title: European Train Control System

text: Both factors led to efforts to reduce the time and cost of cross-border traffic. On 4 and 5 December 1989, a working group including Transport Ministers resolved a master plan for a trans-European high-speed rail network, the first time that ETCS was suggested. The Commission communicated the decision to the European Council, which approved the plan in its resolution of 17 December 1990. This led to a resolution on 91/440/EEC as of 29 July 1991, which mandated the creation of a requirements list for interoperability in high-speed rail transport. The rail manufacturing industry and rail network operators had agreed on creation of interoperability standards in June 1991. Until 1993, the organizational framework was created to start technical specifications that would be published as Technical Specifications for Interoperability (TSI). The mandate for TSI was resolved by 93/38/EEC. In 1995, a development plan first mentioned the creation of the European Rail Traffic Management System (ERTMS).


title: European Train Control System

text: Because ETCS is in many parts implemented in software, some wording from software technology is used. Versions are called system requirements specifications (SRS). This is a bundle of documents, which may have different versioning for each document. A main version is called baseline (BL).


title: European Train Control System

text: The specification was written in 1996 in response to EU Council Directive 96/48/EC99 of 23 July 1996 on interoperability of the trans-European high-speed rail system. First the European Railway Research Institute was instructed to formulate the specification and about the same time the "ERTMS User Group" was formed from six railway operators that took over the lead role in the specification. The standardisation went on for the next two years and it was felt to be slow for some industry partners – 1998 saw the formation of "Union of Signalling Industry" (UNISIG), including Alstom, Ansaldo, Bombardier, Invensys, Siemens and Thales that were to take over the finalisation of the standard.


title: European Train Control System

text: In July 1998, "SRS 5a" documents were published that formed the first baseline for technical specifications. UNISIG provided for corrections and enhancements of the baseline specification leading to the "Class P" specification in April 1999. This baseline specification has been tested by six railways since 1999 as part of the ERTMS.


title: European Train Control System

text: The railway companies defined some extended requirements that were included to ETCS (e.g. RBC-Handover and track profile information), leading to the "Class 1" "SRS 2.0.0" specification of ETCS (published in April 2000). Further specification continued through a number of drafts until UNISIG published the SUBSET-026 defining the current implementation of ETCS signalling equipment – this "Class 1" "SRS 2.2.2" was accepted by the European Commission in decision 2002/731/EEC as mandatory for high-speed rail and in decision 2004/50/EEC as mandatory for conventional rail. The SUBSET-026 is defined from eight chapters where chapter seven defines the ETCS language and chapter eight describes the balise telegram structure of "ETCS Level 1". Later UNISIG published the corrections as SUBSET-108 (known as "Class 1" "SRS 2.2.2 "+")," that was accepted in decision 2006/679/EEC.


title: European Train Control System

text: The earlier ETCS specification contained a lot of optional elements that limited interoperability. The "Class 1" specifications were revised in the following year leading to "SRS 2.3.0" document series that was made mandatory by the "European Commission" in decision 2007/153/EEC on 9 March 2007. Annex A describes the technical specifications on interoperability for high-speed (HS) and conventional rail (CR) transport. Using "SRS 2.3.0" a number of railway operators started to deploy ETCS on a large scale, for example the Italian Sistema Controllo Marcia Treno (SCMT) is based on Level 1 balises. Further development concentrated on compatibility specification with the earlier "Class B" systems leading to specifications like EuroZUB that continued to use the national rail management on top of Eurobalises for a transitional period. Following the experience in railway operation the European Union Agency for Railways (ERA) published a revised specification "Class 1" "SRS 2.3.0d" ("debugged") that was accepted by the European Commission in April 2008.


title: European Train Control System

text: This compilation SRS 2.3.0d was declared final (later called Baseline 2) in this series. There were a list of unresolved functional requests and a need for stability in practical rollouts. So in parallel started the development of baseline 3 series to incorporate open requests, strip off unneeded stuff and combine it with solutions found for baseline 2. The structure of functional levels was continued.


