text: The Italians adopted the existing Albanian system of prefectures (Italian: "prefetture"). In line with the administrative structure of the rest of Italy these were also called provinces (Italian: "provincia"). However, unlike Italy the Albanian sub-prefecture (Italian: "sotto prefetture") was retained. There were initially 10 prefectures. Under this was 30 sub-prefectures and 23 municipalities (Italian: "municipalità"). Each Prefecture was run by a Prefect located in the city of the same name. In 1941, following the dismemberment of Yugoslavia, three new Prefectures were added. Kossovo, Metohija and Debar, with 5 sub-prefectures. Also Ulcinj was added to Scutari prefecture as sub-prefecture.


title: Viktor Chernomyrdin

text: Viktor Stepanovich Chernomyrdin (, ; 9 April 19383 November 2010) was a Soviet and Russian politician and businessman. He was the Minister of Gas Industry of the Soviet Union (13 February 1985 – 17 July 1989), after which he became first chairman of Gazprom energy company and the second-longest-serving Prime Minister of Russia (1992–1998) based on consecutive years. He was a key figure in Russian politics in the 1990s and a participant in the transition from a planned to a market economy. From 2001 to 2009, he was Russia's ambassador to Ukraine. After that, he was designated as a presidential adviser.


title: Viktor Chernomyrdin

text: Chernomyrdin was known in Russia and Russian-speaking countries for his language style, which contained numerous malapropisms and syntactic errors. Many of his sayings became aphorisms and idioms in the Russian language, one example being the expression "We wanted the best, but it turned out like always." ().


title: Viktor Chernomyrdin

text: Chernomyrdin died on 3 November 2010 after a long illness. He was buried beside his wife in Novodevichy Cemetery on 5 November, and his funeral was broadcast live on Russian federal TV channels.


title: Viktor Chernomyrdin

text: Chernomyrdin was born in Chernyi Otrog, Orenburg Oblast, Russian SFSR. His father was a labourer and Viktor was one of five children. Chernomyrdin completed school education in 1957 and found employment as a mechanic in an oil refinery in Orsk. He worked there until 1962, except for his military service from 1957 to 1960. His other occupations on the plant during this period included machinist, operator and chief of technical installations.


title: Viktor Chernomyrdin

text: He became a member of the CPSU in 1961. In 1962, he was admitted to Kuybyshev Industrial Institute (which was later renamed Samara Polytechnical Institute). In his entrance exams he performed very poorly. He failed the maths sections of the test and had to take the exam again, getting a C. He got only one B, in Russian language, and Cs in the other tests. He was admitted only because of very poor competition. In 1966, he graduated from the institute. In 1972, he completed further studies at the Department of Economics of the Union-wide Polytechnic Institute by correspondence.


title: Viktor Chernomyrdin

text: Chernomyrdin began developing his career as a politician when he worked for the CPSU in Orsk between 1967 and 1973. In 1973, he was appointed the director of the natural gas refining plant in Orenburg, a position which he held until 1978. Between 1978 and 1982, Chernomyrdin worked in the heavy industry arm of the CPSU Central Committee.


title: Viktor Chernomyrdin

text: In 1982, he was appointed deputy Minister of the natural gas industries of the Soviet Union. Concurrently, beginning from 1983, he directed Glavtyumengazprom, an industry association for natural gas resource development in Tyumen Oblast. During 1985–1989 he was the minister of gas industries.


title: Viktor Chernomyrdin

text: In August 1989, under the leadership of Chernomyrdin, the Ministry of Gas Industry was transformed into the "State Gas Concern", Gazprom, which became the country's first state-corporate enterprise. Chernomyrdin was elected its first chairman. The company was still controlled by the state, but now the control was exercised through shares of stock, 100% of which were owned by the state.


title: Viktor Chernomyrdin

text: When the Soviet Union dissolved in late 1991, assets of the former Soviet state in the gas sector were transferred to newly created national companies such as Ukrgazprom and Turkmengazprom. Gazprom kept assets located in the territory of Russia, and was able to secure a monopoly in the gas sector.


title: Viktor Chernomyrdin

text: Gazprom's political influence increased markedly after Russian President Boris Yeltsin appointed the company's chairman Chernomyrdin as his Prime Minister in 1992. Rem Viakhirev took Chernomyrdin's place as chairman both of the board of directors and of the managing committee. Gazprom was one of the backbones of the country's economy in 1990s, though the company underperformed during that decade. In the 2000s, however, Gazprom became the largest extractor of natural gas in the world and the largest Russian company.


title: Viktor Chernomyrdin

text: In May 1992, Boris Yeltsin appointed Chernomyrdin as Deputy Prime Minister in charge of fuel and energy. On 14 December 1992, Chernomyrdin was confirmed by the VII Congress of People's Deputies of Russia as Prime Minister.


title: Viktor Chernomyrdin

text: According to Felipe Turover Chudínov, who was a senior intelligence officer with the foreign-intelligence directorate of the KGB, Chernomyrdin secretly decreed in the early 1990s that Russia would become an international hub for narcotics trafficking including importing cocaine and heroin from South America and heroin from Central Asia and Southeast Asia and exporting narcotics to Europe, North America including the United States and Canada, and China and the Pacific Rim.


title: Viktor Chernomyrdin

text: While he had been critical of his predecessor Gaidar, Chernomyrdin largely continued Gaidar's policies.


title: Viktor Chernomyrdin

text: In April 1995, he formed a political bloc called Our Home – Russia, which won 10% of the vote and 55 seats to come third in the 1995 Russian legislative election.


title: Viktor Chernomyrdin

text: In 1995, Chernomyrdin signed a decree calling for the development of a national strategy for tiger conservation


title: Viktor Chernomyrdin

text: On 18 June 1995, as a result of Shamil Basayev-led terrorists taking over 1500 people hostage in Budyonnovsk, negotiations between Chernomyrdin and Basayev led to a compromise which became a turning point for the First Chechen War. In exchange for the hostages, the Russian government agreed to halt military actions in Chechnya and begin a series of negotiations.


title: Viktor Chernomyrdin

text: When Boris Yeltsin was undergoing a heart operation on 6 November 1996, Chernomyrdin served as Acting President for 23 hours.


title: Viktor Chernomyrdin

text: Chernomyrdin remained Prime Minister until his sudden dismissal on 23 March 1998. Following the 1998 Russian financial crisis in August, Yeltsin re-appointed Chernomyrdin as Prime Minister, and attempted to groom him as his successor. However, the Duma twice refused to confirm Chernomyrdin as the head of the government. Rather than risking a third rejection and thus forcing the dissolution of the State Duma and political crisis, Chernomyrdin withdrew his nomination and the President asked the more popular Yevgeny Primakov to form a new cabinet.


title: Viktor Chernomyrdin

text: During the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia in 1999 Chernomyrdin was a special representative of Russia in Yugoslavia.


title: Viktor Chernomyrdin

text: In December 1999 Chernomyrdin was elected a member of the State Duma. In May 2001, Vladimir Putin appointed Chernomyrdin Ambassador of Russia to Ukraine. This action was interpreted by some Russian media agencies as a move to distance Chernomyrdin from the centre of Russian politics. In 2003, he dismissed talk of an apology for the Holodomor Famine made by the Soviet Union.


title: Viktor Chernomyrdin

text: In February 2009 Chernomyrdin again strained the relations between Ukraine and Russia when he in an interview said "It is impossible to come to an agreement on anything with the Ukrainian leadership. If different people come in, we'll see". The Ukrainian foreign ministry said in a response it could declare Chernomyrdin "persona non-grata" over the row.


title: Viktor Chernomyrdin

text: On 11 June 2009, Russian President Dmitry Medvedev relieved Chernomyrdin as Russian Ambassador in Kyiv, and appointed him as "presidential adviser and special presidential representative on economic cooperation with CIS member countries". In a parting shot at the Ukrainian government, Chernomyrdin stated that Russia should not apologise to Ukraine over voicing its suspicions about Ukraine being unable to pay for its natural gas, and further stated that Russia wants Ukraine to pay for the gas it consumes, and hence Russia is right to be concerned about the solvency of the Ukrainian state.


title: Viktor Chernomyrdin

text: Chernomyrdin died on the morning of 3 November 2010 after a long illness. According to people close to Chernomyrdin, such as singer Lev Leshchenko, the former Prime Minister was deeply affected by the death of his wife Valentina, seven and a half months earlier.


title: Viktor Chernomyrdin

text: Chernomyrdin was buried beside his wife in Novodevichy Cemetery on 5 November 2010. On 3 November Russian President Dmitry Medvedev signed an order to show Chernomyrdin's funeral in a live broadcast on Russian federal TV channels (only the funerals of the former President Boris Yeltsin and Patriarch Alexy II were granted the same right in recent years). The head of the Presidential Administration of Russia, Sergey Naryshkin, supervised the funeral ceremony.


title: Viktor Chernomyrdin

text: Condolences on the death of Chernomyrdin were voiced on 3 November 2010 by Russian President Dmitry Medvedev, Russian Prime Minister Vladimir Putin, other state figures in Russia and Ukrainian President Viktor Yanukovich.


title: Viktor Chernomyrdin

text: In Russian-speaking countries, Chernomyrdin is known for his numerous malapropisms and syntactically incorrect speech. His idioms received the name "Chernomyrdinki", and are somewhat comparable to Bushisms in style and effect. One of his expressions "We wanted it as good as possible, but it turned out as always" ("Хотели как лучше, а получилось как всегда" in Russian) about the economic reforms in Russia was widely quoted. The phrase was uttered after a highly unsuccessful monetary exchange performed by the Russian Central Bank in July 1993.


title: Stephen Ireland

text: Stephen James Ireland (born 22 August 1986) is an Irish former professional footballer who played as an attacking midfielder.


title: Stephen Ireland

text: Ireland began his career with Cobh Ramblers before joining English club Manchester City in 2001. He made his professional debut in September 2005 and soon established himself as a regular at the City of Manchester Stadium and his performances saw him earn international recognition with Republic of Ireland. However, a row with Steve Staunton saw his international career come to an abrupt end.


title: Stephen Ireland

text: In September 2010, Ireland was transferred to Aston Villa in a swap deal with James Milner. After a slow start to his Villa career, he was loaned out to Newcastle United where he only played twice. In the 2011–12 season, he improved and won the Fans Player of the Season award. However, he fell out of the first team under Paul Lambert and in September 2013 he joined Stoke City on loan before making the move permanent in January 2014. After being released from Stoke in 2018, he joined Bolton for a brief spell before retiring.


