title: Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral

text: The cathedral has had perhaps a dozen organs over the course of its history. The earliest is mentioned in a report written to the king of Spain in 1530. Few details survive of the earliest organs. Builders names begin to appear at the end of the sixteenth century. The earliest disposition that survives is for the Diego de Sebaldos organ built in 1655. The first large organ for Mexico City Cathedral was built in Madrid from 1689 to 1690 by Jorge de Sesma and installed by Tiburcio Sanz from 1693 to 1695. It now has two, which were made in Mexico by José Nassarre of Spain, and completed by 1736, incorporating elements of the 17th-century organ. They are the largest 18th-century organs in the Americas; they are situated above the walls of the choir, on the epistle side (east) and the gospel side (west). Both organs, damaged by fire in 1967, were restored in 1978. Because both organs had fallen into disrepair again, the gospel organ was re-restored from 2008 to 2009 by Gerhard Grenzing; the restoration of the epistle organ, also by Grenzing, was completed in 2014, and both organs are now playable.


title: Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral

text: The choir is where the priest and/or a choral group sings the psalms. It is located in the central nave between the main door and the high altar, and built in a semicircular fashion, much like Spanish cathedrals. It was built by Juan de Rojas between 1696 and 1697. Its sides contain 59 reliefs of various saints done in mahogany, walnut, cedar and a native wood called tepehuaje. The railing that surrounds the choir was made in 1722 by Sangley Queaulo in Macao and placed in the cathedral in 1730.


title: Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral

text: The Crypt of the Archbishops is located below the floor of the cathedral beneath the Altar of the Kings. The entrance to the crypt from the cathedral is guarded by a large wooden door behind which descends a winding yellow staircase. Just past the inner entrance is a Mexica-style stone skull. It was incorporated as an offering into the base of a cenotaph to Juan de Zumárraga, the first archbishop of Mexico. Zumárraga was considered to be a benefactor of the Indians, protecting them against the abuses of their Spanish overlords. There is also a natural-sized sculpture of the archbishop atop the cenotaph.


title: Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral

text: On its walls are dozens of bronze plaques that indicate the locations of the remains of most of Mexico City's former archbishops, including Cardinal Ernesto Corripio y Ahumada. The floor is covered with small marble slabs covering niches containing the remains of other people.


title: Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral

text: The cathedral contains other crypts and niches where other religious figures are buried, including in the chapels.


title: Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral

text: The sinking ground and seismic activity of the area have had an effect on the cathedral's construction and current appearance. Forty-two years were required simply to lay its foundation when it was first built, because even then the Spaniards recognized the danger of constructing such a huge monument in soft soil. However, for political reasons, much, but not all, of the cathedral was built over the remains of pre-Hispanic structures, leading to uneven foundation from the beginning.


title: Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral

text: On 17 January 1967 at 9 pm, a fire caused by an electrical short circuit caused extensive damage to the cathedral. On the Altar of Forgiveness, much of the structure and decoration were damaged including the loss of three paintings; "The Holy Face" by Alonso López de Herrera, "The Martyrdom of Saint Sebastian" by Francisco de Zumaya and "The Virgin of Forgiveness" by Simon Pereyns. The choir section lost 75 of its 99 seats as well a painting by Juan Correa along with many stored books. The two cathedral organs were severely damaged with the partial melting of their pipes. Paintings by Rafael Jimeno y Planas, Juan Correa and Juan Rodriguez Juarez were damaged in other parts of the cathedral. After the fire, authorities recorded the damage but did nothing to try to restore what was damaged. Heated discussions ensued among historians, architects and investigations centering on the moving of the Altar of Forgiveness, as well as eliminating the choir area and some of the railings. In 1972, ecclesiastical authorities initiated demolition of the choir area without authorization from the Federal government, but were stopped. The government inventoried what could be saved and named Jaime Ortiz Lajous as director of the project to restore the cathedral to its original condition. Restoration work focused not only on repairing the damage (using archived records and photographs), but also included work on a deteriorating foundation (due to uneven sinking into the ground) and problems with the towers.


title: Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral

text: The Altars of Forgiveness and of the Kings were subject to extensive cleaning and restorative work. To replace the lost portions on the Altar of Forgiveness, several paintings were added; "Escape from Egypt" by Pereyns, "The Divine Countenance" and "The Martyrdom of Saint Sebastian". The organs were dismantled with the pipes and inner workings sent to the Netherlands for repair, while the cases were restored by Mexican craftsmen with work lasting until 1977. Reconstruction of the choir area began in 1979 using the same materials as existed before the fire. In addition, any statues in the towers that received more than 50% damage from city pollution were taken out, with replicas created to replace them. Those with less damage were repaired.


title: Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral

text: Some interesting discoveries were made as restoration work occurred during the 1970s and early 1980s. 51 paintings were found and rescued from behind the Altar of Forgiveness, including works by Juan and Nicolas Rodriguez Juarez, Miguel Cabrera and José de Ibarra. Inside one of the organs, a copy of the nomination of Hernán Cortés as Governor General of New Spain (1529) was found. Lastly, in the wall of the central arch of the cathedral was found the burial place of Miguel Barrigan, the first governor of Veracruz.


title: Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral

text: The cathedral, along with the rest of the city, has been sinking into the lakebed from the day it was built. However, the fact that the city is a megalopolis with over 18 million people drawing water from underground sources has caused water tables to drop and the sinking to accelerate during the latter half of the 20th century. Sections of the complex such as the cathedral and the tabernacle were still sinking at different rates, and the bell towers were tilting dangerously despite work done in the 1970s. For this reason, the cathedral was included in the 1998 World Monuments Watch by the World Monuments Fund.


title: Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral

text: Major restoration and foundation work began in the 1990s to stabilize the building. Engineers excavated under the cathedral between 1993 and 1998. They dug shafts under the cathedral and placed shafts of concrete into the soft ground to give the edifice a more solid base to rest on. These efforts have not stopped the sinking of the complex, but they have corrected the tilting towers and ensured that the cathedral will sink uniformly.


title: Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral

text: The cathedral has been a focus of Mexican cultural identity, and is a testament to its colonial history. People often gather there to worship and attend religious services. Researcher Manuel Rivera Cambas reported that the cathedral was built on the site sacred precinct of the Aztecs and with the very stones of their temples so that the Spaniards could lay claim to the land and the people. Hernán Cortés supposedly himself laid the first stone of the original church.


title: Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral

text: It once was an important religious center, used exclusively by the prominent families of New Spain. At the beginning of Mexican independence, during the First Mexican Empire, Emperor Agustin I was crowned Emperor of Mexico in the cathedral in the presence of the bishops of Puebla, Guadalajara, Durango, and Oaxaca. In 1864, during the Second Mexican Empire, Emperor Maximilian I of Mexico and his consort Empress Carlota, formerly Archduke of Austria and Princess of Belgium, were also crowned with the Imperial Crown of Mexico at the cathedral after their magnificent arrival in the capital of their reign.


title: Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral

text: Located on the Zocalo it has, over time, been the focus of social and cultural activities, most of which have occurred in the 20th and 21st centuries. The cathedral was closed for four years while President Plutarco Elías Calles attempted to enforce Mexico's anti-religious laws. Pope Pius XI closed the church, ordering priests to cease their public religious duties in all Mexican churches. After the Mexican government and the papacy came to terms and major renovations were performed on the cathedral, it reopened in 1930.


title: Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral

text: The cathedral has been the scene of several protests both from the church and to the church, including a protest by women over the Church's exhortation for women not to wear mini-skirts and other provocative clothing to avoid rape, and a candlelight vigil to protest against kidnappings in Mexico. The cathedral itself has been used to protest against social issues. Its bells rang to express the Archdiocese's opposition to the Supreme Court upholding of Mexico City's legalization of abortion.


title: Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral

text: Probably the most serious recent event occurred on 18 November 2007, when sympathizers of the Party of the Democratic Revolution attacked the cathedral. About 150 protesters stormed into Sunday Mass chanting slogans and knocking over pews. This caused church officials to close and lock the cathedral for a number of days. The cathedral reopened with new security measures, such as bag searches, in place.


title: Antoinette Frank

text: Antoinette Renee Frank (born April 30, 1971) is a former officer of the New Orleans Police Department (NOPD) who, on March 4, 1995, committed a violent armed robbery at a restaurant which resulted in the killing of two members of the Vietnamese-American family who ran the establishment, and fellow NOPD officer Ronald A. Williams II. She was aided by her probable lover, drug dealer Rogers Lacaze. Frank currently resides at the Louisiana Correctional Institute for Women in St. Gabriel, Louisiana, the only woman on the state's death row.


title: Antoinette Frank

text: Antoinette Frank applied to the New Orleans Police Department (NOPD) in early 1993. According to author Chuck Hustmyre, Frank was caught lying on several sections of her employment application and failed two standard psychiatric evaluations, with psychiatrist Philip Scurria advising against her hiring. Despite this, Frank got a second chance to apply. The NOPD was chronically short-handed; at the time, its officers were paid less than in similarly sized cities, it was losing officers faster than they could be replaced, and the ranks had been decimated by several arrests for murder and drug activity. Many potential applicants were shut out due to a requirement that all officers be residents of New Orleans – a requirement that was only changed in 2014. NOPD officials also thought having more African-Americans like Frank on the force would ease longstanding racial tensions in the majority-black city. She was hired on February 7, 1993, and graduated from the police academy on February 28.


title: Antoinette Frank

text: Although Frank graduated near the top of her academy class, her tenure with the NOPD was mostly undistinguished. Her fellow officers thought she was rather shy, had no idea what police work really entailed, and lacked the decisiveness to be a good officer. At times, they thought Frank veered into irrational behavior. As early as August 1993, Frank's superiors wanted to send her back to the academy for further training. She frequently had to go through supervisory review. On occasion, though, she did distinguish herself, winning "Officer of the Month" awards from the local Kiwanis Club for her work in the community.


title: Antoinette Frank

text: On November 25, 1994, Frank handled an incident in which Rogers Lacaze, a known drug dealer, had been shot. An investigator with the Department of Public Safety and Corrections (DOC) believed this was the first contact between the two, although in her statement, Frank claims that they met some eight months before the murders. Frank had taken a statement from Lacaze after he was shot on the street, and initially got closer to him in hopes of turning his life around. However, she was smitten by Lacaze's "bad boy" persona, and their relationship soon turned sexual. She kept up her relationship even though she was well aware she was jeopardizing her career.


