title: Hate group

text: In the US, the FBI does not publish a list of hate groups, and it also says that "investigations are only conducted when a threat or advocacy of force is made; when the group has the apparent ability to carry out the proclaimed act; and when the act would constitute a potential violation of federal law". The FBI maintains statistics on hate crimes.


title: Hate group

text: Two private American non-profit organizations that monitor intolerance and hate groups are the Anti-Defamation League (ADL) and the Southern Poverty Law Center (SPLC). They maintain lists of what they deem to be hate groups, supremacist groups and anti-Semitic, anti-government or extremist groups that have committed hate crimes. The SPLC's definition of a "hate group" includes any group with beliefs or practices that attack or malign an entire class of people—particularly when the characteristics being maligned are immutable. However, at least for the SPLC, inclusion of a group in the list "does not imply a group advocates or engages in violence or other criminal activity." According to "USA Today", their list ranges from "white supremacists to black nationalists, neo-Nazis to neo-Confederates."


title: Hate group

text: According to the SPLC, from 2000 to 2008, hate group activity saw a 50 percent increase in the US, with a total of 926 active groups. In 2019, the organization's report showed a total of 1,020 hate groups, the highest number in 20 years, and a 7% increase from 2017 to 2018. The previous high was 1,018 in 2011, and the recent low point was 2014, when the list included 784 groups. A rise in white nationalist groups from 100 in 2017 to 148 in 2018 was the most significant increase in the 2019 report.


title: Hate group

text: Since 2010 the term alt-right, short for "alternative right," has come into usage. This broad term includes a range of people who reject mainstream conservatism in favor of forms of conservatism that may embrace implicit or explicit racism or white supremacy. The alt-right is described as being "a weird mix of old-school neo-Nazis, conspiracy theorists, anti-globalists, and young right-wing internet trolls—all united in the belief that white male identity is under attack by multicultural, "politically correct" forces."


title: Hate group

text: Four categories which are associated with hate groups' propensity for violence are: organizational capacity, organizational constituency, strategic connectivity, and structural arrangement. The larger an extremist group is and the longer it has existed, it is more prone to engage in violence. Regionally, hate groups which are based in the West and the Northeast are more likely to engage in violence than those hate groups which are based in the South. If a group has a charismatic leader, it is more likely to be violent. Groups that share conflict-based relationships with other groups are more likely to engage in extreme violence. The amount of ideological literature which a group publishes is linked to significant decreases in a group's violent behavior, with more literature linked to lower levels of violence.


title: Hate group

text: The California Association for Human Relations Organizations (CAHRO) asserts that hate groups such as the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) and White Aryan Resistance (WAR) preach violence against racial, religious, sexual and other minorities in the United States. Joseph E. Agne argues that hate-motivated violence is a result of the successes of the civil rights movement, and he asserts that the KKK has resurfaced and new hate groups have formed. Agne argues that it is a mistake to underestimate the strength of the hate-violence movement, its apologists and its silent partners.


title: Hate group

text: In the US, crimes that "manifest evidence of prejudice based on race, religion, sexual orientation, or ethnicity, including the crimes of murder and nonnegligent manslaughter; forcible rape; robbery; aggravated assault; burglary; larceny-theft; motor vehicle theft; arson; simple assault; intimidation; and destruction, damage or vandalism of property",


title: Hate group

text: directed at the government, an individual, a business, or institution, involving hate groups and hate crimes, may be investigated as acts of domestic terrorism.


title: Hate group

text: After WWII, Germany found it necessary to criminalize Volksverhetzung ("incitement to hatred") to prevent resurgence of fascism.


title: Hate group

text: Counter-terrorism expert Ehud Sprinzak argues that verbal violence is "the use of extreme language against an individual or a group that either implies a direct threat that physical force will be used against them, or is seen as an indirect call for others to use it." Sprinzak argues that verbal violence is often a substitute for real violence, and that the verbalization of hate has the potential to incite people who are incapable of distinguishing between real and verbal violence to engage in actual violence.


title: Hate group

text: People tend to judge the offensiveness of hate speech on a gradient depending on how public the speech is and what group it targets. Although people's opinions of hate speech are complex, they typically consider public speech targeting ethnic minorities to be the most offensive.


title: Hate group

text: Historian Daniel Goldhagen, discussing antisemitic hate groups, argues that we should view verbal violence as "an assault in its own right, having been intended to produce profound damage—emotional, psychological, and social—to the dignity and honor of the Jews. The wounds that people suffer by ... such vituperation ... can be as bad as ... [a] beating."


title: Hate group

text: In the mid-1990s, the popularity of the Internet brought new international exposure to many organizations, including groups with beliefs such as white supremacy, neo-Nazism, homophobia, Holocaust denial and Islamophobia. Several white supremacist groups have founded websites dedicated to attacking their perceived enemies. In 1996, the Simon Wiesenthal Center of Los Angeles asked Internet access providers to adopt a code of ethics that would prevent extremists from publishing their ideas online. In 1996, the European Commission formed the Consultative Commission on Racism and Xenophobia (CRAX), a pan-European group which was tasked to "investigate and, using legal means, stamp out the current wave of racism on the Internet."


title: Hate group

text: The Southern Poverty Law Center (SPLC) has designated several Christian groups as hate groups, including the American Family Association, the Family Research Council, Abiding Truth Ministries, American Vision, the Chalcedon Foundation, the Dove World Outreach Center, the Traditional Values Coalition and Westboro Baptist Church. Some conservatives have criticized the SPLC for its inclusion of certain Christian groups, such as the Family Research Council, on its list.


title: Hate group

text: The SPLC classifies the Nation of Islam (NOI) as a hate group under the black separatist category and the Israelite School of Universal Practical Knowledge (ISUPK) as a hate group under the black supremacist category. Members of the NOI believe that a black scientist named Yakub created a race of , who are considered the progenitors of White people, on the Greek island of Patmos. Historically a black-only group, White adherents now form a small part of the NOI membership. Alongside the ISUPK, numerous other sects and organizations within the Black Hebrew Israelite movement expound extremist, black supremacist, religious anti-Semitic, and anti-White racist beliefs, as well as homophobic, transphobic, and sexist beliefs.


title: Hate group

text: The White supremacist religious group Creativity Movement (formerly the World Church of the Creator), led by Matthew F. Hale, is associated with violence and bigotry. Aryan Nations is another religiously-based White supremacist hate group.


title: Hate group

text: The Westboro Baptist Church is considered a hate group by multiple sources and the WBC is monitored as such by the Anti-Defamation League and the Southern Poverty Law Center. The church has been involved in actions against gay people since at least 1991, when it sought a crackdown on homosexual activity at Gage Park six blocks northwest of the church. In addition to conducting anti-gay protests at military funerals, the organization pickets celebrity funerals and public events. Protests have also been held against Jews and Roman Catholics, and some protests have included WBC members stomping on the American flag or flying the flag upside down on a flagpole. The church also has made statements such as "thank God for dead soldiers," "God blew up the troops," and "God hates America." The church has faced several accusations of brainwashing and has been criticised as a cult because of its provocative stance against homosexuality and the United States, and it has been condemned by many mainstream LGBT rights opponents as well as by LGBT rights supporters.


title: Hate group

text: Misogynist hate groups which target women, particularly those groups whose members mostly consist of young men who include pick-up artists, incels and hardline anti-woman groups, are sources of concern to some experts. Using recruitment techniques which are similar to those which are used by far-right extremist groups, they target teenagers and vulnerable young men, their recruitment tactics include the use of methods which are akin to grooming. UK author Laura Bates believes that some of these groups should be classified as misogynist terrorist groups. The Proud Boys, which, according to the Southern Poverty Law Center is known for its misogynistic rhetoric, has been designated as a domestic terrorist group in Canada.


title: Hate group

text: Traditionally, hate groups recruited members and spread extremist messages by word of mouth, or through the distribution of flyers and pamphlets. In contrast, the Internet allows hate group members from all over the world to engage in real-time conversations. The Internet has been a boon for hate groups in terms of promotion, recruitment and expansion of their base to include younger audiences. An Internet hate group does not have to be part of a traditional faction such as the Ku Klux Klan.


title: Hate group

text: While many hate sites are explicitly antagonistic or violent, others may appear patriotic or benign, and this façade may contribute to the appeal of the groups. Hate group websites work towards the following goals: to educate group members and the public, to encourage participation, to claim a divine calling and privilege, and to accuse out-groups (e.g. the government or the media). Groups that work effectively towards these goals via an online presence tend to strengthen their sense of identity, decrease the threat levels from out-groups, and recruit more new members.


title: Hate group

text: The Simon Wiesenthal Center (SWC), in its 2009 "iReport", identified more than 10,000 problematic hate and terrorist websites and other Internet postings. The report includes hate websites, social networks, blogs, newsgroups, YouTube and other video sites. The findings illustrate that as the Internet continues to grow, extremists find new ways to seek validation of their hateful agendas and recruit members.


title: Hate group

text: Creators of hate pages and groups on Facebook choose their target, set up their page or group, and then recruit members. Anyone can create a Facebook group and invite followers to post comments, add pictures and participate in discussion boards. A Facebook page is similar, with the exception that one must "like" the page in order to become a member. Because of the ease of creating and joining such groups, many so-called hate groups exist only in cyberspace.


title: Hate group

text: United Patriots Front, an internet-based Australian far-right anti-immigration and neo-nazi organisation formed in 2015 has been described as a hate group.


title: Hate group

text: Hateful intergroup conflict may be motivated by "in-group love," a desire to positively contribute to the group to which one belongs, or "out-group hate," a desire to injure a foreign group. Both individuals and groups are more motivated by "in-group love" than "out-group hate," even though both motivations might advance a group's status. This preference is especially salient when a group is not situated in a competitive position against another. This partiality towards cooperative behavior suggests that intergroup conflict might decline if group members devoted more energy to positive in-group improvements than to out-group competition. Groups formed around a set of moral codes are more likely than non-morality-based groups to exhibit "out-group hate" as a response to their especially strong sense of "in-group love."


title: Hate group

text: Intergroup threat occurs when one group's interests threaten another group's goals and well-being. Intergroup threat theories provide a framework for intergroup biases and aggression.