title: Stephen Ireland

text: Born in Cork, County Cork, Ireland started his career in Cobh, playing junior football for Cobh Ramblers, a team his father Michael had previously played for. As a schoolboy, Ireland had trials with a number of British clubs, though several were discouraged by his Osgood-Schlatter disease, which he suffered from in his mid-teens. He eventually chose Manchester City, where he moved in August 2001, as a fifteen-year-old.


title: Stephen Ireland

text: In 2005, at the age of 18, he joined English club Manchester City. He played for the first team in a number of pre-season friendlies and made his competitive debut on 18 September 2005, against Bolton Wanderers, coming on as an 81st-minute substitute. He subsequently made his first competitive start against Doncaster Rovers on 21 September 2005. He won the Man of the Match award on his first Premier League start against Everton on 2 October 2005. He then started the next six matches for City, which won him a contract to keep him at the club until 2009. In the remainder of the season he participated in around half of Manchester City's matches, ending the season with a total of 16 starts and 12 substitute appearances. On 26 December, Ireland scored his first Premier League goal for City, a left footed volley from 20 yards. The goal proved to be the only goal in a vital 1–0 victory at Sheffield United's Bramall Lane. On 18 February, Ireland rounded off the scoring for Manchester City in a 3–1 away win over Preston North End in the fifth round of the FA Cup with a stunning volley from outside the area.


title: Stephen Ireland

text: Having started the 2007–08 Premier League season well with City, Ireland scored the only goal, a volley, in a 1–0 home win over Sunderland. His celebration for the goal courted some controversy, Ireland dropped his shorts to reveal a pair of underpants sporting the Superman logo, however the FA decided a warning would be the fairest course of action. Then in November against Reading, he scored to keep Manchester City's home record at 100%. Two weeks later, he was sent off in the 2–1 loss at Tottenham Hotspur, and received a three match ban. Ireland scored a goal in the reverse fixture, which led Manchester City to a 2–1 home victory over Spurs. He scored his final goal of the season with a sweet strike in the 2–3 loss to Fulham. He got the ball just outside the left side of the penalty box and curved it over Kasey Keller into the top right corner. He finished the 2007–08 season with four goals.


title: Stephen Ireland

text: He returned to the first team in a good individual and team performance in the 3–0 win against West Ham United. He finished the match with two assists, crossing for Elano to strike home. He opened his tally in the 3–0 away win at Sunderland. He scored again in the 2–2 draw at Newcastle United on 20 October. He scored both goals in the 2–2 draw at Hull City on 16 November, and opened the score in the successive league match against Arsenal. After netting in a 2–1 win over Everton, Ireland took his seasons tally to 13 in a memorable season for the Irishman.


title: Stephen Ireland

text: On 20 May 2009, he was named Manchester City's Senior Player of the Year for his blistering performances throughout the 2008–09 season and as a result, secured a new five-year contract, keeping him at the club until 2014. He later became the Greater Manchester Player of the Year. He opened his account in the 2009–10 season with an opening day goal in the 2–0 win at Blackburn Rovers.


title: Stephen Ireland

text: In December 2009, Mark Hughes was sacked as manager and was replaced by former Inter Milan manager Roberto Mancini. With the good form of Nigel de Jong, Vincent Kompany and new signing Patrick Vieira at the club, Ireland spent most of the second half of the season as a substitute. By the end of the 2009–10 season, he only scored three goals, which were all before Mancini's arrival. Mancini said Ireland must "change his head" in order to play.


title: Stephen Ireland

text: At the start of the 2010–11 Premier League season, Ireland was targeted to be transferred with loan to Aston Villa in exchange for James Milner, but the deal was held up when he demanded £2 million from Manchester City to agree to the move. On 17 August 2010 it was reported the deal had been done, and he was at Aston Villa's Bodymoor Heath Training Ground for a medical. The final price was £8million in a part exchange for Milner. Ireland signed a 4-year deal with the Midlands club. After completing the move, Ireland criticised his former club, saying that its young players were "money-obsessed" and that: "I guess James Milner must think the grass is greener on the other side. He's going to get a shock soon because it's definitely not that way." Ireland made his debut for the club on his 24th birthday in an away fixture at Newcastle United. Ireland started and played for the full duration of the match as Villa were beaten 6–0. However, by the end of October 2010, Ireland had been dropped from the Villa team with manager Gérard Houllier publicly stating that he needed to work harder at his game.


title: Stephen Ireland

text: On the final day of the transfer window, 31 January 2011, Ireland joined Newcastle United on loan until the end of the season, with a view to a permanent deal. Ireland was already injured when he joined Newcastle and suffered a number of setbacks, including a controversial nightclub incident with teammate Leon Best the night before a match. He finally made his debut on 19 April 2011 in a 0–0 draw with Manchester United, appearing as a 65th-minute substitute. However, after appearing only twice and playing just 49 minutes of football for the Tyneside club, Ireland was ruled out for the rest of the season with an ankle injury, and was returned to Aston Villa.


title: Stephen Ireland

text: At the start of the 2011–12 season, Ireland stated his intentions to remain at Aston Villa and fight for his place in the team under new manager Alex McLeish, despite having a disappointing first term at the club. It was also confirmed that he would take the number 7 jersey from Ashley Young who had recently joined Manchester United. Alex McLeish warned Ireland to create headlines on the pitch after being pictured posing with shisha pipe on Twitter. On 31 December 2011, Ireland scored his first ever goal for Villa in a 3–1 away win at Chelsea, scoring the opener and assisting the third goal in a man of the match winning performance. At the end of the season, after some impressive displays, Ireland was voted Aston Villa's Supporters' player of the season.


title: Stephen Ireland

text: After a positive start to the 2012–13 season, Ireland broke a bone is his wrist during Villa's 4–1 loss away at Southampton on 22 September in which he had assisted a Darren Bent goal. Manager Paul Lambert revealed it would rule him out for "a few weeks". Paul Lambert left Ireland out of his squad for the second half of the 2012–13 season for 'footballing reasons'. At the end of the season Ireland was heavily linked with a move away from the club and began training with the reserves.


title: Stephen Ireland

text: On 2 September 2013, Ireland joined Stoke City on loan for the 2013–14 season, which would see him link up with Mark Hughes. Speaking after joining Stoke, Ireland expressed the hope that his loan spell would help him resurrect his career, stating: "It's been really frustrating as I take my job seriously and it's been difficult for me not being on the team bus playing games. I'm just so grateful to the manager here at Stoke for giving me the opportunity to build up my career again. I've absolutely got a point to prove and I'm dying to get back into the swing of things. This is a massive opportunity and I'm still only 27. It's a vital year for me to be playing week in, week out."


title: Stephen Ireland

text: Ireland made his Stoke debut on 14 September 2013 in a 0–0 draw against his former club Manchester City. Ireland scored his first goal for Stoke on 25 September 2013 in a 2–0 League Cup win over Tranmere Rovers. On 9 November 2013, he scored against Swansea City in a 3–3 draw. He made his move permanent on 14 January 2014. On 15 April 2014, Ireland signed a new three-year contract with Stoke keeping him contracted until the summer of 2017. Ireland played 29 times in 2013–14 as Stoke finished in 9th position.


title: Stephen Ireland

text: Ireland scored twice in the FA Cup against Wrexham on 4 January 2015. He also scored in the next round against Rochdale. On 28 February 2015, Ireland suffered a deep cut on his calf which required 15 stitches following a challenge by Hull City defender Maynor Figueroa.


title: Stephen Ireland

text: Ireland was again overlooked by Hughes in 2015–16 as he made 16 appearances of which only three were starts and none were in the Premier League. On 10 May 2016, he suffered a broken leg in training, keeping him sidelined for a lengthy period. Ireland missed the entire 2016–17 season due to injury. In July 2017, he signed six-month contract extension to enable him to continue his rehabilitation. Another contract extension until the end of the season followed in December. Ireland made only five appearances in 2017–18 as Stoke suffered relegation to the EFL Championship. He was released by Stoke at the end of the season.


title: Stephen Ireland

text: Ireland joined EFL Championship side Bolton Wanderers on 9 October 2018. On 20 December 2018, Ireland left Bolton without playing a game, though he did play two matches for Bolton's Development Squad, after having his contract cancelled by mutual consent. Ireland stated in June 2020 that he regretted joining Bolton as they were going through financial trouble and assumed he did not play as he had playing bonuses in his contract.


title: Stephen Ireland

text: Ireland represented Ireland at under-15, under-16 and under-17 level, but when called up to under-18 level he had a dispute with coach Brian Kerr after he was left out of the side for a match in Ireland's home town of Cobh and told to watch the match from the stands. The team lost the match 4–0, and Kerr suggested Ireland would be involved in the next match, in nearby Cork City. When Ireland was again left out, he requested to return to his club, and Kerr informed him that he would never play for the Republic of Ireland while Kerr was manager.


title: Stephen Ireland

text: In January 2006 Kerr was replaced as Ireland manager by Steve Staunton. In Staunton's first squad, for a match against Sweden, Ireland received a senior call up for the first time. Ireland came on a substitute in the match, replacing John O'Shea. He scored his first international goal on 7 October 2006 in a 5–2 loss to Cyprus. On 7 February 2007, Ireland saved the Republic of Ireland from a draw with San Marino with a last minute injury time goal. Final score was 2–1.


title: Stephen Ireland

text: On 24 March 2007, he scored the first ever goal in Croke Park against Wales. This was his third international goal in just four matches. He also scored against Slovakia in Bratislava on 8 September 2007.


title: Stephen Ireland

text: In September 2007, Ireland was at the centre of controversy when, in the immediate aftermath of a Republic of Ireland international match and days before their crunch match against the Czech Republic, coach Steve Staunton informed him of a telephone call just received from his girlfriend reporting the death of his maternal grandmother. Staunton quickly consented to Ireland's compassionate leave on these grounds, a private jet was chartered for his return.


title: Stephen Ireland

text: However the media quickly discovered that Ireland's grandmother was not dead, at which point Ireland announced it was his paternal grandmother who died but yet again, reporters discovered that Ireland's paternal grandmother was also still alive, and her relatives had threatened to sue one newspaper that reported her death. Ireland changed his story again, saying one of his grandfathers had divorced, and it was his second wife who had died. That was also quickly discovered to be untrue.


title: Stephen Ireland

text: Ireland eventually came out with the truth, admitting he had invented a reason to leave the Irish team in order to visit his girlfriend in Cork, who, he claimed, had a miscarriage. "I decided at that stage that I must tell the truth and admit I had told lies," Ireland said. "I realise now it was a massive mistake to say my grandmothers had died and I deeply regret it."


