Line level

text: should be used instead. A large resistor in series with each output can be used to safely mix them together, but must be appropriately designed for the load impedance and cable length.


title: Line level

text: It is intended by designers that the line out of one device be connected to the line input of another. Line inputs are designed to accept voltage levels in the range provided by line outputs.


title: Line level

text: When driven by a line output's usual low impedance of 100 to 600 ohms, this forms a bridging connection in which most of the voltage generated by the source (the output) is dropped across the load (the input), and minimal current flows due to the load's relatively high impedance.


title: Line level

text: they should not be confused with so-called "Hi-Z" inputs (Z being the symbol for impedance) which have an impedance of to over . These "Hi-Z" or "instrument" inputs generally have higher gain than a line input.


title: Line level

text: Some of these sources can provide only minimal voltage and current and the high impedance input is designed to not load them excessively.


title: Line level

text: Acoustic sounds (such as voices or musical instruments) are often recorded with transducers (microphones and pickups) that produce weak electrical signals. These signals must be amplified to line level, where they are more easily manipulated by other devices such as mixing consoles and tape recorders. Such amplification is performed by a device known as a preamplifier or "preamp",


title: Line level

text: After manipulation at line level, signals are then typically sent to a power amplifier, where they are amplified to levels that can drive headphones or loudspeakers. These convert the signals back into sounds that can be heard through the air.


title: Line level

text: Most phonograph cartridges also have a low output level and require a preamp; typically, a home stereo integrated amplifier or receiver will have a special phono input. This input passes the signal through a phono preamp, which applies RIAA equalization to the signal as well as boosting it to line level.


title: Opinion polling for the next Dutch general election

text: In the run-up to the next Dutch general election, various organisations are carrying out opinion polling to gauge voting intentions in the Netherlands. Results of such polls are displayed in this list.


text: The date range for these opinion polls are from the 2021 Dutch general election, held on 15–17 March, to the present day. The next election is scheduled for March 2025. Snap elections occur fairly frequently, having most recently occurred in 2012 Dutch general election.


text: Four main pollsters perform opinion polls on voting intentions in the Netherlands, these being: I&O Research, Ipsos, Kantar and Peil.nl. No sample sizes or date ranges are provided by Maurice de Hond's Peil.nl; the panel includes approximately 3,000 respondents per week. Peil.nl also does not give percentages, only showing seats while the other pollsters do include percentages.


text: The averages in the graphs below were constructed using polls listed below conducted by the four major Dutch pollsters. The trendlines show local regressions representing seat totals (not vote percentages).


text: There are 150 seats in total. Parties are denoted with en dashes if no indication is given of their level in polls.


title: Heydar Aliyev Center

text: The Heydar Aliyev Center is a building complex in Baku, Azerbaijan designed by Iraqi-British architect Zaha Hadid and noted for its distinctive architecture and flowing, curved style that eschews sharp angles. The center is named after Heydar Aliyev (1923–2003), the first secretary of Soviet Azerbaijan from 1969 to 1982, and president of Azerbaijan Republic from October 1993 to October 2003.


title: Heydar Aliyev Center

text: In 2007, Zaha Hadid was appointed as the design architect of the Center after a competition. The Center houses a conference hall (auditorium), a gallery hall and a museum. The project is intended to play an integral role in the intellectual life of the city. Located close to the city center, the site plays a pivotal role in the redevelopment of Baku.


title: Heydar Aliyev Center

text: The Heydar Aliyev Center represents a fluid form which emerges by the folding of the landscape's natural topography and by the wrapping of individual functions of the Center. All functions of the Center, together with entrances, are represented by folds in a single continuous surface. This fluid form gives an opportunity to connect the various cultural spaces whilst at the same time, providing each element of the Center with its own identity and privacy. As it folds inside, the skin erodes away to become an element of the interior landscape of the Center.


title: Heydar Aliyev Center

text: Heydar Aliyev Center had an official soft-opening ceremony on 10 May 2012 held by current president of Azerbaijan Ilham Aliyev.


title: Heydar Aliyev Center

text: An internationally recognized architectural work, the building of the Heydar Aliyev Center has become a signature landmark of modern Baku due to its innovative and cutting-edge design. Extending on eight floor levels, the center accommodates a 1000-seat auditorium, temporary exhibition spaces, a conference center, workshops, and a museum.


title: Heydar Aliyev Center

text: The building was nominated for awards in 2013 at both the World Architecture Festival and the biennial Inside Festival. In 2014, the Center won the Design Museum's Design of the Year Award 2014 despite concerns about the site's human rights record. This makes Zaha Hadid the first woman to win the top prize in that competition.


title: Heydar Aliyev Center

text: The building was featured in "Extreme Engineering", a documentary television series that airs on the Discovery Channel and the Science Channel. The episode called "Azerbaijan's Amazing Transformation" was aired on April 22, 2011 as part of Season 9. The Building was also featured on the "postcard" of Samra Rahimli for the postcard of Azerbaijan at the Eurovision Song Contest 2016 and in a Google Doodle in 2017.


title: Heydar Aliyev Center

text: On June 29, 2012, the Heydar Aliyev Center held the official opening of Crans Montana Forum, attended by President of Azerbaijan Ilham Aliyev, President of Georgia Mikheil Saakashvili, President of Macedonia Gjorge Ivanov, President of Montenegro Filip Vujanović, as well as foreign public figures, MPs, intellectuals, and business circles.


title: Heydar Aliyev Center

text: On July 3, 2012, the Center held the ceremony of the official seeing-off of the Azerbaijani delegation to take part in the 2012 Summer Olympic Games in London. The ceremony was attended by the President Republic of Azerbaijan, President of the National Olympic Committee Ilham Aliyev and his spouse Mehriban Aliyeva. Photo banners reflecting the Olympic movement in Azerbaijan were installed in the lobby of the Heydar Aliyev Center. President of Azerbaijan Ilham Aliyev made a speech at the ceremony.


title: Heydar Aliyev Center

text: On 20 July 2012, a fire started on the roof of the building at about 11:30am. It was quickly put out by firemen, and it was initially reported that the fire only damaged the roof of the building, leaving the interior only slightly damaged, mainly because of the water used by firemen to extinguish the fire. The fire was found to have resulted from negligence in the use of welding equipment in the roof; three Turkish contractors were subsequently charged under Azerbaijan's criminal code. The resulting damage was found to have had "grave consequences and material damage on a large scale". Subsequent to sixteen months of repairs, it was formally (re)opened on November 5, 2013.