title: Antoinette Frank

text: The association between Frank and Lacaze became noticeable after other police officers witnessed Lacaze driving her car, and even observed him moving her police unit at the scene of an accident she was investigating. On one occasion, Lacaze accompanied her on a complaint call where she introduced him as a "trainee"; on other occasions, she introduced Lacaze as her nephew. Prior to the murders, others testified that Frank and Lacaze would pull over and rob motorists while in a squad car.


title: Antoinette Frank

text: Frank refused to discuss her relationship with Lacaze during the DOC investigation, except to say that she was trying to help him. It was later revealed that the two had a sexual relationship. When asked why she would continue the relationship, knowing that Lacaze had been involved in dealing drugs and a shooting, she responded that she would not disassociate herself from him just because of his past. The investigator also questioned Frank about trying to buy 9mm ammunition for Lacaze at Walmart on the day before the Kim Anh murders, but stated that she was a police officer and that there was nothing wrong with her buying ammunition. In her statement, she claimed that she and Lacaze were not dating and had never been intimate. Frank refused to discuss anything regarding the murders - every time the investigator asked her a question, she told him to "look it up in the record" or asserted her innocence. However, during her interview with the DOC investigator, Frank claimed to have had a male suitor but refused to go into specifics because he worked for the police department.


title: Antoinette Frank

text: Two men who claimed they met Lacaze at a party on February 4, 1995, John Stevens and Anthony Wallace, testified in court. As the two were leaving the party, a verbal altercation between Stevens and Lacaze ensued, but Wallace suggested they leave. The two men got in a car and drove several blocks until a police vehicle pulled the car over. In police uniform, Frank exited the squad car and told Wallace and Stevens to get out and go to the back of the car. At that point, Wallace saw Lacaze and noticed he was holding a gun. According to Stevens, Wallace rushed Lacaze, and the two men began fighting. Then both Stevens and Frank also jumped into the fray, and the weapon discharged. Stevens began running, but another man appeared and grabbed both Lacaze and Wallace. Frank then told the man that "Lacaze was the good guy" and that Wallace was the one causing the problems. Wallace was restrained until a backup unit arrived on the scene when he was subsequently arrested and charged with attempted murder and armed robbery.


title: Antoinette Frank

text: Irvin Bryant, a civil sheriff in 1995, testified that on the evening of February 4, he observed a stopped police vehicle with its lights flashing. Bryant thought the officer was making a traffic stop, but as he got closer, he saw the officer and two black men fighting on the side of the road. At that time, Wallace broke away, ran, and picked up a TEC-9 semi-automatic weapon off the grass. Bryant ordered Wallace to drop the gun, which he did immediately and was restrained; Lacaze then lunged toward Wallace, but Bryant grabbed him. Frank informed him that Lacaze was with her and ordered him released. Despite his involvement in the altercation, Bryant was never questioned by police, and he never gave a formal statement.


title: Antoinette Frank

text: After midnight on March 4, 1995, Frank and Lacaze visited Kim Anh, a Vietnamese restaurant run by the Vu family in New Orleans East. Frank had sometimes worked there off-duty as a security guard. As the employees cleaned the closed restaurant, Chau Vu went into the kitchen to count money and entered the dining room of the restaurant to pay Ronald A. Williams II. Williams was a colleague of Frank who had been working as the security guard that night to supplement his policeman's salary. He joined the New Orleans Police Department in 1991 and was a married father of two. When Chau went to pay Williams, Chau noticed Frank approaching the restaurant.


title: Antoinette Frank

text: Frank and Lacaze had been at the restaurant twice earlier in the night to get leftover food to eat. When Chau had let her out on the last visit, she could not find the front door key, and with Frank returning for the third time, she sensed something was wrong. Chau ran to the kitchen to hide the money in the microwave. Frank entered the front door using the key she had stolen from the restaurant earlier and walked quickly past Williams, pushing Chau, Chau's brother Quoc, and a restaurant employee into the doorway of the restaurant's kitchen. Williams started to follow, hoping to find out what was happening when shots rang out. Lacaze had slipped behind Williams and shot him in the neck, severing his spinal cord and instantly paralyzing him. As Williams fell, Lacaze continued to shoot him in the head and back, mortally wounding him. As Frank turned back to the restaurant dining room, Chau grabbed Quoc to hide somewhere.


title: Antoinette Frank

text: Chau, Quoc, and the employee hid in the rear of a large walk-in cooler in the kitchen, turning out its light as they entered. They did not know the whereabouts of their other sister and brother, Ha and Cuong Vu, who had been sweeping the dining room floors when Frank entered the restaurant. From inside the cooler, Chau and Quoc could partially see the restaurant's kitchen and front. Chau initially could see Frank looking for something in the kitchen. As Frank moved out of Chau's line of vision, additional gunshots were fired but then observed Frank searching where the Vus usually kept their money. Frank and Lacaze had been shouting at Ha and Cuong, demanding the restaurant's money, but they did not know where Chau had hidden it. Frank pistol-whipped 17-year-old Cuong when he hesitated in revealing the location of the money. Frank got the money out of a microwave, then shot 21-year-old Ha three times as she knelt, pleading for her life. Then, she shot Cuong six times. After Frank and Lacaze left the premises, Chau tried frantically to call 911 on her cell phone, but the cooler prevented her from getting a usable signal. Quoc emerged from the cooler and ran out the restaurant's back door to a nearby friend's home to call 911 to report the murders.


title: Antoinette Frank

text: The robbers fled the restaurant, and Frank dropped Lacaze off at a nearby apartment complex, both knowing that witnesses were left behind. Frank heard the 911 call on her portable police radio saying that an officer was down at the Kim Anh restaurant. She borrowed a patrol car and returned to the scene. Posing as a responding officer, she intended to kill Chau and Quoc to ensure there would be no witnesses. Parking in the rear, Frank entered through the restaurant's back door and made her way through the kitchen to the dining room, where Chau waited for help at the front door. As Chau bolted through the restaurant's front door to the safety of arriving officers, Frank immediately identified herself as a police officer. Chau told Frank she knew what she had done and cried to the officers that Frank had committed the crimes.


title: Antoinette Frank

text: Eddie Rantz, the homicide detective who worked the case, believed Frank and Lacaze planned the robbery to get revenge on Williams. Frank believed Williams was shortchanging her on hours and pay at the Kim Anh, and wanted revenge. Rantz subsequently described Frank as the most cold-hearted person he'd ever encountered in three decades as an officer.


title: Antoinette Frank

text: Chau and Frank were questioned in detail while seated at different tables in the restaurant. Frank was arrested and charged with three counts of first degree murder. Lacaze was arrested and charged later that night. Frank was taken to police headquarters for additional questioning, where she later confessed to the crimes along with Lacaze. She was believed to be the first New Orleans police officer to have been charged with killing a fellow officer.


title: Antoinette Frank

text: Frank and Lacaze were indicted by an Orleans Parish grand jury on April 28, 1995. Their trials were severed, and Lacaze was tried first on July 17–21, 1995, before Judge Frank Marullo. He was found guilty as charged and sentenced to death. His main tip-off had been using Williams' Chevron credit card at a Chevron station in Gretna just minutes after the robbery and murders.


title: Antoinette Frank

text: Frank's trial began on September 5, 1995, also before Marullo. Although Frank's attorneys had subpoenaed 39 witnesses, they didn't call a single one.


title: Antoinette Frank

text: On September 12, 1995, the jury needed only 22 minutes to return a guilty verdict on all counts—at the time, a record for a capital murder case in New Orleans. The next day, they needed only 45 minutes to recommend the death penalty. She was formally sentenced to death on October 20, 1995, and sent to Death Row at the Louisiana Correctional Institute for Women (LCIW) in St. Gabriel, near Baton Rouge.


title: Antoinette Frank

text: Officer Williams was interred in Lake Lawn Metairie Cemetery on March 7, 1995. His name was inscribed on the Memorial Wall at The National Law Enforcement Officers Memorial in Washington D.C.


title: Antoinette Frank

text: Initially, the Vu family kept the restaurant open at the site of the tragedy in New Orleans East for a decade, until suffering flood damage from Hurricane Katrina in 2005, and post-storm looters stealing jewelry which Ha and Cuong had been wearing when they were killed. After that, Quoc Vu and his mother Nguyet sold the location, re-opening the restaurant in Harahan, and moving their residence to Metairie, where they said they felt safer.


title: Antoinette Frank

text: In 1993, a year and a half before the murders at the Kim Anh, Frank's father had stayed at her home for a time before she then reported him missing. In November 1995, a month after she received her first death sentence, a dog led police to find a human skull with a bullet hole buried under Frank's house. In a 2005 retrospective, Chuck Hustmyre said, "As for those human bones unearthed beneath Frank’s house, so far, authorities have made no serious effort to identify them. The 10-year-old case, they say, remains under investigation."


title: Antoinette Frank

text: Police and prosecutors believe that the skull was that of Adam Frank, and that Antoinette murdered him. However, since she is already facing the death penalty for the Kim Anh murders, they have made no effort to try her for her father's death.


title: Antoinette Frank

text: On October 18, 2006, Frank's lawyers argued before the Louisiana Supreme Court that her death sentence should be overturned because she was denied state-funded experts to help prepare for the sentencing phase of the trial. They argued that the defense needed to conduct "an investigation into the defendant's background for possible mitigating evidence." Frank's attorneys introduced the testimony of psychiatrists who said that possible traumatic events in Frank's childhood could have affected her behavior at the time of the murders and she may have been suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder. A psychiatrist retained by the state disagreed that Frank showed symptoms of trauma; he agreed with the diagnosis of narcissistic personality disorder with antisocial tendencies given to Frank by doctors at the Louisiana Correctional Institute for Women. On May 22, 2007, the state Louisiana Supreme Court ruled 5–2 that the death penalty should be upheld.


title: Antoinette Frank

text: On April 22, 2008, District Judge Frank Marullo signed the death warrant for Antoinette Frank. According to the warrant, Frank was scheduled for execution by lethal injection on July 15, 2008. In May, however, the Louisiana Supreme Court issued a 90-day stay of execution effective June 10 pending ongoing appeals.


title: Antoinette Frank

text: On September 11, 2008 the day that the state supreme court stay was to end, a new death warrant was signed by the same judge. According to this second warrant, Frank was scheduled for execution by lethal injection on December 8, 2008. In a new round of appeals, defense attorneys argued they had had too little time to review the voluminous record before the deadline for filing appeals. The state supreme court ruled on the case again. Their decision, made public November 25, 2008 effectively voided the death warrant signed by Judge Marullo in September.