title: Stephen Ireland

text: Speculation abounded that Ireland might make himself available for a call-up to the national squad to face Georgia on 11 February 2009. However, when the squad was announced on 19 January, the player's name did not feature, and Liam Brady took the opportunity to explain to the press that he and Trapattoni had previously come to an agreement with the player whereby he would inform them when he felt like playing again, and that so far no contact had been made from the player's end.


title: Stephen Ireland

text: On 19 February 2009, it was reported that Ireland had intimated to Manchester City teammate Shay Given that he would like to represent Ireland at the World Cup in South Africa in 2010 and that a return to the international fold was imminent, but when the Irish squad to face Bulgaria on 28 March and Italy on 1 April was announced, his name was once again omitted. Trapattoni said at the accompanying press conference that he himself did not believe Ireland would return, stating that when he had met with the player months previously he had appeared withdrawn and reluctant to look the Ireland manager in the eye.


title: Stephen Ireland

text: In May 2009, Ireland said that he would probably not return to the national team: "I always say 'never say never' because it's hard not to, but I don't think I'll ever go back." In August 2010, he restated that he would not return: "I watch Ireland matches like anyone else might do at this stage, but I don't feel a part of it at all. It doesn't make me feel like I should go back play again. That question is gone for me and the answer won't change my mind."


title: Stephen Ireland

text: On 30 March 2012, Ireland suggested that he would be willing to return to international football after Euro 2012. In May 2014, after unsuccessful attempts at trying to contact Ireland by Republic of Ireland manager Martin O'Neill, Ireland's agent got in touch with the FAI to say that he would not be available for the friendly matches against Turkey, Italy, Costa Rica and Portugal.


title: Stephen Ireland

text: In an interview in 2019, the player explained that the reason he never returned to play for Ireland was to look after his children.


title: Stephen Ireland

text: Ireland is married and has three children. He owned a home in Prestbury, Cheshire and a number of custom built vehicles. Following the conclusion of his contract with Bolton Wanderers, he listed the home for sale and sold it in 2019 for £3.75 million (€4.3 million). Ireland has a number of tattoos including a large pair of angel wings on his back.


title: History of computing

text: The history of computing is longer than the history of computing hardware and modern computing technology and includes the history of methods intended for pen and paper or for chalk and slate, with or without the aid of tables.


title: History of computing

text: Digital computing is intimately tied to the representation of numbers. But long before abstractions like "the number" arose, there were mathematical concepts to serve the purposes of civilization. These concepts are implicit in concrete practices such as:


title: History of computing

text: Eventually, the concept of numbers became concrete and familiar enough for counting to arise, at times with sing-song mnemonics to teach sequences to others. All known human languages, except the Piraha language, have words for at least "one" and "two", and even some animals like the blackbird can distinguish a surprising number of items.


title: History of computing

text: Advances in the numeral system and mathematical notation eventually led to the discovery of mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, squaring, square root, and so forth. Eventually the operations were formalized, and concepts about the operations became understood well enough to be stated formally, and even proven. See, for example, Euclid's algorithm for finding the greatest common divisor of two numbers.


title: History of computing

text: By the High Middle Ages, the positional Hindu–Arabic numeral system had reached Europe, which allowed for systematic computation of numbers. During this period, the representation of a calculation on paper actually allowed calculation of mathematical expressions, and the tabulation of mathematical functions such as the square root and the common logarithm (for use in multiplication and division) and the trigonometric functions. By the time of Isaac Newton's research, paper or vellum was an important computing resource, and even in our present time, researchers like Enrico Fermi would cover random scraps of paper with calculation, to satisfy their curiosity about an equation. Even into the period of programmable calculators, Richard Feynman would unhesitatingly compute any steps which overflowed the memory of the calculators, by hand, just to learn the answer; by 1976 Feynman had purchased an HP-25 calculator with a 49 program-step capacity; if a differential equation required more than 49 steps to solve, he could just continue his computation by hand.


title: History of computing

text: Mathematical statements need not be abstract only; when a statement can be illustrated with actual numbers, the numbers can be communicated and a community can arise. This allows the repeatable, verifiable statements which are the hallmark of mathematics and science. These kinds of statements have existed for thousands of years, and across multiple civilizations, as shown below:


title: History of computing

text: The earliest known tool for use in computation is the Sumerian abacus, and it was thought to have been invented in Babylon c. 2700–2300 BC. Its original style of usage was by lines drawn in sand with pebbles. Abaci, of a more modern design, are still used as calculation tools today. This was the first known calculator and most advanced system of calculation known to date - preceding Archimedes by 2,000 years.


title: History of computing

text: In c. 1050–771 BC, the south-pointing chariot was invented in ancient China. It was the first known geared mechanism to use a differential gear, which was later used in analog computers. The Chinese also invented a more sophisticated abacus from around the 2nd century BC known as the Chinese abacus.


title: History of computing

text: In the 5th century BC in ancient India, the grammarian Pāṇini formulated the grammar of Sanskrit in 3959 rules known as the Ashtadhyayi which was highly systematized and technical. Panini used metarules, transformations and recursions.


title: History of computing

text: In the 3rd century BC, Archimedes used the mechanical principle of balance (see Archimedes Palimpsest#Mathematical content) to calculate mathematical problems, such as the number of grains of sand in the universe ("The sand reckoner"), which also required a recursive notation for numbers (e.g., the myriad myriad).


title: History of computing

text: The Antikythera mechanism is believed to be the earliest known mechanical analog computer. It was designed to calculate astronomical positions. It was discovered in 1901 in the Antikythera wreck off the Greek island of Antikythera, between Kythera and Crete, and has been dated to "circa" 100 BC.


title: History of computing

text: Mechanical analog computer devices appeared again a thousand years later in the medieval Islamic world and were developed by Muslim astronomers, such as the mechanical geared astrolabe by Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī, and the torquetum by Jabir ibn Aflah. According to Simon Singh, Muslim mathematicians also made important advances in cryptography, such as the development of cryptanalysis and frequency analysis by Alkindus. Programmable machines were also invented by Muslim engineers, such as the automatic flute player by the Banū Mūsā brothers, and Al-Jazari's humanoid robots and "castle clock", which is considered to be the first programmable analog computer.


title: History of computing

text: During the Middle Ages, several European philosophers made attempts to produce analog computer devices. Influenced by the Arabs and Scholasticism, Majorcan philosopher Ramon Llull (1232–1315) devoted a great part of his life to defining and designing several "logical machines" that, by combining simple and undeniable philosophical truths, could produce all possible knowledge. These machines were never actually built, as they were more of a thought experiment to produce new knowledge in systematic ways; although they could make simple logical operations, they still needed a human being for the interpretation of results. Moreover, they lacked a versatile architecture, each machine serving only very concrete purposes. In spite of this, Llull's work had a strong influence on Gottfried Leibniz (early 18th century), who developed his ideas further, and built several calculating tools using them.


title: History of computing

text: Indeed, when John Napier discovered logarithms for computational purposes in the early 17th century, there followed a period of considerable progress by inventors and scientists in making calculating tools. The apex of this early era of formal computing can be seen in the difference engine and its successor the analytical engine both by Charles Babbage. Babbage never completed constructing either engine, but in 2002 Doron Swade and a group of other engineers at the Science Museum in London completed Babbage's difference engine using only materials that would have been available in the 1840s. By following Babbage's detailed design they were able to build a functioning engine, allowing historians to say, with some confidence, that if Babbage would have been able to complete his difference engine it would have worked. The additionally advanced analytical engine combined concepts from his previous work and that of others to create a device that, if constructed as designed, would have possessed many properties of a modern electronic computer, such as an internal "scratch memory" equivalent to RAM, multiple forms of output including a bell, a graph-plotter, and simple printer, and a programmable input-output "hard" memory of punch cards which it could modify as well as read. The key advancement which Babbage's devices possessed beyond those created before his was that each component of the device was independent of the rest of the machine, much like the components of a modern electronic computer. This was a fundamental shift in thought; previous computational devices served only a single purpose, but had to be at best disassembled and reconfigured to solve a new problem. Babbage's devices could be reprogramed to solve new problems by the entry of new data, and act upon previous calculations within the same series of instructions. Ada Lovelace took this concept one step further, by creating a program for the analytical engine to calculate Bernoulli numbers, a complex calculation requiring a recursive algorithm. This is considered to be the first example of a true computer program, a series of instructions that act upon data not known in full until the program is run.


title: History of computing

text: Following Babbage, although unaware of his earlier work, Percy Ludgate in 1909 published the 2nd of the only two designs for mechanical analytical engines in history. Two other inventors, Leonardo Torres y Quevedo and Vannevar Bush, also did follow on research based on Babbage's work. In his "Essays on Automatics" (1913) Torres y Quevedo designed a Babbage type of calculating machine that used electromechanical parts which included floating point number representations and built a prototype in 1920. Bush's paper "Instrumental Analysis" (1936) discussed using existing IBM punch card machines to implement Babbage's design. In the same year he started the Rapid Arithmetical Machine project to investigate the problems of constructing an electronic digital computer.


title: History of computing

text: Several examples of analog computation survived into recent times. A planimeter is a device which does integrals, using distance as the analog quantity. Until the 1980s, HVAC systems used air both as the analog quantity and the controlling element. Unlike modern digital computers, analog computers are not very flexible, and need to be reconfigured (i.e., reprogrammed) manually to switch them from working on one problem to another. Analog computers had an advantage over early digital computers in that they could be used to solve complex problems using behavioral analogues while the earliest attempts at digital computers were quite limited.


title: History of computing

text: Since computers were rare in this era, the solutions were often "hard-coded" into paper forms such as nomograms, which could then produce analog solutions to these problems, such as the distribution of pressures and temperatures in a heating system.


title: History of computing

text: None of the early computational devices were really computers in the modern sense, and it took considerable advancement in mathematics and theory before the first modern computers could be designed.


title: History of computing

text: In an 1886 letter, Charles Sanders Peirce described how logical operations could be carried out by electrical switching circuits. During 1880-81 he showed that NOR gates alone (or alternatively NAND gates alone) can be used to reproduce the functions of all the other logic gates, but this work on it was unpublished until 1933. The first published proof was by Henry M. Sheffer in 1913, so the NAND logical operation is sometimes called Sheffer stroke; the logical NOR is sometimes called "Peirce's arrow". Consequently, these gates are sometimes called "universal logic gates".