title: Heydar Aliyev Center

text: On Nov. 2 and 3, 2013, Moscow music theater “Helikon-Opera” under the direction of People's Artist of Russia Dmitry Bertman presented performances at the Heydar Aliyev Center. On Nov. 2, the “Helikon-Opera” presented a gala concert “The Enduring Love”, a program that included lyric songs by Marilyn Monroe, Tina Turner, Elton John, Celine Dion, Whitney Houston, “The Beatles”, with “All You Need is Love”, “I believe in Love”, ”Je Suis Malade”, “Only You”, “Lady in Red”, “Love me Tender” performed. On Nov.3, the artists of the theater performed the opera “Siberia” by the Italian composer Umberto Giordano staged by Dmitry Bertmann. The opera narrates the story of love between two young people, which starts at brilliant imperial St. Petersburg and ends tragically in hard labor in Siberia.


title: Heydar Aliyev Center

text: On June 21, 2013, the Center held the exhibition of works by American artist Andy Warhol titled “Life, Death, and Beauty” supervised by Gianni Mercurio, dated for the 85th anniversary of the artist. The exhibition for the first time in Azerbaijan displayed over one hundred works by the artist, including featurettes by Warhol. There were shown photos of the author, portraits of the world film, music, and fashion stars, as well as other world-renowned works, including "Flowers" "Camouflage", “The Last Supper”, “Male Hands Praying”, “Electric Chair”, etc. On August 6, the artist's birthday, Baku residents and visitors could freely visit the exhibition, which ran till September 9.


title: Heydar Aliyev Center

text: On October 1, 2013, the Heydar Aliyev Center held a personal exhibition of the People's Artist of Azerbaijan, vice-president of the Russian Academy of Arts Tahir Salahov titled “At the turn of the century”. The exhibition was dated for the 85th anniversary of the artist. His great contribution to the development of the Azerbaijani fine art was highlighted at the exhibition opening. The artistic heritage of Tahir Salahov is an integral part of the art of not only Azerbaijan, but also the entire former Soviet Union. He is recognized as one of the founders of the “severe style” in painting. The exhibition featured over 100 works by the artist, created at different times, and his works on the carpets. Among the exhibits were the portraits of Heydar Aliyev, the composer Gara Garayev and Dmitri Shostakovich, the musician Mstislav Rostropovich, the works “Aidan”, “Morning. Absheron”, ”Koroglu”, Absheron triptych – “Ateshgah”, “The Caspian today”, “Maiden Tower”, and other well-known works of the people’s artist. The exhibition ran till November 8.


title: Heydar Aliyev Center

text: In 2017 the center has also opened its doors to the Contemporary Turkish Art Exhibition, a collection of art pieces by various Turkish artists.


title: Heydar Aliyev Center

text: On May 27, 2019, Heydar Aliyev Center hosted The Historic Masterpieces Exhibition, which included ancient artifacts from Georgia and Azerbaijan.


title: Heydar Aliyev Center

text: Majority of artifacts belong to Gajar epoch and are worldwide known ceramic and metal works, canvases, miniatures and belongings of Fatali Khan, including his portrait.


title: Heydar Aliyev Center

text: The exhibition also featured photographic collection by Dmitri Yermakov, a participant of the Russian-Ottoman War of 1877-1878.


title: Heydar Aliyev Center

text: On November 29, 2018, Almost Alive exhibition was held at the Heydar Aliyev Center. The exhibition consisted of deformed figures of extraordinary dimensions, monochrome statues, pieces representing various body parts.


title: Heydar Aliyev Center

text: The exhibition features works created by Daniel Firman, Duane Hanson, Tony Matelli, Mel Ramos, Mathilde ter Heijne, Robert Graham, Allen Jones, Zharko Basheski, George Segal and other artists.


title: Heydar Aliyev Center

text: On May 22, Zurab Tsereteli opened an exhibition at Heydar Aliyev Center. Exhibition was dedicated to Zurab Tsereteli’s 85th anniversary. 30 paintings and statues brought from Moscow, Tbilisi and London are displayed at the exhibition.


title: Heydar Aliyev Center

text: On November 26, Strauss Festival Orchestra Vienna held a concert at Heydar Aliyev Center. Concert was held with full house. The Strauss Festival Orchestra Vienna also appeared with concerts at the Heydar Aliyev Center back in 2014 and 2016.


title: Heydar Aliyev Center

text: Jaggi Vasudev, also known as Sadguru gave a lecture in Heydar Aliyev Center on November 10. The subject constitutes a comprehensive system derived from centuries-old yoga studies aiming at profound and sustainable personal transformation.


title: Heydar Aliyev Center

text: The Mini Azerbaijan exhibition on the second floor features models of 24 historical and architectural buildings. Visitors can also learn about the history and architecture of buildings exhibited both in Azerbaijani and English.


title: Heydar Aliyev Center

text: Among exhibited buildings, there are buildings dated to the Middle Ages (Maiden Tower, Momine Khatun Mausoleum), 19th century (Baku Bazaar, Azerbaijan State Philharmonic Hall, Ismailiyya Palace), USSR era (Government House, Green Theatre), 21st century (Baku Crystal Hall, Flame Towers) as well as the buildings being constructed (Baku Olympic Stadium, State Oil Fund of the Republic of Azerbaijan).


title: Heydar Aliyev Center

text: The Heydar Aliyev Center maintains close ties with a number of international agencies, peer structures abroad, museums and exhibition centers. The Center has organized events and exhibitions as a result of joint cooperation with different organization, museums and exhibitions of Austria, Belgium, Great Britain, France, Italy, Russia, Slovenia, Turkey and so on. At the same time, it has conducted a number of projects in Great Britain, Israel, Italy, Hungary, Romania, Russia, Turkey, Japan and others. Center has become a member of various international organizations.


title: Heydar Aliyev Center

text: The Association's major goal is to provide support to the agencies involved in the organization of events and exhibitions through resources and information, and the development of the exhibition industry. The Center enjoys the IAEE membership as of September 17, 2013.


title: Heydar Aliyev Center

text: The ICCA is the world s leading association in the field of organizing and accommodating international events with 90 member states at the moment. The Center became the ICCA member as of October 10, 2013.


title: Heydar Aliyev Center

text: The Association the Center acceded as of September 15, 2014 unites professional managers of convention centers and exhibitions halls, with more than 50 member states currently represented.


title: Heydar Aliyev Center

text: The association unites organizations involved in the management, operation and sales of events. Sharing best practices in security and sustainability matters, as well as technical and financial issues, constitutes the major objective of the AEO, with the Heydar Aliyev Center being a member to as of December 15, 2014.


title: A.B. Quintanilla

text: Abraham Quintanilla III (born December 13, 1963), known professionally as A.B. Quintanilla III or A.B. Quintanilla, is an American record producer, songwriter and musician, and the older brother of singer Selena, known as "The Queen of Tejano music".


title: A.B. Quintanilla

text: Along with Selena, his other sister Suzette, and his father Abraham, he became a member of Los Dinos in 1980. As a member of Los Dinos, A.B. played bass guitar, produced, and wrote songs for Selena that became successful singles such as "Como la Flor", "Amor Prohibido" and "No Me Queda Más" After Selena's death, he would create the bands Kumbia Kings and Kumbia All Starz.