title: Hate group

text: One type of intergroup threat theory, realistic group conflict theory, addresses competition between groups by positing that when two groups are competing for limited resources, one group's potential success is at odds with the other's interests, which leads to negative out-group attitudes. If groups have the same goal, their interactions will be positive, but opposing goals will worsen intergroup relations. Intergroup conflict may increase in-group unity, leading to a larger disparity and more conflict between groups.


title: Hate group

text: Symbolic threat theory proposes that intergroup bias and conflict result from conflicting ideals, not from perceived competition or opposing goals. Biases based on symbolic threat tend to be stronger predictors of practical behavior towards out-groups than biases based on realistic threat.


title: Hate group

text: Realistic group conflict theory and symbolic threat theory are, in some cases, compatible. Integrated-threat theory recognizes that conflict can arise from a combination of intergroup dynamics and classifies threats into four types: realistic threat, symbolic threat, intergroup anxiety, and negative stereotypes. Intergroup threat theories provide a framework for intergroup biases and aggression. Intergroup anxiety refers to a felt uneasiness around members of other groups, which is predictive of biased attitudes and behaviors. Negative stereotypes are also correlated with these behaviors, causing threat based on negative expectations about an out-group.


title: Hate group

text: According to the 7-stage hate model, a hate group, if unimpeded, passes through seven successive stages. In the first four stages, hate groups vocalize their beliefs and in the last three stages, they act on their beliefs. Factors that contribute to a group's likelihood to act include the vulnerability of its members as well as its reliance on symbols and mythologies. This model points to a transition period that exists between verbal violence and acting out that violence, separating hardcore haters from rhetorical haters. Thus, hate speech is seen as a prerequisite of hate crimes, and as a condition of their possibility.


title: Hate group

text: Hate group intervention is most possible if a group has not yet passed from the speech to the action stage, and interventions on immature hate groups are more effective than those that are firmly established. Intervention and rehabilitation is most effective when the one investigating a hate group can identify and deconstruct personal insecurities of group members, which in turn contribute to the weakness of the group. Perhaps most critical to combating group hate is to prevent the recruitment of new members by supporting those who are most susceptible, especially children and youth, in developing a positive self-esteem and a humanized understanding of out-groups.


title: Phillip Noyce

text: Phillip Noyce (born 29 April 1950) is an Australian filmmaker. Since 1977, he has directed over 19 feature films in various genres, including historical drama ("Newsfront", "Rabbit-Proof Fence", "The Quiet American"); thrillers ("Dead Calm", "Sliver", "The Bone Collector"); and action films ("Blind Fury", "The Saint", "Salt"). He has also directed the Jack Ryan adaptations "Patriot Games" (1992) and "Clear and Present Danger" (1994) and the 2014 adaptation of Lois Lowry's "The Giver".


title: Phillip Noyce

text: He has worked with such actors as Val Kilmer, Harrison Ford, Denzel Washington, Michael Caine, Angelina Jolie, Nicole Kidman, Meryl Streep, and Rutger Hauer. He has also directed, written, and executive-produced television programmes in both Australia and North America, including "The Cowra Breakout", "Vietnam", "Revenge", "Roots", and most-recently Netflix's "What/If."


title: Phillip Noyce

text: Noyce's work has won him several accolades, including AACTA Awards for Best Film, Best Director, and a special Longford Lyell lifetime achievement award.


title: Phillip Noyce

text: Noyce was born in Griffith, New South Wales, attended high school at Barker College in Sydney and began making short films at the age of 18. A poster for a screening of "underground" films had captured his imagination and the 16 US and Australian experimental films ignited something else. Four months later he shot his first short film, the 15 minute "Better to Reign in Hell", financed by selling roles to his friends.


title: Phillip Noyce

text: In 1969, Noyce became the manager of the Sydney Filmmakers Co-op, a collective of filmmakers. With Jan Chapman, he ran the Filmmaker's Cinema for three years atop a socialist bookshop in Sydney, screening the short films of the directors who would go on to form the Australian New Wave: Gillian Armstrong, Peter Weir, Bruce Beresford, George Miller, Paul Cox. These were a generation of boomers who had grown up rarely seeing an Australian film, as British and American interests controlled distribution and exhibition Australia wide.


title: Phillip Noyce

text: After graduating from Sydney University, he joined the Australian Film, Television and Radio School in 1973, and released his first professional film in 1975. Many of his films feature espionage, as Noyce grew up listening to his father's stories of serving with the Australian Commando unit Z Force during World War II.


title: Phillip Noyce

text: After his debut feature, the medium-length "Backroads" (1977), Noyce achieved huge commercial and critical success with "Newsfront" (1978), which won Australian Film Institute (AFI) awards for Best Film, Director, Actor, Screenplay, and opened the London Film Festival and was the first Australian film to play at the New York Film Festival.


title: Phillip Noyce

text: Noyce worked on two miniseries for Australian television with fellow Australian filmmaker George Miller: "The Dismissal" (1983) and "The Cowra Breakout" (1984). Miller also produced the film that brought Noyce to the attention of Hollywood studios – "Dead Calm" (1988) which launched the career of Nicole Kidman. After "Dead Calm", Noyce went to America to direct "Blind Fury" starring Rutger Hauer for Tri-Star Pictures.


title: Phillip Noyce

text: Moving with his young family to the United States in 1991, Noyce directed five films over the following eight years, of which "Clear and Present Danger", starring Harrison Ford, was the most successful, critically and commercially, grossing $216 million. After 1999's "Bone Collector" starring Angelina Jolie and Denzel Washington, Noyce decided to return to his native Australia for Stolen Generations saga "Rabbit-Proof Fence", which won the AFI Award for Best Film in 2002. He has described "Rabbit-Proof Fence" as "easily" his proudest moment as a director: "Showing that film to various Aboriginal communities around the country and seeing their response, because it gave validity to the experiences of the stolen generations." Although independently financed, the film was a huge hit with Australian audiences and sold worldwide.


title: Phillip Noyce

text: Noyce was also lauded for "The Quiet American", the 2002 adaptation of Graham Greene's novel, which gave Michael Caine an Academy Award Best Actor nomination and earned best director awards from London Film Critics' Circle and National Board of Review in the US. After the Apartheid-set "Catch a Fire" (2006) in South Africa, Noyce decided to make another big budget studio film with 2010's "Salt" starring Angelina Jolie, which proved to be his biggest commercial hit to date, making nearly $300 million worldwide.


title: Phillip Noyce

text: In 2011, Noyce directed and executive produced the pilot for the ABC series "Revenge" and has since directed numerous TV pilots, including Netflix's "What/If" starring Renée Zellweger and the ongoing FOX Network hit "The Resident", now in its 5th season. In 2017, he signed a first look deal with 20th Century Fox Television.


title: Phillip Noyce

text: "Above Suspicion", starring Emilia Clarke and Jack Huston, originally to be released in America in 2020 by Roadside Attractions was delayed until May 2021 due to the Coronavirus Pandemic.


title: Phillip Noyce

text: In 2021, Noyce became executive producer on the film "Show Me What You Got," written and directed by Svetlana Cvetko. "He clearly believed in our vision and ability to tell this story in the beautiful way we wanted, and just simply helped us enhance it," Cvetko says of Noyce in a 2022 FilmInk Interview.


title: Phillip Noyce

text: "The Desperate Hour" (originally titled "Lakewood"), starring Naomi Watts, will be released in the US by Roadside Attractions in February 2022.


title: Phillip Noyce

text: In late 2021, a 17 feature and 10 shorts retrospective of Noyce's work was presented at the Cinémathèque Française in Paris.


title: Phillip Noyce

text: Noyce's next film, shooting in spring of 2022, will be the darkly comedic thriller "Fast Charlie", starring Pierce Brosnan, Morena Baccarin and James Caan, written by Richard Wenk.


title: Phillip Noyce

text: Noyce has been married three times. He was married to film producer Jan Chapman from 1971 to 1977. From 1979 to 2004, he was married to producer Jan Sharp, with whom he has two children. He is now married to designer Vuyo Dyasi, with whom he has two children.


title: Action figure

text: An action figure is a poseable character model figure made most commonly of plastic, and often based upon characters from a film, comic book, military, video game or television program; fictional or historical. These figures are usually marketed toward boys and adult collectors. The term was coined by Hasbro in 1964 to market G.I. Joe to boys (while competitors called similar offerings "boy's dolls").


title: Action figure

text: According to a 2005 study in Sweden, action figures which display traditional masculine traits primarily target boys. While most commonly marketed as a child's toy, the action figure has gained widespread acceptance as collector item for adults. In such a case, the item may be produced and designed on the assumption it will be bought solely for display as a collectible and not played with like a child's toy.


title: Action figure

text: Articulated dolls go back to at least 200 BCE, with articulated clay and wooden dolls of ancient Greece and Rome. Many types of articulated figures date to the early modern period, including the artists' mannequin and the Japanese "ichimatsu" doll. The modern ball-jointed doll was first created in Western Europe in the late 19th century. From the late 19th century through the early 20th century French and German manufacturers made bisque dolls with strung bodies articulated with ball-joints made of composition: a mix of pulp, sawdust, glue and similar materials. These dolls could measure between and are now collectible antiques.


title: Action figure

text: Besides the articulated doll, another important precursor to the action figure is the toy soldier. Military figures have been found in ancient Egyptian tombs, and have appeared in many cultures and eras. Tin soldiers were produced in Germany as early as the 1730s, by molding the metal between two pieces of slate. As industry and demand advanced, so did production methods, with hollow casting first being utilized in the 1890s and polyethylene figures becoming common by the 1950s. The toy soldier market, ubiquitous thanks to its history and mass-production methods, would therefore become a natural home for the military-themed action figure.


title: Action figure

text: The term "action figure" was first coined by Hasbro in 1964, to market their G.I. Joe figure to boys who refused to play with "dolls", a term primarily associated as a girl's toy. (A similar toy named Johnny Hero was introduced by Rosko Industries for Sears in 1965, but was known as a "Boy's Doll" since the term action figure had not gained widespread usage at that point.) G.I. Joe was initially a military-themed 11.5-inch figure proposed by marketing and toy idea-man Stan Weston. It featured changeable clothes with various uniforms to suit different purposes.


title: Action figure

text: In a move that would create global popularity for this type of toy, Hasbro also licensed the product to companies in other markets. These different licensees had a combination of uniforms and accessories that were usually identical to the ones manufactured for the US market by Hasbro, along with some sets that were unique to the local market. The Japanese had at least two examples where a Hasbro licensee also issued sublicenses for related products. For example, Palitoy (in the UK) issued a sublicense to Tsukuda, a company in Japan, to manufacture and sell Palitoy's Action Man accessories in the Japanese market. Takara also issued a sublicense to Medicom for the manufacture of action figures.