title: History of computing

text: Eventually, vacuum tubes replaced relays for logic operations. Lee De Forest's modification, in 1907, of the Fleming valve can be used as a logic gate. Ludwig Wittgenstein introduced a version of the 16-row truth table as proposition 5.101 of "Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus" (1921). Walther Bothe, inventor of the coincidence circuit, got part of the 1954 Nobel Prize in physics, for the first modern electronic AND gate in 1924. Konrad Zuse designed and built electromechanical logic gates for his computer Z1 (from 1935 to 1938).


title: History of computing

text: The first recorded idea of using digital electronics for computing was the 1931 paper "The Use of Thyratrons for High Speed Automatic Counting of Physical Phenomena" by C. E. Wynn-Williams. From 1934 to 1936, NEC engineer Akira Nakashima, Claude Shannon, and Victor Shestakov published papers introducing switching circuit theory, using digital electronics for Boolean algebraic operations.


title: History of computing

text: In 1935 Alan Turing wrote his seminal paper On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem in which he modeled computation in terms of a one-dimensional storage tape, leading to the idea of the Universal Turing machine and Turing-complete systems.


title: History of computing

text: The first digital electronic computer was developed in the period April 1936 - June 1939, in the IBM Patent Department, Endicott, New York by Arthur Halsey Dickinson. In this computer IBM introduced for the first time, a calculating device with keyboard, processor and electronic output (display). Competitor to IBM was the digital electronic computer NCR3566, developed in NCR, Dayton, Ohio by Joseph Desch and Robert Mumma in the period April 1939 - August 1939. The IBM and NCR machines were decimal, executing addition and subtraction in binary position code.


title: History of computing

text: In December 1939 John Atanasoff and Clifford Berry completed their experimental model to prove the concept of the Atanasoff–Berry computer. This experimental model is binary, executed addition and subtraction in octal binary code and is the first binary digital electronic computing device. The Atanasoff–Berry computer was intended to solve systems of linear equations, though it was not programmable and it was never completed. The Z3 computer, built by German inventor Konrad Zuse in 1941, was the first programmable, fully automatic computing machine, but it was not electronic.


title: History of computing

text: During World War II, ballistics computing was done by women, who were hired as "computers." The term computer remained one that referred to mostly women (now seen as "operator") until 1945, after which it took on the modern definition of machinery it presently holds.


title: History of computing

text: The ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer) was the first electronic general-purpose computer, announced to the public in 1946. It was Turing-complete, digital, and capable of being reprogrammed to solve a full range of computing problems. Women implemented the programming for machines like the ENIAC, and men created the hardware.


title: History of computing

text: The Manchester Baby was the first electronic stored-program computer. It was built at the Victoria University of Manchester by Frederic C. Williams, Tom Kilburn and Geoff Tootill, and ran its first program on 21 June 1948.


title: History of computing

text: William Shockley, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain at Bell Labs invented the first working transistor, the point-contact transistor, in 1947, followed by the bipolar junction transistor in 1948. At the University of Manchester in 1953, a team under the leadership of Tom Kilburn designed and built the first transistorized computer, called the Transistor Computer, a machine using the newly developed transistors instead of valves. The first stored-program transistor computer was the ETL Mark III, developed by Japan's Electrotechnical Laboratory from 1954 to 1956. However, early junction transistors were relatively bulky devices that were difficult to manufacture on a mass-production basis, which limited them to a number of specialised applications.


title: History of computing

text: The metal–oxide–silicon field-effect transistor (MOSFET), also known as the MOS transistor, was invented by Mohamed Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in 1959. It was the first truly compact transistor that could be miniaturised and mass-produced for a wide range of uses. The MOSFET made it possible to build high-density integrated circuit chips. The MOSFET is the most widely used transistor in computers, and is the fundamental building block of digital electronics.


title: History of computing

text: The silicon-gate MOS integrated circuit was developed by Federico Faggin at Fairchild Semiconductor in 1968. This led to the development of the first single-chip microprocessor, the Intel 4004. The Intel 4004 was developed as a single-chip microprocessor from 1969 to 1970, led by Intel's Federico Faggin, Marcian Hoff, and Stanley Mazor, and Busicom's Masatoshi Shima. The chip was mainly designed and realized by Faggin, with his silicon-gate MOS technology. The microprocessor led to the microcomputer revolution, with the development of the microcomputer, which would later be called the personal computer (PC).


title: History of computing

text: Most early microprocessors, such as the Intel 8008 and Intel 8080, were 8-bit. Texas Instruments released the first fully 16-bit microprocessor, the TMS9900 processor, in June 1976. They used the microprocessor in the TI-99/4 and TI-99/4A computers.


title: History of computing

text: The 1980s brought about significant advances with microprocessor that greatly impacted the fields of engineering and other sciences. The Motorola 68000 microprocessor had a processing speed that was far superior to the other microprocessors being used at the time. Because of this, having a newer, faster microprocessor allowed for the newer microcomputers that came along after to be more efficient in the amount of computing they were able to do. This was evident in the 1983 release of the Apple Lisa. The Lisa was one of the first personal computers with a graphical user interface (GUI) that was sold commercially. It ran on the Motorola 68000 CPU and used both dual floppy disk drives and a 5 MB hard drive for storage. The machine also had 1MB of RAM used for running software from disk without rereading the disk persistently. After the failure of the Lisa in terms of sales, Apple released its first Macintosh computer, still running on the Motorola 68000 microprocessor, but with only 128KB of RAM, one floppy drive, and no hard drive in order to lower the price.


title: History of computing

text: In the late 1980s and early 1990s, we see more advancements with computers becoming more useful for actual computational purposes. In 1989, Apple released the Macintosh Portable, it weighed and was extremely expensive, costing US$7,300. At launch it was one of the most powerful laptops available, but due to the price and weight, it was not met with great success, and was discontinued only two years later. That same year Intel introduced the Touchstone Delta supercomputer, which had 512 microprocessors. This technological advancement was very significant, as it was used as a model for some of the fastest multi-processor systems in the world. It was even used as a prototype for Caltech researchers, who used the model for projects like real time processing of satellite images and simulating molecular models for various fields of research.


title: History of computing

text: In terms of supercomputing, the first widely acknowledged supercomputer was the Control Data Corporation (CDC) 6600 built in 1964 by Seymour Cray. Its maximum speed was 40 MHz or 3 million floating point operations per second (FLOPS). The CDC 6600 was replaced by the CDC 7600 in 1969; although its normal clock speed was not faster than the 6600, the 7600 was still faster due to its peak clock speed, which was approximately 30 times faster than that of the 6600. Although CDC was a leader in supercomputers, their relationship with Seymour Cray (which had already been deteriorating) completely collapsed. in 1972, Cray left CDC and began his own company, Cray Research Inc. With support from investors in Wall Street, an industry fueled by the Cold War, and without the restrictions he had within CDC, he created the Cray-1 supercomputer. With a clock speed of 80 MHz or 136 megaFLOPS, Cray developed a name for himself in the computing world. By 1982, Cray Research produced the Cray X-MP equipped with multiprocessing and in 1985 released the Cray-2, which continued with the trend of multiprocessing and clocked at 1.9 gigaFLOPS. Cray Research developed the Cray Y-MP in 1988, however afterwards struggled to continue to produce supercomputers. This was largely due to the fact that the Cold War had ended, and the demand for cutting edge computing by colleges and the government declined drastically and the demand for micro processing units increased.


title: History of computing

text: Today, supercomputers are still used by the governments of the world and educational institutions for computations such as simulations of natural disasters, genetic variant searches within a population relating to disease, and more. , the fastest supercomputer is Fugaku.


title: History of computing

text: Starting with known special cases, the calculation of logarithms and trigonometric functions can be performed by looking up numbers in a mathematical table, and interpolating between known cases. For small enough differences, this linear operation was accurate enough for use in navigation and astronomy in the Age of Exploration. The uses of interpolation have thrived in the past 500 years: by the twentieth century Leslie Comrie and W.J. Eckert systematized the use of interpolation in tables of numbers for punch card calculation.


title: History of computing

text: The numerical solution of differential equations, notably the Navier-Stokes equations was an important stimulus to computing,


title: History of computing

text: with Lewis Fry Richardson's numerical approach to solving differential equations. The first computerised weather forecast was performed in 1950 by a team composed of American meteorologists Jule Charney, Philip Thompson, Larry Gates, and Norwegian meteorologist Ragnar Fjørtoft, applied mathematician John von Neumann, and ENIAC programmer Klara Dan von Neumann. To this day, some of the most powerful computer systems on Earth are used for weather forecasts.


title: History of computing

text: By the late 1960s, computer systems could perform symbolic algebraic manipulations well enough to pass college-level calculus courses.


title: History of computing

text: Women are often underrepresented in STEM fields when compared to their male counterparts. In the modern era prior to the 1960s, computing was widely seen as "women's work," since it was associated with the operation of tabulating machines and other mechanical office work. The accuracy of this association varied from place to place. In America, Margaret Hamilton recalled an environment dominated by men, while Elsie Shutt recalled surprise at seeing even half of the computer operators at Raytheon were men. Machine operators in Britain were mostly women into the early 1970s. As these perceptions changed and computing became a high-status career, the field became more dominated by men. Professor Janet Abbate, in her book "Recoding Gender", writes:Yet women were a significant presence in the early decades of computing. They made up the majority of the first computer programmers during World War II; they held positions of responsibility and influence in the early computer industry; and they were employed in numbers that, while a small minority of the total, compared favorably with women's representation in many other areas of science and engineering. Some female programmers of the 1950s and 1960s would have scoffed at the notion that programming would ever be considered a masculine occupation, yet these women’s experiences and contributions were forgotten all too quickly.


title: Druk Gyalpo

text: The Druk Gyalpo (; 'Dragon King') is the head of state of the Kingdom of Bhutan. In the Dzongkha language, Bhutan is known as "Drukyul" which translates as "The Land of the Thunder Dragon". Thus, while kings of Bhutan are known as "Druk Gyalpo" ("Dragon King"), the Bhutanese people call themselves the "Drukpa", meaning "people of Druk (Bhutan)".


title: Druk Gyalpo

text: The current sovereign of Bhutan is Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck, the fifth "Druk Gyalpo". He wears the Raven Crown, which is the official crown worn by the kings of Bhutan. He is correctly styled ""Mi'wang 'Ngada Rinpoche"" ("His Majesty") and addressed ""Ngada Rimboche"" ("Your Majesty").


title: Druk Gyalpo

text: King Jigme Khesar was the second-youngest reigning monarch in the world when he ascended the throne on 1 November 2008 after his father, Jigme Singye Wangchuck, abdicated the throne in his favour.