title: A.B. Quintanilla

text: Abraham Isaac Quintanilla III was born on December 13, 1963 in Toppenish, Washington. He is the oldest child of Abraham Quintanilla Jr. and Marcella Ofelia Quintanilla (née Samora); and the older brother of Suzette Quintanilla and the late Selena Quintanilla. Shortly after he was born, Quintanilla and his parents would move to Lake Jackson, Texas, where he would be raised there and where his two younger sisters were born.


title: A.B. Quintanilla

text: While living in Lake Jackson, Texas, A.B. learned to play the guitar and bass. Alongside Selena, his sister Suzette, and their father, Abraham, he became a member of the successful band Los Dinos. A.B. also became Selena's producer.


title: A.B. Quintanilla

text: He co-wrote Selena's hit songs like "Como la Flor" ("Like the Flower") and "Amor Prohibido" ("Forbidden Love").


title: A.B. Quintanilla

text: A.B.'s sister, Selena, was murdered on March 31, 1995, which greatly devastated him. He helped produce "Como Te Extraño" ("How I Miss You") by Pedro "Pete" Astudillo, which was written for Selena as well as Astudillo's late grandmother. The song earned Astudillo a Premios Lo Nuestro award for Best Song of the Year in 1996.


title: A.B. Quintanilla

text: A.B. Quintanilla later resurfaced in 1999 by creating the Kumbia Kings, which mixed cumbia and pop music. The Kumbia Kings went on an international tour, had several CD releases and participated on such shows as Cristina Saralegui's "El Show de Cristina". Quintanilla also produced for such entertainers as Thalía, Alicia Villarreal, Verónica Castro and Cristian Castro.


title: A.B. Quintanilla

text: He produced and arranged the 2004 album, "A.B. Quintanilla III Presents Joe Lopez", which includes "Cuando Estoy Contigo" ("When I Am with You") and "Soy Tan Feliz" ("I'm So Happy"), co-written by Quintanilla and Luigi Giraldo.


title: A.B. Quintanilla

text: A.B. Quintanilla left Kumbia Kings in mid-2006. A.B., along with new members and ex-Kumbia Kings Chris Pérez (A.B.'s brother-in-law, Selena's widower) and Pee Wee; started the group Kumbia All Starz in 2006. This new group had hits such as "Chiquilla", "Parece Que Va a Llover", and "Speedy Gonzales". The Kumbia All Starz have become immensely popular in South America, especially in Bolivia, where they performed a series of concerts in 2014.


title: A.B. Quintanilla

text: A.B. Quintanilla signed with DEL Records and formed Elektro Kumbia in 2016. In 2017, he released a single called "Piña Colada Shot".


title: A.B. Quintanilla

text: In the 1997 film "Selena", Quintanilla was played by Jacob Vargas, while Rafael Tamayo played him as a child. In the 2020 Netflix TV series "", he was played by Gabriel Chavarria, while Juan Martinez played him as a child.


title: A.B. Quintanilla

text: Quintanilla has eight children, including a son Svani (b. 1991) and a daughter Martika (b. 1989) with his first wife Vangie. Quintanilla also has five other sons and one daughter born between 2002 and 2007. He also has one grandchild.


title: A.B. Quintanilla

text: He married his longtime girlfriend Rikkie Leigh Robertson on November 12, 2011. On July 5, 2016, he announced after a concert that he was getting divorced from his wife. They have no children together.


title: Underwater hockey

text: Underwater hockey (UWH), (also known as Octopush in the United Kingdom) is a globally played limited-contact sport in which two teams compete to manoeuvre a puck across the bottom of a swimming pool into the opposing team's goal by propelling it with a hockey stick (or pusher).


title: Underwater hockey

text: A key challenge of the game is that players are not able to use breathing devices such as scuba gear whilst playing, they must hold their breath. The game originated in England in 1954 when Alan Blake, a founder of the newly formed Southsea Sub-Aqua Club, invented the game he called Octopush as a means of keeping the club's members interested and active over the cold winter months when open-water diving lost its appeal. Underwater hockey is now played worldwide, with the Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques, abbreviated CMAS, as the world governing body. The first Underwater Hockey World Championship was held in Canada in 1980 after a false start in 1979 brought about by international politics and apartheid.


title: Underwater hockey

text: Underwater hockey was started in the United Kingdom by Alan Blake in 1954. Blake was a founder-member of the newly formed Southsea Sub-Aqua Club (British Sub-Aqua Club No.9) and he and other divers including John Ventham, Jack Willis, and Frank Lilleker first played this game in the Guildhall Baths in Portsmouth, England. Originally called "Octopush" (and still known locally by that name in the United Kingdom today), the original rules called for teams of eight players (hence "octo-"), a bat reminiscent of a tiny shuffleboard stick called a "pusher" (hence the "-push"), an uncoated lead puck called a "squid", and a goal known at first as a "cuttle" but soon thereafter a "gulley". Apart from 'pusher' and to a lesser extent 'Octopush' much of this original terminology is now consigned to history.


title: Underwater hockey

text: CMAS, the world governing body for underwater hockey, still erroneously maintains on its website that the sport originated with the British Royal Navy in the 1950s.


title: Underwater hockey

text: The first rules were tested in a 1954 two-on-two game and Alan Blake made the following announcement in the November 1954 issue of the British Sub-Aqua Club's then-official magazine "Neptune": "Our indoor training programme is getting under way, including wet activities other than in baths, and our new underwater game 'Octopush'. Of which more later when we have worked out the details".


title: Underwater hockey

text: The first Octopush competition between clubs was a three-way tournament between teams from Southsea, Bournemouth and Brighton in early 1955. Southsea won then, and they are still highly ranked at national level today (they won again in 2009, 2012, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018 and 2019, 2020).


title: Underwater hockey

text: The sport spread to Durban, South Africa in the mid/late 1950s, thanks to the spearfishermen of the Durban Undersea Club (DUC), when dirty summer seas prevented the young bloods from getting their weekly exercise and excitement. The first games were played in the pool of club member Max Doveton. However it soon became so popular that weekly contests were held in a municipal pool. The UK's Octopush used a small paddle to push the puck whilst the South Africans used a mini hockey stick. Whilst the 'long stick' version of underwater hockey did spread outside of South Africa, the UK's 'short stick' version ultimately prevailed and is how UWH is universally played now.


title: Underwater hockey

text: In the Americas, the game first came to Canada in 1962 via Norm Leibeck, an unconventional Australian scuba diving instructor and dive shop owner, who introduced the sport to a Vancouver dive club. Ten years later, the Underwater Hockey Association of British Columbia (UHABC) was formed and received support from the BC government.


title: Underwater hockey

text: Underwater hockey has been played in Australia since 1966, again because of Norm Leibeck, the same Australian who returned from Canada with his Canadian bride Marlene, and it now attracts players from a wide range of backgrounds there. The first Australian Underwater Hockey Championships were held in Margaret River, Western Australia in 1975. A Women's division was added to the championships in 1981 and a Junior division commenced in 1990.


