title: Seal (East Asia)

text: The first evidence of writing in Japan is a "hanko" dating from AD 57, made of solid gold given to the ruler of Nakoku by Emperor Guangwu of Han, called King of Na gold seal. At first, only the Emperor and his most trusted vassals held "hanko", as they were a symbol of the Emperor's authority. Noble people began using their own personal "hanko" after 750 AD, and samurai began using them at some time during the Feudal Period. Samurai were permitted exclusive use of red ink. Chinese style seals were also utilized by the Ryūkyū Kingdom. After modernization began in 1870, "hanko" came into general use throughout Japanese society.


title: Seal (East Asia)

text: Government offices and corporations usually have "inkan" specific to their bureau or company and follow the general rules outlined for "jitsuin" with the following exceptions. In size, they are comparatively large, measuring across. Their handles are often ornately carved with friezes of mythical beasts or hand-carved "hakubun" inscriptions that might be quotes from literature, names and dates, or original poetry. The Privy Seal of Japan is an example; weighing over 3.55 kg and measuring 9.09 cm it is used for official purposes by the Emperor.


title: Seal (East Asia)

text: Some seals have been carved with square tunnels from handle to underside, so that a person can slide their "inkan" into the hollow, thus signing a document with both their name and the business's (or bureau's) name. These seals are usually stored in "jitsuin"-style boxes under high security except at official ceremonies, at which they are displayed on ornate stands or in their boxes.


title: Seal (East Asia)

text: For personal use, there are at least four kinds of seals. In order from most to least formal/official, they are jitsuin, ginkō-in, mitome-in, and gagō-in.


title: Seal (East Asia)

text: A is an officially registered seal. A registered seal is needed to conduct business and other important or legally binding events. A "jitsuin" is used when purchasing a vehicle, marrying, or purchasing land, for example.


title: Seal (East Asia)

text: The size, shape, material, decoration, and lettering style of "jitsuin" are closely regulated by law. For example, in Hiroshima, a "jitsuin" is expected to be roughly , usually square or (rarely) rectangular but never round, irregular, or oval. It must contain the individual's full family and given name, without abbreviation. The lettering must be red with a white background ("shubun"), with roughly equal width lines used throughout the name. The font must be one of several based on ancient historical lettering styles found in metal, woodcarving, and so on. Ancient forms of ideographs are commonplace. A red perimeter must entirely surround the name, and there should be no other decoration on the underside (working surface) of the seal. The top and sides (handle) of the seal may be decorated in any fashion from completely undecorated to historical animal motifs, dates, names, and inscriptions.


title: Seal (East Asia)

text: Throughout Japan, rules governing "jitsuin" design are very stringent and each design is unique, so the vast majority of people entrust the creation of their "jitsuin" to a professional, paying upward of US$20 and more often closer to US$100, and using it for decades. People desirous of opening a new chapter in their lives—say, following a divorce, death of a spouse, a long streak of bad luck, or a change in career—will often have a new "jitsuin" made.


title: Seal (East Asia)

text: The material is usually a high quality hard stone or, far less frequently, deerhorn, soapstone, or jade. It is sometimes carved by machine. When carved by hand, an "intō" ("seal-engraving blade"), a mirror, and a small specialized wooden vice are used. An "intō" is a flat-bladed pencil-sized chisel, usually round or octagonal in cross-section and sometimes wrapped in string to give a better grip. The "intō" is held vertically in one hand, with the point projecting from the carver's fist on the side opposite the thumb. New, modern "intō" range in price from less than US$1 to US$100.


title: Seal (East Asia)

text: The "jitsuin" are kept in secure places such as bank vaults. or hidden in a home. They are usually stored in thumb-sized rectangular boxes made of cardboard covered with embroidered green fabric outside and red silk or red velvet inside, held closed by a white plastic or deerhorn splinter tied to the lid and passed through a fabric loop attached to the lower half of the box. Because of the superficial resemblance to coffins, they are often called "coffins" in Japanese by enthusiasts and "hanko" boutiques. The paste is usually stored separately.


title: Seal (East Asia)

text: A is used specifically for banking; "ginkō" means "bank". A person's savings account passbook contains an original impression of the "ginkō-in" alongside a bank employee's seal. Rules for the size and design vary somewhat from bank to bank; generally, they contain a Japanese person's full name. A Westerner may be permitted to use a full family name with or without an abbreviated given name, such as "Smith", "Bill Smith", "W Smith" or "Wm Smith" in place of "William Smith". The lettering can be red or white, in any font, and with artistic decoration.


title: Seal (East Asia)

text: Since mass-produced "ginkō-in" offer no security, people either have them custom-made by professionals or make their own by hand. They were traditionally made of wood or stone; more recently of ivory, and carried in a variety of thumb-shape and -size cases resembling cloth purses or plastic pencil cases. They are usually hidden carefully in the owner's home.


title: Seal (East Asia)

text: Banks always provide stamp pads or ink paste, and dry cleaning tissues. The banks also provide small plastic scrubbing surfaces similar to small patches of red artificial grass. These are attached to counters and used to scrub the accumulated ink paste from the working surface of customers' seals.


title: Seal (East Asia)

text: A is a moderately formal seal typically used for signing for postal deliveries, signing utility bill payments, signing internal company memos, confirming receipt of internal company mail, and other low-security everyday functions.


title: Seal (East Asia)

text: "Mitome-in" are commonly stored in low-security, high-utility places such as office desk drawers and in the anteroom ("genkan") of a residence.


title: Seal (East Asia)

text: A "mitome-in"'s form is governed by fewer customs than "jitsuin" and "ginkō-in". However, "mitome-in" adhere to a handful of strongly observed customs. The size is the attribute most strongly governed by social custom. It is usually not more than in size. A man's is usually slightly larger than a woman's, and a junior employee's is always smaller than his bosses' and his senior co-workers', in keeping with office social hierarchy. The "mitome-in" always has the person's family name and usually does not have the person's given name ("shita no namae"). "Mitome-ins" are often round or oval, but square ones are not uncommon, and rectangular ones are not unheard-of; irregular shapes are not used. They can produce red lettering on a blank field ("shubun") or the opposite ("hakubun"). Borderlines around their edges are optional.


title: Seal (East Asia)

text: Plastic "mitome-in" in popular Japanese names can be obtained from stationery stores for less than US$1, though ones made from inexpensive stone are also very popular. Inexpensive prefabricated seals are called . Rubber stamps are unacceptable for business purposes.


title: Seal (East Asia)

text: "Mitome-in" and lesser seals are usually stored in inexpensive plastic cases, sometimes with small supplies of red paste or a stamp pad included.


title: Seal (East Asia)

text: Most Japanese also have a less formal seal used to sign personal letters or initial changes in documents; this is referred to by the broadly generic term "hanko". They often display only a single hiragana, kanji ideograph, or katakana character carved in it. They are as often round or oval as they are square. They vary in size from ; women's tend to be small.


title: Seal (East Asia)

text: are used by graphic artists to both decorate and sign their work. The practice goes back several hundred years. The signatures are frequently pen names or nicknames; the decorations are usually favorite slogans or other extremely short phrases. A "gago in" can be any size, design, or shape. Irregular naturally occurring outlines and handles, as though a river stone were cut in two, are commonplace. The material may be anything, though in modern times soft stone is the most common and metal is rare.


title: Seal (East Asia)

text: Traditionally, "inkan" and "hanko" are engraved on the end of a finger-length stick of stone, wood, bone, or ivory, with a diameter between . Their carving is a form of calligraphic art. Foreign names may be carved in rōmaji, katakana, hiragana, or kanji. "Inkan" for standard Japanese names may be purchased prefabricated.


title: Seal (East Asia)

text: Almost every stationery store, discount store, large book store, and department store carries small do-it-yourself kits for making "hanko". These include instructions, hiragana fonts written forward and in mirror-writing (as required on the working surface of a seal), a slim "in tou" chisel, two or three grades of sandpaper, slim marker pen (to draw the design on the stone), and one to three mottled, inexpensive, soft square green finger-size stones.


title: Seal (East Asia)

text: A certificate of authenticity is required for any "hanko" used in a significant business transaction. Registration and certification of an "inkan" may be obtained in a local municipal office (e.g., city hall). There, a person receives a "certificate of seal impression" known as .


title: Seal (East Asia)

text: The increasing ease with which modern technology allows "hanko" fraud is beginning to cause some concern that the present system will not be able to survive.


title: Seal (East Asia)

text: Signatures are not used for most transactions, but in some cases, such as signing a cell phone contract, they may be used, sometimes in addition to a stamp from a "mitome-in". For these transactions, a "jitsuin" is too official, while a "mitome-in" alone is insufficient, and thus signatures are used.


title: Seal (East Asia)

text: During 2020, the Japanese government has been attempting to discourage the use of seals, because the practice requires generation of paper documents that interfere with electronic record-keeping and slow digital communications. The delay has been most pressing in infectious disease reporting during the COVID-19 pandemic: officials found it took up to three days between a case of COVID-19 being discovered and it being reported to the public. Japanese prime minister Yoshihide Suga has set the digitalization of the bureaucracy and ultimately of Japan's entire society as a key priority. He aims to establish a new digital agency to put the idea into practice. Ministries were urged to end "hanko" requirements for 785 types of procedure, 96% of the total, including tax documents. Most business people favoured discontinuing "hanko", but half considered that it would be difficult to do so. Politicians also opposed discontinuing their regional hand-carved "hanko"—a "symbol of Japan".


title: Seal (East Asia)

text: The seal was first introduced to Korea in approximately 2nd century BC. The remaining oldest record of its usage in Korea is that kings of Buyeo used a royal seal ("oksae": 옥새, 玉璽) which bore the inscription of Seal of the King of Ye (濊王之印, 예왕지인). The use of seals became popular during the Three Kingdoms of Korea period.


title: Seal (East Asia)

text: In the case of State Seals in monarchic Korea, there were two types in use: "Gugin" (국인, 國印) which was conferred by the Emperor of China to Korean kings, with the intent of keeping relations between two countries as brothers ("Sadae"). This was used only in communications with China and for the coronation of kings. Others, generally called "eobo" (어보, 御寶) or "eosae" (어새, 御璽), are used in foreign communications with countries other than China, and for domestic uses. Seals were also used by government officials in documents. These types of seals were called "gwanin" (관인, 官印) and it was supervised by specialist officials. With the declaration of establishment of Republic of Korea in 1948, its government created a new State Seal, "guksae" (국새, 國璽) and it is used in promulgation of constitution, designation of cabinet members and ambassadors, conference of national orders and important diplomatic documents.