title: Action figure

text: Takara, still under license by Hasbro to make and sell G.I. Joe toys in Japan, also manufactured an action figure incorporating the licensed GI Joe torso for Henshin Cyborg-1, using transparent plastic revealing cyborg innards, and a chrome head and cyborg feet. During the oil supply crisis of the 1970s, like many other manufacturers of action figures, Takara was struggling with the costs associated with making the large -inch figures, So, a smaller version of the cyborg toy was developed, standing at high, and was first sold in 1974 as Microman. The Microman line was also novel in its use of interchangeable parts. This laid the foundation for both the smaller action figure size and the transforming robot toy. Takara began producing characters in the Microman line with increasingly robotic features, including Robotman, a robot with room for a Microman pilot, and Mini-Robotman, a version of Robotman. These toys also featured interchangeable parts, with emphasis placed on the transformation and combination of the characters.


title: Action figure

text: In 1971, Mego began licensing and making American Marvel and DC comic book superhero figures, which had highly successful sales and are considered highly collectible by many adults today. They eventually brought the Microman toy line to the United States as the Micronauts, but Mego eventually lost control of the market after losing the license to produce "Star Wars" toys to Kenner in 1976. The widespread success of Kenner's Star Wars toy line made the newer, smaller size figure with molded-on clothing the industry standard. Instead of a single character with outfits that changed for different applications, toy lines included teams of characters with special functions. Led by Star Wars-themed sales, collectible action figures quickly became a multimillion-dollar secondary business for movie studios.


title: Action figure

text: The 1980s spawned all sorts of popular action figure lines, many based on cartoon series, which were one of the largest marketing tools for toy companies. Some of the most successful to come about were Masters of the Universe, G.I. Joe, Thundercats, The Real Ghostbusters and Super Powers Collection, to name just a few. Early in the decade, the burgeoning popularity of Japanese robot anime such as "Gundam" also encouraged Takara to reinvent the Microman line as the Micro Robots, moving from the cyborg action figure concept to the concept of the living robot. This led to the Micro Change line of toys: objects that could "transform" into robots. In 1984, Hasbro licensed Micro Change and another Takara line, the Diaclone transforming cars, and combined them in the US as the Transformers, spawning a still-continuing family of animated cartoons.


title: Action figure

text: As the '80s were ending, more and more collectors started to surface, buying up the toys to keep in their original packaging for display purposes and for future collectability. This led to flooding of the action figure toy market. One of the most popular action figure lines of the late '80s and early '90s, Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles action figures were produced in such high quantities that the value for most figures would never be higher than a few dollars. In the mid-1990s, a new Star Wars figure line had surfaced and Spawn figures flooded the toy store shelves, proving action figures were not just for kids anymore. Beginning in 1997, "ToyFare" magazine would become a popular read for mature collectors in providing news and embracing nostalgia with a comedic twist. And with the gaining popularity of the Internet, websites such as Toy News International would soon offer information on upcoming collectible figures and merchandise.


title: Action figure

text: It was during this time that popular characters were increasingly getting specialized costume and variant figures. Batman quickly became most notorious for this (i.e. Arctic Batman, Piranha Blade Batman, Neon Armor Batman). Rather than individual characters, these variants would make up the bulk of many action figure lines and often make use of the old figure and accessory molds. Glow-in-the-dark figures and accessories also became popular in the early '90s with lines like Toxic Crusaders and Swamp Thing.


title: Action figure

text: A 1999 study found that "the figures have grown much more muscular over time, with many contemporary figures far exceeding the muscularity of even the largest human bodybuilders" and that the changing cultural expectations reflected by those changes may contribute to body image disorders in both sexes.


title: Action figure

text: The adult collector market for action figures expanded with companies such as McFarlane Toys, Palisades, and NECA. These companies have given numerous movie characters, musicians, and athletes their very first highly detailed figures. The Cinema of Fear action figures were sold together with plush dolls, "screen grab" dioramas, and limited edition toys based on New Line Cinema's horror franchise. These kinds of action figure are mainly intended as statuesque display pieces rather than toys. Child-oriented lines such as the Masters of the Universe revival and Justice League Unlimited, however, still evoke adult collector followings as well. Comic book firms are also able to get figures of their characters produced, regardless of whether or not they appeared in movies or animated cartoons. Examples of companies that produce comic figures and merchandise almost exclusively include Toy Biz and DC Direct.


title: Action figure

text: Adult-oriented figure lines are often exclusive to specific chain stores rather than mass retail. Popular lines often have figures available exclusively through mail-in offers and comic conventions, which raises their value significantly. Ploys such as packaging "errors" and "short-packed" figures have also been used by toy companies to increase collector interest.


title: Action figure

text: Modelling clay and various sculpting tools are used to create the prototype. The actual figure is molded from a harder plastic resin such as acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS). Softer plastics and nylon may be used for costume components including body suits, capes, and face masks. Acrylic paints of various colors may be used to decorate the figure. More elaborate toys may contain miniature electronic components that provide light and sound effects.


title: Action figure

text: Once the character has been selected, the actual design process begins with sketches of the proposed figure. The next step is the creation of a clay prototype, but other materials such as wax can also be used for the prototype. This model is made by bending aluminum wires to form the backbone of the figure, known as an armature. The wire form includes the outline of the arms and legs posed in the general stance that the figure will assume. The sculptor then adds clay to the armature to give the basic weight and shape that is desired. The clay may be baked slightly during the prototyping process to harden it. Then, the sculptor uses various tools, such as a wire loop, to carve the clay and shape details on the figure.


title: Action figure

text: After creating the basic form, the sculptor may choose to remove the arms and work on them separately for later attachment. This gives the sculptor more control and allows him to produce finer details on the prototype. Working with blunt tools, the sculptor shapes the body with as much detail as is desired. During this process, photo and sketch references are used to ensure the figure is as realistic as possible. Some sculptors may even use human models to guide their design work.


title: Action figure

text: After the general body shape is complete, the sculptor adds the finer details, paying close attention to the eyes, nose, and mouth that give the figure its lifelike expression. The designer may attach a rough lump of clay on the main figure as a temporary head while the real head is sculpted on a separate armature. This allows the sculptor to finish the figure's facial expressions independently of the body. At this point, the finished head can be attached to the main armature and joined to the body with additional clay. Once the head is attached, the neck and hair are sculpted to properly fit to the figure. Then, depending on the design of the figure, the costume may be sculpted directly onto the body. However, if a cloth costume or uniform will be added later, the prototype is sculpted without any costume details. During this process, parts of the clay may be covered with aluminum foil to keep it from prematurely drying out. Once everything is completed, the entire figure is baked to harden the clay.


title: Action figure

text: The sculpted prototype is then sent for approval to the manufacturer. Once all design details have been finalized, the prototype is used to make the molds that will form the plastic pieces for the mass-produced figure. The entire sculpting process may take about two weeks, depending on the skill and speed of the sculptor. This process may be repeated several times if revisions must be made to the figure. Several months are typically allowed for this design phase.


title: Action figure

text: Action Figures come in fixed scales to allow compatibility within (and sometimes between) toy ranges.


title: Action figure

text: A common feature among action figures is body articulation, often referred to as points of articulation (POA) or joints. The most basic forms of articulation include one neck joint, two shoulder joints, and two hip joints. Beyond these, rotating wrists, bending knees, and a swiveling waist are also common. Various terms have come into practice such as a "cut" joint, frequently used to allow a basic head rotation at the neck or arm rotation at the shoulder. The "T" joint at a figure's hips commonly allows up to 180° of front-to-back leg rotation; although, this may vary. Ball joints often allow more liberal movement than a cut, such as the figure's head being able to tilt in addition to a cut's strict vertical rotation. Basic knee articulation often relies on what is considered a pin joint.


title: Action figure

text: The amount and style of figure articulation used by toy designers have varied over the years. Two of the most popular figure lines of the 1980s, "" and "Masters of the Universe", contrasted one another greatly in articulation; the former included several points in their small, scale while the bulkier latter remained minimal. Both, however, used methods involving rubber cords at the hips that are little used today. In the 2000s, Toy Biz's popular "Marvel Legends" line became known for its high rate of articulation, even boasting points at the abdomen, toes, and fingers.


title: Action figure

text: While not all action figures include accessories, the additional items often prove essential to characters and their effectiveness as interactive toys. Typical scale G.I. Joe figures include several intricately sculpted guns or hand weapons that can be fastened inside the figures' hands. Missile launchers are also commonplace in military and comic book figure lines and usually involve a spring-loaded mechanism. However, possibly due to safety concerns, this method saw a decline in the mid-1990s. Some figures, particularly of the Joker, have incorporated water-squirting weapons.


title: Action figure

text: More recently, Marvel Legends has popularized the "build-a-figure" concept. Each figure of a particular series includes a body part to a larger-scaled figure. This encourages the consumer to purchase every figure of the given series, in order to complete the larger figure. The concept has spread into Mattel's DC Universe Classics. Figures intended to appeal to the collector market commonly include a display base and/or pack-in comic book. In such cases accessories may be designed more for display than play.


title: Action figure

text: Window Box packaging Window box packages consist of a sturdy, but somewhat thin cardboard box that allows for easy stacking. The box has colorful artwork to draw one's attention. The front of the box will have an area of the cardboard that is cut out and a thin piece of soft plastic then fills the cutout area. This ensures easy visibility of the action figure inside of the box. This type of packaging was used by companies such as Mego Corporation in the early 1970s until they switched to the Carded Bubble style of packaging in the mid to late 1970s. Window Box packaging is still used today, often for figures that measure 10" or taller in height.


title: Action figure

text: Carded Bubble packaging This type of packaging consists of a sturdy piece of thin cardboard backing known as a "Card." The card is decorated with colorful artwork to draw consumer attention. The action figure is placed on the card and a bubble of clear plastic is then laid over the top of the action figure and attached to the card. The figure is then clearly visible to consumers. Often the bubble will have several small, fitted compartments to hold the figure and its accessories in place. Kenner and Hasbro's packaging of Star Wars action figures since 1977 are an example.