title: Antoinette Frank

text: In September 2009, Frank's lawyers moved to have Judge Marullo removed from her ongoing post-conviction appeals on grounds of bias, given that he had already signed two death warrants for her. Louisiana state Judge Laurie White heard the motion in September 2009 and, on January 3, 2010 ruled that Marullo should not be taken off the case. Frank's attorney stated she would appeal the ruling to the state's supreme court, which had already overruled both of Marullo's death warrants. However, yet another lower court state judge, ruled in October 2010 that Marullo had to be recused from the Frank and Lacaze cases because it was unclear if he had been open with the defense teams about his own surprising connection to the gun used in the restaurant murders. Marullo's signature appeared on an order authorizing Frank to take the murder weapon from the evidence room; Marullo has long maintained the signature was forged. No female has been executed by the State of Louisiana since Toni Jo Henry died in the State's Electric chair in 1942.


title: Antoinette Frank

text: On July 23, 2015, retired district judge Michael Kirby threw out Rogers Lacaze's conviction and sentence and ordered a new trial. Kirby said that Lacaze deserved a new trial because one of the jurors hid the fact that he was a Louisiana state trooper and previously worked as a railroad policeman. At the time, commissioned law enforcement officers were legally barred from sitting on a jury. Kirby wrote that while he felt the evidence of Lacaze's guilt was "overwhelming", the juror misconduct amounted to a "structural defect" and a "violation of a constitutional right so basic to a fair trial" that the only remedy was a new trial. Kirby's ruling has no effect on Frank's conviction. An appellate court later overturned the new trial order for Lacaze. 4th Circuit appellate judges Edwin Lombard, Paul Bonin and Madeleine Landrieu ruled "After review of the state's writ application in light of the applicable law and arguments of the parties, we find that the trial court erred in finding that the seating of Mr. Settle on the defendant's jury was a structural error entitling him to a new trial".


title: Antoinette Frank

text: Frank was profiled in an episode of "Deadly Women" in 2009, "" in 2015, and "I'd Kill For You" in 2016.


title: Antoinette Frank

text: In November of 2020, TV One debuted a movie inspired by Antoinette Frank called "Blood On Her Badge."


title: Antoinette Frank

text: Lacaze was re-sentenced to life imprisonment without parole on December 13, 2019. Lacaze is serving his sentence at the Louisiana State Penitentiary ("Angola") in West Feliciana Parish.


title: Myth (gamer)

text: Ali Kabbani (born May 24, 1999), better known as Myth, is an American YouTube live streamer and former professional "Fortnite Battle Royale" player. As of July 2021, he has over 7.4 million followers and over 158 million views on Twitch, making him the most followed African-American on the website. Kabbani also has over 4.5 million subscribers on his YouTube channel.


title: Myth (gamer)

text: Kabbani's YouTube account was created on November 3, 2013. He started streaming live on Twitch in 2016 and mainly streamed "Paragon," a third-person multiplayer online battle arena developed by Epic Games. "Paragon" has since been removed. His streams become much more popular when he started streaming "Fortnite Battle Royale" in the latter half of 2017. At the end of January 2018, Kabbani had over 200,000 followers on Twitch and by the end of June of the same year, the number had increased to over 3.2 million.


title: Myth (gamer)

text: Kabbani previously played for Team SoloMid in a team that consisted of himself, Daequan, Darryle "Hamlinz" Hamlin and Juan "CaMiLLs" Camilla (sub). Kabbani joined Team SoloMid in 2018 and served as the captain of his team. Kabbani participated in the Ninja Vegas Tournament in April 2018. Additionally, Kabbani's streams have included a variety of other popular streamers including, Pokimane and summit1g. Kabbani compares "Fortnite" building/editing mechanics to a shooter version of chess.


title: Myth (gamer)

text: Kabbani suggested a new trap he calls a "bouncer trap" which would "send enemies flying out of boxes to protect players during fights".


title: Myth (gamer)

text: In March 2019, Ninja was paid $1 million to stream "Apex Legends" while Kabbani was paid an undisclosed amount. Kabbani played as TSM's team leader in the game "Valorant" during the "Twitch Rivals" series.


title: Myth (gamer)

text: On December 28, 2021, Kabbani announced and confirmed on stream that he would not be renewing his contract with TSM, citing the loss of a family environment, upon the departures of friends Bjergsen and Leena.


title: Myth (gamer)

text: On December 11, Kabbani parciticpated in Ludwig Ahgren's chess boxing event titled "Mogul Chessboxing Championship". Kabbani fought and defeated Cherdleys via Checkmate in the sixth round.


title: Days of Our Lives: Beyond Salem

text: Days of Our Lives: Beyond Salem is an American soap opera limited series. It is a spin-off of the flagship "Days of Our Lives" television series. It premiered on Peacock on September 6, 2021, with a daily episode through September 10, 2021. "Beyond Salem: Chapter 2", a second season of five episodes, premiered on July 11, 2022.


title: Days of Our Lives: Beyond Salem

text: The series follows the adventures of current and former characters of "Days of Our Lives" outside of Salem, Illinois.


title: Days of Our Lives: Beyond Salem

text: An investigation into some stolen jewels is the focus of this season set in locations such as Phoenix, New Orleans, Miami and Zurich, Switzerland.


title: Days of Our Lives: Beyond Salem

text: An investigation into who is trying to unite three magical prisms is the focus of this season set in locations such as Montreal, Seattle, San Francisco, Monte Carlo, Caracas, and Hong Kong.


title: Days of Our Lives: Beyond Salem

text: It was announced in July 2021 that Peacock had ordered a five-episode miniseries spinoff of "Days of Our Lives", which would see current and former actors star, including Rinna, Hall and Reynolds, among others. Additional castings, including Davidson and Penghlis, were announced the following month. Filming had commenced by August 2021.


title: Days of Our Lives: Beyond Salem

text: A second chapter of five episodes was announced in April 2022, premiered from July 11 to 15. The casting of Kristian Alfonso and Peter Reckell was announced with it. Steve Burton was later announced to have joined the second chapter in the role of Harris Michaels. On June 2, 2022, it was announced that Davidson, Christopher Sean, Vince Van Patten, and Loretta Devine had also been cast.


title: Mikael Stanne

text: Bengt Mikael Stanne (born 20 May 1974) is a Swedish musician, best known as the vocalist and one of the lyricists (as well as a former rhythm guitarist) for the Swedish melodic death metal band Dark Tranquillity. Since the departure of original drummer Anders Jivarp in 2021, Stanne is the only remaining original member of the band. Stanne is also the vocalist for bands Grand Cadaver and The Halo Effect, which formed in 2020 and 2021 respectively. He was also an ex-vocalist for Swedish bands HammerFall and In Flames.


title: Mikael Stanne

text: Stanne, along with Niklas Sundin, formed Dark Tranquillity because they were bored, along with interest in metal from their influences. He played guitar and performed clean backing vocals on Dark Tranquillity's first album, "Skydancer", as well as on their early demos, including "Enfeebled Earth" released under the name Septic Broiler. In 1994, Anders Fridén, Dark Tranquillity's original vocalist, left the band to join In Flames. Stanne then became the new vocalist and discontinued playing guitar.


title: Mikael Stanne

text: In addition to his usual growling vocals, Dark Tranquillity's 1999 album, "Projector," showcased his operatic "clean" singing abilities. After "Projector", however, the clean style was mostly abandoned until the release of "Fiction" in 2007.


title: Mikael Stanne

text: Stanne was the original vocalist for HammerFall from 1993 until 1996, after which he was replaced because he couldn't perform with HammerFall due to his commitment to Dark Tranquillity.


title: Rappin' for Jesus

text: "Rappin' for Jesus" is a 2013 song, which has been viewed over 82 million times on YouTube as of November 2022. It was purportedly written for a Christian youth outreach program in Dubuque, Iowa, by Pastor Jim Colerick and his wife Mary Sue, but is generally thought to be a hoax.


title: Rappin' for Jesus

text: The original video was uploaded to YouTube by user Brian Spinney on February 5, 2013, and garnered wider attention through the website Reddit. Spinney claimed to have directed the video with his pastor while in high school.


title: Rappin' for Jesus

text: "The Daily Dot" concluded the video is a hoax, calling it "obviously fake". Chris English, pastor of GracePoint Church in Dubuque, Iowa, said in 2013 that he had never heard of Pastor Jim Colerick or West Dubuque 2nd Church of Christ, the church supposedly affiliated with the song.


title: Rappin' for Jesus

text: The website of West Dubuque 2nd Church of Christ, linked to by the original video, claims that the church closed in 2004. However, "The Daily Dot" pointed out that the website had been created on January 15, 2013, the same day as Spinney's YouTube channel. In light of this, "The Huffington Post" questioned the authenticity of the video, calling it "very peculiar indeed".


title: Rappin' for Jesus

text: The song has the chorus line "Jesus Christ is my nigga". Pastor Chris English, in an email to "The Christian Post", said the use of the word "nigga" was "clearly over the line, and offensive". He thought the video, parody or not, perpetuated many negative stereotypes about Christians, and as such, would have never worked in an outreach program for young people.


title: Rappin' for Jesus

text: The "Dallas Observer" also criticized the song, saying: "it's cheesy. It's bad. It's painful." It described the song as having a negative impact on public perception of Christian rap.


title: Pleurotus eryngii

text: Pleurotus eryngii (also known as king trumpet mushroom, French horn mushroom, eryngi, king oyster mushroom, king brown mushroom, boletus of the steppes, trumpet royale, aliʻi oyster) is an edible mushroom native to Mediterranean regions of Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa, but also grown in many parts of Asia.


title: Pleurotus eryngii

text: "Pleurotus eryngii" is the largest species in the oyster mushroom genus, "Pleurotus", which also contains the oyster mushroom "Pleurotus ostreatus". It has a thick, meaty white stem and a small tan cap (in young specimens). Its natural range extends from the Atlantic Ocean through the Mediterranean Basin and Central Europe into Western Asia and India. Unlike other species of "Pleurotus", which are primarily wood-decay fungi, the "P. eryngii" complex are also weak parasites on the roots of herbaceous plants, although they may also be cultured on organic wastes.


title: Pleurotus eryngii

text: Its species name is derived from the fact that it grows in association with the roots of "Eryngium campestre" or other "Eryngium" plants (English names: 'sea holly' or 'eryngo'). "P. eryngii" is a species complex, and a number of varieties have been described, with differing plant associates in the carrot family (Apiaceae).