title: European Train Control System

text: While some countries switched to ETCS with some benefit, German and French railway operators had already introduced modern types of train protection systems so they would gain no benefit. Instead, ideas were introduced on new modes like "Limited Supervision" (known at least since 2004) that would allow for


title: European Train Control System

text: These ideas were compiled into a "baseline 3" series by the ERA and published as a "Class 1 SRS 3.0.0 proposal" on 23 December 2008. The first consolidation "SRS 3.1.0" of the proposal was published by ERA on 26 February 2010 and the second consolidation "SRS 3.2.0" on 11 January 2011. The specification "GSM-R Baseline 0" was published as Annex A to the "baseline 3 proposal" on 17 April 2012. At the same time a change to Annex A of "SRS 2.3.0d" was proposed to the "European Commission" that includes "GSM-R baseline 0" allowing ETCS "SRS 3.3.0" trains to run on "SRS 2.3.0d" tracks. The "baseline 3 proposal" was accepted by the "European Commission" with decision 2012/88/EU on 25. January 2012. The update for "SRS 3.3.0" and the extension for "SRS 2.3.0d" were accepted by the "European Commission" with decision 2012/696/EU on 6. November 2012.


title: European Train Control System

text: The ERA work programme concentrated on the refinement of the test specification "SRS 3.3.0" that was to be published in July 2013. In parallel the GSM-R specification was to be extended into a "GSM-R baseline 1" until the end of 2013. The German Deutsche Bahn has since announced equipping at least the TEN Corridors running on older tracks to be using either "Level 1 Limited Supervision" or "Level 2" on high-speed sections. Current work continues on "Level 3" definition with low-cost specifications (compare ERTMS Regional) and the integration of GPRS into the radio protocol to increase the signalling bandwidth as required in shunting stations. The specifications for "ETCS baseline 3" and "GSM-R baseline 0" (Baseline 3 Maintenance Release 1) were published as recommendations "SRS 3.4.0" by the ERA in May 2014 for submission to the "Railway Interoperability and Safety Committee" (RISC) in a meeting in June 2014. The SRS 3.4.0 was accepted by the "European Commission" with the amending decision 2015/14/EU on 5. January 2015.


title: European Train Control System

text: Stakeholders such as Deutsche Bahn have opted for a streamlined development model for ETCS – DB will assemble a database of change requests (CRs) to be assembled by priority and effect in a CR-list for the next milestone report (MRs) that shall be published on fixed dates through ERA. The "SRS 3.4.0" from Q2 2014 matches with the MR1 from this process. The further steps were planned for the MR2 to be published in Q4 2015 (that became the "SRS 3.5.0") and the MR3 to be published in Q3 2017 (whereas "SRS 3.6.0" was settled earlier in June 2016). Each specification will be commented on and handed over to the RISC for subsequent legalization in the European Union. Deutsche Bahn has expressed a commitment to keep the Baseline 3 specification backward compatible starting at least with SRS 3.5.0 that is due in 2015 according to the streamlined MR2 process, with the MR1 adding requirements from its tests in preparation for the switch to ETCS (for example better frequency filters for the GSM-R radio equipment). The intention is based on plans to start replacing its PZB train protection system at the time.


title: European Train Control System

text: In December 2015, the ERA published the "Baseline 3 Release 2" (B3R2) series including "GSM-R Baseline 1". The B3R2 is publicly named to be not an update to the previous "Baseline 3 Maintenance Release 1" (B3MR1). The notable change is the inclusion of EGPRS (GPRS with mandatory EDGE support) in the GSM-R specification, corresponding to the new Eirene FRS 8 / SRS 16 specifications. Additionally B3R2 includes the ETCS "Driver Machine Interface" and the SRS 3.5.0. This Baseline 3 series was accepted by "European Commission" with decisions 2016/919/EC in late May 2016. The decision references ETCS "SRS 3.6.0" that was subsequently published by the ERA in a "Set 3" in June 2016. The publications of the "European Commission" and ERA for "SRS 3.6.0" were synchronized to the same day, 15 June. The "Set 3" of B3R2 is marked as the stable basis for subsequent ERTMS deployments in the EU.


title: European Train Control System

text: The name of Set 3 follows the style of publications of the decisions of the European Commission where updates to the Baseline 2 and Baseline 3 specifications were accepted at the same time – for example decision 2015/14/EU of January 2015 has two tables "Set of specifications # 1 (ETCS baseline 2 and GSM-R baseline 0)" and "Set of specifications # 2 (ETCS baseline 3 and GSM-R baseline 0)". In the decision of May 2016 there are three tables: "Set of specifications # 1 (ETCS Baseline 2 and GSM-R Baseline 1)", "Set of specifications # 2 (ETCS Baseline 3 Maintenance Release 1 and GSM-R Baseline 1)", and "Set of specifications # 3


title: European Train Control System

text: (ETCS Baseline 3 Release 2 and GSM-R Baseline 1)". In that decision the SRS (System Requirement Specification) and DMI (ETCS Driver Machine Interface) are kept at 3.4.0 for Set 2 while updating Set 3 to SRS and DMI 3.6.0. All three of the tables (Set 1, Set 2 and Set 3) are updated to include the latest EIRENE FRS 8.0.0 including the same GSM-R SRS 16.0.0 to ensure interoperability. In that decision the SRS is kept at 2.3.0 for Set 1 – and the decision of 2012/88/EU was repealed that was first introducing the interoperability of Set 1 and Set 2 (with SRS 3.3.0 at the time) based on GSM-R Baseline 0.