title: Seal (East Asia)

text: Seals are still commonly used in South Korea. Most Koreans have personal seals, and every government agency and commercial corporation has its own seals to use in public documents. While signing is also accepted, many Koreans think it is more formal to use seals in public documents. In 2008, the Constitutional Court of South Korea upheld a Supreme court judgement that a signed handwritten will without a registered seal was invalid. Korean seals are made of wood, jade, or sometimes ivory for more value. State Seals were generally made of gold or high-quality jade. There are rare cases of bronze or steel seals.


title: Seal (East Asia)

text: While Chinese-style seals are typically used in China, Japan, and Korea, they are occasionally used outside East Asia. For example, the rulers of the Ilkhanate, a Mongol khanate established by Hulagu Khan in Persia, used seals containing Chinese characters in their diplomatic letters, such as the letter from Arghun to French King Philip IV and the letter from Ghazan to Pope Boniface VIII. These seals were sent by the emperors of the Yuan dynasty, a Mongol-ruled dynasty of China, especially by Kublai Khan and his successor Emperor Chengzong.


title: Seal (East Asia)

text: Personal seals () in Korea can be classified by their legal status. Ingam (인감, 印鑑) or sirin (실인, 實印), meaning registered seal, is a seal which has been registered by a local office, attested by a "certificate of seal registration", () a document required for most significant business transactions and civil services.


title: Seal (East Asia)

text: The legal system of registered seals was introduced by the Japanese colonial government in 1914. While it was scheduled to be completely replaced by an electronic certification system in 2013 in order to counter fraud, "ingam" still remains an official means of verification for binding legal agreement and identification. The government passed the 'Act on Confirmation, etc. of Personal Signature (본인서명사실 확인 등에 관한 법률)' in 2012, which gives registered handwritten signatures the same legal effect as "ingam".


title: Seal (East Asia)

text: While "ingam" is used on important business, other "dojangs" are used for everyday purposes, such as less-significant official transactions. Thus most Koreans have more than two seals.


title: Seal (East Asia)

text: In traditional arts, as in China and Japan, an artist of Chinese calligraphy and paintings would use seals (generally leisure seals and studio seals) to identify their work. These types of seals were called "Nakkwan" (낙관, 落款). As seal-carving was also considered a form of art, many artists carved their own seals. Seals of Joseon-period calligraphist and natural historian Kim Jung-hee (aka Wandang or Chusa) are considered to be antiques.


title: Seal (East Asia)

text: The seal has been present in all Singapore dollar banknotes since its first series, bearing the chairman of the Monetary Authority of Singapore (MAS) or the Board of Commissioners of Currency Singapore (BCCS).


title: Seal (East Asia)

text: The seal is used to a lesser extent in Vietnam by authorised organisations and businesses, and also traditional Vietnamese artists. It was more common in Vietnam prior to French rule, when signatures became the usual practice, although usually seen as having less authority in a corporate environment.


title: Johann II, Prince of Liechtenstein

text: Johann II (Johann Maria Franz Placidus; 5 October 1840 – 11 February 1929), nicknamed the Good (), was Prince of Liechtenstein from 12 November 1858 until his death in 1929. His reign of 70 years and 91 days is the third-longest of any sovereign monarch in European history, after those of King Louis XIV and Queen Elizabeth II (in that order), and fourth-longest overall (for which exact dates are known) after King Louis XIV, Queen Elizabeth II, and King Bhumibol Adulyadej (in that order).


title: Johann II, Prince of Liechtenstein

text: Johann II was the elder son of Aloys II, Prince of Liechtenstein and Countess Franziska Kinsky of Wchinitz and Tettau. He ascended to the throne shortly after his 18th birthday. Until he was surpassed by Elizabeth II on 9 May 2022, his reign had been the longest precisely documented tenure of any European monarch since antiquity in which a regent (that is, a regent serving in place of an underage sovereign) was never employed. Although his mother acted as his regent from 10 February 1859 to November 1860, she was not the regent for a minor, but was appointed by her son to fulfill his duties because he wished to finish his education before he began his rule.


title: Johann II, Prince of Liechtenstein

text: In 1862, Johann II issued Liechtenstein's first constitution. After World War I, Johann II granted a new constitution in 1921. It granted considerable political rights to common Liechtensteiners and made the principality a constitutional monarchy. The constitution has survived but with revisions, most notably in 2003.


title: Johann II, Prince of Liechtenstein

text: Liechtenstein left the German Confederation in 1866. Not long afterward, the Liechtenstein Army was abolished as it was regarded as an unnecessary expense.


title: Johann II, Prince of Liechtenstein

text: Johann II somewhat cooled relations with Liechtenstein's traditional ally, Austria-Hungary and its successor states, to forge closer relations with Switzerland, particularly after World War I. Liechtenstein was neutral during the war, which broke Liechtenstein's alliance with Austria-Hungary and led it to go into a customs union with Switzerland. In 1924, late in Johann's reign, the Swiss franc became Liechtenstein's official currency.


title: Johann II, Prince of Liechtenstein

text: Johann II added much to the Liechtenstein Princely Collections. Although considered a prominent patron of the arts and sciences during his long reign, Johann II was also considered to be rather unsociable and did not participate in social events. He never married or had any children, like several other members of his family.


title: Johann II, Prince of Liechtenstein

text: Between 1905 and 1920, Schloss Vaduz was renovated and expanded. Prince Johann II did not live in the castle or even in Liechtenstein, but his successors made the castle the princely residence in 1938.


title: Jejomar Binay

text: Jejomar "Jojo" Cabauatan Binay Sr. (born Jesus Jose Cabauatan Binay; November 11, 1942) is a Filipino lawyer and politician who served as the 13th vice president of the Philippines from 2010 to 2016, under President Benigno Aquino III.


title: Jejomar Binay

text: A human rights lawyer during the Martial law period under President Ferdinand Marcos, Binay provided free legal services to political prisoners before being arrested and detained at the Ipil Rehabilitation Center. He also helped found the Movement for Brotherhood, Integrity and Nationalism, Inc. (MABINI) along with other human rights lawyers.


title: Jejomar Binay

text: Binay was appointed by President Corazon Aquino as officer-in-charge of Makati as mayor from 1986 to 1987. After his tenure, he was elected as mayor of Makati in 1988 and served until 2010, serving 6 consecutive terms as mayor. Concurrently, he was also the chairman of the Metropolitan Manila Development Authority (MMDA) from 1990 to 1991. On October 21, 2009 it was announced that Binay would seek the vice-presidency as the running mate of presidential candidate Joseph Estrada. Though the latter lost to Benigno Aquino III, Binay won the vice presidency, garnering 41.65% of the vote cast, with runner up Mar Roxas receiving 39.58%. During his time as vice president of the Philippines, he was appointed as chairman of the Housing and Urban Development Coordinating Council and as presidential adviser on overseas Filipino workers but resigned on June 22, 2015, due to differences with President Benigno Aquino and some of his cabinet members. Binay ran and failed to secure a senate position in the 2022 general elections, garnering over 13 million votes and placing thirteenth on the vote list. In 2018, Binay was identified by the Human Rights Victims' Claims Board as a Motu Proprio human rights violations victim of the Martial Law Era.


title: Jejomar Binay

text: Jejomar Binay was born in Paco, Manila. The name "Jejomar" is a portmanteau of Jesus, Joseph, and Mary. He is the younger of two children of Diego "Jego" Medrano Binay, a librarian from Bauan, Batangas, and Lourdes Gatan Cabauatan, a school teacher from Cabagan, Isabela. He had an older sibling who died before he was born, making him the only one who survived childhood. After being orphaned at the age of nine, he was adopted by his uncle, Ponciano Binay.


title: Jejomar Binay

text: Binay finished basic education at the Philippine Normal College Training Department and graduated from the University of the Philippines Preparatory School.


title: Jejomar Binay

text: He went to the University of the Philippines Diliman for college and graduated in 1962 with a degree in political science. While studying at UP, he became member of the Alpha Phi Omega fraternity. He continued on to the UP College of Law and graduated in 1967 then passed the bar examinations in 1968. He got a master's degree from the University of Santo Tomas in 1980 and a master's degree in National Security Administration from the National Defense College of the Philippines. He took up Strategic Economic Program in the Center for Research and Communication. He enrolled in a Non-Resident and General Staff Course at the Command and General Staff College, AFP and joined the seniors executive fellow program at the John F. Kennedy School of Government in Harvard University.


title: Jejomar Binay

text: In 1993, he received a diploma in Land Use Program from the University of the Philippines. In 1996, he finished the Top Management Program at the Asian Institute of Management in Bali, Indonesia. He also took up the Joint Services and Command Staff course in the AFP. He also has a master's degree in management at the Philippine Christian University and a diploma in Environmental and Natural Resources Management from the University of the Philippines Open University.


title: Jejomar Binay

text: Upon passing the bar examination to be a lawyer, Binay took up human rights law. During the period of martial law under President Ferdinand Marcos, he represented political prisoners in the 1970s for no charge. After some time, he himself was detained.


title: Jejomar Binay

text: Binay entered into legal aid by starting the Lupon ng mga Manananggol ng Bayan (LUMABAN) in 1970 during the First Quarter Storm. He was imprisoned in 1973, and after he was released, Binay entered the Free Legal Assistance Group (FLAG) led by Sen. Jose. W. Diokno, and became chairman of its Metro Manila Chapter. In 1980, Binay, Augusto "Bobbit" Sanchez, Rene Saguisag, Fulgencio Factoran, Lorenzo Tañada, Joker Arroyo, and other human rights lawyers created the Movement of Attorneys for Brotherhood, Integrity, and Nationalism (MABINI).


title: Jejomar Binay

text: On February 27, 1986, Binay became one of President Corazon Aquino’s first appointed local officials after Mayor Nemesio Yabut died while in office during the EDSA Revolution. He was elected in his own right on January 18, 1988, and was reelected on May 11, 1992, and on May 8, 1995. Binay was known as the first city mayor of Makati, as the municipality became a highly-urbanized city on February 4, 1995.


title: Jejomar Binay

text: He joined pro-democracy forces in preventing the mutinies against the Aquino administration from being successful. His active role in the defense of the Constitution earned him the nickname "Rambotito" (or little Rambo, after the screen hero), the Outstanding Achievement Medal and a special commendation from Aquino. He became term-limited in 1998 and his position was kept by his wife Elenita.