title: Pleurotus eryngii

text: Other specimens of "P. eryngii" have been reported in association with plants in the genera "Ferulago", "Cachrys", "Laserpitium", and "Diplotaenia", all in Apiaceae.


title: Pleurotus eryngii

text: Molecular studies have shown "Pleurotus nebrodensis" to be closely related to, but distinct from, "P. eryngii". "Pleurotus fossulatus" may be another closely related species.


title: Pleurotus eryngii

text: The mushroom has a good shelf life and is cultivated widely. It has little flavor or aroma when raw. When cooked, it develops rich umami flavor and a meaty texture. When cultivating Random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) can be used in the mushroom industry for the classification and maintenance of high-quality mushroom spawns. "P. eryngii", are commercially produced, edible mushrooms, with "P. eryngii" making up 30% of the Korean edible mushroom market since its introduction in 1995. It is commonly used as a meat substitute in many vegan recipes.


title: Pleurotus eryngii

text: "Pleurotus eryngii" may contain chemicals that stimulate the immune system. Dietary intake of "Pleurotus eryngii" may function as cholesterol-lowering dietary agent.


title: Pleurotus eryngii

text: Like some other "Pleurotus" species, "P. eryngii" attacks nematodes and may provide a control method for these parasites when they infect cats and dogs.


title: Pleurotus eryngii

text: It is very frequently used in Apulian cuisine. An example of this is when it is put on top of orecchiette.


title: Pleurotus eryngii

text: Sequence analysis of the ITS1–5.8S rDNA–ITS2 of "P. eryngii" and the control strains "P. ostreatus" and "P. ferulae", demonstrated that the DNA regions share almost 99% of sequence identity, indicating closely related mushroom strains. ITS1–5.8S rDNA–ITS2 sequence analysis is DNA sequencing used to confirm the mushroom species at hand, although it does distinguish variants in the mushroom species. RAPD are superior to DNA sequence-based methods with distinguishing strains in species. To verify the mushroom strains RAPD was used, and DNA fragments were amplified from the total cellular DNA. Verification of "Pleurotus eryngii" strains was assessed using ITS sequence analysis and RAPD fingerprinting. Analysis of the DNA fragment pattern showed that the 22 "P. eryngii" strains were clearly distinguished from the control strains "P. ostreatus" and "P. ferulae", and could be categorized into five subgroups:


title: Pleurotus eryngii

text: "Pleurotus" populations growing on umbellifers seem to have recently diverged through a sympatric speciation process, that is based on both intrinsic reproductive barriers and extrinsic ecogeographical factors.


title: Pleurotus eryngii

text: "Pleurotus eryngii" is a saprotrophic fungus. Saprotrophic fungi use the process of chemoheterotrophic extracellular digestion involved in the processing of decayed organic matter. They are also an NTF, nematode-trapping fungi, that survives by trapping and digesting nematodes working as a natural pesticide. These fungi produce trapping devices to capture, kill, and digest nematodes as food sources. Traps are not only the weapons that NTF use to capture and infect nematodes but also an important indicator of their switch from a saprophytic to a predacious lifestyle. "Pleurotus eryngii" can live both saprophytically on organic matter and as predators by capturing tiny animals. The development of traps shows their evolutionary importance of them. They provide a crucial role in obtaining nutrients and may confer competitive advantages over non-predatory fungi. This fungal carnivorism diverged from saprophytism about 419 million years ago (Mya), after the origin of nematodes about 550–600 Mya. This following evolution of the fungi after the nematode suggests the co-evolution of the species. Phylogenetic analysis suggested that NTF have a common ancestor and the ability to capture nematodes has been an important trait for speciation and diversification within the clade.


title: Pleurotus eryngii

text: "P. eryngii" extract reduced the number of "Panagrellus" sp. larvae after 24 h by 90%. "P. eryngii" fungus has predatory activity against "Panagrellus" sp. larvae due to toxin production and negatively affects "Meloidogyne javanica" eggs and juveniles development.


title: Lexicography

text: Lexicography is the study of lexicons, and is divided into two separate academic disciplines. It is the art of compiling dictionaries.


title: Lexicography

text: There is some disagreement on the definition of lexicology, as distinct from lexicography. Some use "lexicology" as a synonym for theoretical lexicography; others use it to mean a branch of linguistics pertaining to the inventory of words in a particular language.


title: Lexicography

text: General lexicography focuses on the design, compilation, use and evaluation of general dictionaries, i.e. dictionaries that provide a description of the language in general use. Such a dictionary is usually called a general dictionary or LGP dictionary (Language for General Purpose). Specialized lexicography focuses on the design, compilation, use and evaluation of specialized dictionaries, i.e. dictionaries that are devoted to a (relatively restricted) set of linguistic and factual elements of one or more specialist subject fields, e.g. legal lexicography. Such a dictionary is usually called a specialized dictionary or Language for specific purposes dictionary and following Nielsen 1994, specialized dictionaries are either multi-field, single-field or sub-field dictionaries.


title: Lexicography

text: It is now widely accepted that lexicography is a scholarly discipline in its own right and not a sub-branch of applied linguistics, as the chief object of study in lexicography is the dictionary (see e.g. Bergenholtz/Nielsen/Tarp 2009).


title: Lexicography

text: Lexicography is the practice of creating books, computer programs, or databases that reflect lexicographical work and are intended for public use. These include dictionaries and thesauri which are widely accessible resources that present various aspects of lexicology, such as spelling, pronunciation, and meaning.


title: Lexicography

text: Lexicographers are tasked with defining simple words as well as figuring out how compound or complex words or words with many meanings can be clearly explained. They also make decisions regarding which words should be kept, added, or removed from a dictionary. They are responsible for arranging lexical material (usually alphabetically) to facilitate understanding and navigation.


title: Lexicography

text: Coined in English 1680, the word "lexicography" derives from the Greek λεξικογράφος ("lexikographos"), "lexicographer", from λεξικόν ("lexicon"), neut. of λεξικός "lexikos", "of or for words", from λέξις ("lexis"), "speech", "word" (in turn from λέγω ("lego"), "to say", "to speak") and γράφω ("grapho"), "to scratch, to inscribe, to write".


title: Lexicography

text: Practical lexicographic work involves several activities, and the compilation of well-crafted dictionaries requires careful consideration of all or some of the following aspects:


title: Lexicography

text: One important goal of lexicography is to keep the lexicographic information costs incurred by dictionary users as low as possible. Nielsen (2008) suggests relevant aspects for lexicographers to consider when making dictionaries as they all affect the users' impression and actual use of specific dictionaries.


title: Lexicography

text: Theoretical lexicography concerns the same aspects as lexicography, but aims to develop principles that can improve the quality of future dictionaries, for instance in terms of access to data and lexicographic information costs. Several perspectives or branches of such academic dictionary research have been distinguished: 'dictionary criticism' (or evaluating the quality of one or more dictionaries, e.g. by means of reviews (see Nielsen 1999), 'dictionary history' (or tracing the traditions of a type of dictionary or of lexicography in a particular country or language), 'dictionary typology' (or classifying the various genres of reference works, such as dictionary versus encyclopedia, monolingual versus bilingual dictionary, general versus technical or pedagogical dictionary), 'dictionary structure' (or formatting the various ways in which the information is presented in a dictionary), 'dictionary use' (or observing the reference acts and skills of dictionary users), and 'dictionary IT' (or applying computer aids to the process of dictionary compilation).


title: Lexicography

text: One important consideration is the status of 'bilingual lexicography', or the compilation and use of the bilingual dictionary in all its aspects (see e.g. Nielsen 1894). In spite of a relatively long history of this type of dictionary, it is often said to be less developed in a number of respects than its unilingual counterpart, especially in cases where one of the languages involved is not a major language. Not all genres of reference works are available in interlingual versions, e.g. LSP, learners' and encyclopedic types, although sometimes these challenges produce new subtypes, e.g. 'semi-bilingual' or 'bilingualised' dictionaries such as Hornby's "(Oxford) Advanced Learner's Dictionary English-Chinese", which have been developed by translating existing monolingual dictionaries (see Marello 1998).


title: Miracles of Muhammad

text: Miracles of Muhammad refers to the general accepted consensus miracles performed by Muhammed, the last Prophet of Islam, during his lifetime. These teachings stem from the text of the Quran (the central religious text of Islam), hadith (records of the words, actions, and silent approval, traditionally attributed to Muhammad), and biographies of him. Almost all of these miracles come from the hadith as the vast majority are either not mentioned or what makes them miraculous is not mentioned in the Quran.


title: Miracles of Muhammad

text: Miracles attributed to Muhammad encompass a broad range, such as the multiplication of food, manifestation of water, hidden knowledge, prophecies, healing, punishment, and power over nature.


title: Miracles of Muhammad

text: According to historian Denis Gril, the Quran does not overtly describe Muhammad performing miracles, and in several verses describes the Quran itself as Muhammad's miracle. However, several miracles are reported in the Quran and miracles "appear early and often in the hadith" and the hadiths are indispensable in elucidating Muhammad's miracles.


title: Miracles of Muhammad

text: At least according to Kenneth L. Woodward and Abu Ibraheem, Muhammad is believed to have performed numerous miracles during his life.


title: Miracles of Muhammad

text: According to the consensus of Sunni scholars, rejecting a single letter of the Qur'an or a hadith which is mutawatir causes one to become a non-Muslim. Belief in the miracles of the prophet Muhammad in the Qur'an and in hadith which are transmitted by mutawatir are obligatory.


title: Miracles of Muhammad

text: Marcia Hermansen states "Miracles in the Islamic tradition play less of an evidentiary role than in some other religions since the prophet Muhammad's humanity is stressed."


title: Satellite city

text: Satellite cities or satellite towns are smaller municipalities that are adjacent to a principal city which is the core of a metropolitan area. They differ from mere suburbs, subdivisions and especially bedroom communities in that they have municipal governments distinct from that of the core metropolis and employment bases sufficient to support their residential populations. Conceptually, satellite cities could be self-sufficient communities outside of their larger metropolitan areas. However, functioning as part of a metropolis, a satellite city experiences cross-commuting (that is, residents commuting out of and employees commuting into the city).


title: Satellite city

text: Satellite cities are different from and are sometimes confused with the following related patterns of development.


title: Satellite city

text: Satellite cities differ from suburbs in that they have distinct employment bases, commutersheds, and cultural offerings from the central metropolis, as well as an independent municipal government. Satellite cities are not bedroom communities.