title: Underwater hockey

text: In Asia, the game first came to the Philippines in the late 1970s through growing awareness of Octopush within the scuba diving community.


title: Underwater hockey

text: , and from British Sub-Aqua Club archives, is evidence of the evolution of the sport in terms of equipment and playing style. It can be seen that the game was much slower and the puck was not flicked at all, in contrast to the modern sport where the substantial changes in equipment, team size, and other factors have helped make the game the international sport it is today, with 68 teams from 19 countries competing at the 18th World Championship in 2013 at Eger in Hungary making this the pinnacle in terms of international competition to date.


title: Underwater hockey

text: Two teams of up to ten players compete, with six players in each team in play at any one time. The remaining four players are continually substituted into play from a substitution area, which may be either on deck or in the water outside the playing area.


title: Underwater hockey

text: Before the start of play the puck is placed in the centre of the pool, and the players wait in the water whilst touching the wall above the goal they are defending. At the start-of-play signal (usually a buzzer or a gong) members of both teams are free to swim anywhere in the play area and try to score by manoeuvring the puck into the opponents' goal using only their stick. Players hold their breath as they dive to the bottom of the pool (a form of dynamic apnoea, as in free-diving). Play continues until either a goal is scored, when players return to their wall to start a new point, or a break in play is signalled by a referee (whether due to a foul, a time-out, or the end of the period of play).


title: Underwater hockey

text: Games consist of two halves of typically ten to fifteen minutes (depending on tournament rules; 20 minutes at World Championship tournaments) and a short half-time interval of usually three minutes. At half time the two teams switch ends.


title: Underwater hockey

text: A typical playing formation is 3-3 (three offensive players or "forwards", and three defensive players or "backs") of which 3-2-1 (three forwards, two mid-fielders and a back) is a variation. Other options include 2-3-1 ("i.e.", two forwards, three mid-fielders, and a back), 1-3-2, or 2-2-2. Formations are generally very fluid and are constantly evolving with different national teams being proponents of particular tweaks in formations, such as New Zealand with their 'box' (2-1-2-1) formation. As important to tournament teams' formation strategy is the substitution strategy; substitution errors might result in a foul (too many players in the play area) that can result in a player from the offending team being sent out, or maybe a tactical blunder (with too few defenders in on a play).


title: Underwater hockey

text: There are a number of penalties described in the official underwater hockey rules, ranging from the use of the stick against something (or someone) other than the puck, playing or stopping the puck with something other than the stick, and "blocking" (interposing one's self between a teammate who possesses the puck and an opponent; one is allowed to play the puck but not merely block opponents with one's body). If the penalty is minor, referees award an advantage puck: the team that committed the foul is pushed back from the puck, while the other team gets free possession. For major penalties such as a dangerous pass (e.g. striking an opponent's head) or intentional or repeated fouls, the referees may eject players for a specified period of time or for the remainder of the game, or even - in the case of very serious or deliberate fouls - for the remainder of a tournament. A defender committing a serious foul sufficiently close to his own goal may be penalised by the award of a penalty shot or even a penalty goal awarded to the fouled player's team.


title: Underwater hockey

text: Often players who are most successful in this game are strong swimmers, have a great ability to hold and recover their breath, and are able to produce great speed underwater while demonstrating learned skills in puck control. It is also important that they are able to work well with their team members and take full advantage of their individual skills.


title: Underwater hockey

text: 4-a-side Underwater Hockey is when there is 4 people per team playing at a given time. The teams usually consist of up to 8 players with 4 subs. 4-a-side competitions are usually not very competitive and is not played at an international level. Common examples of 4-a-side competitions are the Hamilton 4-asides (Hosted in Hamilton, New Zealand) and Dunedin 4's (Hosted in Dunedin, New Zealand)


title: Underwater hockey

text: Players wear a diving mask, snorkel and fins, and carry in one (either) hand a short stick or pusher for playing the puck. A full list of equipment is given below:


title: Underwater hockey

text: There are usually no restrictions on swimwear, however baggy trunks or shorts are not recommended as they reduce speed and increase drag in the water. Typical swimwear is swim briefs or jammers for male players and athletic style racerback two-piece swimsuits with drawstring bottoms or one-piece swimsuits for female players. Additionally, wetsuits are not allowed according to Rule 3.3.8 of the CMAS International Rules for Underwater Hockey, Eleventh Edition.


title: Underwater hockey

text: A low-volume mask with minimal protrusion from the face reduces the likelihood of the mask being knocked causing it to leak or flood and temporarily obstruct the player's vision. The published rules require masks to have two lenses to reduce the risk and extent of possible injury from puck impact; the danger of a single lens mask is that the aperture may be large enough to allow a puck to pass through it on impact, and hence into the player's eyes. A number of webbing strap designs are available to replace the original head strap with a non-elastic strap that can reduce the possibility of the player being unmasked.


title: Underwater hockey

text: A snorkel enables players to watch the progress of the game without having to lift their head from the water to breathe. This allows them to keep their position on the surface, ready to join play once they are able. In order to maximise the efficiency of breathing and reduce drag underwater snorkels are often short with a wide bore and may include a drain valve. The published rules mandate that they must not be rigid or have any sharp edges or points.


title: Underwater hockey

text: The snorkel may accommodate an external mouthguard which may be worn in conjunction with, or instead of, an internal mouthguard.


title: Underwater hockey

text: Fins allow the player to swim faster through the water. A wide variety of fins are used in the sport, but large plastic/rubber composite fins or smaller, stiffer fibreglass or carbon fibre fins are commonplace at competitions. As with any of the equipment, the published rules mandate fins without sharp edges or corners. All sharp edges must be covered up by a protective film or tape to prevent injury. Players are also normally required to use closed-heel fins (without buckles) as a further injury prevention measure.


title: Underwater hockey

text: Even well-fitting full-foot fins can occasionally be pulled off during play, either because of physical contact with something in the playing area or as a result of the power the wearer is transmitting through them into the water. When this occurs, stopping to refit a lost fin takes time and reduces a team to only five players. Fin grips, also known as fin retainers or fin keepers, are triple-strap devices enabling a closed-heel fin to be held more securely on a player's foot. They are worn around the arch, the heel and the instep to try and prevent the wearer's foot from slipping out of the foot-pocket of the fin.