title: Jejomar Binay

text: On May 14, 2001, Binay reclaimed his post as mayor of Makati, winning over actor, television host, and then-vice mayor Edu Manzano in a landslide victory and became a critic of President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo. He won his fifth term on May 10, 2004, by a large margin against 1st district councilor Oscar Ibay. He ran for his sixth and last term as mayor on May 14, 2007, and won again by a significant margin beating incumbent senator and actor Lito Lapid. His margin over Lapid was then considered as the largest margin in a local election in Makati City.


title: Jejomar Binay

text: In October 2006, the Department of the Interior and Local Government (DILG) issued a suspension order against Makati Mayor Jejomar Binay, Vice Mayor Ernesto Mercado, and all members of the city council following an accusation of 'ghost employees' on the city payroll by former vice mayor Roberto Brillante, a political rival. Refusing to cooperate with the suspension order, Binay barricaded himself inside the Makati City Hall. Among those who expressed support were former president Corazon Aquino, actress Susan Roces – the widow of the late movie star and 2004 opposition presidential candidate Fernando Poe Jr. – and several Catholic bishops. After a three-day stand-off, the Court of Appeals issued a temporary restraining order. Before it lapsed, the court issued an injunction order, thereby preventing the Office of the President from enforcing its suspension order until the case was resolved.


title: Jejomar Binay

text: Binay – together with his wife, Elenita, and nine others – was vindicated by the courts in a graft case filed by the Office of the Ombudsman over allegations of overpricing in the purchase of office furniture. Allegedly, he had irregular purchases worth ₱232 million from the years 1991–2006. The case was also filed by Brillante, who at that time was leading in Makati a Palace-supported signature campaign to amend the Constitution. The Sandiganbayan Third Division dismissed the graft case filed against him and his six co-accused for lack of factual basis even prior to Binay's arraignment. Critics claimed the suspension order was intended to distract attention from the government's own scandals.


title: Jejomar Binay

text: On May 2, 2007, the Bureau of Internal Revenue (BIR) froze all bank accounts of the city government of Makati and the personal accounts of Mayor Binay and Vice Mayor Mercado. The BIR issued the order after it said the city still owed the BIR ₱1.1 billion in withholding taxes of city employees from 1999 to 2002. BIR revenue officer Roberto Baquiran signed and issued the warrant of garnishment against the bank accounts that belonged to Binay, Mercado, the city government and the city's treasurer and accountant.


title: Jejomar Binay

text: The city government protested the garnishment order, saying the city had already paid ₱200 million to the BIR as part of a settlement agreement agreed to by Finance Secretary Margarito Teves and former BIR chief Jose Buñag. The city government also said the order was flawed since Baquiran had no authority to issue writs of garnishment and freezing the personal accounts of Binay and Mercado were also unlawful. Ordered by the Court of Tax Appeals (CTA), Binay was made to pay the deficiency in taxes amounting to more than ₱1.1 billion to the BIR, in December 2009.


title: Jejomar Binay

text: The garnishment orders were eventually lifted by Malacañang Palace, but not until after Binay slammed the move as politically motivated and patently illegal.


title: Jejomar Binay

text: Binay's camp claimed and accused President Arroyo of political harassment. Because of this, as per the DILG, a suspension order was served against Binay over alleged corruption. The latter said that the tax obligations were already settled between the BIR and the Makati city government.


title: Jejomar Binay

text: Barely a week before the local elections, the ombudsman suspended Binay based on allegations made by a local candidate allied with Malacañang; it would be revealed that the charges were supported by falsified statements. In a repeat of the October 2006 incident, heavily armed policemen barged into the city hall after office hours, forcibly opening the offices and occupying the building. Binay confronted police officials and representatives of the DILG, while hundreds of supporters once again swarmed the city hall quadrangle to show their support.


title: Jejomar Binay

text: The suspension order generated national media attention, and prompted even administration senatorial candidates to protest publicly, saying the action further undermined their chances in the elections. Despite the controversy of this tax liability issue, Binay still won the position of vice president in 2010 by a landslide victory.


title: Jejomar Binay

text: A photo of then vice presidential candidate and former Makati City mayor Binay, with his rumored mistress, was leaked online. Though he admitted to having an extramarital affair, Binay said that the leaked photo was part of "black propaganda" against him, because of his high ratings in a vice presidential survey conducted prior to the leaking of the photo. The alleged "black propaganda" device had little to no effect on the campaign of Binay, who closed the gap of votes between him and leading vice presidential candidate Senator Manuel "Mar" Roxas II in a survey. Despite the issue, Binay's landslide victory landed him the position of vice president.


title: Jejomar Binay

text: Binay initially announced his bid for the presidency for the 2010 elections during his 66th birthday celebration at the Makati City Hall on November 11, 2008, but abandoned his bid to give way to the reelection bid of former president Joseph Ejercito Estrada. He eventually became Estrada's running mate and ran under the banner of PDP–Laban (Partido Demokratiko Pilipino-Lakas ng Bayan).


title: Jejomar Binay

text: Binay initially showed a relatively poor performance in public opinion polls, trailing behind senators Loren Legarda and Mar Roxas, the latter of whom was heavily favored to win the race, but Binay's standings improved as the elections approached, overtaking Legarda and tying with Roxas in the final survey conducted. He went on to defeat Roxas in the election.


title: Jejomar Binay

text: Binay took his oath as vice president on June 30, 2010, becoming the first local government official to do so. He is also the oldest Filipino to be elected vice president at the age of 67 and the second overall after Teofisto Guingona Jr., who, at age 72, was appointed vice president by Gloria Macapagal Arroyo


title: Jejomar Binay

text: Binay was appointed chairman of the Housing Urban Development Coordinating Council (HUDCC) by President Noynoy Aquino, the same position held by his predecessor, Vice President Noli de Castro and Presidential Adviser for Overseas Filipino Workers (Presidential Adviser for OFW Concerns). During this time, Binay was assigned to lead "Task Force OFW", which helped Overseas Filipino Workers who were maltreated by their employers to return to the Philippines with the assistance of the government.


title: Jejomar Binay

text: Initially, Binay polled highly among expected presidential candidates for the 2016 Philippine general election. However, in a Pulse Asia survey released in September 2015, he placed third after senators Grace Poe and Mar Roxas, the latter of whom was the ruling Liberal Party's presidential candidate. Binay's trust rating had also dropped by 18% due to political harassment and black propaganda by his political enemies.


title: Jejomar Binay

text: Speculation as to who Bunay's running mate for 2016 saw fingers pointed in many directions, including the likes of PLDT Chairman Manuel V. Pangilinan, Senator Jinggoy Estrada, Rep. Manny Pacquiao, Nacionalista Party President Manny Villar, and Batangas Governor Vilma Santos. However, his running mate was later revealed to be Senator Gringo Honasan, who was also the vice president of the United Nationalist Alliance.


title: Jejomar Binay

text: Binay disclosed his platform for his 2016 presidential bid during his speech in the Integrated Bar of the Philippines in Cebu City on March 20, 2015.


title: Jejomar Binay

text: He aimed to improve the situation in state colleges and universities, public health hospitals and clinics, police stations, and mass housing. He also promised an increase in both salaries and benefits of public school teachers and health workers, members of the police force, and other public servants. As part of his plans, he included a redesigning and re-engineering of the transportation system of the country, as well as prioritizing the building of more infrastructure and the creation of more jobs. He proposed to change the constitution to boost the economy, and speed up the country's development.


title: Jejomar Binay

text: In early July of the same year, Binay expressed UNA's (his party list) platform for 2016 in a speech:Ang sigaw ng UNA at ng taumbayan sawa na tayo sa kahirapan, sawa na tayo sa kawalan ng hanapbuhay, sawa na tayo sa kriminalidad at ilegal na droga. Sawa na tayo sa kakulangan ng basic services... hirap na tayo sa manhid at palpak na pamahalaan,What UNA and the citizens are expressing is that we're tired of poverty, we're tired of unemployment, we're tired of criminals and illegal drugs. We're tired of the lack of basic services...we're struggling under a numb and failed government,


title: Jejomar Binay

text: Binay lost the 2016 presidential election to Davao City Mayor Rodrigo Duterte. He called Duterte three days after the election to personally congratulate him. Later, in 2017, Binay became the founding dean of the University of Makati College of Law. In 2019, Binay unsuccessfully ran in the congressional election in Makati's 1st district against former acting mayor Romulo Peña Jr.


title: Jejomar Binay

text: Binay had also voiced out in political issues during the Duterte administration. He supported ABS-CBN amidst its franchise renewal controversy. He also stands against the controversial Anti-Terrorism Act of 2020. He has criticized the Duterte administration for failing to manage the COVID-19 pandemic situation in the Philippines. He also said that lawyers are more scared under Duterte than they were under former President Ferdinand Marcos.


title: Jejomar Binay

text: On July 24, 2021, Senate President Vicente Sotto III said that Binay will be running for a senatorial seat in 2022. Binay was named to the senatorial slate of Sotto's running mate for president, Senator Panfilo Lacson, as well as to the MP3 Alliance and TRoPa of presidential aspirants Manny Pacquiao and Leni Robredo, respectively, as guest candidate. His Senate bid was also endorsed by vice presidential aspirant Sara Duterte, the Makabayan bloc, Iglesia ni Cristo, and the Council of Bishops of the United Church of Christ in the Philippines. However, he lost in his bid, placing 13th out of the 12 seats up for election with more than 13 million votes.


title: Jejomar Binay

text: Binay is married to Dr. Elenita Sombilo Binay, who also served as Mayor of Makati from 1998 to 2001. They have five children:


title: Chances Are (film)

text: Chances Are is a 1989 American romantic comedy film directed by Emile Ardolino and starring Cybill Shepherd, Robert Downey Jr., Ryan O'Neal, and Mary Stuart Masterson in Panavision. The original music score was composed by Maurice Jarre.


title: Chances Are (film)

text: Louie Jeffries, a young district attorney, is hit by a car and dies in 1964, but manages to slip by the pearly gates and is instantly reborn. In 1987, 23 years later, his widow Corinne still misses him, ignoring the frustrated devotion of his best friend Phillip Train, who has pretty much raised Louie's only daughter Miranda as his own. Miranda, while a student at Yale University, meets Alex Finch, who works in the library but is about to graduate.