title: Satellite city

text: Satellite cities differ from edge cities, which are suburbs with large employment bases and cultural offerings, in that satellite cities must have a true historic downtown, a distinct independent municipal government, existed as a city prior to becoming interconnected with the larger metropolitan core, and are surrounded by a belt of rural land between themselves and the central city.


title: Satellite city

text: Conceptually, both satellite cities and some types of edge city could be (and once were) self-sufficient communities outside of their larger metropolitan areas, but have become interconnected due to the suburban expansion of the larger metropolis. However, while edge cities may have their own government and share many characteristics with satellite cities, they are much more physically integrated with the core city and would not exist in anything like their present form if not for the suburban expansion of their larger neighbor. Edge cities are activity nodes within a metro area, not miniature metro areas themselves.


title: Satellite city

text: Some satellite cities that are particularly close or well connected to their larger neighbors and/or have their own historic downtown may also qualify as the "uptown" variety of edge cities, but the terms are not synonymous.


title: Satellite city

text: In some cases large metropolitan areas have multiple centers of close to equal importance. These multi-polar cities are often referred to as twin cities. Multi-polar cities differ from satellite cities in such cases :


title: Satellite city

text: For example, Fort Worth, Texas is a twin of Dallas, Texas because though Fort Worth is somewhat smaller, it is proportionally close enough and physically integrated enough with Dallas to be considered a twin rather than a satellite. However, Waco, Texas is a satellite town of both cities. Generally speaking, cities that are listed as being part of the same urbanized area should be considered twins, rather than one having a satellite relationship to the other.


title: Satellite city

text: Conceptually, satellite cities are miniature metro areas on the fringe of larger ones. Satellite cities are sometimes listed as part of the larger metro area, and sometimes listed as totally independent. In the United States, satellite cities are often (but not always) listed as independent Metropolitan Statistical Areas within a single Combined Statistical Area that is unified with the larger metropolis.


title: Ranged weapon

text: A ranged weapon is any weapon that can engage targets beyond hand-to-hand distance, i.e. at distances greater than the physical reach of the user holding the weapon itself. The act of using such a weapon is also known as shooting. It is sometimes also called projectile weapon or missile weapon because it typically works by launching solid projectiles ("missiles"), though technically a fluid-projector (which throws out pressurized streams of liquid or even gas) and a directed-energy weapon (which does not involve any tangible projectile) are also ranged weapons. In contrast, a weapon intended to be used in hand-to-hand combat is called a melee weapon.


title: Ranged weapon

text: Ranged weapons give the attacker an advantage, since the target is often getting hit from beyond immediate visual range, therefore making it more difficult for the defenders to react and hitting back effectively. It also puts distance between the attacker and the opponent, which is a safer combat option since the close physical contact during melee fights often puts the attacker within the immediate striking range of enemy counterattacks and thus at an equal risk of getting hurt or killed.


title: Ranged weapon

text: The line between ranged and melee weapons is not entirely definite; for instance, spears, axes, daggers, and knives can be used for both throwing and hand-to-hand combat, depending on purpose and situation, and a ranged weapon can also be used as a melee weapon in close encounters, such as the buttstock of a rifle used for butt-stroking with a fixed bayonet, a handgun used for pistol-whipping, and even an arrow being used as a hand weapon in desperate situations.


title: Ranged weapon

text: Early ranged weapons often included specifically designed hand-thrown weapons such as darts, javelins, slings, as well as more complex elastic weapons such as bows and crossbows; and siege engines like stone throwers, catapults, ballistas and trebuchets. These ranged weapons were extremely effective in ancient and early medieval warfare, especially when used "en masse", as they gave the wielder an opportunity to launch multiple rounds of attack before an enemy armed with melee weapons or shorter-ranged missile weapons could even get close enough to pose a threat.


title: Ranged weapon

text: After the invention of gunpowder and the development of firearms, gun-type pneumatic ranged weapons became the dominant weapon of choice in armed conflicts, even in close combat. In modern warfare, ranged weaponry is also used both tactically and strategically in the form of long-range artilleries, rockets and guided missiles. The maximum effective range of a weapon is the greatest distance from which the weapon can be fired while still consistently inflicting casualties or damage.


title: Ranged weapon

text: Most modern projectile weapons fall into the broader category of either direct fire or indirect fire, with the former often being regarded as guns and the latter as artillery. While some are small and light enough to be operated by individuals (i.e. small arms and grenade launchers), most require a team of individuals to service, maneuver and operate.


title: Yuen Wah

text: Yuen Wah (born Yung Kai-chi; 2 September 1952) is a Hong Kong action film actor, action choreographer, stuntman and martial artist who has appeared in over 160 films and over 20 television series.


title: Yuen Wah

text: Born Yung Kai-chi on 2 September 1950 in Hong Kong, Kai attended the China Drama Academy, a Peking opera school in Hong Kong in the late 1950s and 1960s. He was instructed by Master Yu Jim Yuen and became a member of the Seven Little Fortunes along with fellow students including Jackie Chan, Sammo Hung, Yuen Biao, Yuen Qiu and Corey Yuen. Like the other students, he took his sifu's given name – "Yuen". In his biography, Jackie Chan stated that Yuen Wah's martial arts ability was well respected among his fellow students. After leaving the opera school, many of the students entered the Hong Kong film industry. Yuen Wah was given an anglicised stagename, "Sam Yuen", but like Yuen Biao (Bill Yuen / Jimmy Yuen), the name was not used. Rather than reverting to their birth names, both retained their opera school names, as did several other former students.


title: Yuen Wah

text: Known for his agility and acrobatic skills, Yuen Wah began his film career working as Bruce Lee's stunt double in the films "Fist of Fury" (1972) and "Enter the Dragon" (1973). He also made his acting debut in "Fist of Fury", as a Japanese who asks Bruce Lee's character to crawl like a dog and is soundly beaten for it. He began to receive a number of roles in Shaw Brothers films.


title: Yuen Wah

text: Yuen's versatility, his lean, wiry frame and later, his distinctive moustache often saw him cast as the villain in most films. During the 1980s, he worked on several films with former classmates Jackie Chan, Sammo Hung and Yuen Biao, both in an action director / stunt co-ordinator capacity, and in acting roles as villainous characters. The films included "Mr. Vampire" (1985), "My Lucky Stars" (1985), "Millionaire's Express" (1986), "Eastern Condors" (1986), and "Dragons Forever" (1988).


title: Yuen Wah

text: During the 1990s, whilst still appearing in a number of films, Yuen began to focus on television series roles for TVB. In 1996, he starred as a Taoist priest fighting jiangshi vampires in the series "The Night Journey". His comical and endearingly scrooge-like image earned him popularity on the Hong Kong television circuit. Since then, he has appeared in over 20 different television series.


title: Yuen Wah

text: In 2004, Yuen was cast as The Landlord in Stephen Chow's comedy film "Kung Fu Hustle". During the 2005 Hong Kong Film Awards, his colleagues took the opportunity to award him with the award for Best Supporting Actor.


title: Yuen Wah

text: Yuen made his debut in an English language film in "Aiming High" in 1998. He appeared in another English language production, the 2008 Baz Luhrmann period film "Australia", alongside Nicole Kidman and Hugh Jackman. He played a supporting role in the 2021 Marvel Cinematic Universe film "Shang-Chi and the Legend of the Ten Rings".


title: Yuen Wah

text: Yuen Wah has starred in more than 60 films and worked on over 160. In the early 1970s, Yuen worked as a stuntman and extra, later progressing to stunt coordinator / action director roles, as well as full-fledged acting parts.


title: Yuen Wah

text: During the 1980s he made a number of appearances, primarily as villainous characters in the films of his former-China Drama Academy friends, Sammo Hung, Jackie Chan and Yuen Biao.


title: Yuen Wah

text: From the mid-1990s, Yuen embarked on a television career in Hong Kong. To date, he has appeared in 23 different series for broadcaster TVB. He also appeared in a show for Taiwanese channel CTS – a remake of the film "A Chinese Ghost Story" titled "".


title: Mickey's Christmas Carol

text: Mickey's Christmas Carol is a 1983 American animated family comedy-drama featurette directed and produced by Burny Mattinson. The cartoon is an adaptation of Charles Dickens's 1843 novella "A Christmas Carol", and stars Scrooge McDuck as Ebenezer Scrooge. Many other Disney characters, primarily from the Mickey Mouse universe, as well as Jiminy Cricket from "Pinocchio" (1940), and characters from "The Adventures of Ichabod and Mr. Toad" (1949) and "Robin Hood" (1973), were cast throughout the film. The featurette was produced by Walt Disney Productions and released by Buena Vista Distribution on 16 December 1983, with the re-issue of "The Rescuers" (1977). In the United States, it was first aired on television on NBC, on 10 December 1984.


title: Mickey's Christmas Carol

text: "Mickey's Christmas Carol" was largely adapted from the 1974 Disneyland Records audio musical "An Adaptation of Dickens' Christmas Carol". The musical featured similar dialogue and a similar cast of characters


title: Mickey's Christmas Carol

text: The film was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film in 1984, but lost to Jimmy Picker's "Sundae in New York". It was the first nomination for a Mickey Mouse short since "Mickey and the Seal" (1948).


title: Mickey's Christmas Carol

text: On Christmas Eve in 19th-century London, surly money-lender Ebenezer Scrooge (played by Scrooge McDuck) objects to the merriment of Christmas. He refuses to give money to a panhandler outside his office, declines his nephew Fred (Donald Duck)'s invitation to Christmas dinner, and dismisses two gentlemen (Rat and Mole) fundraising aid for the poor. His overworked, underpaid employee, Bob Cratchit (Mickey Mouse), who Scrooge pays just a little extra to do his laundry, requests to have half of Christmas Day off, to which Scrooge reluctantly accepts on the condition that Cratchit is docked half a day's pay. Scrooge continues his business and goes home. As he enters his house, Scrooge is visited by the ghost of his old partner Jacob Marley (Goofy). Jacob informs Scrooge that as punishment for his greedy ways, he is condemned in the afterlife to carry long and heavy chains, and warns that the same thing will happen to Scrooge if he doesn't change his own ways before his death, making the old miser frightened and beg for help. Before leaving, Marley then tells Scrooge that he will be visited by three more spirits in the night and that he should listen to them and do what they say, lest his chains become heavier than Marley's.