title: Underwater hockey

text: The stick (also referred to as a pusher) is relatively short and is coloured either white or black to indicate the player's team. The stick may only be held in one hand, which is usually determined by the player's handedness, although players may swap hands during play. The shape of the stick may affect playing style and is often a very personal choice. A wide variety of stick designs are allowed within the constraints of the rules of the game, the principal rules being that the stick (including the handle) must fit into a box of and that the stick must not be capable of surrounding either the puck or any part of the hand. A rule concerning the minimum radius of edges tries to address the risk of injury should body contact occur. Construction materials may be of wood or plastics and current rules now supersede those that previously required sticks to be homogeneous, although they almost always are anyway. Many underwater hockey players manufacture their own sticks to their preferred shape and style, although there are increasingly more mass-produced designs to suit the majority (such as Bentfish, Britbat, CanAm, Dorsal, Stingray etc.).


title: Underwater hockey

text: The puck is approximately the size of an ice hockey puck but is made of lead or lead-based material - (adult size weighs , junior ) - and is encapsulated or surrounded by a plastic covering which is usually performance-matched to different pool bottoms (e.g. tiles, concrete etc.) to facilitate good grip on the stick face while preventing excessive friction on the pool bottom. The puck's weight brings it to rest on the pool bottom, though it can be lofted during passes.


title: Underwater hockey

text: Safety gear includes ear protection, usually in the form of a water polo cap and as a secondary indicator of the player's team (coloured black/dark or white/pale as appropriate). Water referees wear red caps.


title: Underwater hockey

text: A glove should be worn on the playing hand to protect against pool-bottom abrasion and, in some designs, for protection against puck impact on knuckles and other vulnerable areas, however no rigid protection is permitted. Players may choose to wear a protective glove on both hands, either as additional protection from the pool bottom or, for ambidextrous players, to switch the stick between hands mid-play. A glove used in competition must be a contrasting colour to the wearer's stick, but not orange which is reserved for referees' gloves - this is so water referees might be able to better distinguish between a pusher making a legal contact with the puck and a hand making an illegal contact with the puck. It is also usually preferred that a players glove is a different colour to the puck. As the puck is usually pink or orange it means players should avoid gloves coloured black, white, red, orange, yellow and pink. A referee at any match or tournament can ask a player to use different kit before they play, hence players should be careful when choosing the colour of their gloves. Blue is often used due to the limitations on glove colours, but others have also been used.


title: Underwater hockey

text: The goals (or 'gulleys') are wide and are sited on the pool bottom at opposite ends of the playing area in the centre of the end lines. They consist of a shallow slope leading up to a trough into which the puck may be pushed or flicked.


title: Underwater hockey

text: Goals are commonly constructed from aluminium, galvanised steel or stainless steel. This makes them negatively buoyant and durable in the chlorinated water of swimming pools.


title: Underwater hockey

text: Officiating the game are two (or three) water referees (i.e. in the pool with full snorkelling gear, and wearing a distinctive red cap, orange gloves and golden yellow shirt) to observe and referee play at the pool bottom, and one or more poolside deck referees to track time (both playing times and penalty times for penalised players), maintain the score, and call fouls (such as excessive number of players in play, failure to start a point from the end of the playing area, or another foul capable of being committed at or noticed from the surface). The deck (chief) referee responds to hand signals given by the water referees to start and stop play, including after an interruption such as a foul or time-out, or indeed to stop play if they themself see a rule infringement.


title: Underwater hockey

text: The Official Rules, which are available for download in PDF form without charge, define (with illustrations) a valid goal, the fouls and signals, the dimensions of the playing area, sticks, and goals, team composition and substitution procedure, and additional rules and arrangements for multi-team tournaments and championships.


title: Underwater hockey

text: At a club or training level, underwater hockey is not seen as particularly spectator-friendly. Very few pools have underwater viewing ports, and since the action is all below the surface, an observer would usually have to enter the water to see the skill and complexities of the game. Spectators may either put on mask, fins and snorkel and enter the pool for a view of the playing area, or possibly take advantage of the work of underwater videographers who have recorded major tournaments. Such tournaments often have live footage on large screens for the spectators. The 2006 (Sheffield, England) and 2010 (Durban, South Africa) Underwater Hockey World Championships were screened poolside and simultaneously webcast live to spectators around the world, while the 2008 European Championship in Istanbul, Turkey had excellent video coverage but no live streaming.


title: Underwater hockey

text: Filming the games is challenging even for the experienced videographer, as the players' movements are fast and there are few places on the surface or beneath it which are free from their seemingly frenzied movements. Games are often played width-wise across a 50-metre pool to provide spaces in between simultaneous games for player substitutes, penalty boxes, coaches and camera crews. However, research and development of filming techniques is ongoing.


title: Underwater hockey

text: Organisers of major tournaments are usually the point of contact for acquiring footage of underwater hockey matches. Although no official worldwide repository exists for recorded games, there are many websites and instructional DVDs. A wide variety of related footage can be found on video sharing sites.


title: Underwater hockey

text: Since this is an underwater sport, surface spectators may be unaware of just how physical underwater hockey is. Although it is a limited-contact sport, there is a significant risk of injury. Many injuries are typical sports injuries such as sprains, torn muscles and light scratches. More major injuries might include deeper cuts, broken fingers, impacts to the head causing concussion or dental trauma, and there is also a minor risk of life-threatening injury from being struck on the head with the possibility of a major concussion or blackout underwater. There is an obvious risk of drowning if knocked unconscious underwater, but the players are under observation by the referees during competition, and players in any case tend to be very aware of what their teammates are doing or not doing; in practice an unconscious or seriously injured player is likely to be noticed and assisted or rescued very promptly. Personal protective equipment is available to reduce injury risks, and the published rules make items such as gloves, mouth guards and ear guards mandatory. There is a risk of pulmonary capillary stress failure (Hemoptysis) in some players.


title: Underwater hockey

text: Underwater hockey enjoys popularity in the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, France, the Netherlands, New Zealand, South Africa and the United States, as well as to a lesser extent in other countries such as Argentina, Belgium, Brazil, China, Colombia, the Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Ireland, Israel, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, Namibia, the Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Rwanda, Saudi Arabia, Serbia, Singapore, Slovenia, Spain, Switzerland, Turkey, UAE and Zimbabwe.


title: Underwater hockey

text: Historically, the Underwater Hockey World Championships have been held every two years since 1980. At the Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS) 14th World Underwater Hockey Championship held in August 2006 in Sheffield, England, at the time a record 44 teams from 17 countries competed in six age and gender categories. Participating countries were Australia, Belgium, Canada, Colombia, Hungary, France, Italy, Japan, Jersey C.I., the Netherlands, New Zealand, South Africa, Spain, Turkey, the United Kingdom, Ireland, and the United States.


title: Underwater hockey

text: Subsequent world championships have been less well-attended including the WAA World Championship held in 2008 in Durban, South Africa, until the 18th CMAS World Championship was held in Eger, Hungary in August 2013. This event once again saw all age and gender divisions, now including men and women in U19, U23, Masters and Elite categories compete. There were 68 teams competing across the eight age/gender divisions from 19 participating countries, making this World Championship the largest competition in the history of the sport to date. During the 18th World Championships a decision was made by the federations to split the competition into two events with Junior Grades (U19, U23) to be accommodated in a separate event to be held every two years from 2015 with the competition for the Elite and Masters grades in Stellenbosch, South Africa in 2016.