title: Chances Are (film)

text: After graduation, Alex heads to Washington, D.C., where he makes his way to the offices of "The Washington Post". His first attempts to meet with Ben Bradlee thwarted, he schemes his way into Bradlee's office by pretending to be a delivery man. Alex walks into Bradlee's office, with Phillip behind him. Confounded by the young man, Bradlee asks who he is. When Alex attempts to remind him of their meeting at Yale, Phillip vouches for him, which changes his mind about giving him a meeting. Unfortunately, Bradlee feels Alex needs more time working on smaller papers before he can offer him a job. Feeling defeated, Alex leaves his office.


title: Chances Are (film)

text: Phillip finds Alex downstairs in the lobby, who offers Phillip a ride, during which Phillip invites Alex to meet the Jeffries family over dinner. While at the Jeffries' home, which he'd never previously been to, Alex begins to have flashbacks of a previous life. Anguished, he begins to act crazed and confused. Putting the pieces together, Alex realizes he is Louie Jeffries, Corinne's dead husband, reincarnated.


title: Chances Are (film)

text: Miranda, wanting to continue the flirtation that started when they met, is confused when Alex rebuffs her and orders her to go to her room when she kisses him. Alex then goes to Corrine and tries to convince Corrine that he's Louie. At first she doesn't believe him, but he tells her details about their earlier life together that only Louie would know. She finally gives in and they kiss. They take a trip together away from town, but Corrine is a little disturbed when people think Alex is her son. Louie/Alex wants to make love, but Corrine reveals she hasn't had sex since Louie died.


title: Chances Are (film)

text: One night when Alex and Corrine are together, they're caught by Phillip, who accuses Alex of being a gold digger. Louie/Alex then reminds Phillip he declared his love for Corinne to Louie on their wedding day. Phillip is confused and tries to punch Alex but he gets punched instead, knocking him out. Corinne rushes to Phillip's side, and yells at Alex to get out of the room. Louie/Alex realizes then that she loves Phillip too, and Louie must let go.


title: Chances Are (film)

text: Corrine slips a note under Alex's door, saying she's sorry, and she'll visit him later. Alex puts the still-unconscious Phillip in his bed, so that when Corinne arrives, thinking he's Louie, she accidentally kisses Phillip. He's ecstatic, and Corinne realizes she loves him too. They make love.


title: Chances Are (film)

text: Alex spends the night in his car. The next day, he bursts into a courtroom and accuses the judge of accepting a bribe (Alex remembers himself as Louie taking the incriminating photographs of the then younger judge back in 1964). Phillip, who's also in the courtroom, realizes only Louie would know that fact, and now believes Alex is Louie. Alex tells Phillip the location of his camera with the photographs of the judge accepting the bribe. Attempting to escape from the commotion in the courtroom, Alex falls down the stairs, hits his head, and ends up in the hospital. While unconscious, Omar the angel visits Alex, and gives him the special "shot" he should have gotten 23 years previous, to forget his past life.


title: Chances Are (film)

text: When Alex wakes, he's completely forgotten about being Louie, and he tells Miranda that the last thing he remembers is their kissing in the kitchen of her house. Miranda is relieved and delighted. Newspaper headlines show the judge charged with accepting the bribe. Impressed by Alex's journalistic prowess in exposing the corrupt judge, Bradlee offers him a job as a reporter at the "Post". Corinne and Phillip get married, and at their wedding, Alex tells Phillip he's in love with Miranda, just as Phillip told Louie he was in love with Corinne on their wedding day all those years earlier.


title: Chances Are (film)

text: "Chances Are" was Cybill Shepherd's first film in a number of years. Her profile had risen since she starred in the television series "Moonlighting", and she made the film during a production hiatus from the series.


title: Chances Are (film)

text: Many scenes were filmed in Georgetown, along the Mall, Glen Echo Park, Smithsonian museums, and other parts of Washington, D.C.


title: Chances Are (film)

text: "Chances Are" received generally positive reviews from critics, but did not do well at the box office. As of October 2019, the film holds a rating of 67% on Rotten Tomatoes from 30 reviews.


title: Chances Are (film)

text: The soundtrack included the "Billboard"s Top 10 single hit song "After All" (composed by Tom Snow and lyrics by Dean Pitchford) performed by Cher and Peter Cetera. The song peaked at #6 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 in May 1989. Another is the song of the same title as the film sung by Johnny Mathis. Although the film contains other songs, a soundtrack album has never been released.


title: Hamdan bin Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan

text: Hamdan bin Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan (; born 1963) is an Emirati politician and royal. He is the ruler's representative in the western region of Abu Dhabi. Sheikh Hamdan is a son of the late Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, President of the United Arab Emirates and Emir of Abu Dhabi. Hamdan is the younger brother of both former UAE president Khalifa bin Zayed and the current president, Mohamed bin Zayed.


title: Hamdan bin Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan

text: Sheikh Hamdan was born in Al Ain in 1963. He is the 4th son of the founder of United Arab Emirates, the late president Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, who also served as the emir of Abu Dhabi. His mother is Sheikha Fatima bint Mubarak Al Ketbi and he has five full-brothers: Mohamed, Hazza, Tahnoun, Mansour, and Abdullah. They are known as Bani Fatima or sons of Fatima. In addition, he is the younger paternal half-brother of the former emir and UAE president Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan.


title: Hamdan bin Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan

text: He has a bachelor's degree in political sciences and business administration, both from the United Arab Emirates University.


title: Hamdan bin Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan

text: Along with his half-brother Sheikh Sultan bin Zayed Al Nahyan, they served as Deputy Prime Minister of the United Arab Emirates in the cabinet led by the prime minister Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum, who is the emir of Dubai. He serves as Chairman of state-owned gas company Dolphin Energy.


title: Hamdan bin Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan

text: He was the Chairman of the UAE Football Association (1984–1993). In 2019, he opened the new ERC headquarters at Zayed Sports City in Abu Dhabi.


title: Hamdan bin Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan

text: Hamdan bin Zayed is married to Sheikha Shamsa bint Hamdan bin Mohammed Al Nahyan. They have six sons: Sultan (is married and has two sons: Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan bin Hamdan Al Nahyan, born 23 December 2011, and Sheikh Hamdan bin Sultan bin Hamdan Al Nahyan), Mohammed, Zayed (born 4 April 1990), Yas, Hazza and Rashid.


title: Hamdan bin Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan

text: His father-in-law, Sheikh Hamdan bin Mohammed Al Nahyan, was a distant cousin of the founder of UAE, Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan.


title: Adultery laws

text: Adultery laws are the laws in various countries that deal with extramarital sex. Historically, many cultures considered adultery a very serious crime, some subject to severe punishment, especially in the case of extramarital sex involving a married woman and a man other than her husband, with penalties including capital punishment, mutilation, or torture. Such punishments have gradually fallen into disfavor, especially in Western countries from the 19th century. In countries where adultery is still a criminal offense, punishments range from fines to caning and even capital punishment. Since the 20th century, criminal laws against adultery have become controversial, with most Western countries repealing them.


title: Adultery laws

text: Most countries that criminalize adultery are those where the dominant religion is Islam, and several Sub-Saharan African Christian-majority countries, but there are some notable exceptions to this rule, namely Philippines and 16 U.S. states.


title: Adultery laws

text: However, even in jurisdictions that have decriminalised adultery, adultery may still have legal consequences, particularly in jurisdictions with fault-based divorce laws, where adultery almost always constitutes a ground for divorce and may be a factor in property settlement, the custody of children, the denial of alimony, etc. Adultery is not a ground for divorce in jurisdictions which have adopted a no-fault divorce model, but may still be a factor in child custody and property disputes.


title: Adultery laws

text: The criminal status of adultery has attracted criticism, especially where there are violent penalties. The head of the United Nations expert body charged with identifying ways to eliminate laws that discriminate against women or are discriminatory to them in terms of implementation or impact, Kamala Chandrakirana, has stated that: "Adultery must not be classified as a criminal offence at all". A joint statement by the United Nations Working Group on discrimination against women in law and in practice states that: "Adultery as a criminal offence violates women’s human rights".


title: Adultery laws

text: In Muslim countries that follow Sharia law for criminal justice, the punishment for adultery may be stoning. There are fifteen countries in which stoning is authorized as lawful punishment, though in recent times it has been legally carried out only in Iran and Somalia.


title: Adultery laws

text: Countries which follow very strict versions of Sharia law in their criminal systems include Saudi Arabia, Iran, Brunei, Afghanistan, Sudan, Pakistan, 12 of Nigeria's 36 states (in Northern Nigeria) and Qatar; although these laws are not necessarily enforced. Al-Shabaab, a jihadist fundamentalist group based in East Africa (mainly Somalia) and Yemen also implements an extreme form of Sharia.


title: Adultery laws

text: In jurisdictions where adultery is illegal, punishments vary from fines (for example in the US state of Rhode Island) to caning in parts of Asia. In fifteen countries the punishment includes stoning, although in recent times it has been legally enforced only in Iran and Somalia. Most stoning cases are the result of mob violence, and while technically illegal, no action is usually taken against perpetrators. Sometimes such stonings are ordered by informal village leaders who have "de facto" power in the community. Adultery may have consequences under civil law even in countries where it is not outlawed by the criminal law. For instance it may constitute "fault" in countries where the divorce law is fault based or it may be a ground for tort.


title: Adultery laws

text: In some jurisdictions, the "intruder" (the third party) is punished, rather than the adulterous spouse. For instance art 266 of the Penal Code of South Sudan reads: "Whoever, has consensual sexual intercourse with a man or woman who is and whom he or she has reason to believe to be the spouse of another person, commits the offence of adultery [...]". Similarly, under the adultery law in India (Section 497 of the Indian Penal Code, until overturned by the Supreme Court in 2018) it was a criminal offense for a man to have consensual sexual intercourse with a married woman, without the consent of her husband (no party was criminally punished in case of adultery between a married man and an unmarried woman).


title: Adultery laws

text: Adultery is a crime in the Philippines. In the Philippines, the law differentiates based on the gender of the spouse. A wife can be charged with adultery, while a husband can only be charged with the related crime of concubinage, which is more loosely defined (it requires either keeping the mistress in the family home, or cohabiting with her, or having sexual relations under scandalous circumstances). There are currently proposals to decriminalize adultery in the Philippines.


title: Adultery laws

text: In 2015, South Korea's Constitutional Court overturned the country's law against adultery. Previously, adultery was criminalized in 1953, and violators were subject to two years in prison, with the aim of protecting women from divorce. The law was overturned because the court found that adultery is a private matter in which the state should not intervene.