title: Mickey's Christmas Carol

text: At one o'clock, Scrooge is visited by the Ghost of Christmas Past (Jiminy Cricket), who takes him back in time to his early adult life. They visit his time as an employee under the kind Fezziwig (Mr. Toad). They see Fezziwig throws a Christmas party where the young Scrooge meets a young woman named Isabelle (Daisy Duck), whom he falls in love with. However, the Ghost shows Scrooge how over time, he came to love money more than Isabelle and as a result, Isabelle left him. A distraught Scrooge asks the Ghost to return him to the present, and the Ghost grants his request, but reminds him that he created this past himself. As Scrooge laments over his past actions, he is then visited the gigantic, merry Ghost of Christmas Present (Willie the Giant). The Ghost takes Scrooge to Bob Cratchit's house. Scrooge sees that their Christmas dinner for their family of five consists of barely enough food to feed one person, and becomes especially concerned when he sees Bob's ill son Tiny Tim (played by Mortie Mouse). The Ghost hints that if things don't change for the family, Tiny Tim will die and then disappears, leaving a distraught Scrooge begging for clarification.


title: Mickey's Christmas Carol

text: Scrooge is then suddenly transported to a cemetery, where he meets the Ghost of Christmas Future (Pete), who initially appears as a silent, cloaked, cigar-smoking figure. When Scrooge inquires about Tiny Tim, the Ghost points to Bob and his family mourning at Tiny Tim's grave. As a devastated Scrooge asks if this event can be changed, he sees two gravediggers (Weasels) who are amused that no one attended the funeral of the man they are burying. As the gravediggers leave to rest, Scrooge asks the ghost who the grave belongs to. The Ghost reveals the tombstone bearing none other than Scrooge’s name and shoves him into the grave, where his empty coffin opens to reveal the flames of Hell. The terrified Scrooge vows to change his ways once and for all as he falls into the coffin, only to find himself in his bedroom on Christmas Day.


title: Mickey's Christmas Carol

text: Gleeful that the spirits gave him a second chance, he makes plans to do good to all the people he had been selfish with. He decides to surprise Bob's family with a turkey dinner and Christmas toys and ventures out to spread happiness and joy around London. He donates a sizable amount of money to the gentlemen he earlier spurned and accepts Fred's invitation to Christmas Dinner and then goes to the Cratchit house. At first, putting on a stern demeanor, Scrooge reveals he brought food and gifts for them and intends on raising Bob's salary and making him his partner in his counting house. Scrooge and the Cratchits happily celebrate Christmas.


title: Mickey's Christmas Carol

text: The film also includes unidentifiable dog, fox, pig, squirrel, bear, raccoon, goose, and chicken characters. The DVD print reveals that the graveyard scene also includes tombstones containing famous performers, including Gladys Knight and The Pips, Bob Mills, and Warren Oates.


title: Mickey's Christmas Carol

text: This was the first original Mickey Mouse theatrical cartoon produced in over 30 years. With the exception of re-releases, Mickey had not appeared in movie theaters since the short film "The Simple Things" (1953). The graveyard sequence was also the first time Disney tested the animation photo transfer process. Many additional characters seen in the film had also not appeared in a theatrical cartoon for several decades such as Horace Horsecollar and Clarabelle Cow. The film was also one of the final times Clarence Nash voiced Donald Duck before his death in 1985. Nash was the only original voice actor in the film as Walt Disney (Mickey Mouse) and Pinto Colvig (Goofy) had died in the 1960s, Bill Thompson (Scrooge McDuck), Cliff Edwards (Jiminy Cricket) and Billy Gilbert (Willie the Giant) in 1971, and Billy Bletcher (Pete and the Big Bad Wolf) in 1979. It also marked the first time in animation that Scrooge McDuck was voiced by actor Alan Young (who had first voiced the character on the musical album); Young would continue to be the primary voice actor for McDuck, most notably in "DuckTales", until the actor's death in 2016.


title: Mickey's Christmas Carol

text: On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds a 100% approval rating with an average rating of 8/10 based on 8 reviews.


title: Mickey's Christmas Carol

text: Film critic Leonard Maltin said that rather than being “a pale attempt to imitate the past”, the film is “cleverly written, well-staged, and animated with real spirit and a sense of fun.” Robin Allan stated that the film calls to mind the similarities between Walt Disney and Charles Dickens, in terms of both the work they produced and their work ethic.


title: Mickey's Christmas Carol

text: However, Gene Siskel and Roger Ebert of "At the Movies" gave it “two thumbs down” as they were both disappointed. Siskel felt there was not enough emphasis on Mickey's character, in spite of the title, and that it did not rank with most of Disney's full-length animated features. Ebert stated that it lacked the magic of visual animation that the “Disney people are famous for” and that it was a “forced march” through the Charles Dickens story without any ironic spin.


title: Mickey's Christmas Carol

text: "Mickey's Christmas Carol" was nominated for an Academy Award as Best Animated Short Subject of 1983.


title: Mickey's Christmas Carol

text: Colin Greenland reviewed "Mickey's Christmas Carol" for "Imagine" magazine, and stated that "it is surprising how entertaining this is, perhaps because it is actually a Scrooge McDuck movie (of course), with the effete rodent very much in a minor role as Bob Cratchit."


title: Mickey's Christmas Carol

text: "Mickey's Christmas Carol" premiered in the UK on October 20, 1983, alongside a re-issue of "The Jungle Book" (1967), and was released in the US on December 16, 1983, with a Christmas 1983 re-issue of "The Rescuers" (1977). It has been broadcast on various television stations throughout the years. It started on NBC (1984–1990) with 12 new additional sepia title cards illustrated by Michael Peraza Jr. to match the 12 he had done for the original film to help bridge the segments together. It went on to air on The Disney Channel (1987–1999; 2002–2006), and CBS (1991–1998), occasionally on ABC (2000) before moving permanently to ABC Family (2001–). It was aired on Toon Disney in 2008. The run on ABC Family includes "Winnie the Pooh and Christmas Too" and was part of their "25 Days of Christmas", but with several abrupt edits including the "Chocolate Pot Roast with Yogurt" line and Marley tripping on the stairs and falling down, letting out a Goofy holler.


title: Mickey's Christmas Carol

text: In Canada, it airs on CBC, and has been aired every Christmas season since 1985. It typically airs the Sunday before Christmas. For many years, the short film would air on CBC as a one-hour program, as mentioned below. In addition, "Mickey's Christmas Carol" would be shown unmatted. In recent years, however, "Mickey's Christmas Carol" is only aired in a half-hour time slot and in high definition matted widescreen, presumably to be more suited for modern television screens.


title: Mickey's Christmas Carol

text: The aforementioned broadcasts in the 1980s and early 1990s spanned a full hour, with the first half consisting of the following older cartoon shorts: "Donald's Snow Fight", "Pluto's Christmas Tree", and "The Art of Skiing". Each of the four items in the program was preceded by a narrative wraparound segment in which one of the Disney cartoon characters (Donald, Pluto (with Mickey translating), Goofy, and Mickey, respectively) would talk about his favorite Christmas, thus leading into the cartoon in question. From 1988 onwards, "The Art of Skiing" was excluded from the annual broadcast, replaced at the end of the hour by one segment or another. The 1993 telecast, for example, featured a behind-the-scenes featurette on "The Nightmare Before Christmas". Later broadcasts simply reduced the timeslot to half an hour, showing "Mickey's Christmas Carol" by itself.


title: Mickey's Christmas Carol

text: A clip of this film in Swedish was shown on "Donald Duck's 50th Birthday" to illustrate Donald's international appeal.


title: Mickey's Christmas Carol

text: This short film was featured in "Disney's Magical Mirror Starring Mickey Mouse". The shot of Mickey holding Tiny Tim's crutch is also seen in the opening of "Epic Mickey".


title: Mickey's Christmas Carol

text: The short was released several times on VHS and LaserDisc throughout the 1980s and 1990s. It was released in the Mini-Classics line on September 28, 1989, September 25, 1990 and October 1, 1993. It was re-issued in the Favorite Stories line on October 2, 1996. Some releases featured "The Making of "Mickey's Christmas Carol"" as a bonus.


title: Mickey's Christmas Carol

text: The short is also featured, without its opening credits, in the direct-to-home release, "". It is also available on the ninth volume of the "Walt Disney Classic Cartoon Favorites" DVD collection, as well as in the "Walt Disney Treasures" set "Mickey Mouse in Living Color – Volume 2"; however, the latter is the only DVD to be released in its theatrical 1.66:1 widescreen aspect ratio, however, it is simply cropping the version. The short is also on the "Disney Animation Collection" Volume 7 DVD (1.33:1). On November 5, 2013, the 30th Anniversary Edition of this short was released on DVD and for the first time on Blu-ray; however, it was further cropped to 1.78:1 widescreen and featured a heavy use of noise reduction. Various other shorts were included in the DVD.


title: Lunar Module Eagle

text: Lunar Module "Eagle" (LM-5) is the spacecraft that served as the crewed lunar lander of Apollo 11, which was the first mission to land humans on the Moon. It was named after the bald eagle, which was featured prominently on . It flew from Earth to lunar orbit on the command module "Columbia", and then was flown to the Moon on July 20, 1969, by astronaut Neil Armstrong with navigational assistance from Buzz Aldrin. "Eagle"s landing created Tranquility Base, named by Armstrong and Aldrin and first announced upon the module's touchdown.


title: Lunar Module Eagle

text: The name of the craft gave rise to the phrase "The Eagle has Landed", the words Armstrong said upon "Eagle"s touchdown. The phrase was used as the title of a best-selling 1975 book, set during the Second World War, and the 1976 film adaptation.


title: Lunar Module Eagle

text: "Eagle" was launched with command module "Columbia" on July 16, 1969, atop a Saturn V launch vehicle from Launch Complex 39A, and entered Earth orbit 12 minutes later.


title: Lunar Module Eagle

text: "Eagle" entered lunar orbit on July 19, 1969. On July 20, Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin entered into the LM and separated it from Command module "Columbia".


title: Lunar Module Eagle

text: After the lunar surface operations, Armstrong and Aldrin returned to the Lunar Module "Eagle" on July 21, 1969.


title: Lunar Module Eagle

text: At 17:54:00 UTC, they lifted off in "Eagle" ascent stage to rejoin Michael Collins aboard "Columbia" in lunar orbit.


title: Lunar Module Eagle

text: After the crew re-boarded "Columbia", the "Eagle" was abandoned in lunar orbit. Although its ultimate fate remains unknown, some calculations by the physicist James Meador published in 2021 showed that "Eagle" could theoretically still be in lunar orbit.