title: Underwater hockey

text: At Elite level New Zealand are the current Men's World Champions, and New Zealand are the current Women's World Champions.


title: Underwater hockey

text: At Masters level France are the current Men's World Champions, and France are the current Women's World Champions.


title: Underwater hockey

text: At U24 level Turkey are the current Men's World Champions, and New Zealand are the current Women's World Champions.


title: Underwater hockey

text: At U19 level New Zealand are the current Men's World Champions, and New Zealand are the current Women's World Champions.


title: Underwater hockey

text: The Underwater Hockey European Championships are also every two years on alternate years to the world championships.


title: Underwater hockey

text: Political turmoil within the CMAS Underwater Hockey Commission (Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques), the underwater hockey world governing body, came to a head soon after the 2006 Underwater Hockey World Championships, resulting in the CMAS Underwater Hockey Commission members resigning en masse and soon thereafter forming an alternative 'world governing body' solely for the sport of UWH, known as the World Aquachallenge Association (WAA), and which was officially ratified at the 1st WAA World Championship in April–May 2008. Consequently, from this point the UWH community had two world governing bodies, CMAS and WAA.


title: Underwater hockey

text: CMAS has continued to organise international world competitions on a bi-annual basis. CMAS tried unsuccessfully to hold another World Underwater Games event in 2009 after a successful event in 2007. These were intended to be multi-disciplinary events thereby grouping UWH with other CMAS-represented sports including fin swimming and underwater rugby. The 1st World Games were held in Bari, Italy in 2007 while the 2nd was scheduled for Tunisia in 2009 but was cancelled and rescheduled as an UWH-only event held in Kranj, Slovenia during August 2009. It was billed as a World Championship but only one non-European country competed (South Africa); France won the Open division while Great Britain took the Women's title. In the years in between World Games CMAS holds Zone Championships (e.g. the 15th European Championship in Eger, Hungary during 2017).


title: Underwater hockey

text: WAA attempted to continue with the original World Championship series on a biennial basis during years ending with an even number. The 1st WAA Championships (renumbered; it would have been the CMAS 15th) was held in 2008 in Durban, South Africa. The 2nd competition was scheduled for Medellin, Colombia in August 2010 but it proceeded as an International Event without WAA sanctioning and became the precursor for the development of the independent America's Cup International Tournament.


title: Underwater hockey

text: The European (CMAS) and the rest of the World (WAA) events following the split were held over exactly the same period in 2008 a continent apart. This dichotomy of championships coupled with the real possibility of future sanctions by CMAS on their member countries' organisations and athletes led to many countries being forced to choose which competition to send their team to. As a result, neither competition in 2008 was as well attended as had been the case in previous years, nor as competitive. Subsequently, no WAA sanctioned events have taken place since 2008. However, in Europe at least, well-organised international tournaments without CMAS or WAA influence (such as at Breda in the Netherlands, Barcelona in Spain, or České Budějovice in the Czech Republic) continue to be regularly attended by a range of club teams from across the continent.


title: Underwater hockey

text: In 2009, a new CMAS Underwater Hockey Commission was appointed for a 4-year period to guide the sport on a technical level and gradually it has reconsolidated the sport and produced a development plan to cope with future growth. The commission continues to work to develop relationships with CMAS Board of Directors and obtain support for its development plan.


title: Underwater hockey

text: As part of this plan the Commission developed an Age Group-based International Championship incorporating Under 19, Under 23 and Masters (Men >35, Women >32) Grades. This Championship was held in July 2011 in Dordrecht, Netherlands. The event was to be sanctioned by CMAS but the Dutch organising team withdrew their hosting bid and proceeded to host the event successfully with 36 teams participating. As the event was non-compliant with the CMAS Competition procedures, Scotland was able to compete as a separate country rather than within a combined entity as Great Britain.


title: Underwater hockey

text: As the surviving governing body, as of August 2013 CMAS has the following countries and territories affiliated with its Underwater Hockey Commission: Australia, Belgium, Canada, Colombia, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, France, Germany, Great Britain, Hong Kong, Hungary, Indonesia, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Malaysia, Netherlands, New Zealand, Portugal, Serbia, Slovenia, South Africa, Spain, Turkey, United States of America.


title: Peychaud's Bitters

text: Peychaud's Bitters is a bitters distributed by the American Sazerac Company. It was originally created around 1830 by Antoine Amédée Peychaud, a Creole apothecary from the French colony of Saint-Domingue (now Haiti) who settled in New Orleans, Louisiana, in 1795. It is a gentian-based bitters, comparable to Angostura bitters, but with a predominant anise aroma combined with a background of mint. Peychaud's Bitters is the definitive component of the Sazerac cocktail.


title: Ptosis (breasts)

text: Ptosis or sagging of the female breast is a natural consequence of aging. The rate at which a woman's breasts drop and the degree of ptosis depends on many factors. The key factors influencing breast ptosis over a woman's lifetime are cigarette smoking, her number of pregnancies, higher body mass index, larger bra cup size, and significant weight change.


title: Ptosis (breasts)

text: Post-menopausal women or people with collagen deficiencies (such as Ehlers-Danlos) may experience increased ptosis due to a loss of skin elasticity. Many women and medical professionals mistakenly believe that breastfeeding increases sagging. It is also commonly believed that the breast itself offers insufficient support and that wearing a bra prevents sagging, which has not been found to be true.


title: Ptosis (breasts)

text: Plastic surgeons categorize the degree of ptosis by evaluating the position of the nipple relative to the infra-mammary fold, the point at which the underside of the breasts attach to the chest wall. In the most advanced stage, the nipples are below the fold and point toward the ground.


title: Ptosis (breasts)

text: A woman's breasts change in size, volume, and position on her chest throughout her life. In young women with large breasts, sagging may occur early in life due to the effect of gravity. It may be primarily caused by the volume and weight of the breasts which are disproportionate to her body size.


title: Ptosis (breasts)

text: During pregnancy, the ovaries and the placenta produce estrogen and progesterone. These hormones stimulate the 15 to 20 lobes of the milk-secreting glands in the breasts to develop. Women who experience multiple pregnancies repeatedly stretch the skin envelope during engorgement while lactating. As a woman's breasts change in size during repeated pregnancies, the size of her breasts change as her mammary glands are engorged with milk and as she gains and loses weight with each pregnancy. In addition, when milk production stops (usually as a child is weaned), the voluminous mammary glands diminish in volume, but they still add bulk and firmness to the breast. A 2010 review found that weight gain during pregnancy and breastfeeding were not significant risk factors for ptosis.