title: Druk Gyalpo

text: The Constitution confirms the institution of monarchy. The Druk Gyalpo (King of Bhutan) is the head of state and the symbol of unity of the kingdom and of the people of Bhutan. The Constitution establishes the "Chhoe-sid-nyi" (dual system of religion and politics) of Bhutan as unified in the person of the kingwho, as a Buddhist, is the upholder of the Chhoe-sid (religion and politics; temporal and secular). In addition, the king is the protector of all religions in Bhutan. The king is not answerable in a court of law for his actions, and his person is sacrosanct. However, the king is mandated to protect and uphold the Constitution "in the best interest and for the welfare of the people of Bhutan".


title: Druk Gyalpo

text: Under the Constitution, the king, in exercise of his royal prerogatives (and as head of state), promotes goodwill and good relations with other countries by receiving state guests and undertaking state visits to other countries. The king may also award titles, decorations, "dar" for Lhengye and Nyi-Kyelma (conferring a red scarf of rank and honour with the title of "Dasho") in accordance with tradition and custom. Also among the royal prerogatives are the grants of citizenship, amnesty, pardon and reduction of sentences; and land "kidu" and other "kidus" (benefits).


title: Druk Gyalpo

text: Under Article 2, Section 19, the king appoints a significant number of high-level government officers: judicial appointees, the auditor general, and the chairs of anti-corruption, civil service, and election commissions are holders of constitutional office.


title: Druk Gyalpo

text: The king appoints most of the upper judicial branch: the chief justice of Bhutan and the drangpons (associate justices) of the Supreme Court; the chief justice and drangpons (associate justices) of the High Court. These judicial appointments are made from among the vacant positions' peers, juniors, and available eminent jurists in consultation with the National Judicial Commission Dungkhag Court jurists are not appointed by the king.


title: Druk Gyalpo

text: The king also appoints, from lists of names recommended jointly by the prime minister, the chief justice of Bhutan, the speaker, the chairperson of the National Council, and the leader of the opposition party, four kinds of high-level government: the chief election commissioner and other members of the Election Commission; the auditor general of the Royal Audit Authority; the chairperson and other members of the Royal Civil Service Commission; and the chairperson and other members of the Anti-Corruption Commission. The term for each position is five years. Referenced for incorporation are the "Bhutanese Audit Act", "Bhutanese Civil Service Act", "Bhutanese Anti-Corruption Act", and "Attorney General Act"; references to existing "Election Laws" also appear throughout the Constitution.


title: Druk Gyalpo

text: The king appoints positions other than Constitutional Officers on the advice of other bodies. He appoints the heads of the Defence Forces from a list of names recommended by the Service Promotion Board. The king appoints the attorney general of Bhutan, the chairperson of the Pay Commission, the governor of the Central Bank of Bhutan, the cabinet secretary, and Bhutanese ambassadors and consuls on the recommendation of the prime minister. The king also appoints dzongdags to head local governments, and other secretaries to the government on the recommendation of the prime minister who obtains nominations from the Royal Civil Service Commission on the basis of merit and seniority and in accordance with other relevant rules and regulations. The king appoints the secretary general of the respective houses on the recommendation of the Royal Civil Service Commission.


title: Druk Gyalpo

text: The Constitution provides substantive and procedural law for two paths of abdication for reigning monarchs: voluntary and involuntary. As stated above, the king may relinquish the exercise of royal prerogatives, and such relinquishment may be temporary.


title: Druk Gyalpo

text: The Constitution provides that the king must abdicate the throne for wilful violations of the Constitution or for suffering permanent mental disability. Either must be upon a motion passed by a joint sitting of Parliament. The motion for abdication must be tabled for discussion at a joint sitting of Parliament (presided by the chief justice of Bhutan) if at least ⅔ of the total number of the members of Parliament submits such a motion stating its basis and grounds. The king may respond to the motion in writing or by addressing the joint sitting of Parliament in person or through a representative.


title: Druk Gyalpo

text: If, at such joint sitting of Parliament, at least ¾ of the total number of members of Parliament passes the motion for abdication, then such a resolution is placed before the people in a National Referendum to be approved or rejected. If the National Referendum passes in all the Dzongkhags in the Kingdom, the kingmust abdicate in favour of the heir apparent.


title: Péter Gulácsi

text: Péter Gulácsi (born 6 May 1990) is a Hungarian footballer who plays as a goalkeeper for Bundesliga club RB Leipzig and the Hungary national team.


title: Péter Gulácsi

text: Liverpool signed Gulácsi from MTK Budapest on a one-year loan in 2007, with the player competing in the treble winning reserve team. Liverpool had an option to buy him at the end of this loan deal, which they exercised on the last day of the transfer window, 1 September 2008. Gulácsi was the third person to sign for Liverpool from MTK, with previous signings András Simon and Krisztián Németh.


title: Péter Gulácsi

text: On 29 July and 5 August 2010, he was the substitute goalkeeper in both of Liverpool's UEFA Europa League ties against Rabotnički, with Liverpool winning 2–0 on both occasions. He also found himself on the bench on 26 August in Liverpool's Europa League tie against Trabzonspor. He was a frequent presence on the subs bench in January 2011, with Brad Jones away at the AFC Asian Cup. With Jones still away at the Asian Cup, Gulácsi was the substitute keeper for their 1–0 Premier League win over Chelsea at Stamford Bridge. Gulácsi retained his spot as back-up to Pepe Reina after Brad Jones returned from international duty, with the Aussie 'keeper going to Derby County on a loan transfer in March 2011.


title: Péter Gulácsi

text: In the 2009 January transfer window, he was loaned to Hereford United, where he made his league debut. He went on to make 18 league appearances for the club.


title: Péter Gulácsi

text: On 16 April 2010, Gulácsi joined Tranmere Rovers on an emergency seven-day loan deal and made his debut for the club on 17 April against Exeter City in a 3–1 win for Tranmere. His loan was subsequently extended for an additional seven days and into a third week.


title: Péter Gulácsi

text: He re-joined Rovers on a one-month emergency loan on 17 September 2010 after Tranmere's two experienced goalkeepers Gunnar Nielsen and Simon Miotto were ruled out with injuries His loan period was extended into a second month until 24 November 2010.


title: Péter Gulácsi

text: On 19 July 2011, he signed a new contract with Liverpool and joined Championship team Hull City in a year-long loan move. He made his full debut for Hull in a start of the season clash against recently relegated Blackpool at the KC Stadium.


title: Péter Gulácsi

text: He received a knee injury in a 1–0 defeat at Burnley on 31 December 2011 and was substituted for Adriano Basso on the 42nd minute mark, shortly after conceding a goal, scored by Martin Paterson, as a result of a defensive mix-up with Jack Hobbs. Following the injury, Gulácsi returned to Liverpool for a scan on his knee.


title: Péter Gulácsi

text: On 11 April 2012, Liverpool contacted Hull with a view to recalling Gulácsi from his loan subject to Premier League, Football League and FA approval. Liverpool were at that time suffering a goalkeeper crisis, with both Pepe Reina and Doni serving suspensions, leaving Brad Jones as their only remaining senior goalkeeper. He finished his time with Hull City with 15 appearances.


title: Péter Gulácsi

text: The loan recall was approved and Gulácsi took his place on the bench for the FA Cup semi-final, which Liverpool won 2–1. He featured in all three of Liverpool's pre-season games in North America.


title: Péter Gulácsi

text: On 7 June 2013, Red Bull Salzburg announced they had signed Gulácsi on a free transfer from Liverpool on a four-year deal. He played his first match in Salzburg's colours in the ÖFB-Cup, against Union St. Florian from the third division, at an eventual 9–0 away win.


title: Péter Gulácsi

text: On 20 July 2013, he made his debut in the Austrian Bundesliga against Wiener Neustadt at an eventual 5–1 away win.


title: Péter Gulácsi

text: On 1 July 2015, Gulácsi transferred to RB Leipzig, the sister club of Red Bull Salzburg, for a fee of 3 million pounds. He finished the 2015–16 season by making 15 appearances for the first team and two appearances in the Regionalliga Nordost for the reserve team.


title: Péter Gulácsi

text: On 17 December 2017, Gulácsi signed a new contract with RB Leipzig. His contract with the club would have expired in 2020 but he prolonged it by 2022. He finished the 2016–17 season with 34 appearances.


title: Péter Gulácsi

text: Gulácsi was selected as the best goalkeeper of the autumn part of the 2017–18 Bundesliga season by the German sport magazine Kicker. He finished the 2017–18 season with 47 appearances. According to leading German sports magazine "kicker", Gulácsi performed best in the Bundesliga's 2018–19 season matchday ratings with an average score of 2.61 and 16 clean sheets.


title: Péter Gulácsi

text: In the 2019–20 season, Gulácsi made history by qualifying for the UEFA Champions League semi-finals, the first time ever for RB Leipzig.


title: Péter Gulácsi

text: Following the departure of Marcel Sabitzer, Gulácsi was appointed as the new club captain. On 7 May 2021, Gulácsi signed a contract extension with Leipzig, keeping him at the club until 2025.


title: Péter Gulácsi

text: On 23 May 2022, Gulácsi helped Leipzig claim their first piece of major silverware in club history in winning the DFB-Pokal. In the final against Freiburg, Gulácsi forced two misses in the penalty shoot-out.


title: Péter Gulácsi

text: On 5 October 2022, he tore the anterior cruciate ligament in his right knee, in a 3–1 win against Celtic in the Champions League.


title: Péter Gulácsi

text: In May 2008, Gulácsi received his first call up for Hungary and was an unused substitute in their 1–1 draw with Croatia.


title: Péter Gulácsi

text: Gulácsi was Hungary's hero against the Czech Republic in the FIFA U-20 World Cup in the penalty shootouts. In the third place match between Hungary and Costa Rica at 2009 FIFA U-20 World Cup, he saved three penalties during penalty shoot-out leading his team to victory and bronze medals.


title: Péter Gulácsi

text: On 4 June 2012, he was invited by Sándor Egervári to the Hungary squad for a friendly match against the Republic of Ireland, but did not play.


title: Péter Gulácsi

text: On 1 June 2021, Gulácsi was included in the final 26-man squad to represent Hungary at the rescheduled UEFA Euro 2020 tournament.


title: Péter Gulácsi

text: In 2021, a post on Gulácsi's Facebook page caused a turmoil in Hungarian media. He expressed his wish to join the Family Is Family campaign in Hungary, a campaign that promotes acceptance of same-sex marriage and LGBT rights in Hungary. Former Hungary international player János Hrutka stood by Gulácsi. Subsequently, Hrutka was fired from the TV channel Spíler TV he was working for as a commentator.