title: Kim Yu-bin (musician)

text: Kim Yu-bin (born October 4, 1988), referred to as Yubin, is a South Korean singer-songwriter, rapper and actress. Kim is a founder and CEO of the entertainment agency RRR Entertainment. She initially rose to fame as a member of South Korean girl group Wonder Girls, formed in 2007 by JYP and active with the group until disbanded in 2017. She made her solo debut in 2018 with the single "Lady", and has continued to release music ever since.


title: Kim Yu-bin (musician)

text: Kim Yu-bin was born in Gwangju, on October 4, 1988. She lived in Korea until high school, attending Anyang High School for a while before moving to San Jose, California, where she studied at and graduated from Leland High School. Yubin graduated from Myongji University with a degree in Film and Musical.


title: Kim Yu-bin (musician)

text: She was originally set to debut as a member of Five Girls under Good Entertainment, along with G.NA, After School's Uee, Secret's Jun Hyo-seong, and Spica's Yang Ji-won. However, the group disbanded shortly before their scheduled debut in 2007 due to Good Entertainment's financial troubles and the members all left for separate South Korean entertainment companies.


title: Kim Yu-bin (musician)

text: Yubin made her debut as a new member of the Wonder Girls on September 7, 2007. She was introduced as the main rapper of the group, replacing Hyuna. Although she is known mostly as the rapper of the Wonder Girls, Yubin occasionally acts as an additional vocalist to the group. Examples of which include, "This Time" and "Wishing on a Star". Aside from performing with the group, she has appeared in several music videos including labelmate 2PM's "10 Out of 10" and Shinhwa's "Once in a Life Time". Yubin has also featured in several different artists' singles, i.e. Shinhwa's Andy Lee, Lee Min-woo, Kim Bum-soo, and Chun G. In 2008, she made a short cameo in MBC's popular sitcom, "Here He Comes".


title: Kim Yu-bin (musician)

text: Yubin showcased her written lyrics for the first time in Kim Bum-soo's song "Do You Know That?". Since then, Yubin has written her own raps for several other songs. In 2011, she wrote the lyrics for "Girls Girls", "Me, In", and "Sweet Dreams" from the Wonder Girls' second studio album "Wonder World". Yubin also wrote the song "Hey Boy" for the group's mini album "Wonder Party" released on June 3, 2012. In 2013, she made her official acting debut in OCN's drama, "The Virus", where she played the role of Lee Joo-yeong, a genius hacker and an IT specialist.


title: Kim Yu-bin (musician)

text: On June 24, 2015, it was announced that the Wonder Girls will be making comeback after two-year hiatus as a band. On August 17, 2015, Yubin was confirmed to join "Unpretty Rapstar" second season. Her popularity exploded and as a consequence, her makeup and hairstyle became popular in South Korea. On January 26, 2017, it was announced that the Wonder Girls were to disband after their contracts had expired. Yubin was one of two members who chose to remain with JYP Entertainment as solo artists and renewed her contract.


title: Kim Yu-bin (musician)

text: In April 2018, Yubin announced that she is preparing her solo debut through a "Cosmopolitan" magazine interview. On May 15, JYP Entertainment announced that she has finished filming the music video for the lead single, which is planned to be released alongside her album in early June. Yubin's first single album "City Woman" was released digitally on June 5, 2018, with the retro lead single "Lady". The B-side track, "City Lover", was not released due to copyrights after previously announcing the track would be delayed, due to similarities with Mariya Takeuchi's 1984 Japanese city pop song "Plastic Love".


title: Kim Yu-bin (musician)

text: On November 27, 2018, Yubin's first EP "#TUSM" was released digitally alongside the title track "Thank U Soooo Much". The song's lyrics tell off a former partner for providing “too much information” during a breakup, sarcastically thanking them for their unnecessary revelations. Yubin co-wrote all three tracks on the EP and also co-composed the third track "Game Over". "Thank U Sooo Much" charted at number 21 on "Billboard"'s World Digital Song Sales chart, marking her first appearance on the chart.


title: Kim Yu-bin (musician)

text: In April 2019, Yubin served as a judge for the JTBC dance competition television show "Stage K". On October 30, Yubin released her third single album, "Start of the End", alongside lead single "Silent Movie" featuring Yoon Mi-rae. She co-wrote "Silent Movie" and wrote the B-side track "Not Yours". Yubin left JYP Entertainment on January 25, 2020, with her departure announced three days later.


title: Kim Yu-bin (musician)

text: In February 2020, Yubin founded her own music label, RRR Entertainment. Former bandmate Woo Hye-rim is also signed to the label.


title: Kim Yu-bin (musician)

text: In May 2020, Yubin released her single "Yaya (Me Time)", her first released under her own music label named RRR Entertainment (usually stylized in all lowercase). Since, she has also released the special single "Wave", in partnership with CLEF Entertainment on their project "Traveller", in December 2020.


title: Kim Yu-bin (musician)

text: Her follow-up lead single "Perfume" was released in January 2021, with an accompanying single album. The same year, she competed on MBC's "King of Mask Singer" as "Snow Flower". She also was a cast member of "Goal Girls" and "We're Family".


title: Kim Yu-bin (musician)

text: In 2022, Yubin participated in the television shows "The Last Survivor", "Dating is Straight", and "Queen of Ssireum".


title: Englishman in New York

text: "Englishman in New York" is a song by English singer-songwriter Sting, from his second studio album "...Nothing Like the Sun", released in October 1987. Branford Marsalis played soprano saxophone on the track, while the drums were played by Manu Katché and the percussion by Mino Cinélu.


title: Englishman in New York

text: The single was released in February 1988 as the third single from the album, but only reached No. 51 on the UK Singles Chart. In the US, "Englishman in New York" peaked at No. 84 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart in April 1988 and reached No. 32 on the "Billboard" Mainstream Rock chart that same month. However, the single was more successful in continental Europe, becoming a hit in several countries, reaching the top 40 in France, the Netherlands, Spain, and Belgium. "Englishman in New York" was also a top 20 hit in Ireland. In South Africa, it peaked at No. 9.


title: Englishman in New York

text: In 1990, just prior to the release of his third studio album "The Soul Cages", Sting's record label licensed Dutch DJ and producer Ben Liebrand to remix "Englishman in New York" and subsequently released it as a single. The remix played around with the introduction and some of the instrumentation, but the essence of the song remained the same. The new version was commercially successful, reaching number 15 in the UK charts in mid-1990.


title: Englishman in New York

text: "Englishman/African in New York", a reworking of the song recorded with African artist Shirazee was released as a non-album digital-only single on 19 March 2021. Shirazee had previously covered the song as "African in New York" with Sting's approval. Sting and Shirazee released a music video and performed the song on ABC's "Good Morning America".


title: Englishman in New York

text: Sting wrote the song about the famous eccentric and gay icon Quentin Crisp, who is the "Englishman" of the title. The song was composed not long after Crisp had moved from London to an apartment in the Bowery in Manhattan. Sting had met him and Crisp remarked jokingly to the musician that he "looked forward to receiving his naturalisation papers so that I can commit a crime and not be deported." When Sting asked him what kind of crime, he answered, "Something glamorous, non-violent, with a dash of style. Crime is so rarely glamorous these days." Sting included this story in the liner notes of his album "...Nothing Like The Sun".


title: Englishman in New York

text: The song is composed in the key of B-minor. It is mainly the same chord progression throughout the song (except in the bridge): Em - A - Bm. The functions in the key of the chords are iv - VII - i. The soprano saxophone that plays over the song mainly plays the minor scale in Bm.


title: Englishman in New York

text: In the bridge the chords change to D - A - Bm - F#, G - A - F# - Bm. This corresponds with III - VII - i - V, VI - VII - V - i.


title: Englishman in New York

text: The video was shot in black-and-white and was directed by David Fincher, and featured scenes of Sting and his band in New York (primarily Branford Marsalis playing sax), as well as the elusive Quentin Crisp. At the end of the video, after the song fades, an elderly male voice says: "If I have an ambition other than a desire to be a chronic invalid, it would be to meet everybody in the world before I die... and I'm not doing badly." In 2011, the official video was replaced with a version without the male voice.


title: Igby Goes Down

text: Igby Goes Down is a 2002 American comedy-drama film that follows the life of Igby Slocumb, a rebellious and sardonic teenager who attempts to break free of his familial ties and wealthy, overbearing mother. The film was written and directed by Burr Steers, and stars Kieran Culkin, Claire Danes, Jeff Goldblum, Susan Sarandon, Amanda Peet, Ryan Phillippe, Bill Pullman and Jared Harris. It was given a limited theatrical release through United Artists on September 13, 2002, in the United States, and received generally positive reviews from critics.


title: Igby Goes Down

text: Jason "Igby" Slocumb Jr. is a misanthropic 17-year-old boy, rebelling against the oppressive world of his strict East Coast "old money" family. His schizophrenic father, Jason has been committed to an institution. Igby fears that he will eventually suffer a mental breakdown like his father. His mother, Mimi, is self-absorbed and distant and tends to drink heavily. Igby mockingly describes his ambitious older brother Ollie as a fascist or a Young Republican, and that he studies "neo-fascism" (economics) at Columbia University.


title: Igby Goes Down

text: Igby figures that there must be a better life out there, and he sets out to find it, rebelling against his family at every opportunity. After happily flunking out of several prep schools, he ends up in a brutal military academy where he gets beaten by his classmates. After escaping and spending time in a Chicago hotel courtesy of his mother's credit card, Igby is sent to New York for the summer to stay with his godfather, successful real estate magnate D. H. Banes.


title: Igby Goes Down

text: While working construction for D. H., Igby first encounters Rachel, his godfather's Edie Sedgwick-influenced, heroin-addicted trophy mistress. Rather than return to school, he escapes into the bohemian underworld of Manhattan, hiding out with Rachel and her performance artist friend Russel at her studio owned by D. H. Eventually, he and Rachel have sex. After being found at the studio by D. H. and getting beaten up by Rachel for jeopardizing her living arrangements, he hooks up with terminally bored, part-time lover, Sookie, only for her to later leave him for Ollie.


title: Igby Goes Down

text: Despite seeming cold and distant, Mimi is not unaffected by her rebellious son. She describes Igby's conception as an act of animosity and therefore believes that it shouldn't be a surprise that his life follows the same course. His name is explained as a family in-joke. As a child, he would blame his toy bear, Digby, for things he had done only he was mispronouncing it as "Igby". To get him to take responsibility for his actions, his family would call him Igby whenever he lied.