title: Ptosis (breasts)

text: In middle-aged women, breast ptosis is caused by a combination of factors. If a woman has been pregnant, postpartum hormonal changes will cause her depleted milk glands to atrophy. Breast tissue and suspensory ligaments may also be stretched if the woman is overweight or loses and gains weight. When these factors are at play, the breast prolapses, or falls forward. When a woman with sagging breasts stands, the underside or inferior skin of the breast folds over the infra-mammary fold and lies against the chest wall. The nipple-areola complex tends to move lower on the breast relative to the inframammary crease. The nipple of the breast may also tend to point downward.


title: Ptosis (breasts)

text: In post-menopausal women, breast atrophy is aggravated by the inelasticity of over-stretched, aged skin. This is due in part to the reduction in estrogen, which affects all body tissues, including breast tissue. The loss of estrogen reduces breast size and fullness. Estrogen is also essential to maintaining a fibrous protein called collagen, which makes up much of the breast's connective tissue.


title: Ptosis (breasts)

text: Plastic surgeons describe the degree of breast sagging using a "ptosis scale" like the modified "Regnault ptosis scale" below:


title: Ptosis (breasts)

text: University of Kentucky plastic surgeon Brian Rinker encountered many women in his practice who attributed their sagging breasts to breastfeeding, which was also the usual belief among medical practitioners. He decided to find out if this was true, and between 1998 and 2006 he and other researchers interviewed 132 women who were seeking breast augmentation or breast lifts. They studied the women's medical history, body mass index (BMI), their number of pregnancies, their breast cup size before pregnancy, and smoking status. The study results were presented at a conference of the American Society of Plastic Surgeons.


title: Ptosis (breasts)

text: According to Rinker's research, there are several key factors. A history of cigarette smoking "breaks down a protein in the skin called elastin, which gives youthful skin its elastic appearance and supports the breast." The number of pregnancies was strongly correlated with ptosis, with the effects increasing with each pregnancy. As most women age, breasts naturally yield to gravity and tend to sag and fold over the inframammary crease, the lower attachment point to the chest wall. This is more true for larger-breasted women. The fourth reason was significant weight gain or loss (greater than ). Other significant factors were higher body mass index and larger bra cup size.


title: Ptosis (breasts)

text: In Rinker's study, 55% of respondents reported an adverse change in breast shape after pregnancy. Many women mistakenly attribute the changes and their sagging breasts to breastfeeding, and as a result some are reluctant to nurse their infants. Research shows that breastfeeding is not the factor that many thought it was. Rinker concluded that "Expectant mothers should be reassured that breastfeeding does not appear to have an adverse effect upon breast appearance." Also discounted as causes affecting ptosis are weight gain during pregnancy and lack of participation in regular upper body exercise.


title: Ptosis (breasts)

text: When running, breasts may move three-dimensionally: vertically, horizontally and laterally, in an overall figure-8 motion. Unrestrained movement of large breasts may contribute to sagging over time. Motion studies have revealed that when a woman runs, more than 50% of the breast's total movement is vertical, 22% is side-to-side, and 27% is in-and-out. A 2007 study found that encapsulation-type sports bras, in which each cup is separately molded, are more effective than compression-type bras, which press the breasts close to the body, at reducing total breast motion during exercise. Encapsulation bras reduce motion in two of the three planes, while compression bras reduce motion in only one plane. Previously, it was commonly believed that a woman with small to medium-size breasts benefited most from a compression-type sports bra, and women with larger breasts need an encapsulation-type sports bra.


title: Ptosis (breasts)

text: Anatomically, a female's breasts do not contain any muscle but are composed of soft, glandular tissue. Breasts are composed of mammary glands, milk ducts, adipose tissue (fat tissue) and Cooper's ligaments.


title: Ptosis (breasts)

text: Mammary glands remain relatively constant throughout life. Fat tissue surrounds the mammary glands, and its volume will normally vary throughout life. Although the exact mechanisms that determine breast shape and size are largely unknown, the amount and distribution of fat tissue and, to a lesser extent, mammary tissue, cause variations in breast size, shape and volume. Some experts believe Cooper's ligaments, which are connective tissue with the breast, provide some support within breasts, but there's no agreement on whether they provide support or simply divide breast tissue into compartments.


title: Ptosis (breasts)

text: Since breasts are an external organ and do not contain muscle, exercise cannot improve their shape. They are not protected from external forces and are subject to gravity. Many women mistakenly believe that breasts cannot anatomically support themselves and that wearing a brassiere will prevent their breasts from sagging later in life. Researchers, bra manufacturers, and health professionals cannot find any evidence to support the idea that wearing a bra for any amount of time slows breast ptosis. Bra manufacturers are careful to claim that bras only affect the shape of breasts while they are being worn.


title: Ptosis (breasts)

text: In fact, there is some evidence that bra use reduces the development of Cooper's ligaments, connective tissue that supports breast shape. That atrophy from bra wearing may therefore lead to more breast sag in the long run, much as the connective tissue in a limb weakens while it's in a cast and must be re-strengthened afterward. Studies have actually documented that, after an initial period of adjustment, women experienced a significant increase in comfort and breast firmness from going without bras.


title: Ptosis (breasts)

text: Some women with ptosis choose to undergo plastic surgery to make their breasts less ptotic. Plastic surgeons offer several procedures for lifting sagging breasts. Surgery to correct the size, contour, and elevation of sagging breasts is called mastopexy. Women can also choose breast implants, or may undergo both procedures. The breast-lift procedure surgically elevates the parenchymal tissue (breast mass), cuts and re-sizes the skin envelope, and transposes the nipple-areola complex higher upon the breast hemisphere. If sagging is present and the woman opts not to undergo mastopexy, implants are typically placed above the muscle, to fill out the breast skin and tissue. Submuscular placement can result in deformity. In these cases, the implant appears to be high on the chest, while the natural breast tissue hangs down over the implant.


title: Return merchandise authorization

text: A return merchandise authorization (RMA), return authorization (RA) or return goods authorization (RGA) is a part of the process of returning a product to receive a refund, replacement, or repair during the product's warranty period. Both parties can decide how to deal with it, which could be refund, replacement or repair.


title: Return merchandise authorization

text: The issuance of an RMA/RGA is a key gatekeeping moment in the reverse logistics cycle, providing the vendor with a final opportunity to diagnose and correct the customer's problem with the product (such as improper installation or configuration) "before" the customer permanently relinquishes ownership of the product to the manufacturer, commonly referred to as a return. As returns are costly for the vendor and inconvenient for the customer, any return that can be prevented benefits both parties.


title: Return merchandise authorization

text: Returned merchandise requires management after the return. The product has a second life cycle after the return.


title: Return merchandise authorization

text: An important aspect of RMA management is learning from RMA trends to prevent further returns. Depending on what the rules are, the manufacturer may send the customer an advance replacement. RMAs may be minimized in a number of ways. Adding a customer survey capability may prevent RMAs by detecting problems in advance of returns.