title: Adultery laws

text: In China, punishments for adultery were differentiated based on gender of the spouse until 1935. Adultery is no longer a crime in the People's Republic of China, but is a ground for divorce.


title: Adultery laws

text: In Taiwan, adultery was a criminal offense before 2020. The law was challenged in 2002 when it was upheld by the Constitutional Court. Arguments were heard again by the court in March 2020, and the court ruled the law unconstitutional on 29 May 2020. Twelve of fifteen justices issued a concurring opinion, two others concurred in part, and one dissented. The Legislative Yuan amended the on 31 May 2021, removing the article criminalizing adultery entirely.


title: Adultery laws

text: During Qing rule in Taiwanv (1683 to 1895), the husband or his relatives could bring charges. The standard sentence was ninety lashes for each of the accused. The woman could be sold or divorced. The matter could be settled out of court, with bodily harm to the accused or assorted punishments affecting his social standing. Under Japanese rule, only the husband could bring charges. The accused could be sentenced to two years imprisonment. Wife selling became illegal, although private settlements still occurred.


title: Adultery laws

text: In Pakistan, adultery is a crime under the Hudood Ordinance, promulgated in 1979. The Ordinance sets a maximum penalty of death. The Ordinance has been particularly controversial because it requires a woman making an accusation of rape to provide extremely strong evidence to avoid being charged with adultery herself. A conviction for rape is only possible with evidence from no fewer than four witnesses. In recent years high-profile rape cases in Pakistan have given the Ordinance more exposure than similar laws in other countries. Similar laws exist in some other Muslim countries, such as Saudi Arabia and Brunei.


title: Adultery laws

text: On 27 September 2018, the Supreme Court of India ruled that adultery is not a crime. Before 2018, adultery was defined as sex between a man and a woman without the consent of the woman's husband. The man was prosecutable and could be sentenced for up to five years (even if he himself was unmarried) whereas the married woman couldn't be jailed. Men have called the law gender discrimination in that women cannot be prosecuted for adultery and the National Commission of Women has criticized the British era law of being anti-feminist as it treats women as the property of their husbands and has consequently recommended deletion of the law or reducing it to a civil offense. Extramarital sex without the consent of one's partner can be a valid grounds for monetary penalty on government employees, as ruled by the Central Administrative Tribunal.


title: Adultery laws

text: In Southwest Asia, adultery has attracted severe sanctions, including the death penalty. In some places, such as Saudi Arabia, the method of punishment for adultery is stoning to death. Proving adultery under Muslim law can be a very difficult task as it requires the accuser to produce four eyewitnesses to the act of sexual intercourse, each of whom should have a good reputation for truthfulness and honesty. The criminal standards do not apply in the application of social and family consequences of adultery, where the standards of proof are not as exacting. Sandra Mackey, author of "The Saudis: Inside the Desert Kingdom", stated in 1987 that in Saudi Arabia, "unlike the tribal rights of a father to put to death a daughter who has violated her chastity, death sentences under Koranic law [for adultery] are extremely rare."


title: Adultery laws

text: In regions of Iraq and Syria under ISIL, there have been reports of floggings as well as execution of people who engaged in adultery. The method of execution was typically by stoning. ISIL would not merely oppose adultery but also oppose behavior that from their point of view could lead to adultery, such as women not being covered, people of the opposite sex socializing with one another, or even female mannequins in store windows.


title: Adultery laws

text: Adultery in English law was not a criminal offence in secular law from the later twelfth century until the seventeenth century. It was punishable under ecclesiastical law from the twelfth century until jurisdiction over adultery by ecclesiastical courts in England and Wales was abolished in England and Wales (and some British territories of the British Empire) by the Matrimonial Causes Act 1857. However, in English and Welsh common law of tort it was possible from the early seventeenth century for a spouse to prosecute an adulterer for damages on the grounds of loss of consortium until the Law Reform (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 1970. Adultery was also illegal under secular statute law for the decade in which the Commonwealth (Adultery) Act (1650) was in force.


title: Adultery laws

text: Among the last Western European countries to decriminalise adultery were Italy (1969), West Germany (1969), Malta (1973), Luxembourg (1974), France (1975), Spain (1978), Portugal (1982), Greece (1983), Belgium (1987), Switzerland (1989), and Austria (1997).


title: Adultery laws

text: In most communist countries, adultery was not a crime. Romania was an exception, where adultery was a crime until 2006, though the crime of adultery had a narrow definition, excluding situations where the other spouse encouraged the act or when the act happened at a time the couple was living separate and apart; and in practice prosecutions were extremely rare.


title: Adultery laws

text: In Turkey, adultery laws were held to be invalid in 1996/1998 because the law was deemed discriminatory as it differentiated between women and men. In 2004, there were proposals to introduce a gender-neutral adultery law. The plans were dropped, and it has been suggested that the objections from the European Union played a role.


title: Adultery laws

text: Before the 20th century, adultery was often punished harshly. In Scandinavia, in the 17th century, adultery and bigamy were subject to the death penalty, although few people were actually executed. Examples of women who have been executed for adultery in Medieval and Early Modern Europe include Maria of Brabant, Duchess of Bavaria (in 1256), Agnese Visconti (in 1391), Beatrice Lascaris di Tenda (in 1418), Anne Boleyn (in 1536), and Catherine Howard (in 1542). The enforcement of adultery laws varied by jurisdiction. In England, the last execution for adultery is believed to have taken place in 1654, when a woman named Susan Bounty was hanged.


title: Adultery laws

text: The European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) has had the opportunity to rule in recent years on several cases involving the legitimacy of firing a person from their job due to adultery. These cases dealt with people working for religious organizations and raised the question of the balancing of the right of a person to respect for their private life (recognized in the EU) and the right of religious communities to be protected against undue interference by the State (recognized also in the EU). These situations must be analyzed with regard to their specific circumstances, in each case. The ECtHR had ruled both in favor of the religious organization (in the case of Obst) and in favor of the fired person (in the case of Schüth).


title: Adultery laws

text: Until the 1990s, most Latin American countries had laws against adultery. Adultery has been decriminalized in most of these countries, including Paraguay (1990), Chile (1994), Argentina (1995), Nicaragua (1996), Dominican Republic (1997), Brazil (2005), and Haiti (2005). In some countries, adultery laws have been struck down by courts on the ground that they discriminated against women, such as Guatemala (1996), where the Guatemalan Constitutional Court struck down the adultery law based both on the Constitution's gender equality clause and on human rights treaties including CEDAW; and Venezuela in 2016. The adultery law of the Federal Criminal Code of Mexico was repealed in 2011.


title: Adultery laws

text: Adultery is not a crime in Australia. Under federal law enacted in 1994, sexual conduct between consenting adults (18 years of age or older) is their private matter throughout Australia, irrespective of marital status. Australian states and territories had previously repealed their respective adultery criminal laws. Australia changed to no-fault divorce in 1975, abolishing adultery as a ground for divorce.


title: Adultery laws

text: The United States is one of few industrialized countries to have laws criminalizing adultery. In the United States, laws vary from state-to-state. Until the mid-20th century, most U.S. states (especially Southern and Northeastern states) had laws against fornication, adultery or cohabitation. These laws have gradually been abolished or struck down by courts as unconstitutional.


title: Adultery laws

text: State criminal laws against adultery are rarely enforced. Federal appeals courts have ruled inconsistently as to whether these laws are unconstitutional (especially after the 2003 Supreme Court decision "Lawrence v. Texas") and as of 2019 the Supreme Court has not ruled directly on the issue.


title: Adultery laws

text: As of 2022, adultery is a criminal offense in 16 states, but prosecutions are rare. Pennsylvania abolished its fornication and adultery laws in 1973. States which have decriminalised adultery in recent years include West Virginia (2010), Colorado (2013), New Hampshire (2014), Massachusetts (2018), Utah (2019), and Idaho (2022).


title: Adultery laws

text: The last conviction of adultery in Massachusetts was in 1983 and held that the statute was constitutional and that "no fundamental personal privacy right implicit in the concept of ordered liberty guaranteed by the United States Constitution bars the criminal prosecution of such persons [adulterers]."


title: Adultery laws

text: Although adultery laws are mostly found in the conservative states (especially Southern states), there are some notable exceptions such as New York. In Oklahoma, Michigan, and Wisconsin adultery is a felony, while in the other states it is a misdemeanor. It is a Class B misdemeanor in New York and a Class I felony in Wisconsin. Penalties vary from a $10 fine (Maryland) and a $500 fine (Rhode Island) to five years in prison (Oklahoma) and four years in prison (Michigan).


title: Adultery laws

text: In South Carolina, the fine for adultery is up to $500 and/or imprisonment for no more than one year (South Carolina code 16-15-60), and South Carolina divorce laws deny alimony to the adulterous spouse.


title: Adultery laws

text: In Florida, adultery ("Living in open adultery", Art 798.01) is illegal; while cohabitation of unmarried couples was decriminalized in 2016.


title: Adultery laws

text: Adultery is a crime in Virginia, so that persons in divorce proceedings may use the Fifth Amendment. Any criminal convictions for adultery can determine alimony and asset distribution. In 2016, there was a bill in Virginia to decriminalize adultery and make it only a civil offense, but the Virginia Senate did not advance the bill.


title: Adultery laws

text: In the U.S. military, adultery is a potential court-martial offense, falling under the General article (Art. 134). The Manual for Courts-Martial defines (para. 99) "Extramarital sexual conduct" as being:


title: Adultery laws

text: ""Elements.(1) That the accused wrongfully engaged in extramarital conduct as described in subparagraph c.(2) with a certain person; (2) That, at the time, the accused knew that the accused or the other person was married to someone else; and (3) That, under the circumstances, the conduct of the accused was either: (i) to the prejudice of good order and discipline in the armed forces; (ii) was of a nature to bring discredit upon the armed forces; or (iii) to the prejudice of good order and discipline in the armed forces and of a nature to bring discredit upon the armed forces"". As such, extramarital sex is not automatically an offense, it must be conducted under such circumstances that it is prejudicial to the army. The law on adultery was revised in 2019 in order to include same-sex encounters in the offense.


title: Adultery laws

text: The enforceability of adultery laws in the United States is unclear following Supreme Court decisions since 1965 relating to privacy and sexual intimacy of consenting adults. However, occasional prosecutions do occur.