title: Igby Goes Down

text: Igby is informed by D. H. that his mother Mimi is dying from breast cancer and so he returns to see her. She asks Igby to be present for her death. She has arranged to commit suicide with help from Ollie, who feeds her drug-laden strawberry yogurt before ultimately placing a plastic bag over her head.


title: Igby Goes Down

text: Before she dies, Mimi makes a final revelation, casually inquiring of Igby, "I take it you know that D. H. is your father?" Igby visits his father Jason in the hospital before leaving for Los Angeles to finally make a clean break by getting 3,000 miles away from his family.


title: Igby Goes Down

text: "Igby Goes Down" was filmed in locations throughout New York City, including Central Park, Washington Square Park, and SoHo. It is one of the last films to show the Twin Towers of the original World Trade Center.


title: Igby Goes Down

text: "Igby Goes Down" received positive critical reaction, with a 76% "fresh" rating on Rotten Tomatoes; the consensus states: "In the vein of "The Catcher in the Rye", "Igby Goes Down" is scathingly witty and sharply observant" and a 72/100 on Metacritic. Critics have compared aspects of the story to J. D. Salinger's novel "The Catcher in the Rye".


title: Igby Goes Down

text: Film critic Roger Ebert gave the film a positive review and a grade of three and a half stars out of four. Stephen Holden selected the film as a "New York Times" “Critic’s Pick" and credited it with "ruthless emotional honesty", stating, "Not a false note is sounded."


title: Import substitution industrialization

text: Import substitution industrialization (ISI) is a trade and economic policy that advocates replacing foreign imports with domestic production. It is based on the premise that a country should attempt to reduce its foreign dependency through the local production of industrialized products. The term primarily refers to 20th-century development economics policies, but it has been advocated since the 18th century by economists such as Friedrich List and Alexander Hamilton.


title: Import substitution industrialization

text: ISI policies have been enacted by developing countries with the intention of producing development and self-sufficiency by the creation of an internal market. The state leads economic development by nationalization, subsidization of manufacturing, increased taxation, and highly protectionist trade policies. In the context of Latin American development, the term "Latin American structuralism" refers to the era of import substitution industrialization in many Latin American countries from the 1950s to the 1980s. The theories behind Latin American structuralism and ISI were organized in the works of economists such as Raúl Prebisch, Hans Singer, and Celso Furtado, and gained prominence with the creation of the United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (UNECLAC or CEPAL). They were influenced by a wide range of Keynesian, communitarian, and socialist economic thought, as well as dependency theory.


title: Import substitution industrialization

text: By the mid-1960s, many of the economists who had previously advocated for ISI in developing countries grew disenchanted with the policy and its outcomes. Many of the countries that adopted ISI policies in the post-WWII years had abandoned ISI by the late 1980s, reducing government intervention in the economy and becoming active participants in the World Trade Organization. In contrast to ISI policies, the Four Asian Tigers (Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea and Taiwan) have been characterized as government intervention to facilitate "export-oriented industrialization."


title: Import substitution industrialization

text: ISI policies generally had distributional consequences, as the incomes of export-oriented sectors (such as agriculture) declined while the incomes of import-competing sectors (such as manufacturing) increased. Governments that adopted ISI policies ran persistent budget deficits as state-owned enterprises never became profitable. They also ran current accounts deficits, as the manufactured goods produced by ISI countries were not competitive in international markets, and as the agricultural sector (the sector which was competitive in international markets) was weakened; as a result, ISI countries ended up importing more. ISI policies were also plagued by rent-seeking.


title: Import substitution industrialization

text: ISI is a development theory, but its political implementation and theoretical rationale are rooted in trade theory. It has been argued that all or virtually all nations that have industrialized have followed ISI. Import substitution was heavily practiced during the mid-20th century as a form of developmental theory that advocated increased productivity and economic gains within a country. It was an inward-looking economic theory practiced by developing nations after World War II. Many economists then considered the ISI approach as a remedy to mass poverty by bringing a developing country to a developed status through national industrialization. Mass poverty is defined as "the dominance of agricultural and mineral activities – in the low-income countries, and in their inability, because of their structure, to profit from international trade" (Bruton 905).


title: Import substitution industrialization

text: Mercantilist economic theory and practices of the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries frequently advocated building up domestic manufacturing and import substitution. In the early United States, the Hamiltonian economic program, specifically the third report and the "magnum opus" of Alexander Hamilton, the "Report on Manufactures", advocated for the U.S. to become self-sufficient in manufactured goods. That formed the basis of the American School in economics, which was an influential force in the country during its 19th-century industrialization.


title: Import substitution industrialization

text: Werner Baer contends that all countries that have industrialized after the United Kingdom have gone through a stage of ISI in which much investment in industry was directed to replace imports (Baer, pp. 95–96). Going further, in his book "Kicking Away the Ladder", the South Korean economist Ha-Joon Chang also argues based on economic history that all major developed countries, including the United Kingdom, used interventionist economic policies to promote industrialization and protected national companies until they had reached a level of development in which they were able to compete in the global market. Those countries adopted free market discourses directed at other countries to obtain two objectives: to open their markets to local products and to prevent them from adopting the same development strategies that had led to the industrialization of the developed countries.


title: Import substitution industrialization

text: As a set of development policies, ISI policies are theoretically grounded on the Prebisch–Singer thesis, on the infant industry argument, and on Keynesian economics. The associated practices are commonly:


title: Import substitution industrialization

text: By placing high tariffs on imports and other protectionist, inward-looking trade policies, the citizens of any given country by using a simple supply-and-demand rationale substitute the less expensive good for a more expensive one. The primary industry of importance would gather its resources, such as labor from other industries in this situation. The industrial sector would use resources, capital, and labor from the agricultural sector. In time, a developing country would look and behave similar to a developed country, and with a new accumulation of capital and an increase of total factor productivity, the nation's industry would in principle be capable of trading internationally and of competing in the world market. Bishwanath Goldar, in his paper "Import Substitution, Industrial Concentration and Productivity Growth in Indian Manufacturing", wrote: "Earlier studies on productivity for the industrial sector of developing countries have indicated that increases in total factor productivity, (TFP) are an important source of industrial growth" (Goldar 143). He continued that "a higher growth rate in output, other things remaining the same, would enable the industry to attain a higher rate of technological progress (since more investment would be made) and create a situation in which the constituent firms could take greater advantage of scale economies." It is believed that ISI will allow that (Goldar 148).


title: Import substitution industrialization

text: In many cases, however, the assertions did not apply. On several occasions, the Brazilian ISI process, which occurred from 1930 to the late 1980s, involved currency devaluations to boost exports and discouraging imports, thus promoting the consumption of locally manufactured products, as well as the adoption of different exchange rates for importing capital goods and for importing consumer goods. Moreover, government policies toward investment were not always opposed to foreign capital: the Brazilian industrialization process was based on a tripod that involved governmental, private, and foreign capital, the first being directed to infrastructure and heavy industry, the second to manufacturing consumer goods, and the third to the production of durable goods such as automobiles. Volkswagen, Ford, GM, and Mercedes all established production facilities in Brazil in the 1950s and the 1960s.


title: Import substitution industrialization

text: The principal concept underlying ISI can thus be described as an attempt to reduce foreign dependency of a country's economy by the local production of industrialized products by national or foreign investment for domestic or foreign consumption. Import substitution does not mean eliminating imports. Indeed, as a country industrializes, it naturally imports new materials that its industries need, often including petroleum, chemicals, and raw materials.


title: Import substitution industrialization

text: In 2006, Michael Shuman proposed local ownership import substituting (LOIS), as an alternative to neoliberalism. It rejects the view that there is no alternative. Shuman claims that LOIS businesses are long-term wealth generators, are less likely to exit destructively, and have higher economic multipliers.


title: Import substitution industrialization

text: Import substitution policies were adopted by most nations in Latin America from the 1930s to the late 1980s. The initial date is largely attributed to the impact of the Great Depression of the 1930s, when Latin American countries, which exported primary products and imported almost all of the industrialized goods that they consumed, were prevented from importing because of a sharp decline in their foreign sales, which served as an incentive for the domestic production of the goods that they needed.


title: Import substitution industrialization

text: The first steps in import substitution were less theoretical and more pragmatic choices on how to face the limitations imposed by recession even though the governments in Argentina (Juan Domingo Perón) and Brazil (Getúlio Vargas) had the precedent of Fascist Italy (and, to some extent, the Soviet Union) as inspirations of state-induced industrialization. Positivist thinking, which sought a strong government to modernize society, played a major influence on Latin American military thinking in the 20th century. The officials, many of whom rose to power, like Perón and Vargas, considered industrialization (especially steel production) to be synonymous with "progress" and naturally placed as a priority.


title: Import substitution industrialization

text: ISI gained a theoretical foundation only in the 1950s, when the Argentine economist and UNECLAC leader Raúl Prebisch was a visible proponent of the idea, as well as the Brazilian economist Celso Furtado.


title: Import substitution industrialization

text: Prebisch had experience running his country's central bank and started to question the model of export-led growth. Prebisch came to the conclusion that the participants in the free-trade regime had unequal power and that the central economies (particularly, Britain and the United States) that manufactured industrial goods could control the price of their exports. The unequal powers were taking the wealth from developing countries, leaving them with no way to prosper. He believed that developing countries needed to create local vertical linkages and that they could not succeed except by creating industries that used the primary products already being produced domestically. Tariffs were designed to allow domestic infant industries to prosper. In doing so, Prebisch predicted many benefits: dependence on imports would lower, and the country would not be forced to sell agricultural goods for low prices to pay for industrial goods the income rate would go up, and the country itself would have a strong growth.


title: Import substitution industrialization

text: ISI was most successful in countries with large populations and income levels, which allowed for the consumption of locally produced products. Latin American countries such as Argentina, Brazil, and Mexico (and to a lesser extent Chile, Uruguay and Venezuela) had the most success with ISI.


title: Import substitution industrialization

text: While the investment to produce cheap consumer products may be profitable in small markets, the same cannot be said for capital-intensive industries, such as automobiles and heavy machinery, which depend on larger markets to survive. Thus, smaller and poorer countries, such as Ecuador, Honduras, and the Dominican Republic, could implement ISI only to a limited extent. Peru implemented ISI in 1961, and the policy lasted until the end of the decade in some form.