title: Action figure

text: PVC packaging A more recent type of packaging that is common as of the 2000s decade is PVC packaging. With this type of packaging, the cardboard card is replaced by a clear PVC plastic backing. The front of the package is a different piece of PVC plastic that is molded to include a bubble that will house the action figure and all of its accessories. Any colorful artwork designed to help draw attention to the package will be printed on a thin piece of paper that is placed between these two pieces of PVC, or will be affixed in sticker form to the front piece of PVC. This type of packaging is popular today and can be seen being used by McFarlane Toys for their Movie Maniacs line of action figures beginning with Series V. Other companies that utilize this type of packaging are NECA/Reel Toys (National Entertainment Collectibles Association) with their Cult Classics and Pirates of the Caribbean line of figures, and Toy Biz with its Marvel Legends action figures, which included a comic book placed between the two PVC segments.


title: Action figure

text: Tube packaging Another recent type of PVC packaging is a tube-shaped piece of PVC plastic surrounding the action figure. The tube may be cylindrical or oval in shape. Artwork on the package is often in the form of a sticker affixed to the outside of the PVC tube. This type of packaging has been used by Hasbro for their Star Wars Galactic Heroes line of figures.


title: Action figure

text: Figures of the original Masters of the Universe line included many unique "action features": Battle Armor He-Man and Skeletor had rotating chest plates to represent varying degrees of damage; Leech featured suction cup limbs; Mantenna's eyes would pop out using a lever on his back; and Thunder Punch He-Man would thrust a punch and emit a loud bang from the ring cap in his backpack. Other features emphasized aesthetic rather than action, such as the flocked bodies of Grizzlor and Moss Man as well as the unique scents of the latter and Stinkor.


title: Action figure

text: The success of the many Transformers lines has relied heavily on their signature feature of shifting from vehicle to robot. The popularity of this carried into Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles' Mutatin' series among others.


title: Action figure

text: In 1987, Mattel introduced figures for the television series "Captain Power and the Soldiers of the Future". The line boasted an interactive game where children could shoot at the TV screen. However, while an ambitious concept, it was not a long-term success.


title: Action figure

text: Glow-in-the-dark paint and plastic have been utilized in various figure collections, particularly those of the early '90s including Ninja Turtles, Swamp Thing, and Toxic Crusaders. Similarly, a color-changing feature has been demonstrated on some figures throughout the years. This concept involves dipping the character's head into cold water and revealing a temperature-sensitive paint. Examples include Kenner's Sky Escape Joker and Camouflage Swamp Thing, as well as Hasbro's Desert-Camo Sgt. Savage.


title: Action figure

text: The majority of figures in Kenner's Super Powers Collection toted a punching action upon the squeezing together of their legs. In a more technically advanced method, the Ninja Turtles' Wacky Action series involved a wind-up gear that caused the motorized performance of certain actions like swimming legs or a rotating wrist. Two years prior also saw the release of Tyco's Dino-Riders, which featured battery powered, motorized dinosaurs.


title: Electromagnetic tensor

text: In electromagnetism, the electromagnetic tensor or electromagnetic field tensor (sometimes called the field strength tensor, Faraday tensor or Maxwell bivector) is a mathematical object that describes the electromagnetic field in spacetime. The field tensor was first used after the four-dimensional tensor formulation of special relativity was introduced by Hermann Minkowski. The tensor allows related physical laws to be written very concisely, and allows for the quantization of the electromagnetic field by Lagrangian formulation described below.


title: Electromagnetic tensor

text: The electromagnetic tensor, conventionally labelled "F", is defined as the exterior derivative of the electromagnetic four-potential, "A", a differential 1-form:


title: Electromagnetic tensor

text: Therefore, "F" is a differential 2-form—that is, an antisymmetric rank-2 tensor field—on Minkowski space. In component form,


title: Electromagnetic tensor

text: SI units for Maxwell's equations and the particle physicist's sign convention for the signature of Minkowski space , will be used throughout this article.


title: Electromagnetic tensor

text: where formula_7 has formula_8 (formula_9 is a scalar potential for the irrotational/conservative vector field formula_10) and formula_11 has formula_12 (formula_13 is a vector potential for the solenoidal vector field formula_14).


title: Electromagnetic tensor

text: Here is a video series by Michael Penn explaining the Faraday 2-form and its relations to Maxwell's equations.


title: Electromagnetic tensor

text: where formula_16 is the exterior derivative, formula_17 is the Hodge star, formula_18 (where formula_19 is the electric current density, and formula_20 is the electric charge density) is the 4-current density 1-form, is the differential forms version of Maxwell's equations.


title: Electromagnetic tensor

text: The electric and magnetic fields can be obtained from the components of the electromagnetic tensor. The relationship is simplest in Cartesian coordinates:


title: Electromagnetic tensor

text: where formula_23 is the Levi-Civita tensor. This gives the fields in a particular reference frame; if the reference frame is changed, the components of the electromagnetic tensor will transform covariantly, and the fields in the new frame will be given by the new components.


title: Electromagnetic tensor

text: From now on in this article, when the electric or magnetic fields are mentioned, a Cartesian coordinate system is assumed, and the electric and magnetic fields are with respect to the coordinate system's reference frame, as in the equations above.


title: Electromagnetic tensor

text: This tensor simplifies and reduces Maxwell's equations as four vector calculus equations into two tensor field equations. In electrostatics and electrodynamics, Gauss's law and Ampère's circuital law are respectively:


title: Electromagnetic tensor

text: In magnetostatics and magnetodynamics, Gauss's law for magnetism and Maxwell–Faraday equation are respectively:


title: Electromagnetic tensor

text: The field tensor derives its name from the fact that the electromagnetic field is found to obey the tensor transformation law, this general property of physical laws being recognised after the advent of special relativity. This theory stipulated that all the laws of physics should take the same form in all coordinate systems – this led to the introduction of tensors. The tensor formalism also leads to a mathematically simpler presentation of physical laws.


title: Electromagnetic tensor

text: Maxwell's laws above can be generalised to curved spacetime by simply replacing partial derivatives with covariant derivatives:


title: Electromagnetic tensor

text: where the semi-colon notation represents a covariant derivative, as opposed to a partial derivative. These equations are sometimes referred to as the curved space Maxwell equations. Again, the second equation implies charge conservation (in curved spacetime):


title: Electromagnetic tensor

text: The two middle terms in the parentheses are the same, as are the two outer terms, so the Lagrangian density is


title: Electromagnetic tensor

text: That equation is another way of writing the two inhomogeneous Maxwell's equations (namely, Gauss's law and Ampère's circuital law) using the substitutions:


title: Electromagnetic tensor

text: The Lagrangian of quantum electrodynamics extends beyond the classical Lagrangian established in relativity to incorporate the creation and annihilation of photons (and electrons):


title: Electromagnetic tensor

text: where the first part in the right hand side, containing the Dirac spinor formula_56, represents the Dirac field. In quantum field theory it is used as the template for the gauge field strength tensor. By being employed in addition to the local interaction Lagrangian it reprises its usual role in QED.


title: 2022 ADAC Formula 4 Championship

text: The 2022 ADAC Formula 4 Championship was the eighth and final season of ADAC Formula 4, an open-wheel motor racing series. It was a multi-event motor racing championship that featured drivers competing in 1.4 litre Tatuus-Abarth single seat race cars that conformed to the technical regulations for the championship.


title: 2022 ADAC Formula 4 Championship

text: The provisional calendar was released on 7 November 2021. The opening two rounds supported the 2022 24H GT Series and the next three raced alongside the 2022 ADAC GT Masters. The finale was a part of ADAC Racing Weekend event.


title: 2022 ADAC Formula 4 Championship

text: Points were awarded to the top 10 classified finishers (excluding guest drivers) in each race. No points were awarded for pole position or fastest lap. The final classifications for the individual championships were obtained by summing up the scores on the 16 best results obtained during the races held.


title: 2022 ADAC Formula 4 Championship

text: "Only two best team's drivers in each race were eligible to score points. The other drivers were omitted during rewarding the points."


title: Hekla

text: Hekla (), or Hecla, is a stratovolcano in the south of Iceland with a height of . Hekla is one of Iceland's most active volcanoes; over 20 eruptions have occurred in and around the volcano since 874. During the Middle Ages, the Icelandic Norse called the volcano the "Gateway to Hell".


title: Hekla

text: Hekla is part of a volcanic ridge, long. The most active part of this ridge, a fissure about long named , is considered to be within Hekla proper. Hekla looks rather like an overturned boat, with its keel being a series of craters, two of which are generally the most active.


title: Hekla

text: The volcano's frequent large eruptions have covered much of Iceland with tephra, and these layers can be used to date eruptions of Iceland's other volcanoes. Approximately 10% of the tephra created in Iceland in the last thousand years has come from Hekla, amounting to 5 km. Cumulatively, the volcano has produced one of the largest volumes of lava of any in the world in the last millennium, around 8 km.


title: Hekla

text: In Icelandic "Hekla" is the word for a short hooded cloak, which may relate to the frequent cloud cover on the summit. An early Latin source refers to the mountain as "Mons Casule".


title: Hekla

text: After the eruption of 1104, stories, probably spread deliberately through Europe by Cistercian monks, told that Hekla was the gateway to Hell. The Cistercian monk Herbert of Clairvaux wrote in his "De Miraculis" (without naming Hekla): A poem by the monk Benedeit from circa 1120 about the voyages of Saint Brendan mentions Hekla as the prison of Judas.


title: Hekla

text: In the "Flatey Book Annal" it was recorded that during the 1341 eruption, people saw large and small birds flying in the mountain's fire which were taken to be souls.


title: Hekla

text: In the 16th century Caspar Peucer wrote that the Gates of Hell could be found in "the bottomless abyss of Hekla Fell". The belief that Hekla was the gate to Hell persisted until the 19th century. There is still a legend that witches gather on Hekla during Easter.


title: Hekla

text: Hekla has a morphological type between that of a fissure vent and stratovolcano (built from mixed lava and tephra eruptions) sited at a rift-transform junction in the area where the south Iceland seismic zone and eastern volcanic zone meet. The unusual form of Hekla is found on very few volcanoes around the world, notably Callaqui in Chile. Hekla is situated on a long volcanic ridge of which the 5.5 km "Heklugjá" fissure is considered Hekla proper. This fissure opens along its entire length during major eruptions and is fed by a magma reservoir estimated to have a top 4 km below the surface with centroid 2.5 km lower.