title: Adultery laws

text: Six U.S. states (Hawaii, North Carolina, Mississippi, New Mexico, South Dakota, and Utah) allow the possibility of the tort action of alienation of affections (brought by a deserted spouse against a third party alleged to be responsible for the failure of the marriage). In a highly publicized case in 2010, a woman in North Carolina won a $9 million suit against her husband's mistress.


title: Adultery laws

text: Laws against adultery in colonial America were very harsh. Despite this, there is only one known execution for adultery in American history: it occurred in the Colony of Massachusetts in 1643, when the married 18 year old Mary Latham and her extramarital lover James Britton were executed.


title: Adultery laws

text: Laws against adultery have been named as invasive and incompatible with principles of limited government (see Dennis J. Baker, The Right Not to be Criminalized: Demarcating Criminal Law's Authority (Ashgate) chapter 2). Much of the criticism comes from libertarianism, the consensus among whose adherents is that government must not intrude into daily personal lives and that such disputes are to be settled privately rather than prosecuted and penalized by public entities. It is also argued that adultery laws are rooted in religious doctrines; which should not be the case for laws in a secular state.


title: Adultery laws

text: Opponents of adultery laws regard them as painfully archaic, believing they represent sanctions reminiscent of nineteenth-century novels. They further object to the legislation of morality, especially a morality so steeped in religious doctrine. Support for the preservation of the adultery laws comes from religious groups and from political parties who feel quite independent of morality, that the government has reason to concern itself with the consensual sexual activity of its citizens … The crucial question is: when, if ever, is the government justified to interfere in consensual bedroom affairs?


title: Adultery laws

text: There is a history of adultery laws being abused. In Somerset, England, a somewhat common practice was for husbands to encourage their wives to seduce another man, who they would then sue or blackmail, under laws (for examples see Criminal conversation) prohibiting men from having sex with women married to other men.


title: Adultery laws

text: Historically, in most cultures, laws against adultery were enacted only to prevent women—and not men—from having sexual relations with anyone other than their spouses, with adultery being often defined as sexual intercourse between a married woman and a man other than her husband. Among many cultures the penalty was—and to this day still is, as noted below—capital punishment. At the same time, men were free to maintain sexual relations with any women (polygyny) provided that the women did not already have husbands or "owners". Indeed, (ba`al), Hebrew for "husband", used throughout the Bible, is synonymous with "owner". These laws were enacted in fear of cuckoldry and thus sexual jealousy. Many indigenous customs, such as female genital mutilation and even menstrual taboos, have been theorized to have originated as preventive measures against cuckolding. This arrangement has been deplored by many modern intellectuals.


title: Adultery laws

text: Opponents of adultery laws argue that these laws maintain social norms which justify violence, discrimination and oppression of women; in the form of state sanctioned forms of violence such as stoning, flogging or hanging for adultery; or in the form of individual acts of violence committed against women by husbands or relatives, such as honor killings, crimes of passion, and beatings. UN Women has called for the decriminalization of adultery. A Joint Statement by the United Nations Working Group on discrimination against women in law and in practice in 2012, stated:


title: Adultery laws

text: The United Nations Working Group on discrimination against women in law and in practice is deeply concerned at the criminalization and penalization of adultery whose enforcement leads to discrimination and violence against women.


title: Adultery laws

text: Concerns exist that the existence of "adultery" as a criminal offense (and even in family law) can affect the criminal justice process in cases of domestic assaults and killings, in particular by mitigating murder to manslaughter, or otherwise proving for partial or complete defenses in case of violence. These concerns have been officially raised by the Council of Europe and the UN in recent years. The Council of Europe Recommendation Rec(2002)5 of the Committee of Ministers to member states on the protection of women against violence states that member states should: (...) "57. preclude adultery as an excuse for violence within the family". UN Women has also stated in regard to the defense of provocation and other similar defenses that "laws should clearly state that these defenses do not include or apply to crimes of 'honour', adultery, or domestic assault or murder."


title: Adultery laws

text: An argument against the criminal status of adultery is that the resources of the law enforcement are limited, and that they should be used carefully; by investing them in the investigation and prosecution of adultery (which is very difficult) the curbing of serious violent crimes may suffer.


title: Adultery laws

text: Human rights organizations have stated that legislation on sexual crimes must be based on consent, and must recognize consent as central, and not trivialize its importance; doing otherwise can lead to legal, social or ethical abuses. Amnesty International, when condemning stoning legislation that targets adultery, among other acts, has referred to "acts which should never be criminalized in the first place, including consensual sexual relations between adults". Salil Shetty, Amnesty International's Secretary General, said: "It is unbelievable that in the twenty-first century some countries are condoning child marriage and marital rape while others are outlawing abortion, sex outside marriage and same-sex sexual activityeven punishable by death." The "My Body My Rights" campaign has condemned state control over individual sexual and reproductive decisions; stating "All over the world, people are coerced, criminalized and discriminated against, simply for making choices about their bodies and their lives".


title: Vinculum (symbol)

text: A vinculum () is a horizontal line used in mathematical notation for various purposes. It may be placed as an overline (or underline) over (or under) a mathematical expression to indicate that the expression is to be considered grouped together. Historically, vincula were extensively used to group items together, especially in written mathematics, but in modern mathematics this function has almost entirely been replaced by the use of parentheses. It was also used to mark Roman numerals whose values are multiplied by 1,000. Today, however, the common usage of a vinculum to indicate the repetend of a repeating decimal is a significant exception and reflects the original usage.


title: Vinculum (symbol)

text: The vinculum, in its general use, was introduced by Frans van Schooten in 1646 as he edited the works of François Viète (who had himself not used this notation). However, earlier versions, such as using an underline as Chuquet did in 1484, or in limited form as Descartes did in 1637, using it only in relation to the radical sign, were common.


title: Vinculum (symbol)

text: In Boolean logic, a vinculum may be used to represent the operation of inversion (also known as the NOT function):


title: Vinculum (symbol)

text: meaning that Y is false only when both A and B are both true - or by extension, Y is true when either A or B is false.


title: Vinculum (symbol)

text: Similarly, it is used to show the repeating terms in a periodic continued fraction. Quadratic irrational numbers are the only numbers that have these.


title: Vinculum (symbol)

text: Formerly its main use was as a notation to indicate a group (a bracketing device serving the same function as parentheses):


title: Vinculum (symbol)

text: meaning to add "b" and "c" first and then subtract the result from "a", which would be written more commonly today as . Parentheses, used for grouping, are only rarely found in the mathematical literature before the eighteenth century. The vinculum was used extensively, usually as an overline, but Chuquet in 1484 used the underline version.


title: Vinculum (symbol)

text: The vinculum is used as part of the notation of a radical to indicate the radicand whose root is being indicated. In the following, the quantity formula_4 is the whole radicand, and thus has a vinculum over it:


title: Vinculum (symbol)

text: In 1637 Descartes was the first to unite the German radical sign √ with the vinculum to create the radical symbol in common use today.


title: Vinculum (symbol)

text: The symbol used to indicate a vinculum need not be a line segment (overline or underline); sometimes braces can be used (pointing either up or down).


The Specially Designated Nationals and Blocked Persons List, also known as the SDN List, is a United States government sanctions/embargo measure targeting U.S.-designated terrorists, officials and beneficiaries of certain authoritarian regimes, and international criminals (e.g. drug traffickers). The list is managed by the U.S. Treasury’s Office of Foreign Assets Control (OFAC).


title: Specially Designated Nationals and Blocked Persons List

text: The SDN list contains tens of thousands of companies, organizations, and individuals who have been identified as posing a threat to U.S. national security and foreign and economic policy. All persons and businesses within the U.S. are prohibited from doing business with blacklisted individuals or are subject to sanctions for violating the law. Financial sanctions include a ban on investment in the stock of the blacklisted individuals and companies in which the blacklisted individuals have a controlling interest, and a ban on new debt (including all securities such as bonds, credits, bills of exchange, etc.) with a maturity of more than 90 days. After the Crimean crisis, the US blacklisted a number of Russian and Crimean companies for sanctions. Almost every country is represented on the list, but China has 250 persons listed.


title: Scrovegni Chapel

text: The Scrovegni Chapel ( ), also known as the Arena Chapel, is a small church, adjacent to the Augustinian monastery, the "Monastero degli Eremitani" in Padua, region of Veneto, Italy. The chapel and monastery are now part of the complex of the Museo Civico of Padua.


title: Scrovegni Chapel

text: The chapel contains a fresco cycle by Giotto, completed about 1305 and considered to be an important masterpiece of Western art. In 2021, the chapel was declared part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site of the 14th-century fresco cycles comprehending 8 historical buildings in Padua city centre. Specifically the Scrovegni Chapel contains the most important frescoes that marked the beginning of a revolution in mural painting and influenced fresco technique, style, and content for a whole century.


title: Scrovegni Chapel

text: Giotto and his team covered all the internal surfaces of the chapel with frescoes, including the walls and the ceiling. The nave is 20.88 metres long, 8.41 metres wide, and 12.65 metres high. The apse area is composed of a square area (4.49 meters deep and 4.31 meters wide) and a pentagonal area (2.57 meters deep). The largest element is extensive cycles showing the Life of Christ and the Life of the Virgin. The wall at the rear of the church, through which the chapel is entered, has a large "Last Judgement". There are also panels in grisaille (monochrome) showing the Vices and Virtues.


title: Scrovegni Chapel

text: The church was dedicated to "Santa Maria della Carità" at the Feast of the Annunciation, 1303, and consecrated in 1305. Much of Giotto's fresco cycle focuses on the life of the Virgin Mary and celebrates her role in human salvation. A motet by Marchetto da Padova appears to have been composed for the dedication on 25 March 1305. The chapel is also known as the Arena Chapel because it was built on land purchased by Enrico Scrovegni that abutted the site of a Roman arena. The space was where an open-air procession and sacred representation of the Annunciation to the Virgin had been played out for a generation before the chapel was built.


title: Scrovegni Chapel

text: The Arena Chapel was commissioned to Giotto by the affluent Paduan banker, Enrico Scrovegni. In the early 1300s Enrico purchased from Manfredo Dalesmanini the area on which the Roman arena had stood. Here he had his luxurious palace built, as well as a chapel annexed to it. The chapel's project was twofold: to serve as the family's private oratory and as a funerary monument for himself and his wife. Enrico commissioned Giotto, the famous Florentine painter, to decorate his chapel. Giotto had previously worked for the Franciscan friars in Assisi and Rimini, and had been in Padua for some time, working for the Basilica of Saint Anthony in the Sala del Capitolo and in the Blessings's Chapel.