title: European Train Control System

text: Introduction of Baseline 3 on railways requires installation of it on board, which requires re-certification of trains. This will cost less than first ETCS certification, but still at least €100k per vehicle. This makes Baseline 3 essentially a new incompatible ETCS which requires replacement of electronic equipment and software onboard and along the track when installing. Trains with ETCS Baseline 3 are allowed to go on railways with Baseline 2 if certified for it, so railways with ETCS do not need to change system urgently.


title: European Train Control System

text: The first live tests of Baseline 3 took place in Denmark July 2016. Denmark wants to install ERTMS on all its railways, and then use Baseline 3.


title: European Train Control System

text: British freight and passenger operators have signed contracts to install Baseline 3 in their trains, the first around 2020.


title: European Train Control System

text: The development of ETCS has matured to a point that cross-border traffic is possible and some countries have announced a date for the end of older systems. The first contract to run the full length of a cross-border railway was signed by Germany and France in 2004 on the high-speed line from Paris to Frankfurt, including LGV Est. The connection opened in 2007 using ICE3MF, to be operational with ETCS trains by 2016. The Netherlands, Germany, Switzerland and Italy have a commitment to open Corridor A from Rotterdam to Genoa for freight by the start of 2015. Non-European countries also are starting to deploy ERTMS/ETCS, including Algeria, China, India, Israel, Kazakhstan, Korea, Mexico, New Zealand, and Saudi Arabia. Australia will switch to ETCS on some dedicated lines starting in 2013.


title: European Train Control System

text: The "European Commission" has mandated that European railways to publish their deployment planning up to 5 July 2017. This will be used to create a geographical and technical database (TENtec) that can show the ETCS deployment status on the Trans-European Network. From the comparative overview the commission wants to identify the needs for additional coordination measures to support the implementation. Synchronous with the publication of "ETCS SRS 3.6.0" on 15 June 2017 the Regulation 2016/796/EC was published. It mandates the replacement of the "European Railways Agency" by the "European Union Agency for Railways." The agency was tasked with the creation of a regulatory framework for a Single European Railway Area (SERA) in the "4th Railway Package" to be resolved in late June 2016. A week later the new EU "Agency for Railways" emphasized the stability of B3R2 and the usage as the foundation for oncoming ETCS implementations in the EU. Based on projections in the "Rhine-Alps-Corridor", a break-even of the cross-border ETCS implementation is expected in the early 2030s. A new memorandum of understanding was signed on InnoTrans in September 2016 for a completion of the first ETCS Deployment Plan targets by 2022. The new planning was accepted by the "European Commission" in January 2017 with a goal to have 50% of the Core Network Corridors equipped by 2023 and the remainder in a second phase up to 2030.


title: European Train Control System

text: The costs for the switch to ETCS are well documented in the Swiss reports from their railway operator SBB to the railway authority BAV. In December 2016 it was shown that they could start switching parts of the system to ETCS Level 2 whenever a section needs improvement. This would not only result in a network where sections of ETCS and the older ZUB would switch back and forth along lines, but the full transition to ETCS would last until 2060 and its cost were estimated at 9.5 billion Swiss Franc (US$ ). The expected advantages of ETCS for more security and up to 30% more throughput would also be at stake. Thus legislation favours the second option where the internal equipment of interlocking stations would be replaced by new electronic ETCS desks before switching the network to ETCS Level 2. However the current railway equipment manufacturers did not provide enough technology options at the time of the report to start it off. So the plan would be to run feasibility studies until 2019 with a projected start of changeover set to 2025. A rough estimate indicates that the switch to ETCS Level 2 could be completed within 13 years from that point and it would cost about 6.1 billion Swiss Franc (US$ ). For comparison, SBB indicated that the maintenance of lineside signals would also cost about 6.5 billion Swiss Franc (US$ ) which however can be razed once Level 2 is effective.