title: Hekla

text: The tephra produced by its eruptions is high in fluorine, which is poisonous to animals. Hekla's basaltic andesite lava generally has a SiO content of over 54%, compared to the 45–50% of other nearby transitional alkaline basalt eruptions (see TAS classification).


title: Hekla

text: Phenocrysts in Hekla's lava can contain plagioclase, pyroxene, titanomagnetite, olivine, and apatite.


title: Hekla

text: When not erupting Hekla is often covered with snow and small glaciers; it is also unusually aseismic with activity only starting 30–80 minutes before an eruption. Hekla is located on the mid-ocean ridge, a diverging plate boundary.


title: Hekla

text: Hekla is closely studied today for parameters such as strain, tilt, deformation and other movement and seismic activity. Earthquakes in the volcano's vicinity are generally below magnitude 2 while it is dormant and magnitude 3 when erupting.


title: Hekla

text: The earliest recorded eruption of Hekla took place in 1104. Since then there have been between twenty and thirty considerable eruptions, with the mountain sometimes remaining active for periods of six years with little pause. Eruptions in Hekla are varied and difficult to predict. Some are very short (a week to ten days) whereas others can stretch into months and years (the 1947 eruption started 29 March 1947 and ended April 1948). But there is a general correlation: the longer Hekla goes dormant, the larger and more catastrophic its opening eruption will be. The most recent eruption was on 26 February 2000.


title: Hekla

text: One of the largest Holocene eruptions in Iceland was the Hekla 3 (or H) eruption circa 1000 BC, which threw about 7.3 km of volcanic rock into the atmosphere, placing its Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) at 5. This would have cooled temperatures in the northern parts of the globe for a few years afterwards. Traces of this eruption have been identified in Scottish peat bogs, and in Ireland a study of tree rings dating from this period has shown negligible tree ring growth for a decade.


title: Hekla

text: Hekla 3, 4, and 5 produced huge amounts of rhyolitic ash and tephra, covering 80% of Iceland and providing useful date markers in soil profiles in other parts of Europe such as Orkney, Scandinavia, and elsewhere. H and H produced the largest layers of tephra in Iceland since the last ice age. During the last 7,000 years, one third of the volcanic ash deposited in Scandinavia, Germany, Ireland, and the United Kingdom originated from Hekla.


title: Hekla

text: Hekla had been dormant for at least 250 years when it erupted explosively in 1104 (probably in the autumn), covering over half of Iceland (55,000 km) with 1.2 km / 2.5 km of rhyodacitic tephra. This was the second largest tephra eruption in the country in historical times with a VEI of 5. Farms upwind of the volcano in Þjórsárdalur valley (15 km away), Hrunamannaafréttur (50 km away) and Lake Hvítárvatn (70 km away) were abandoned because of the damage. The eruption caused Hekla to become famous throughout Europe.


title: Hekla

text: A VEI-4 eruption began on 19 January 1158 producing over 0.15 km of lava and 0.2 km of tephra. It is likely to be the source of the "Efrahvolshraun" lava on Hekla's west.


title: Hekla

text: The VEI-2 eruption and the 1206 eruption distributed around 0.24 km of tephra mainly to the northeast.


title: Hekla

text: This VEI-4 eruption, which started on 11 July and lasted for a year, was the second largest tephra eruption of Hekla since Iceland was settled, covering 30,000 km


title: Hekla

text: of land with 0.31 km of tephra. Over 0.5 km of lava was also expelled. The tephra caused significant damage to the settlements of Skagafjörður and Fljót, leading to over 500 deaths that winter.


title: Hekla

text: The material output from this eruption had SiO levels of between 56% and 64%, and apart from a slight abundance of olivine the lava, was typical of Hekla eruptions.


title: Hekla

text: A small eruption (VEI-3) started on 19 May and deposited around 5×10 m of tephra over the areas west and southwest of Hekla, leading to many cattle deaths, probably mainly from fluorosis.


title: Hekla

text: In late 1389 Hekla erupted again (VEI-3), starting with a large ejection of tephra to the southeast. Later "the eruption fissure moved itself out of the mountain proper and into the woods a little above Skard". Skard and another nearby farm were destroyed by a large lava flow that now forms the 12.5 km "Nordurhraun". In total around 0.3 km of lava and 5×10 m of tephra were produced.


title: Hekla

text: An eruption may have occurred around 1440 at Raudölder; despite being close to Hekla this is not classed as an eruption of Hekla based on the SiO content of the lava.


title: Hekla

text: Details of the 1510 eruption were not recorded until a century later. It started on 25 July and was particularly violent (VEI 4), firing volcanic bombs as far as Vördufell, 40 km west. Tephra was deposited over Rangárvellir, Holt and Landeyjar, 0.2 km in total. A man in Landsveit was killed.


title: Hekla

text: A VEI-4 eruption began on 3 January and lasted for over 6 months, with 0.15 km of tephra being deposited to the south-southeast, damaging Mýrdalur.


title: Hekla

text: A small (VEI-3) eruption began on 8 May 1636 and lasted for over a year. The 5×10 m of tephra from the eruption damaged pasture to the northeast causing death of livestock.


title: Hekla

text: Starting 13 January and lasting for over 7 months the eruption was one of Hekla's most destructive (VEI-4). Initially tephra was produced at 60,000 m·s, 0.18 km during the entire eruption, which also caused lahars and tsunami. The tephra was deposited to the northwest, destroying and damaging farms and woodland in Þjórsárdalur, Land, Hreppar and Biskupstungur. Fine ash from the eruption reached Norway. There was damage to wildlife with significant numbers of trout, salmon, ptarmigan and farm animals dying.


title: Hekla

text: A very small eruption, possibly only VEI-1, took place on 2 April 1725, producing flows of lava from locations around Hekla which have since been covered by later lava flows. These eruptions are not classed as of Hekla itself based on the SiO content of the lava.


title: Hekla

text: The eruption of 1766 was large (VEI-4) and produced the second largest lava flow, 1.3 km covering 65 km, and third largest tephra volume, 0.24 km, of any Icelandic volcano during the inhabited era. The eruption started at around 3:30 am on 5 April 1766 and ceased in May 1768. Initially a 2–4 cm layer of tephra was deposited over Austur-Húnavatnssýsla and Skagafjördur, resulting in the deaths of both fish and livestock. Rangárvellir, Land and Hreppar also suffered damage. During the eruption up to 0.5 m lava bombs were thrown 15–20 km away, and flooding was caused by the sudden melting of snow and ice on Hekla's slopes.


title: Hekla

text: Hekla was dormant for more than sixty years before 1845, when it suddenly burst forth on 2 September at 9 am:


title: Hekla

text: The eruption ceased around 5 April 1846. Initially in this VEI-4 eruption tephra was produced at 20,000 m·s. The tephra deposition (0.17 km) was mainly to the east-southeast; immediately to the east of Hekla the layer was 20–40 cm deep. Fine ash was carried to the Faroes, Shetland and Orkney. Lava flows to the west and northwest covered an area of 25 km with 0.63 km of lava. Large quantities of dark ash were deposited over pasture in the same directions leading to many livestock deaths through fluorosis for the next two years.


title: Hekla

text: A small eruption (VEI-2) occurred between 27 February 1878 and April 1878, around 10 km east of Hekla, and produced 0.2 km of lava from two parallel fissures covering 15.5 km.


title: Hekla

text: A small eruption (VEI-2) occurred between 25 April 1913 and 18 May 1913, around 10 km east of Hekla, and caused large fissures at Mundafell and Lambafit which produced 3.8 and 6.3 km of lava respectively.


title: Hekla

text: The VEI-4 eruption started on 29 March 1947 and ended on 21 April 1948. It is likely that this was both the second greatest lava eruption of Hekla whilst Iceland was inhabited and the second greatest lava eruption in the world in the period 1900–1970. A total lava volume 0.8 km was produced with 0.21 km of tephra. The height of Hekla was 1,447 m before the eruption, increasing to a maximum of 1,503 m, before dropping to 1,491 m subsequently.


title: Hekla

text: The eruption occurred over a century after the last eruption of Hekla proper, the longest dormant period since 1104. Before the eruption the volcano had been visible from the surrounding area but nothing remarkable was noticed. The eruption occurred at 6:41 am ± 3 min with a loud roar; later eruptions could be heard throughout Iceland. An earthquake at 6:50 am measured 6 on the Mercalli intensity scale and increased the eruption intensity until it covered a 4 km fissure on the ridge. The cloud from the eruption had ascended to a height of 30 km by 7:08 am, the wind then carried it southwards towards Eyjafjallajökull, turning it black. Pumice first landed on Fljótshlíð at around 7:10 am, and tephra and ash continued falling until it formed a 3–10 cm layer. A lava bomb that landed 32 km from Hekla was 0.5 m across and weighed 20 kg. Between Vatnafjöll and Hekla, a layer of tephra up to a metre thick was deposited, including bombs with a diameter larger than 0.5 m. Bombs with areas of 50 m were dropped onto the slopes of Hekla, up to 1 km away. 51 hours after the eruption had started, ash fell on Helsinki, Finland, having covered 2,860 km in this time.


title: Hekla

text: The initial tephra production rate in the first 30 minutes of the eruption was 75,000 m·s, dropping to 22,000 m·s for the next half-hour. The initial phase produced 0.18 km of tephra, equating to 4.5×10 m of solid rock, covering 3,130 km of land and sea. 98 farms were damaged by the eruption, but only 2 were no longer farmed in 1970. A large volunteer effort was mobilized to clear the tephra – around 1000 man-days by the end of July. The eruption produced around 3 ML of water (snowmelt and directly from the fissure) which caused flooding of the Ytri Rangá river.


title: Hekla

text: In the first 20 hours of the eruption approximately 3,500 m·s of lava was produced from the fissure, dividing into various branches and covering 12–15 km. On the second day, 8 distinct eruption columns were discernible. A crater formed at 860 m called the Lava Crater ("Hraungígur"), producing a constant flow of lava. Another crater named the Shoulder Crater ("Axlargígur") produced a column of smoke every 10 seconds together with loud explosions that created visible compression waves in the smoke. By the fourth, fifth, and sixth days, the eruption was greatly diminished, and only the shoulder and summit craters were erupting explosively.