title: Scrovegni Chapel

text: A number of 14th-century sources (Riccobaldo Ferrarese, Francesco da Barberino, 1312–1313) testify to Giotto's presence at the Arena Chapel's site. The fresco cycle can be dated with a good approximation to a series of documentary testimonies: the purchase of the land took place on 6 February 1300; the bishop of Padua, Ottobono dei Razzi, authorised the building some time prior to 1302 (the date of his transferral to the Patriarcato of Aquileia); the chapel was first consecrated on 25 March 1303, the feast day of the Annunciation; on 1 March 1304 Pope Benedict XI granted an indulgence to whoever visited the chapel; one year later on 25 March 1305 the chapel received its definitive consecration. Giotto's work thus falls in the period from 25 March 1303 to 25 March 1305.


title: Scrovegni Chapel

text: Giotto, who was born around 1267, was 36–38 years old when he worked at Enrico Scrovegni's chapel. He had a team of about 40 collaborators, and they calculated that 625 work days ("giornati") were necessary to paint the chapel. A "work day" meant that portion of each fresco that could be painted before the plaster dried and was no longer "fresh" ("fresco" in Italian ).


title: Scrovegni Chapel

text: In January 1305, friars from the nearby Church of the Eremitani filed a complaint to the bishop, protesting that Scrovegni had not respected the original agreement. Scrovegni was transforming his private oratory into a church with a bell tower, thus producing unfair competition with the Eremitani's activities. We do not know what happened next, but it is likely that, as a consequence of this complaint, the monumental apse and the wide transept were demolished. Both are visible on a model of the church painted by Giotto on the counter-facade (the "Last Judgement"). The apse was the section where Enrico Scrovegni had meant to have his tomb. The presence of frescoes dating to after 1320 supports the demolition hypothesis proposed by Giuliano Pisani. The apse, the most significant area in all churches, is where Enrico and his wife, Jacopina d'Este, were buried.


title: Scrovegni Chapel

text: This apse presents a narrowing of the space which gives a sense of its being incomplete and inharmonious. When one observes the lower frame of the triumphal arch, right above Saint Catherine of Alexandria's small altar piece, Giotto's perfect symmetry is altered by a fresco decoration representing two medallions with busts of female saints, a lunette with Christ in glory, and two episodes from the Passion (the prayer in the Garden of Gethsemane and the Flagellation of Christ, which together give an overall sense of disharmony. The artist who painted these scenes also painted the greater part of the apse, an unknown artist called "The Master of the Scrovegni Choir" who worked at the Chapel about twenty years after Giotto's work was completed. The main focus of the unknown artist's work is constituted by six monumental scenes on the side walls of the chancel that depict the last period of Mary's earthly life. This choice is in tune with the iconographic program inspired by Alberto da Padova and painted by Giotto.


title: Scrovegni Chapel

text: The chapel was originally connected with the Scrovegni palace, which was built on what remained of the foundations of the elliptical ancient Roman arena. The palace was demolished in 1827 in order to sell the precious materials it contained and to erect two condominiums in its place. The chapel was purchased by the Municipality of the City of Padua in 1881, a year after the City Council's deliberation of 10 May 1880 leading to a decision to demolish the condominiums and restore the chapel.


title: Scrovegni Chapel

text: In June 2001, following a preparation study lasting over 20 years, the Istituto Centrale per il Restauro (Central Institute for Restoration) of the Ministry for Cultural Activities, in collaboration with Padua's Town Hall in its capacity of owner of the Arena Chapel, started a full-scale restoration of Giotto's frescoes under the late Giuseppe Basile's technical direction. In 2000 the consolidation and restoration of the external surfaces had been completed and the adjacent "Corpo Tecnologico Attrezzato" (CTA) had been installed. In this "equipped technological chamber" visitors wait for fifteen minutes to allow their body humidity to be lowered and any accompanying smog dust to be filtered out. In March 2002 the chapel was reopened to the public in its original splendor. A few problems remain unsolved, such as flooding in the crypt under the nave due to the presence of an underlying aquifer, and the negative effect on the building's stability of the cement inserts that replaced the original wooden ones in the 1960s.


title: Scrovegni Chapel

text: Giuliano Pisani's studies argued that a number of commonly held beliefs concerning the chapel are groundless, among them, the notion that Dante inspired Giotto. However, a posthumous portrait of Dante was included in the Paradise section of the frescoes. Another claim was that the theological program followed by Giotto is based on St Thomas Aquinas, whereas Pisani claims it to be wholly Augustinian. Pisani also argued against the conjecture that the Frati Gaudenti fraternity, of which Enrico Scrovegni was a member, influenced the content of Giotto's fresco cycle. He also argued against the belief that Enrico Scrovegni required that the iconography program have no emphasis placed on the sin of usury. Giuliano Pisani pointed out that Dante's condemnation of Scrovegni's father, Reginaldo, as a usurer in Canto 17 of the "Inferno" dates to a few years after Giotto's completion of the chapel, so it cannot be regarded as a motive behind any theological anxieties on the part of Enrico Scrovegni. Pisani's arguments have not yet been widely embraced by the scholarly community, and that debates persist regarding the impetus for the chapel's creation and the reasons behind its design.


title: Scrovegni Chapel

text: According to Pisani, Giotto painted the chapel's inner surface following a comprehensive iconographic and decorative project devised by the Augustinian theologian, Friar Alberto da Padova. Among the sources utilized by Giotto following Friar Alberto's advice are the Apocryphal Gospels of Pseudo-Matthew and Nicodemus, the Golden Legend ("Legenda aurea") by Jacobus de Voragine and, for a few minute iconographic details, Pseudo-Bonaventure's "Meditations on the Life of Jesus Christ", as well as a number of Augustinian texts, such as "De doctrina Christiana", "De libero arbitrio", "De Genesi contra Manicheos", "De quantitate animae", and other texts from the Medieval Christian tradition, among which is the "Phisiologus".


title: Scrovegni Chapel

text: Most Giotto scholarship believes that Giotto had made a number of theological mistakes. For instance, Giotto placed Hope after Charity in the Virtues series, and did not include Avarice in the Vices series, due to the usual representation of Enrico Scrovegni as a usurer. Giuliano Pisani asserts that Giotto followed a careful and deliberate theological programme based on Saint Augustine and devised by Friar Alberto da Padova. Avarice, far from being "absent" in Giotto's cycle, is portrayed with Envy, forming with it a fundamental component of a more comprehensive sin. For this reason Envy is placed facing the virtue of Charity, to indicate that Charity is the exact opposite of Envy, and that in order to cure oneself of the sin of Envy one needs to learn from Charity. Charity crushes Envy's money bag under her feet, while on the opposite wall red flames burn under Envy's feet.


title: Scrovegni Chapel

text: Giotto frescoed the chapel's whole surface, including the walls and the ceiling. The fresco cycle is organized along four tiers, each of which contains episodes from the stories of the various protagonists of the Sacred History. Each tier is divided into frames, each forming a scene. The chapel is asymmetrical in shape, with six windows on the longer south wall, and this shape determined the layout of the decoration. The first step was choosing to place two frames between each double window set on the south wall; secondly, the width and height of the tiers was fixed in order to calculate the same space on the opposite north wall.


title: Scrovegni Chapel

text: Cycles of scenes showing the Life of Christ and the Life of the Virgin were the grandest form of religious art in the period, and Giotto's cycle is unusually large and comprehensive, showing the ambition of the commission. Allowing for this, the selection and iconography of the scenes is broadly comparable to other contemporary cycles; Giotto's innovation lies in the monumentality of his forms and the clarity of his compositions.


title: Scrovegni Chapel

text: The cycle recounts the story of salvation. It starts from high up on the lunette of the triumphal arch, with the uncommon scene of God the Father instructing the Archangel Gabriel to perform the Annunciation to Mary. The narrative continues with the stories of Joachim and Anne (first tier from the top, south wall) and the stories of Mary (first tier from the top, north wall). After a return to the triumphal arch, the scenes of the Annunciation and the Visitation follow. The stories of Christ were placed on the middle tier of the south and north walls. The scene of Judas receiving the money to betray Jesus is on the triumphal arch. The lower tier of the south and north walls shows the Passion and Resurrection; the last frame on the north wall shows the Pentecost. The fourth tier begins at ground level with the monochromes of the Vices (north wall) and the Virtues (south wall). The west wall (counter-façade) presents the Last Judgment.


title: Scrovegni Chapel

text: The vault presents the eighth day, the time of eternity, God's time, with eight planets (the tondos which enclose the seven great prophets of the Old Testament plus John the Baptist) and two suns (which show God and the Madonna and Child), while the blue sky is studded with eight-point stars (8, sideways, symbolises infinity).


title: Scrovegni Chapel

text: The bottom tiers of the side walls feature 14 personifications in "grisaille", representing single figures of Vices on the north wall and Virtues on the south wall. The Vices are "Stultitia, Inconstantia, Ira, Iniusticia, Infidelitas, Invidia", and "Desperatio". The Virtues are grouped as follows: the four cardinal virtues: "Prudentia, Iustitia, Temperantia, Fortitudo", followed by the three theological ones: "Fides, Karitas, Spes". Each virtue and vice is embedded within a mirror-like marble frame. The name of the vice or the virtue is written in Latin on top of each figure, indicating what these figures represent, namely, the seventh day (the time between Jesus's birth and the Final Judgement).


title: Scrovegni Chapel

text: According to the controversial theory of Giuliano Pisani, the Vices and Virtues read starting from the altar's side, going towards the counter-façade (Final Judgement), and the sequence is not "Vices first, then Virtues" as was long believed. It rather proceeds from Vice 1 ("Stultitia") (north wall, right hand side) to Virtue 1 ("Prudencia") (south wall, left hand side), to Vice 2 ("Inconstantia") (north wall) to Virtue 2 ("Fortitudo") (south side), and so on. Vices and Virtues symbolise humanity's progress toward bliss (heavenly happiness). With the aid of Virtues, humanity can overcome obstacles (Vices). This is the philosophical-theological itinerary designed by Giotto's theologian, a learned theologian who drew his inspiration from Saint Augustine. The Vice-Virtue section of the Arena Chapel illustrates the philosophical-theological message underlying the overall project and is key to clarifying several points previously considered to be either obscure or the result of Giotto's only approximate theological knowledge. For instance, in the Arena Chapel the vices are not the traditional capital vices or deadly sins (Pride, Envy, Wrath, Sloth, Greed, Gluttony and Lust), just like the "corresponding" virtues do not reflect the traditional order, consisting in four "cardinal virtues" (Prudence, Justice, Fortitude and Temperance) and three "theological virtues" (Faith, Hope and Charity).