title: Return merchandise authorization

text: Returns are sometimes minimized by reducing transaction errors prior to the merchandise leaving the seller. Providing additional information to consumers also reduces returns.


title: Return merchandise authorization

text: Return to vendor (RTV) is the process where goods are returned to the original vendor instead of the distributor. In many cases the RTV was originally returned to the seller by the end consumer. While RTV transactions usually occur between the seller and the vendor, in some instances the end consumer returns the product directly to the vendor, sidestepping the distributor.


title: Bohemond I of Antioch

text: Bohemond I of Antioch (5 or 7 March 1111), also known as Bohemond of Taranto, was the prince of Taranto from 1089 to 1111 and the prince of Antioch from 1098 to 1111. He was a leader of the First Crusade, leading a contingent of Normans on the quest eastward. Knowledgable about the Byzantine Empire through earlier campaigns with his father, he was the most experienced military leader of the crusade.


title: Bohemond I of Antioch

text: Bohemond was the son of Robert Guiscard, Count of Apulia and Calabria, and his first wife, Alberada of Buonalbergo. He was born between 1050 and 1058—in 1054 according to historian John Julius Norwich. He was baptised Mark, possibly because he was born at his father's castle at San Marco Argentano in Calabria. He was nicknamed Bohemond after a legendary giant.


title: Bohemond I of Antioch

text: His parents were related within the degree of kinship that made their marriage invalid under canon law. In 1058, Pope Nicholas II strengthened existing canon law against consanguinity and, on that basis, Guiscard repudiated Alberada in favour of a then more advantageous marriage to Sikelgaita, the sister of Gisulf, the Lombard Prince of Salerno. With the annulment of his parents' marriage, Bohemond became a bastard. Before long, Alberada married Robert Guiscard's nephew, Richard of Hauteville. She arranged for a knightly education for Bohemond.


title: Bohemond I of Antioch

text: Robert Guiscard was taken seriously ill in early 1073. Fearing that he was dying, Sikelgaita held an assembly in Bari. She persuaded Robert's vassals who were present to proclaim her eldest son, the thirteen-year-old Roger Borsa, Robert's heir, claiming that the half-Lombard Roger would be the ruler most acceptable to the Lombard nobles in Southern Italy. Robert's nephew, Abelard of Hauteville, was the only baron to protest, because he regarded himself Robert's lawful heir.


title: Bohemond I of Antioch

text: Bohemond fought in his father's army during the rebellion of Jordan I of Capua, Geoffrey of Conversano and other Norman barons in 1079. His father dispatched him at the head of an advance guard against the Byzantine Empire in early 1081 and he captured Valona (now Vlorë in Albania). He sailed to Corfu, but did not invade the island since the local garrison outnumbered his army. He withdrew to Butrinto to await the arrival of his father's forces. After Robert Guiscard arrived in the latter half of May, they laid siege to Dyrrhachium (present-day Durrës). The Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos came to the rescue of the town but, on 18 October, his army suffered a crushing defeat. Bohemond commanded the left flank, which defeated the Emperor's largely Anglo-Saxon Varangian Guard.


title: Bohemond I of Antioch

text: The Normans captured Dyrrhachium on 21 February 1082. They marched along the Via Egnatia as far as Kastoria, but Alexios's agents stirred up a rebellion in Southern Italy, forcing Robert Guiscard to return to his realm in April. He charged Bohemond with the command of his army in the Balkans. Bohemond defeated the Byzantines at Ioannina and at Arta, taking control of most of Macedonia and Thessaly; however, the six-month siege of Larissa was unsuccessful. Supply and pay problems (and the gifts promised to deserters by the Byzantines) undermined the morale of the Norman army, so Bohemond returned to Italy for financial support. During his absence, most of the Norman commanders deserted to the Byzantines and a Venetian fleet recaptured Dyrrhachium and Corfu.


title: Bohemond I of Antioch

text: Bohemond accompanied his father to the Byzantine Empire again in 1084, when they defeated the Venetian fleet and captured Corfu. An epidemic decimated the Normans and Bohemond, who was taken seriously ill, was forced to return to Italy in December 1084.


title: Bohemond I of Antioch

text: Robert Guiscard died at Cephalonia on 17 July 1085. Orderic Vitalis, William of Malmesbury and other contemporaneous writers accused his widow, Sikelgaita, of having poisoned Robert to secure Apulia for her son, Roger Borsa, but failed to establish her guilt. She persuaded the army to acclaim Roger Borsa his father's successor and they hurried back to Southern Italy. Two months later, the assembly of the Norman barons confirmed the succession, but Bohemond regarded himself his father's lawful heir. He made an alliance with Jordan of Capua, and captured Oria and Otranto. Bohemond and Roger Borsa met at their father's tomb at Venosa to reach a compromise. Under the terms of their agreement, Bohemond received Taranto, Oria, Otranto, Brindisi and Gallipoli, but acknowledged Roger Borsa's succession.


title: Bohemond I of Antioch

text: Bohemond renewed the war against his brother in the autumn of 1087. The ensuing civil war prevented the Normans from supporting Pope Urban II, and enabled the brothers' uncle, Roger I of Sicily, to increase his power. Bohemond captured Bari in 1090 and before long, took control of most lands to the south of Melfi.


title: Bohemond I of Antioch

text: In 1097, Bohemond and his uncle Roger I of Sicily were attacking Amalfi, which had revolted against Duke Roger, when bands of crusaders began to pass on their way through Italy to Constantinople. It is possible that Bohemond had religious reasons for joining the First Crusade. It is equally likely that he saw in the First Crusade the chance to gain a lordship in the Middle East. Lilie details that Bohemond's "father's second marriage deprived him of future prospects," in Norman Italy. While he was well known as a warrior, Bohemond's lordship in Italy was small. Geoffrey Malaterra bluntly states that Bohemond took the Cross with the intention of plundering and conquering Greek lands. Another reason to suspect Bohemond's religious zeal is the supposed embassy Bohemond sent to Godfrey of Bouillon, a powerful Crusade leader, asking him to join forces to sack Constantinople. While Godfrey declined his offer, taking Constantinople was never far from Bohemond's mind, as seen in his later attempt to take over the Byzantine Empire.


title: Bohemond I of Antioch

text: He gathered a Norman army, which would have been one of the smaller crusade forces with 500 knights and about 2,500–3,500 infantry soldiers, alongside his nephew Tancred's force of 2,000 men. What contributed to the Norman army's reputation as a great fighting force was their experience fighting in the East. Many Normans had been employed as mercenaries by the Byzantine Empire. Others like Bohemond had experience fighting the Byzantines and Muslim groups in the East fifteen years prior with Robert Guiscard. Bohemond crossed the Adriatic Sea to Constantinople along the route he had tried to follow in 1082–1084 when attacking the Byzantine Empire. He was careful to observe the correct attitude towards Alexios along this route, which was mainly keeping his soldiers from plundering Byzantine villages en route to Constantinople.