title: Hekla

text: The explosive eruption increased in strength from 9–12 April and then from 28 April it reduced again. On 3 May, the volcano stopped throwing out lava in sudden explosions from its craters and changed to continuously ejecting tephra and ash for long periods, until early June when this reduced. On 2 September, the Shoulder Crater had a 960 m circumference at its top and the Summit Crater a 700 m circumference at its highest point, 90 m above the ridge. Sandy tephra and ash fell over Iceland in May and June, sometimes making it dark in the daytime near Hekla. The tephra caused fluorine poisoning of grazing sheep, making them unable to walk. That winter more craters formed, building up cones. Explosive activity had ceased six months after the first eruption. Lava flowed from the Lava Crater continuously during the eruption, starting at a rate of over 100 m·s, dropping to 5–10 m·s in April and early May at a speed of around 20 cm·s before increasing, eventually reaching 150 m·s at the end of June and at similar levels until mid-July with a peak flow speed of 2–2.5 m·s. From there it gradually decreased to under 10 m·s in November. Initially the lava comprised 57–58% SiO and 11% FeO, from the time of peak flow onwards this changed to 54% SiO and 13.5% FeO.


title: Hekla

text: The lava river sometimes ran through lava tubes before emerging again. The lava front had a height of up to 15 m. On 15 and 16 June, a branch of lava flow to the south of Melfell traveled over 1 km in 30 hours before slowing and stopping by 21 June, 7.8 km from the Lava Crater. The longest lava stream produced was 8 km long and stopped in Stóraskógsbotnar. A scientist filming one of the lava streams on 2 November was hit by a block of lava and was killed.


title: Hekla

text: The lava flow stopped after 13 months on 21 April, having covered 40 km and with a maximum depth of 100 m. The lava beds produced were mainly the ʻAʻā lava type with Pāhoehoe and "lava a budella" (lava tubes) areas. In April and May 1948 CO emitted from cracks in the ground pooled in hollows near to Hekla, killing 15 sheep and some wild animals and birds. In total 24,000 tonnes of CO was emitted. Ditches were dug by farmers to drain these hollows, and the CO emission had stopped by the end of the year.


title: Hekla

text: The 1970 eruption of Hekla started at 9:23 pm on 5 May 1970 and lasted until 5 July. It had a VEI of 3 and produced 0.2 km³ of lava covering an area of 18.5 km² and 6.6×10  m³ of tephra, deposited over an area of 40,000 km², mainly to the northwest of the volcano.


title: Hekla

text: The main Hekla fissure only erupted at its far southwest end, most of the eruption was from other fissures nearby. The eruption stopped in the south-southwest on 10 May and in Hlídargígar on 20 May, but a new fissure opened on the same day and lava flowed from this until 5 July. The lava was andesite containing olivine, similar to the lava produced later in the eruption of 1947.


title: Hekla

text: Before the eruption, a greater than normal amount of snow melting had occurred, indicating the volcano was heating up. Earth tremors began at 8:48 pm on the evening of the eruption; the largest had a magnitude of 4. The eruption started weakly at 9:23 pm IMT ± 2 min before increasing in power. The first pumice fell on Búrfell power station, 15 km away, at 9:35 pm causing people to evacuate. The eruption seems to have started in two locations at the same time – to the Shoulder crater's south-southwest and below the Lava Crater. At 10:30 pm a crater at 780 m was producing a lava column which reached an altitude of around 1000 m. During the night a 700 m high lava fountain was thrown up from the main crater. A 500 m long fissure starting below the Lava Crater opened and lava fountains and other lava flows emanated from it. One hour into the eruption, a new 400 m fissure opened to the northeast, producing two main lava fountains, and shortly after another adjoining fissure opened producing lava fountains to a height of 500 m. At around midnight, another fissure opened northwest of the Lava Crater, later hurling an over 300 m long lava fountain, 200–300 m into the air. By midnight lava had already covered over 1 km² and this extended to 7.5 km² by next morning implying a flow rate of around 1500 m³/s.


title: Hekla

text: For the first two hours, tephra was produced at the rate of 10,000 m³/s. The cloud from the eruption, which had reached by 10:10 pm, caused a lightning storm. The tephra was transported northwards by the wind, causing the sky to turn black in places – 190 km away at Blönduós tephra fell from midnight until 2 am, and ash fell on a trawler 330 km away at 2 am. Icelanders sampled the tephra fall in their locality by putting a plate outside to capture everything that fell onto it. This, and other measurements, showed the area covered was long and narrow with the 1 mm contour (an equivalent of 8 tonnes per hectare) extending to the north coast.


title: Hekla

text: By 5:30 on 6 May, the lava flow measured 4 km long. Many lava bombs were found near the main crater, one had an area of 6 m² and a likely weight of 12 tons. Xenoliths formed around 2% of the material produced by the craters. These were of rock types including basalt, andesite, ignimbrite and sedimentary rock.


title: Hekla

text: The eruption became stronger at Skjólkvíar on 12 May, with columns of steam attaining a height of 2500 m. The eruption intensity then gradually reduced until it stopped on 20 May. The lava field then had an area of 5.8 km². Later that day a 900 m long fissure opened 1 km north of the main Hlídargígar crater. That night it contained 17 lava fountains, each 20–50 m in height. By the evening of the next day, 10–12 craters had formed, each throwing pieces of lava 50–100 m in the air. This row of craters was named Öldugígar. Gradually the number of active craters decreased, the most active of these built a cone 100 m higher than the level of the ridge. Lava flowed from its base until mid-June when the lava cut through the north crater wall. The larger cones produced more tephra, occasionally with lightning within the tephra cloud. By 5 July, the eruption had stopped.


title: Hekla

text: During eruptions of Hekla, fluorine is produced and sticks to the surfaces of the grains of tephra. Fine grains can have a fluorine content of 350 ppm, and fluorine poisoning can start in sheep at a diet with fluorine content of 25 ppm. At 250 ppm, death can occur within a few days. In 1783, 79% of the Icelandic sheep stock were killed, probably as a result of fluorosis caused by the eruption of Lakagígar. Some of the ash produced in this eruption had a fluorine content of 0.2%, and two days after the eruption contaminated grass had a dry weight content of up to 0.4% fluorine. 450 farms and 95,000 sheep were affected by the eruption. Some sheep were kept inside and fed on hay or moved, but other farmers were forced to graze their flocks outside.


title: Hekla

text: This VEI-3 eruption started at 13:28 on 17 August 1980 and lasted until 20 August 1980. It was a mixed eruption producing a lava volume of 0.12 km³ and a tephra volume of 5.8×10 m³. The fissure opened along a 7 km length. Shortly before the eruption started a steam column was produced; eventually the eruption column reached a height of 15 km. The main tephra deposits were to the north-northeast and lasted for around 2 hours. Deposits were 20 cm thick 10 km from the summit, decreasing to less than 1 mm at the coast 230 km away.


title: Hekla

text: Lava was initially produced from close to the summit, spreading to other parts of the fissure and covering an area of 22 km² in around 24 hours. The last scoria were seen on the morning of 20 August. This was an unusual eruption both in the short time since the previous eruption – the shortest since 1104, and the length – previous eruptions had lasted from 2 months to 2 years rather than just 3 days.


title: Hekla

text: The 1981 eruption, which is regarded as being a continuation of the previous year's eruption, began at 3 am on 9 April 1981, had a VEI of 2 and produced 3×10 m³ of lava, lasting until 16 April 1981. The eruption threw ash to a height of 6.6 km, and a new crater formed at the summit from which 3 lava flows originated. These extended to a maximum of 4.5 km from the volcano, covering 5–6 km².


title: Hekla

text: A VEI-3 eruption occurred from 17 January 1991 to 11 March 1991, producing 0.15 km³ of lava and 2×10 m³ of tephra. The eruption, which was preceded by sulphurous smells and earthquakes, started as a Plinian eruption, producing an ash cloud reaching an altitude of 11.5 km within 10 minutes which had travelled over 200 km north-northeast to the coast within 3 hours. The eruption then began producing andesitic lava, the flows eventually covering an area of 23 km² to an average depth of 6–7 m. Initially, part of the Heklugja fissure and other fissures erupted with lava fountains reaching 300 m in height. By the second day, the activity stopped in all but one fissure where the main crater formed. During these 2 days, 800 m³/s of lava were produced, slowing to between 1 m³/s and 14 m³/s for most of the eruption. This low viscosity lava had a SiO content of approximately 54%.


title: Hekla

text: The most recent eruption was relatively short; it started at 18:18 on 26 February 2000 and lasted until 8 March. It was a VEI-3 eruption producing a lava volume of 0.189 km DRE / 0.29 km and 10 m of tephra. The eruption went through four phases:


title: Hekla

text: Eruption activity was at a maximum in the first hour, and by the first night the fissure on Hekla had opened to a length of 6–7 km. The steam column rose to a height of almost 15 km, and ash was transported to Grímsey on the North coast of Iceland. During this eruption, a NASA DC-8 aeroplane accidentally flew through the plume with all instruments switched on, resulting in unprecedented measurement of a young volcanic plume.


title: Hekla

text: Up until this eruption, it had been assumed that Hekla was incapable of producing the most dangerous of volcanic phenomena, the pyroclastic flow. In January 2003, however, a team from the Norvol Institute in Reykjavík, under the leadership of Dr. Ármann Höskuldsson, reported that they found traces of a pyroclastic flow, roughly 5 km long, stretching down the side of the mountain. This will call for a reappraisal of volcanic eruptions of the basic rock type, which up to now were generally thought not to produce large pyroclastic flows. It will also require that the public and curious spectators who always rush to the scene at the start of a new outbreak, be kept much further away from the volcanic activity than was thought necessary during previous outbreaks.


title: Hekla

text: The Hekla area was once forested. Forest and some grasses are much more resilient to ash and pumice fall than low vegetation, but the combined effect of human habitation and the volcanic activity has left an unstable surface very susceptible to erosion. Hekluskógar, a 90,000 ha reforesting project is attempting to restore the birch and willow woodland to the slopes of Hekla, starting with soil fertilisation and grass sowing. This would stabilize the large areas of volcanic ash, help to reduce wind erosion of the frost heaved surface, slow drainage rates and hence water erosion, and ultimately increase biodiversity. It is the largest reforestation of its type in Europe. After an eruption, almost all of the 'safe sites' on new lava flows are colonised by mosses within 20 years expanding to a homogeneous layer up to 20 cm thick within 50 years.