title: Bunny Drop

text: An anime adaptation by Production I.G was broadcast in Japan between July and September 2011. A live-action film adaptation premiered in August 2011. A spin-off series, titled "Usagi Drop: Bangaihen", was serialized in "Feel Young" from July 2011 to December 2011 and collected in one volume.


title: Bunny Drop

text: When 30-year-old Daikichi Kawachi returns home for his grandfather's funeral he learns about the existence of Rin Kaga, his grandfather's illegitimate six-year-old daughter by an unknown mother. The girl is an embarrassment to all his relatives and is treated like an outcast.


title: Bunny Drop

text: Annoyed by their attitudes, Daikichi decides to take care of Rin himself, even though he is single and has no experience in raising a child. As Rin becomes part of his life, Daikichi experiences the hardships of being a single parent. He is befriended by the single mother of Kouki Nitani, a young boy who Rin meets in nursery school, who gives him advice on raising Rin. After a year has passed, Daikichi acknowledges his sacrifices for Rin have been worth it. The first half of the series focuses on Daikichi's perspective and struggles raising Rin.


title: Bunny Drop

text: Ten years later, Rin is a high school student and the remainder of the series focuses on her trying to figure out how to deal with her feelings for Kouki, and her decision for a career. Rin discovers that she is not actually related to Daikichi by blood, and the series ends with Rin wanting to have a child with Daikichi.


title: Bunny Drop

text: The anime and live-action adaptations do not depict this revelation, and instead end before the time skip.


title: Bunny Drop

text: "Bunny Drop" was written and illustrated by Yumi Unita. The untitled chapters were serialized by Shodensha in the monthly "josei" magazine "Feel Young" between October 2005 and April 2011. Part one, which is collected in the first four volumes, concluded in the April 2008 issue, with part two (which skips ahead ten years) beginning thereafter. The chapters were collected in nine "wide-ban" volumes, the final volume released on July 8, 2011.


title: Bunny Drop

text: A spin-off series, also by Unita, entitled "Usagi Drop: Bangaihen" was serialized in Feel Young from July 2011 to December 2011 and collected in one volume.


title: Bunny Drop

text: The series has been licensed in English by Yen Press and in French by Delcourt. Yen Press has published the nine volumes as of August 20, 2013, and the "Usagi Drop: Bangaihen" volume was released on April 22, 2014 as the tenth and final volume.


title: Bunny Drop

text: In June 2010, production on a live-action film adaption of the manga was announced. The film was directed by Sabu and was released in Japanese theaters on August 20, 2011.


title: Bunny Drop

text: An anime television series adaptation of the manga produced by Production I.G aired on the noitaminA timeslot on Fuji TV between July 7, 2011 and September 15, 2011. Toho, Fuji TV, SMEJ, Dentsu and Shodensha were also involved in the production of the series. In addition, the series could be watched on Kansai TV (July 13 – September 21), Tokai TV (July 15 – September 23), TV Nishinippon (July 21 – September 22, every two weeks, two episodes per day, last three episodes on September 22), BS Fuji (August 7 – October 23) and Hokkaido Cultural Broadcasting (October 10 - December). The series was also simulcast by Crunchyroll and Anime News Network. The series was released on four Blu-ray Disc/DVD volumes between October 28, 2011 and January 27, 2012, each containing a bonus mini-episode. The opening theme is "Sweet Drop" by Puffy AmiYumi whilst the ending theme is "High High High" by Kasarinchu. The anime has been licensed by NIS America who released the series on Blu-ray and DVD combo pack including an artbook and extras on August 7, 2012.


title: Bunny Drop

text: Rin and Daikichi appear in a downloadable content pack for the PlayStation Vita game "Touch My Katamari", which was released in Japan on May 24, 2012.


title: Bunny Drop

text: About.com's Deb Aoki praised the first volume for its "heartfelt drama and slice-of-life comedy", uncluttered artwork, storytelling, and the relationship between Daikichi and Rin. She notes that the artwork is a bit plain and simple. Danielle Leigh's also praised the art and the parent and child pair, calling the relationship moving and amusing. Comicsworthreading.com's Johanna Carlson commended the realism of Daikichi's character, as if he were an actual Japanese single father. She rated the first volume as one of the best manga of 2010. Carlson expressed appreciation for the small moments where Daikichi learns what it is to be a parent and states the series is unique to the manga market. The manga was a candidate for the 2011 Eisner Award in the Best U.S. Edition of International Material—Asia category.


title: Ross Taylor

text: Luteru Ross Poutoa Lote Taylor (born 8 March 1984) is a former international cricketer and former captain of the New Zealand national team. Batting predominantly at number four, when he announced his retirement from international cricket at the end of 2021, he was the leading run-scorer for New Zealand in Test and One Day International cricket.


title: Ross Taylor

text: In February 2020, Taylor played his 100th Test match for New Zealand, becoming the first cricketer to play in 100 matches in all three formats of international cricket. In December 2020, in the first Test against Pakistan, Taylor became the most-capped player for New Zealand in international cricket, playing in his 438th match across all three formats, surpassing Daniel Vettori; in December 2021, he announced that he would retire from international cricket after the one-day series against Australia and the Netherlands in early 2022. On 4 April 2022, Taylor played in his 450th and final international match for New Zealand. His last match being an ODI against the Netherlands.


title: Ross Taylor

text: Taylor is of part-Samoan descent, his mother being from the Samoa village of Saoluafata, and also has family connections to Fasito'o-Uta. His father is from New Zealand. Taylor was educated at Wairarapa College and Palmerston North Boys High School and was a hockey player before shifting his focus to cricket. Taylor married Victoria in 2011. They have three children.


title: Ross Taylor

text: Taylor plays domestically for Central Districts. He played under-17 and under-19 cricket for the side and Hawke Cup cricket for Manawatu, before making his senior debut in January 2003 in a State Shield one-day match against Canterbury. He made his first-class cricket debut against the same side later in the same month and placed his first Twenty20 cricket match in January 2006 in the inaugural New Zealand Twenty20 Competition. In the 2009–10 HRV Cup Final against Auckland, Taylor scored a match-winning 80 runs off 30 balls; he added 133 runs from 53 balls in a partnership with Kieran Noema-Barnett and hit Michael Bates for 27 runs in one over, including three consecutive sixes. In total Taylor hit eight sixes and five fours. In February 2021, during the 2020–21 Ford Trophy, Taylor played in his 300th List A match.


title: Ross Taylor

text: Taylor played club cricket in England during his early career. He played matches for MCC Young Cricketers between 2002 and 2004, including in the Second Eleven Trophy, and played club cricket for Norwich Wanderers in the Norfolk Cricket League in 2004. In 2009/10 he played for Vctoria in the Australian Big Bash competition before playing English county cricket for Durham in the 2010 Friends Provident T20 tournament, his most substantial contribution being 80 not out from only 33 balls, including three fours and nine sixes. In 2016 and 2017, he played for Sussex and for Nottinghamshire in 2018. He joined Middlesex for the 2019 Royal London One-day Cup competition.


title: Ross Taylor

text: Taylor was signed by Royal Challengers Bangalore for the 2008 Indian Premier League before moving to Rajasthan Royals in the 2011 league auction and in 2012 joined Delhi Daredevils for a season before being traded to Pune Warriors India for Ashish Nehra ahead of the 2013 season. He returned to play for Delhi in the 2014 season.


title: Ross Taylor

text: He played for Trinidad and Tobago Red Steel in the 2013 and 2014 editions of the Caribbean Premier League and for St Lucia Zouks in 2015. He returned to the league for the 2018 competition, playing for Jamaica Tallawahs before appearing for Guyana Amazon Warriors in the 2020 Caribbean Premier League.


title: Ross Taylor

text: Taylor first played for the New Zealand under-19 side in January 2001. He played under-19 Test and One Day International matches and captained the side. He was a member of the New Zealand Cricket Academy and played for the New Zealand A side in 2003/04 and 2004/05.


title: Ross Taylor

text: Taylor made his full international debut for New Zealand on 1 March 2006, in a one-day match against the West Indies. He became the second male player of Samoan heritage to play for New Zealand after Murphy Su'a. He scored only 15 runs in the match.


title: Ross Taylor

text: Taylor is a clean striker of the ball, particularly any ball through leg side, and a useful off-break bowler. Taylor scored his maiden one day century in front of a delighted crowd in Napier, playing against Sri Lanka on 28 December 2006. The innings included 12 fours and 6 sixes. Unluckily for him, New Zealand were comprehensively beaten in that game, by a blistering knock by Sanath Jayasuriya. He also suffered dehydration and required a short hospital trip during the second innings. Taylor hit 84 against Australia in their opening game in the 2006–07 Commonwealth Bank Series, but lost the match at the end. He also established one of the most potent no.3-no.4 top order partnership with Kane Williamson since the latter made his debut.


title: Ross Taylor

text: Taylor scored his second century in his ODI career on 18 February 2007 against Australia. He scored 117, the 2nd highest score by a New Zealander against Australia at that time. He scored his maiden Test century in March 2008 at Hamilton in the first Test of the 2007–08 series against England and went on to be the leading run scorer for the series.


title: Ross Taylor

text: Taylor scored what was then a Test match career-best of 154* against England at Old Trafford in May 2008, a brilliant innings including 5 sixes and 17 fours. His third Test century, an innings of 151 runs off 204 balls, came against India at Napier in March 2009. His fourth Test century, in the next Test, was a 107 which delayed India's victory long enough to force a draw.


title: Ross Taylor

text: Taylor captained New Zealand for the first time in an ODI against Australia in Napier on 3 March 2010, when Daniel Vettori dropped out of the side less than 30 minutes before the start with a neck ache. Taylor top-scored with 70 and New Zealand won by two wickets with four balls to spare. Taylor was also awarded the Man of the Match and donated the $NZ 500 prize to the Lansdowne Cricket Club in Masterton.


title: Ross Taylor

text: He made his then highest ODI score of 131* which came off 124 balls against Pakistan on 8 March 2011 at the ICC Cricket World Cup. His innings included seven sixes and eight fours and contributed to New Zealand making 127 runs in the final 9 overs of the game for their highest total ever against Pakistan (302) in World Cup. With this century, Taylor became only the fourth batsman in history of the game that scored an ODI century in a birthday, after Vinod Kambli, Sachin Tendulkar, and Sanath Jayasuriya.