title: Scrovegni Chapel

text: A twofold therapeutic path leading to salvation is presented. The first, composed of four virtues, brings a cure by means of the opposing force provided by the cardinal virtues. The arrival point in this first part of the itinerary is Justice, "Iusticia", who makes peace possible and therefore ensures Paradise on earth and earthly happiness. The first Vice in this first section is Stultitia, namely the incapacity to distinguish good and evil. Its cure (opposite wall) is "Prudencia", Prudence, which in classical and theological terms is not "cautiousness" but "moral intelligence" or the capacity to distinguish good and evil. The viewer is in the sphere of Knowledge. Next comes the pair "Inconstantia", Inconstancy, (north wall) and "Fortitudo", Fortitude, (south wall). Fortitude (moral and mental strength) triumphs over Inconstancy's lewd oscillations by means of will. "Inconstancy" is literally "the lack of a stable seat"; it is a mix of light-headedness, volubility, and inconsistency. "Inconstancy" is portrayed as a young woman rolling over a ball, ready to fall, on a motley marble floor signifying the lack of "unity" ("constancy") which characterizes an inconstant mind. Here is the sphere of Will. Wrath, the third vice, is "tempered" by "Temperantia", Temperance. According to Saint Augustine, "Temperantia" is the inner balance which ensures the will's stable dominion over instincts and keeps human desires within the boundaries of honesty. It is the therapy necessary to prevail over passions, which are symbolized by Wrath, because Wrath is the most perilous of all the passions: it is sudden and destructive, even against own's dearest ones, and is therefore the passion that human beings first need to learn how to control. This notion is a tenet of ancient Greek and (in its footprints) Roman philosophy, which Saint Augustine made his own and Giotto's theologian transmitted to him, fusing together a number of Saint Augustine's writings.


title: Scrovegni Chapel

text: Prudence, Fortitude and Temperance pertain to each individual's ethical sphere of action and have as their goal the cure of each individual "self". Ethical virtue takes form in practical application, through action and behaviour that pertain both to the personal and the social sphere and affect human relations. The notions of Justice and Injustice, the central "pair" in Giotto's Arena Chapel, emanate from this notion. Justice’ perfect centrality is visually emphasized by an architectural "die", a small cube that runs above each of the various personifications in a slightly slanted way, pointing either toward the apse or the counter-façade, everywhere but above the head of Justice (south wall) and Injustice (north wall), where the small die falls in a perpendicular line, marking at the same time the exact physical half of the chapel as well as Justice's curing function from a theological-philosophical viewpoint, without forgetting that Justice is what cures the soul of the sickening effects of Injustice (on the chapel's other side).


title: Scrovegni Chapel

text: Those who have successfully progressed in their therapeutic path have attained Justice. Those who have not, have attained Injustice. Those who have attained Justice have practiced a soul's therapy that can be defined as "human" and that led them to earthly happiness. They used as their therapy the "medicina animi", the "soul’s medicine" provided by the cardinal virtues (in the sequence Prudence-Fortitude-Temperance-Justice), namely the moral and intellectual virtues with whose "medicine" human beings can be cured of, and are able to prevail over, the opposing vices.


title: Scrovegni Chapel

text: Next come the theological virtues. In order to be able to aspire to heavenly Paradise one needs divine teaching, the revelation of truth, with which one overcomes and transcends human reason, and to practice the theological virtues. The "divine therapy" begins with the rejection of false beliefs ("Infidelitas") through Faith in God ("Fides"). Only with the "medicine" of Charity (Karitas) can man overcome Selfishness and Envy ("Invidia"), which lead him to look with malevolent eyes (Latin "in-vidēre") at his neighbour, who is also made by God in His likeness. Finally, with the aid (the medicine), Hope ("Spes") can be contrasted with Lack of Hope, or Desperation ("Desperatio"). Hope is an attitude consisting in actively waiting for God's future blessings which descend from trust in God and in His word, and also consisting in love, through the love of God, of the whole of humankind.


title: Scrovegni Chapel

text: The sources of this extraordinary program were identified by Pisani in a number of passages of Saint Augustine's works. Everything finds a perfect correspondence with something else. It is the theme of the "therapy of opposites", the sequential order of the cardinal and theological virtues, and the centrality of Justice.


title: Scrovegni Chapel

text: Giotto's painting of Charity is frequently cited in Remembrance of Things Past by Marcel Proust. Mr. Swann likens the kitchen maid to this painting and it becomes something of a joke between him and the narrator.


title: Pelé: Birth of a Legend

text: Pelé: Birth of a Legend is an American biographical film about the early life of Brazilian footballer Pelé and his journey with Brazil to win the 1958 FIFA World Cup. The film was directed and written by Jeff Zimbalist and Michael Zimbalist, starring Kevin de Paula, Vincent D'Onofrio, Rodrigo Santoro, Diego Boneta, with Colm Meaney, and a cameo of Pelé himself. The film focuses on the relationship between the character Pelé and his father.


title: Pelé: Birth of a Legend

text: The principal photography started in Rio de Janeiro in September 2013, and the filming lasted until late 2014. The film was released to negative critical response, with film critics pointing out flaws in the narrative, criticising the lack of depth.


title: Pelé: Birth of a Legend

text: Under guidance from manager Vicente Feola (Vincent D'Onofrio), young Pelé (Kevin de Paula) utilizes his street football skills to lead Brazil to the World Cup in 1958.


title: Pelé: Birth of a Legend

text: The principal photography of the film began in Rio de Janeiro on September 30, 2013. On February 9, 2014, it was announced that the film would not release at the time of the 2014 FIFA World Cup, because it was in post-production and doing some re-shoots.


title: Pelé: Birth of a Legend

text: The film was shot entirely on location in Brazil, with Leonardo Carvalho and Kevin de Paula playing the rising star at the age of 9 and 17, respectively. Pelé stated: "The two young actors who play my younger self will be true stars, as their skills both on screen and on the football pitch proved." Zimbalist stated that they wanted to concentrate on Pelé's early life for dramatic reasons, giving the reason as: "It was the birth of the legend that parallels the birth of the Brazilian national identity, coming off the 1950 (World Cup) loss (to Uruguay) in Maracanã". The film is centered on the relationship between Pelé and his father.


title: Pelé: Birth of a Legend

text: Pelé's football style derives from Ginga. As explained by the character De Brito: "It is primitive, but it has a long and rich history ... It all started at the beginning of the 16th century ... The Portuguese arrived in Brazil with African slaves. But the African's will was strong, and many escaped to the jungle. To protect themselves, the run away slaves called upon the ginga, the foundation of Capoeira, the martial art of war. When slavery was finally abolished, the capoeiraistas came out of the jungle, only to find that capoeira was outlawed throughout the land. They saw football to be the perfect way to practice ginga without being arrested. It was the ultimate form of ginga. And before long the ginga evolved, adapted, until it was no longer just ours, but all Brazilians. But at the 1950 world cup, most believed our ginga style was to blame for the loss, and turned against anything associated with our African heritage. And just like your coach has been trying to remove ginga from your play, we have been trying to remove it from ourselves as a people ever since."


title: Pelé: Birth of a Legend

text: The film received mostly negative reviews. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a rating of 33%, based on 30 reviews, with an average rating of 5.04/10. On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 39 out of 100, based on 11 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews".


title: Pelé: Birth of a Legend

text: Critic Josh Terry of Deseret News said: "Overall, ""Pelé: Birth of a Legend"" is a solid sports film and a pleasant introduction to an international icon." However, he went on to add: "While ""Birth of a Legend"" touches on weighty subjects such as national identity and class tension, its tone often employs a frenetic highlight-reel style that gives its content more flash than depth." In his review for "The Salt Lake Tribune", Sean P. Means awarded the film 2 out of 5 stars saying: "...the script plods along from event to event, and the young actors portraying Pelé are bland and uninvolving." Chief critic Alan Zilberman of "The Washington Post" concluded: "The film is too earnest and single-minded to be hagiographic, and the final moments are moving in spite of their predictable trajectories. ... the film would have benefitted if the Zimbalists had found a way to add a bit of depth — or even doubt — to the legend." Robert Abele of "TheWrap" stated the biopic "scores zero goals" calling the treatment to the script as "burnishing". In his review for "The Village Voice", Michael Nordine expressed: "The new Pelé movie has great footwork but iffy, cheesy drama." Michael Rechtshaffen of The Los Angeles Times stated: ""[. ... ]" script fails to satisfy the dramatic requirements of a narrative feature." Andrew Barker of Variety commented: "The film is continually hamstrung by an uninspiring, ultra-traditionalist narrative."


title: Pelé: Birth of a Legend

text: The film score is composed by A. R. Rahman. In an interview with "Press Trust of India", Rahman was quoted saying: "When I was approached for the project, I first Googled who Pelé was, because my life is all music. I saw amazing things about him and who he was. After that I read the script. I had tremendous respect for the project." In September 2014, Rahman recorded the tracks that featured singer Anna Beatriz. According to Rahman working on the "Pelé" project was intimidating but he found himself totally immersed in the Brazilian music, getting engaged in the character, in the lifestyle and setting of the movie. He added that sometime in his childhood, he had listened to lot of Brazilian music. The score and a couple of songs in this movie fall into western music genre. On recording the score, Rahman stated that he used instruments like the charango, the mandolin, and a lot of percussion and brass instruments from Brazil. So, the soundtrack is a mix of many elements with universal music that reflects Brazilian culture.


title: Pelé: Birth of a Legend

text: "Ginga" was a promotional track released as a video. The song was not initially a part of the screenplay, but came organically as Rahman was intrigued by the word 'Ginga', which is a style of playing football. Rahman stated: "Ginga was one of the main things how Pelé won a match. I found the word very interesting." By the time he finished recording the score, Rahman played the track to the makers who approved it. In India, the song was launched at PVR Cinemas in Mumbai on May 9, 2016. At the event, Rahman elaborated on how YouTube videos and the existing Brazilian sounds helped him design the soundtrack and the theme for the movie.