title: Hekla

text: Hekla is a popular destination for hiking. Following the most recent eruption the path goes most of the way to the summit; the walk takes 3 to 4 hours.


title: Hekla

text: In spring, skiing is possible on short routes around the rim of the crater. In summer, there are easy (F) mountaineering routes also around the crater rim, and it is possible to snowcat to the top in winter. The volcano can be reached using the buses to Landmannalaugar 30 km further east, and it is possible to stay or camp at farms in the area. A visitor centre, The Hekla Center at Leirubakki Farm, opened in 2007.


title: Hekla

text: In the Spanish apocalyptic science fiction film, "Los Últimos Días" (2013), some news reporters speculate that three recent eruptions of Mount Hekla could have caused the spreading form of agoraphobia that kills affected people who go outside.


title: Hekla

text: In the Boston, Massachusetts area, Hekla pastries can be found – large, upside-down cinnamon rolls with white sugar icing spooned over the top to look like the snow-topped volcano.


title: Hekla

text: The British poet William Blake showed Winter being banished to Hekla in "To Winter", one of the works from his "Poetical Sketches".


title: Hekla

text: In "To Lie With Lions", by Dorothy Dunnett, a party of merchants visiting Iceland in the year 1471 witnesses the spectacular (fictional) eruption of both Hekla and Katla.


title: Hekla

text: Mt. Hekla is referenced in the third chapter of Herman Melville's novel "Moby Dick", in EE Ryan's "The Odd Saga of the American and a Curious Icelandic Flock", and in the final chapters of Joan Aiken's novel "Is".


title: Hekla

text: The Hekla 3 eruption and the ensuing volcanic winter play a large role in Stephen Baxter's alternate-history novel "Bronze Winter".


title: Hekla

text: The piece "Hekla", Op 52 (1964) by Icelandic composer Jón Leifs, has been called the "loudest classical music of all time". The requirements for a performance of "Hekla" include four sets of rocks hit with hammers, steel plates, anvils, sirens, cannons, metal chains, choir, a large orchestra, and organ.


title: Hekla

text: In October 2011 a German left-wing militant group called the "" (Hekla Reception Committee) set at least 17 incendiary devices on railways in the Berlin area, with 2 of them going off.


title: Ridged band

text: The ridged band is a band of mobile skin at the most distal end of the foreskin. It is part of the "akroposthion:" the portion which extends beyond the glans. It has, especially in regard to phimosis and preputioplasty, been called the preputial ring or phimotic ring. More particularly, it refers to the transitional area from the external to the internal surface of the prepuce, or foreskin. Rich in Meissner's corpuscles, the area is usually described as highly erogenous.


title: Ridged band

text: Along with the frenulum of the penis, it is considered to be the most sensitive part of the penis to fine-touch. It was discovered by Canadian pathologist and medical researcher John Taylor in 1991 and first anatomically and histologically detailed in the "British Journal of Urology" in 1996. The structure is generally believed to be important in male sexual sensation and reflexes, although a 2015 review by Cox and colleagues stated that the feature was particular to some men and that Taylor's illustrations of the structure had been inconsistent. Most or all of the ridged band is removed by male circumcision due to its position on the prepuce.


title: Ridged band

text: Taylor first used the term "ridged band" instead of "wrinkly skin" and described the structure at the "Second International Symposium on Circumcision", organized by "NOCIRC" in San Francisco, 1991, after examining the foreskins of 22 adults obtained at autopsy. The term "ridged band" was subsequently used by him in an anatomical and histological study of the foreskin published in the "British Journal of Urology" in 1996. The mean age was 37 years, range 22–58. The prepuces were studied grossly and histologically.


title: Ridged band

text: In June of 2015, a review conducted by Guy Cox and colleagues to determine whether male circumcision had an effect on sexual sensation was published. In this review, 41 unique publications on penile structure were retrieved. When noting the publications of pathologist John Taylor, the group stated that Taylor's illustrations of the ridged band were inconsistent and did "not appear to show the same structure" in a subsequent publication of Taylor's. The group believed that evidence supported their "contention that the ridged band is not a defined structure but merely a matter of interindividual idiosyncrasy." The review eventually concluded that they believed that circumcision had "no adverse effect on sexual pleasure."


title: Ridged band

text: Taylor described the ridged band as a transversely ridged band of mucosal tissue, located just inside the tip of the foreskin near the mucocutaneous boundary, also known as the "preputial sphincter". He characterized the ridged band as intensely vascular and richly innervated, stating that it "contains more Meissner's corpuscles than does the smooth mucosa", and noted that these tactile corpuscles were found only in the crests of ridges.


title: Ridged band

text: Taylor (1996) postulates that "the ridged band with its unique structure, tactile corpuscles and other nerves, is primarily sensory tissue". He hypothesizes (2007) that Meissner's corpuscles in the ridged band are adapted to detect stretch:


title: Ridged band

text: Taylor theorizes that the main function of the ridged band is to trigger sexual reflexes. In a letter to the editor of "BJU International", 2007, Taylor writes:


title: Ridged band

text: The effect of circumcision on sexual function is the subject of intense debate. Taylor's view is that "almost certainly, removal of the prepuce and its ridged band distorts penile reflexogenic functions but exactly how and to what extent still remains to be seen". More recent research has demonstrated that the clinically important bulbocavernosus reflex is absent in 73% of circumcised men ostensibly due to the removal of fine-touch nerve endings in the ridged band.


title: Ridged band

text: For an overview of the issues surrounding male circumcision and sexual function, see Sexual effects of circumcision.


title: Dandelion and burdock

text: Dandelion and burdock is a beverage consumed in the British Isles since the Middle Ages. It was originally a type of light mead but over the years has evolved into the carbonated soft drink commercially available today. Traditionally, it was made from fermented dandelion ("Taraxacum officinale") and burdock ("Arctium lappa") roots, hence the name.


title: Dandelion and burdock

text: Dandelion and burdock shares an origin with a number of drinks originally made from lightly fermented root extracts, such as root beer and sarsaparilla, supposedly as a health benefit. The dominant flavour in these other drinks is usually sassafras or wintergreen, both now derived artificially rather than from the plant itself, in part because during the 1960s, safrole, the major component of the volatile oil of sassafras, was found to be carcinogenic in rats. All of these drinks, while tasting similar, do have their own distinct flavour. Dandelion and burdock is most similar in flavour to sarsaparilla.


title: Dandelion and burdock

text: Ben Shaw, a Huddersfield businessman, founded a company that made and sold the drink, first in Yorkshire and then throughout Britain, between 1871 and 1993. Afterward, the enterprise passed through several hands and is now owned by Refresco, who still make and sell the drink.


title: Dandelion and burdock

text: Fentimans, a beverage company based in the United Kingdom, offers a version of the naturally brewed dandelion and burdock drink, containing extracts of both plants (although its main ingredients are sugar and pear juice concentrate).


title: Dandelion and burdock

text: A.G. Barr, famous for Scottish soft drink Irn-Bru, produces a version of dandelion and burdock under the name "D'n'B" and the slogan "Tall, dark and drinksome".


title: Dandelion and burdock

text: The last of the UK's original temperance bars, Fitzpatrick's in Rawtenstall, which opened in 1890, still produces its dandelion and burdock to an original recipe brought over from Ireland at the end of the 19th century.


title: 2022 FIFA World Cup qualification – UEFA Group J

text: The 2022 FIFA World Cup qualification UEFA Group J was one of the ten UEFA groups in the World Cup qualification tournament to decide which teams would qualify for the 2022 FIFA World Cup finals tournament in Qatar. Group J consisted of six teams: Armenia, Germany, Iceland, Liechtenstein, North Macedonia, and Romania. The teams played against each other home-and-away in a round-robin format.


text: The group winners, Germany, qualified directly for the World Cup finals, while the runners-up, North Macedonia, advanced to the second round (play-offs).


text: The fixture list was confirmed by UEFA on 8 December 2020, the day following the draw. Times are CET/CEST, as listed by UEFA (local times, if different, are in parentheses).


title: Tickled

text: Tickled is a 2016 New Zealand documentary about "competitive endurance tickling" and videos featuring it, and the practices of those producing the videos, directed by David Farrier and Dylan Reeve. The film explores possible legal and ethical issues with certain individuals making the videos, and has itself been the subject of legal challenges. A follow-up special, "The Tickle King", aired on HBO in February 2017.


title: Tickled

text: David Farrier, a New Zealand television reporter whose beat focuses on "quirky and odd stories", encounters online videos depicting "competitive endurance tickling", an activity in which young athletic men are restrained and tickled by each other. He begins to research it for a story and requests an interview with the videos' producer, Jane O'Brien Media. The company responds with a volatile email, refusing to "associate with a homosexual journalist" (although Farrier is actually bisexual). Farrier, bewildered at the hostile response, partners with television producer Dylan Reeve to dig deeper into the mysterious producers.


title: Tickled

text: After their initial blog posts about the story go viral, the duo receive legal threats from Jane O'Brien Media, who send Kevin Clarke and two other representatives to New Zealand to meet with them. Although their interactions are superficially cordial, the Jane O'Brien Media representatives bully the investigators to drop the project. Farrier and Reeve respond by following the representatives to Los Angeles to an apparent video recording location, but are turned away at the door.


title: Tickled

text: Researching the phenomenon further, they uncover information about a person known as "Terri DiSisto" (alias "Terri Tickle"), who pioneered recruiting and distributing tickling videos online in the 1990s. They interview independent tickling-video producer Richard Ivey, whose operations are comparatively low-key, and also acknowledge a homoerotic aspect. Former participants in Jane O'Brien Media's videos describe coercive and manipulative treatment by the producers, such as defamation campaigns against them, exposing their personal information, and contacting associates to discredit them as homosexual or as sexual deviants, all in retaliation for speaking out against the company. A local recruiter in Muskegon, Michigan, describes "audition" videos he had helped make, which were published by O'Brien Media without the participants' consent.


title: Tickled

text: Farrier and Reeve discover documents on a defunct tickling video web site, which link Jane O'Brien Media to David D'Amato, the former school administrator behind the "Terri Tickle" alias. They learn that D'Amato had served a six-month prison sentence for disabling computer systems at two different universities in retaliation against an 18-year-old male student who attempted to terminate an online relationship, which began when the young man was 17. They determine that D'Amato now lives on a substantial inheritance from his father, a successful lawyer. After considerable effort to locate him, they confront him on the street, to which he responds with additional legal threats. Before returning to New Zealand, Farrier contacts D'Amato's stepmother for comment; she implicitly confirms her stepson's "tickling" past, and Farrier informs her that he believes D'Amato is still involved in it.