title: Ross Taylor

text: In a match against Australia at Hamilton in March 2010, Taylor made the fastest Test century ever by a New Zealander, bringing up his hundred off only 81 balls. Taylor scored centuries in all three tests in the 2013/14 series against the West Indies. In the first Test, Taylor made his first Test match double-century and highest test score of unbeaten 217 in a composed and classy innings. Taylor's 12th ODI century against Pakistan at Dubai coincides with the 100th century for the Black Caps.


title: Ross Taylor

text: The best Test innings of his life came during the second test of Trans-Tasman Trophy in 2015–16 season in Australia. He scored his second double hundred and became the highest score by a New Zealand batsman in away Tests and in Australian soil as well. With this feat, he also became the first Kiwi batsman to score a Test double-hundred against Australia and the 2nd fastest among his countrymen to reach 5,000 Test career runs (in 120 innings). During the inning, his partnership with Kane Williamson of 265-run for the third wicket, which was New Zealand's highest of all time against Australia for any wicket. Taylor was dismissed for 290 runs with 43 fours.


title: Ross Taylor

text: In December 2016, after the Test against Pakistan at Hamilton, Taylor underwent surgery to remove a pterygium on his left eye. He was out of action for several weeks, thus missing the Chappell-Hadlee Trophy series in Australia.


title: Ross Taylor

text: Taylor scored his 17th ODI century during the second ODI against South Africa at Hagley Oval. With this, he became the highest ODI century maker for New Zealand, beating 16 ODI centuries by Nathan Astle. In this match, Taylor also became New Zealand's quickest batsman to reach 6000 runs in ODI as well. New Zealand finally won the match by 6 runs. Ross Taylor also became only the sixth player in ODI history to score centuries against all test playing nations and first from New Zealand.


title: Ross Taylor

text: Taylor scored a century in first ODI against England in a man of the match performance for his team and became the third New Zealander to score 7000 ODI runs. In the 4th ODI, he probably played the best innings of his career as he made an unbeaten 181 off 147 balls in a successful run chase of 336 runs. His 181* is the 2nd highest ODI score for a no.4 batsman as well 4th highest score for an individual while chasing. In that match, he also passed Nathan Astle to become New Zealand's second top scorer in ODIs. Although, New Zealand lost the series, he was the top run getter with 304 runs in that 5-match series.


title: Ross Taylor

text: On 28 January 2019, Taylor became the third New Zealand batsman to complete 1000 runs in ODIs against India, he achieved this feat when he was batting on 14* and went on to score 93 (106).


title: Ross Taylor

text: In April 2019, he was named in New Zealand's squad for the 2019 Cricket World Cup. On 5 June 2019, in New Zealand's match against Bangladesh, Taylor played in his 400th international match for New Zealand in which he scored a match-winning 82. He also became the 2nd batsman to score 8000 ODI runs for New Zealand, after Stephen Fleming, as well as outscoring him in the same match to become New Zealand's top scorer in ODIs. He followed it with 48 off 52 against Afghanistan in another successful run-chase.


title: Ross Taylor

text: In the game against West Indies, he provided stability scoring 69 after his team had lost both of the openers in the first over itself. He scored runs of 30 and 28 in losses against Australia and England, respectively. In the tournament's first semi-final, he top scored for New Zealand with 74 runs as they reached the World Cup final for second consecutive time. He could only make 15 runs, before being wrongly given LBW off Mark Wood's bowling, in the final as New Zealand lost it on boundary count.


title: Ross Taylor

text: During India's tour of New Zealand he scored 2 half-centuries in T20I series, in the 1st T20I he scored 54 off 27 and in 5th T20I he scored 53 off 47. During the same tour he also scored a century and half-century in the ODI series, in the 1st ODI he scored 109* off 84 and awarded Man of the Match and in 2nd ODI he scored 73* off 74 for his performance he was awarded Man of the Series.


title: Ross Taylor

text: On 21 February 2020, Taylor became the first player ever to play 100 matches in each format of the game T20I, ODI and Tests during the first Test match against India, and became the fourth New Zealand player to play 100 Test matches after Stephen Fleming, Daniel Vettori and Brendon McCullum and 66th overall.


title: Ross Taylor

text: In his 100th Test Taylor scored 44 off 71 in first innings and didn't bat in second innings, which New Zealand won by 10 Wickets which marked 100 Test victories for them.


title: Ross Taylor

text: On 30 December 2021, Taylor announced his retirement from international cricket at the end of the 2021/22 summer, with his final Test series being against Bangladesh, and last ODIs against the Netherlands and Australia.


title: Ross Taylor

text: In the 2022 Queen's Birthday and Platinum Jubilee Honours, Taylor was appointed a Companion of the New Zealand Order of Merit, for services to cricket and Pacific communities.


title: Ross Taylor

text: In his autobiography published in 2022, which was named "Ross Taylor: Black & White", he revealed that he faced racism in New Zealand Cricket as some of the players and officials used to comment on his ethnicity. Belonging to Samoan heritage, Taylor said that he has experienced racism during his international career with the New Zealand Cricket Team. He also said that he was slapped by an owner of the Rajasthan Royals for getting dismissed for a duck during the 2011 Indian Premier League.


title: Whigfield

text: Whigfield is an Italian dance act fronted by Danish singer, songwriter and record producer Sannie Charlotte Carlson (born 11 April 1970), known by her various stage names including Whigfield, Naan, or simply Sannie. She is best known for her 1993 single "Saturday Night", which became an international hit the following year.


title: Whigfield

text: Based in Italy at the time, Carlson worked with Italian producer Larry Pignagnoli and "Saturday Night" entered the top five in Italy. Her single "Another Day" also managed to peak at number three in Italy as well. The single "Sexy Eyes" also charted in a number of other markets, along with "Another Day" and "Think of You" which entered the top ten in the United Kingdom, Switzerland, Norway, and her native Denmark.


title: Whigfield

text: She competed in the "Dansk Melodi Grand Prix 2018" with the song "Boys on Girls" but didn't qualify for the superfinal.


title: Whigfield

text: It is now known that English vocalist Annerley Gordon, who provided many vocals to other eurodance projects in the 1990s, was the lead vocalist on the first four studio albums.


title: Whigfield

text: Carlson was born in Skælskør, Denmark. She spent several years in Africa as a child before returning to her native country. Before singing Carlson worked as a model and studied music. Carlson played in a duo before she met the producer Larry Pignagnoli and took on the name "Whigfield" as a tribute to her school music teacher.


title: Vicky Hartzler

text: Vicky Jo Hartzler (née Zellmer; born October 13, 1960) is an American politician serving as the U.S. representative for since 2011. A member of the Republican Party, she served as the Missouri state representative for the 124th district from 1995 to 2000.


title: Vicky Hartzler

text: Hartzler's district comprises a large swath of western-central Missouri, anchored in Columbia and stretching to the eastern and southern Kansas City suburbs, including a sliver of Kansas City. The district also includes Sedalia, Warrensburg, Moberly, and Lebanon.


title: Vicky Hartzler

text: Hartzler was a candidate in the 2022 United States Senate election in Missouri, but lost the Republican primary to Eric S. Schmitt.


title: Vicky Hartzler

text: Hartzler was raised on a farm near Archie, a rural community south of Kansas City. She graduated from Archie High School and later attended the University of Missouri, where she graduated "summa cum laude" with a B.S. in education, and the University of Central Missouri, where she graduated with an M.S. in education.


title: Vicky Hartzler

text: Before running for state representative in 1994, Hartzler taught high school home economics for 11 years.


title: Vicky Hartzler

text: She left the Missouri House of Representatives in 2000 after adopting a baby daughter. In 2004, Hartzler served as state spokeswoman for the Coalition to Protect Marriage, which supported banning same-sex marriage in Missouri. In 2000, Hartzler opposed the Missouri Assembly's ratification of the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) and led a group of legislators in a rally against the ERA, saying she didn't "want women used to pass a liberal agenda". In 2005, Governor Matt Blunt appointed Hartzler chair of the Missouri Women's Council, where she served for two years.


title: Vicky Hartzler

text: After almost a decade out of politics, Hartzler entered the Republican primary for , which at the time was held by 17-term Democratic incumbent Ike Skelton. She won a seven-way primary with 40% of the vote.


title: Vicky Hartzler

text: Hartzler won the November 2 general election with 50.43% of the vote. She is the first Republican to represent the district since 1955, and only the second since the Great Depression. She was also the second Republican woman elected to Congress from Missouri, after Jo Ann Emerson, with whom she served from 2011 to 2013. She is the first who was not elected as a stand-in for her husband; Emerson was originally elected to serve out the final term of her late husband, Bill Emerson. Republicans had been making gains in the district for some time; it gave John McCain 62% of the vote in 2008 while simultaneously reelecting Skelton, and Republicans hold most of the district's seats in the state legislature. While Skelton more than held his own in the areas of the district closer to Kansas City, Hartzler swamped him in the more rural areas, including areas that had supported him for over 30 years.


title: Vicky Hartzler

text: Hartzler ran on a conservative platform, voicing support for tax cuts and spending cuts. She opposes abortion and same-sex marriage.


title: Vicky Hartzler

text: During her first term, Hartzler represented a district that stretched as far east as the state capital, Jefferson City, and as far west as exurban areas of Jackson County. Redistricting after the 2010 U.S. Census removed Cole, Lafayette, Ray and Saline counties—including Skelton's home. The district also lost its shares of Jackson and Webster counties. In its place, the district picked up all of Boone, Cooper, Howard, and Randolph counties, part of Audrain County, and the remainder of Cass County. The district now includes Cass County's portion of Kansas City.


title: Vicky Hartzler

text: At a town hall meeting in Missouri on April 5, 2012, Hartzler expressed doubts about President Barack Obama's birth certificate.


title: Vicky Hartzler

text: In her first contest in the newly drawn district, Hartzler easily won the Republican primary with 84% of the vote against Bernie Mowinski and went on to win the general election with 60.3% against the Democratic nominee, Cass County Prosecuting Attorney Teresa Hensley.


title: Vicky Hartzler

text: Hartzler won nearly 75% of the vote in the Republican primary against John Webb, then won the general election by a more than two-to-one margin.


title: Vicky Hartzler

text: Hartzler won 72% of the vote in the Republican primary against John Webb, then won the general election by a more than two-to-one margin.


title: Vicky Hartzler

text: Hartzler opposes abortion. She has sponsored legislation in an effort to block taxpayer dollars from funding clinics that offer abortion services, such as Planned Parenthood, as well as legislation such as the Pain-Capable Unborn Child Protection Act.