title: Tickled

text: Under the working title "Tickle King: The Hunt for the Truth in Competitive Tickling", Farrier and Reeve raised NZ$29,570 on Kickstarter in June 2014, intended primarily to cover the costs of the crew traveling to the United States for a week. The project also received funding from the New Zealand Film Commission.


title: Tickled

text: The film was screened at the January 2016 Sundance Film Festival, after which Magnolia Pictures picked up distribution and HBO picked up US TV rights. In March 2016 it was presented as part of the True/False Film Festival.


title: Tickled

text: The film was released to New Zealand theaters on 27 May 2016. It was released by Magnolia Pictures to U.S. theaters on 17 June, and in Australia and the United Kingdom on 19 August.


title: Tickled

text: "Tickled" has received critical acclaim. In a review headlined "fetish documentary goes from giggly to grim", Nigel Smith of "The Guardian" gives the movie four (of five) stars. Dennis Harvey of "Variety" states the onscreen presence of the filmmakers "is justified because the harassment they experience in pursuing the story becomes a big part of its narrative". "The Salt Lake Tribune", giving it 4.5 stars, said it was "an act of journalistic courage" and that they "reveal the harm that can be done by an individual with a lot of money and a vindictive streak". Manohla Dargis of "The New York Times", giving it a Critic's Pick, said "Farrier and Mr. Reeve see the humor, but they also see the pathos—because it's all fun and giggles until someone gets hurt." Darian Lusk of the "New York Observer" wrote, "The shocking truth is uncomfortably pursued to its fullest, and the result is a riveting piece of investigative journalism."


title: Tickled

text: Armond White of "Out" magazine was critical of the movie, commenting that it "zips past its sexual aspects", and concluding that it is ultimately "frustrating, a blue-balls documentary".


title: Tickled

text: At Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 93% based on reviews from 106 critics. Metacritic gives the film a score of 76 out of 100, based on reviews from 28 critics, indicating "generally favorable" reviews.


title: Tickled

text: After the premiere screening at Sundance, in March 2016, D'Amato filed a federal lawsuit against the filmmakers for making false accusations, including the implication that D'Amato used extortion and abused minors, and stating that D'Amato has no relationship with O'Brien Media. In response, Farrier told "The Salt Lake Tribune" that "given the number of hollow legal threats we faced during the making of it, it's almost refreshing to see a real case being filed by real lawyers."


title: Tickled

text: D'Amato attended the 18 June 2016 screening at the Nuart Theater in Los Angeles, and confronted Dylan Reeve, saying, "You need to lawyer up. You need to get criminal counsel." Clarke argued with Reeve during a public question-and-answer session after the film, saying "The film is a piece of garbage full of lies. Release the audio tapes that show you're lying. And if you don't release it, it's the same as admitting you're lying."


title: Tickled

text: D'Amato filed a $40 million defamation and slander lawsuit in Nassau County court alleging that his stepmother Dorothy D'Amato made statements in the film with the intention to injure his business, causing mental distress.


title: Tickled

text: D'Amato died at age 55, on 13 March 2017. The filmmakers posted a statement on their web site that they were "incredibly sad" to learn of it, and asking that his death be treated with respect.


title: Denílson (footballer, born 1977)

text: Denílson de Oliveira Araújo (born 24 August 1977), known simply as Denílson, is a Brazilian football pundit and former professional player who played as a forward.


title: Denílson (footballer, born 1977)

text: In a 17-year career, he played mainly for São Paulo and Real Betis who made him the world's most expensive player in 1998. He also appeared for teams in five other countries during his career.


title: Denílson (footballer, born 1977)

text: Denílson gained more than 60 caps for Brazil, making his full debut before his 20th birthday and representing the nation in six international tournaments, including two World Cups (winning the 2002 edition). Denilson was known for his dribbling skills.


title: Denílson (footballer, born 1977)

text: Born in Diadema, São Paulo, Denílson made his senior debuts with local São Paulo at the age of only 17, appearing with the team in the 1994 Copa CONMEBOL and winning the tournament.


title: Denílson (footballer, born 1977)

text: In 1998, he broke the world-record transfer fee when Real Betis paid £21.5 million for his services. He made his La Liga debut on 29 August in a 0–0 away draw against Deportivo Alavés, and finished his first season with 35 games and two goals as his team ranked in 11th position; the Andalusians were relegated to Segunda División in 2000.


title: Denílson (footballer, born 1977)

text: Denílson spent some months back in his country with Flamengo, on loan, but returned in January 2001 to be a productive attacking unit for Betis as it achieved promotion back (21 games, one goal). He continued to be regularly played in the following top flight campaigns, but more often than not as a substitute.


title: Denílson (footballer, born 1977)

text: In 2004–05 Betis finished in fourth position and qualified to the UEFA Champions League, also adding the season's Copa del Rey, but Denílson was only a fringe player now, starting in just three games and playing only 290 minutes.


title: Denílson (footballer, born 1977)

text: In the 2005 off-season, Denílson was sold to French club Bordeaux for an undisclosed amount, four years before his Betis contract was due to expire. In his only season in Ligue 1 he appeared regularly to help to a second-place finish, albeit trailing eventual champions Olympique Lyonnais by 15 points.


title: Denílson (footballer, born 1977)

text: As the team failed to match Denílson's wage demands, he left and signed for Saudi Arabia's Al Nassr FC, where he played for a couple of months.


title: Denílson (footballer, born 1977)

text: On 24 August 2007, Denílson joined FC Dallas of Major League Soccer, becoming the team's designated player. he made his league debut on 1 September, entering in the 55th minute against D.C. United, and the following week he made his first start, against Toronto FC at Pizza Hut Park, scoring from the penalty spot in the 36th minute of an eventual 2–0 win.


title: Denílson (footballer, born 1977)

text: After only one goal and no assists, Denílson was excluded from Dallas' squad for their appearance in the final of the U.S. Open Cup, raising questions of whether he would remain with the club following the season (even though Open Cup regulations allowed no more than five foreign players on the game-day roster). Further fueling speculation, head coach Steve Morrow said the player would need to "earn a spot in the starting lineup like everybody else"; goalkeeper Darío Sala added the team was having problems adjusting to a change in scheme to accommodate Denílson.


title: Denílson (footballer, born 1977)

text: At the end of the season, FC Dallas decided not to pick up its option on Denílson, but stated their desire to resign the winger at a lower salary. In February 2008 he signed a one-year performance-based contract with Palmeiras, hoping the club structure and experienced coach Vanderlei Luxemburgo would help him recover his best football. He was unable to make the starting squad, spending most of the season as a bench option; nonetheless, he helped "Verdão" to the São Paulo State Championship and a berth in the Copa Libertadores after the fourth place in the Série A.


title: Denílson (footballer, born 1977)

text: On 6 January 2009, Denílson was taken on trial by Premier League side Bolton Wanderers with a chance to sign a contract until the end of the campaign. He stated: "I want to play in Europe, but I am not in a rush. I have received proposals from England, Greece, Turkey and Germany. I am studying them", further adding: "I understand that this is the time to return to European football, but if I am not convinced by any offer I hope to continue in Brazil, where there are also clubs interested in me"; eventually, nothing came of it.


title: Denílson (footballer, born 1977)

text: After terminating his contract with Palmeiras, 31-year-old Denílson signed a three-month contract with Itumbiara. On 2 June 2009 he penned a six-month deal with Vietnamese club Hải Phòng F.C. on a pay-as-you-play contract. He made his debut on the 21st against Hoàng Anh Gia Lai, scoring through a free kick just two minutes into the game, but left after only three weeks with the team with only that single appearance to his credit due to injury. Denílson was paid $12,000 for the match and a $5,000 bonus for the goal.


title: Denílson (footballer, born 1977)

text: In January 2010, Denílson signed a two-year contract with Kavala in Greece. He was released on 16 April, without having played any games.


title: Denílson (footballer, born 1977)

text: Denílson made his debut for Brazil in November 1996 at the age of 19, against Cameroon. He was called for the squad that competed at the 1998 FIFA World Cup, appearing in all the games for the eventual runners-up; the previous year, he was also selected for the 1997 Copa América and the 1997 FIFA Confederations Cup, winning both tournaments and totalling ten appearances (two goals).


title: Denílson (footballer, born 1977)

text: Denílson was picked by manager Luiz Felipe Scolari for his 2002 World Cup squad in Japan and South Korea. Always as a substitute, he played in five matches as the "Seleção" won its fifth World Cup, appearing one minute in the final against Germany.


title: Denílson (footballer, born 1977)

text: After Carlos Alberto Parreira returned for his third spell as national team boss, Denílson was not called again. He gained a total of 61 caps.


title: Denílson (footballer, born 1977)

text: A creative and technically gifted left-footed player, Denilson was mainly known for his dribbling skills, in particular for his use of several feints to beat opponents such as the "step over", which he frequently employed, though infamous for his inability in front of goal. Despite his talent, he was considered by most to not have fulfilled the potential he showed at the start of his career.


title: Denílson (footballer, born 1977)

text: Denílson was sponsored by sportswear company Nike, and appeared in commercials for the brand. In a global advertising campaign in the run-up to the 2002 World Cup in Korea and Japan, he starred in a "Secret Tournament" commercial (branded "Scorpion KO") directed by Terry Gilliam, appearing alongside football players such as Fabio Cannavaro, Hernán Crespo, Edgar Davids, Rio Ferdinand, Luís Figo, Paul Scholes, Thierry Henry, Gaizka Mendieta, Hidetoshi Nakata, Ronaldinho, Ronaldo and Francesco Totti among others, with former player Eric Cantona the tournament "referee". In March 2017 Denilson signed with 888poker as a brand ambassador.


title: Order-State of Burgundy

text: The Order-State of Burgundy or Order-State Burgundy (), was a proposed state, which the leadership of Nazi Germany, especially the , hoped to establish in Occupied France during World War II. Its name was a historical reference to the State of the Teutonic Order.


title: Order-State of Burgundy

text: The name "Burgundy" itself is derived from the Burgundians, a Germanic tribe, who settled in and founded the Kingdom of Burgundy. A wide number of different countries and regions throughout history have been referred to by this name or controlled by a Burgundy-based state.