title: Vicky Hartzler

text: In September 2013, Hartzler voted for a $39 billion reduction in Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program benefits, which was separated from legislation to increase farm subsidies for the first time in over three decades.


title: Vicky Hartzler

text: As a senior member of the House Agriculture Committee, Hartzler served as a conferee to pass the final version of the Farm Bill in 2018. Hartzler did not vote on the measure to pass the Farm Bill due to her father passing away in December 2018. President Donald Trump signed the final version of the Farm Bill in December 2018.


title: Vicky Hartzler

text: Hartzler has supported investment in rural broadband, which falls under the jurisdiction of the House Agriculture Committee. She successfully led provisions Trump signed into law to increase private investment in rural broadband, modifying Rural Utilities Service broadband programs to include loan guarantees in addition to existing direct loans. She also successfully led provisions to increase minimum download speeds from 4 to 25 megabits per second, with minimum upload speed tripling to 3 Mbps for companies receiving financing from the Department of Agriculture's Rural Utilities Service fund. In 2020, Hartzler introduced legislation to allow certain Rural Utilities Service borrowers to take advantage of low interest rates without heavy fines and penalties in the aftermath of the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Vicky Hartzler

text: Hartzler rejects the scientific consensus on climate change. On November 18, 2014, during the worst early season cold snap in the U.S. since 1976, Hartzler made a joke about climate change on Twitter. "Global warming strikes America! Brrrr!" The quip was rebutted in detail by "The Washington Post", which reported that her district in Missouri is among the areas most severely impacted by climate change in the United States.


title: Vicky Hartzler

text: Hartzler supported the Trump administration's call to require the government to purchase only medical equipment and pharmaceuticals made in the United States. In 2019, she and Representative John Garamendi introduced legislation to require the Department of Defense to "identify vulnerabilities faced by our country's dependence on Chinese pharmaceuticals, and to only purchase American-made raw materials, medicines, and vaccines for the military." In July 2020, Hartzler and Garamendi announced provisions of the legislation were ultimately rolled in the broader National Defense Authorization Act, which passed the House of Representatives on July 21, 2020.


title: Vicky Hartzler

text: As a member of the Congressional-Executive Commission on China, Hartzler was sanctioned by the Chinese government along with other prominent members of the federal government, including Senator Marco Rubio, Senator Ted Cruz, and Secretary of State Mike Pompeo. The sanctions against Hartzler and her colleagues came after Pompeo and the United States Department of Treasury sanctioned four Chinese officials for their involvement in alleged human rights abuses in Xinjiang against the Uyghur Muslim population.


title: Vicky Hartzler

text: On July 17, 2020, days after the announcement of sanctions against U.S. lawmakers by China, Hartzler wrote a Fox News op-ed expressing support for the Trump administration's sanctions on China and calling for the international community to impose similar sanctions. She also called on lawmakers to "expose U.S. companies complicit" in profiting from alleged slave labor in Xinjiang reeducation camps.


title: Vicky Hartzler

text: In January 2017, Hartzler made a statement supporting Trump's ban on immigrants from seven Muslim countries and halting the U.S. Refugee program for 120 days. In her statement, Hartzler said Trump's executive order and Obama's 2011 policy that slowed immigration from Iraq were "similar".


title: Vicky Hartzler

text: Hartzler opposes same-sex marriage, civil unions, and domestic partnerships. She also opposes banning discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity. In 2019, Hartzler expressed her strong opposition to the Equality Act. She has written an op-ed rejecting it. She also opposes allowing transgender individuals to serve in the military.


title: Vicky Hartzler

text: In 2019, Hartzler sponsored an event by proponents of conversion therapy in order to provide congressional office space, for which she was rebuked by Representative Ted Lieu, whose office was next to the event, and who sponsored legislation to ban conversion therapy.


title: Vicky Hartzler

text: In March 2022, Hartzler's Twitter account was briefly suspended after tweeting, "Women's sports are for women, not men pretending to be women", in reference to transgender swimmer Lia Thomas.


title: Vicky Hartzler

text: On December 8, 2022, Hartzler broke into tears as she called on her colleagues in the U.S. House of Representatives to oppose the Respect for Marriage Act, which would protect the legal status of same-sex and interracial marriage.


title: Vicky Hartzler

text: As a member of the House Armed Services Committee, Hartzler supports increasing military spending, saying, "[i]n order to maintain our competitive advantage in the era of great power competition, we must modernize our forces."


title: Vicky Hartzler

text: Throughout her tenure in the committee, Hartzler has served as a conferee in the legislative process to pass the National Defense Authorization Act, all of which the president has signed into law. She has led initiatives to fully fund the B-21 long range strike bomber program and modernization programs of the Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit based at Whiteman Air Force Base. She has also successfully advocated for funding for the maintenance and modifications to the A-10 Thunderbolt II program and funding for the F-15EX program based in Missouri, the F-18 Super Hornet program, and the T-7A Advanced Trainer program. Hartzler has also successfully advocated for funding of the Fort Leonard Wood hospital replacement project and a partial dislocation allowance for service members forced to move from dormitories.


title: Vicky Hartzler

text: On June 29, 2017, Hartzler opposed allowing transgender Americans to serve in the U.S. armed forces, and proposed an amendment to the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2018 to reverse an Obama administration policy that allowed transgender Americans in the armed services. Her amendment was rejected in a 209–214 vote, but Trump subsequently announced that he would ban transgender people to serve in U.S. military; Hartzler said that she was "very pleased" by the decision.


title: Vicky Hartzler

text: Hartzler, along with all other Senate and House Republicans, voted against the American Rescue Plan Act of 2021.


title: Vicky Hartzler

text: During the COVID-19 pandemic, Hartzler's business, Heartland Tractor Company in Harrisonville, Missouri, received a loan of over $450,000 as part of the Paycheck Protection Program (PPP); the loan was later forgiven. Hartzler voted against the TRUTH Act (H.R. 6782), a bill that would have required public disclosure of companies that received funds through the program.


title: Vicky Hartzler

text: On December 10, 2020, Hartzler was one of 126 Republican members of the U.S. House of Representatives to sign an amicus brief in support of "Texas v. Pennsylvania", a lawsuit filed at the United States Supreme Court contesting the results of the 2020 presidential election. The Supreme Court declined to hear the case on the basis that Texas lacked standing under Article III of the Constitution to challenge the results of an election held by another state. House Speaker Nancy Pelosi issued a statement that called signing the amicus brief an act of election subversion.


title: Vicky Hartzler

text: Hartzler was one of the 139 Republican representatives who voted to overturn the results of the 2020 presidential election in Congress at the 2021 United States Electoral College vote count.


title: Vicky Hartzler

text: On June 10, 2021, Hartzler announced her candidacy for the open U.S. Senate seat in Missouri in 2022.


title: Vicky Hartzler

text: In February 2022, Hartzler's campaign released a 30-second ad criticizing Lia Thomas, a transgender swimmer on the University of Pennsylvania women's team. In the ad, Hartzler said, "Women's sports are for women, not men pretending to be women", adding that, as Missouri's senator, she would not "look away while woke liberals destroy women's sports."


title: Vicky Hartzler

text: U.S. Senator Josh Hawley endorsed Hartzler in February 2022. According to "Politico", "His choice generated hard feelings among other contenders for the Senate nomination—in addition to raising eyebrows in Trump World. Of all the candidates in the field, Hartzler has done the least public pandering to win the former president's support." On July 8, 2022, Donald Trump refused to endorse Hartzler, saying, "I don't think she has what it takes to take on the Radical Left Democrats." Hartzler lost the August 2 Republican primary to Missouri Attorney General Eric Schmitt, receiving 22% of the vote to Schmitt's 46%.


title: Vicky Hartzler

text: Hartzler lives on a farm near Harrisonville with her family. She is an Evangelical Christian. She co-owns the Hartzler Equipment Company, later renamed Heartland Tractor, and Hartzler Farms Inc. with her husband and other members of the Hartzler family.


title: Vicky Hartzler

text: Hartlzer's nephew Andrew Hartzler is gay and has criticized her opposition to the Respect for Marriage Act.


title: Settlement of Iceland

text: The settlement of Iceland ( ) is generally believed to have begun in the second half of the ninth century, when Norse settlers migrated across the North Atlantic. The reasons for the migration are uncertain: later in the Middle Ages Icelanders themselves tended to cite civil strife brought about by the ambitions of the Norwegian king Harald I of Norway, but modern historians focus on deeper factors, such as a shortage of arable land in Scandinavia. Unlike Great Britain and Ireland, Iceland was unsettled land and could be claimed without conflict with existing inhabitants.


title: Settlement of Iceland

text: On the basis of "Íslendingabók" by Ari Þorgilsson, and "Landnámabók", histories dating from the twelfth and thirteenth centuries and providing a wealth of detail about the settlement, the years 870 and 874 have traditionally been considered the first years of settlement. However, these sources are largely unreliable in the details they provide about the settlement, and recent research focuses more heavily on archaeological and genetic evidence.


title: Settlement of Iceland

text: Traditionally, the Icelandic Age of Settlement is considered to have lasted from 874 to 930, at which point most of the island had been claimed and Alþingi ("Althingi"), the assembly of the Icelandic Commonwealth, was founded at Þingvellir ("Thingvellir"). Iceland is thus likely the penultimate major land mass to be settled by humans (New Zealand being the last in the 13th century).


title: Settlement of Iceland

text: Controversial results of recent carbon dating work, published in the journal "Skírnir", suggest that Iceland may have been settled as early as the second half of the seventh century. The "Íslendingabók" of Ari Thorgilsson claims that the Norse settlers encountered Gaelic monks from a Hiberno-Scottish mission when they arrived in Iceland. There is some archaeological evidence for a monastic settlement from Ireland at Kverkarhellir cave, on the Seljaland farm in southern Iceland. Sediment deposits indicate people lived there around 800, and crosses consistent with the Hiberno-Scottish style were carved in the wall of a nearby cave.


title: Settlement of Iceland

text: The oldest known source which mentions the name "Iceland" is an 11th-century rune carving from Gotland, while the oldest archeological finds indicating settlement date back to the 9th century. There is a possible early mention of Iceland in the book "De mensura orbis terrae" by the Irish monk Dicuil, dating to 825. Dicuil claimed to have met some monks who had lived on the island of Thule. They said that darkness reigned during winter but that the summers were bright enough to pick lice from one's clothing, but the veracity of this source may be questioned. Additionally, Iceland is only about 450 kilometres from the Faroes, which had been visited by Irish monks in the 6th century, and settled by the Norse around 650.