title: European Train Control System

text: The Swiss findings influenced the German project "Digitale Schiene" (digital rail). It is estimated that 80% of the rail network can be operated by GSM-R without lineside signals. This will bring about 20% more trains that can be operated in the country. The project was unveiled in January 2018 and it will start off with a feasibility study on electronic interlocking stations that should show a transition plan by mid 2018. It is expected that 80% of the network have been rebuilt to the radio-controlled system by 2030. This is more extensive than earlier plans which focused more on ETCS Level 1 with Limited Supervision instead of Level 2.


title: European Train Control System

text: The ETCS standard has listed a number of older Automatic Train Controls (ATC) as "Class B" systems. While they are set to obsolescence, the older line side signal information can be read by using "Specific Transmission Modules" (STM) hardware and fed the "Class B" signal information to a new ETCS onboard safety control system for partial supervision. In practice, an alternative transition scheme is sometimes used where an older ATC is rebased to use Eurobalises. This leverages the fact that a Eurobalise can transmit multiple information packets and the reserved national datagram (packet number 44) can encode the signal values from the old system in parallel with ETCS datagram packets. The older train-born ATC system is equipped with an additional Eurobalise reader that converts the datagram signals. This allows for a longer transitional period where the old ATC and Eurobalises are attached on the sleepers until all trains have a Eurobalise reader. The newer ETCS-compliant trains can be switched to an ETCS operation scheme by a software update of the onboard train computer.


title: European Train Control System

text: In Switzerland, a replacement of the older Integra-Signum magnets and ZUB 121 magnets to Eurobalises in the Euro-Signum plus EuroZUB operation scheme is under way. All trains had been equipped with Eurobalise readers and signal converters until 2005 (generally called "Rucksack" ""). The general operation scheme will be switched to ETCS by 2017 with an allowance for older trains to run on specific lines with EuroZUB until 2025.


title: European Train Control System

text: In Belgium, the TBL 1 crocodiles were complemented with Eurobalises in the TBL 1+ operation scheme. The TBL 1+ definition allowed for an additional speed restriction to be transmitted to the train computer already. Likewise in Luxembourg the "Memor II" (using crocodiles) was extended into a "Memor II+" operation scheme.


title: European Train Control System

text: In Berlin, the old mechanical train stops on the local S-Bahn rapid transit system are replaced by Eurobalises in the newer ZBS train control system. Unlike the other systems it is not meant to be transitional for a later ETCS operation scheme. The signalling centres and the train computer use ETCS components with a specific software version, manufacturers like Siemens point out that their ETCS systems can be switched for operating on ETCS, TBL, or ZBS lines.


title: European Train Control System

text: The Wuppertal Suspension Railway called for bids on a modernization of its train protection and management system. Alstom won the tender with a plan largely composed of ETCS components. Instead of GSM-R the system uses TETRA which had been in use already for voice communication. The TETRA system will be expanded to allow movement authority being signaled by digital radio. Because train integrity will not be checked, the solution was called as ETCS Level 2+ by the manufacturer. Train integrity is the level of belief in the train being complete and not having left coaches or wagons behind. The usage of moving blocks was dropped however while the system was implemented with just 256 balises checking the odometry of the trains that signal their position by radio to the ETCS control center. It is expected that headways will drop from 3,5 minutes to 2 minutes when the system is activated. The system was inaugurated on 1 September 2019.


title: European Train Control System

text: Level 0 applies when an ETCS-fitted vehicle is used on a non-ETCS route. The trainborne equipment monitors the maximum speed of that type of train. The train driver observes the trackside signals. Since signals can have different meanings on different railways, this level places additional requirements on drivers' training. If the train has left a higher-level ETCS, it might be limited in speed globally by the last balises encountered.


title: European Train Control System

text: Level 1 is a cab signalling system that can be superimposed on the existing signalling system, leaving the fixed signalling system (national signalling and track-release system) in place. Eurobalise radio beacons pick up signal aspects from the trackside signals via signal adapters and telegram coders ("Lineside Electronics Unit" – LEU) and transmit them to the vehicle as a "movement authority" together with route data at fixed points. The on-board computer continuously monitors and calculates the maximum speed and the "braking curve" from these data. Because of the spot transmission of data, the train must travel over the Eurobalise beacon to obtain the next "movement authority". In order for a stopped train to be able to move (when the train is not stopped exactly over a balise), there are optical signals that show permission to proceed. With the installation of additional Eurobalises (""infill balises"") or a "EuroLoop" between the distant signal and main signal, the new proceed aspect is transmitted continuously. The EuroLoop is an extension of the Eurobalise over a particular distance that basically allows data to be transmitted continuously to the vehicle over cables emitting electromagnetic waves. A radio version of the EuroLoop is also possible.


title: European Train Control System

text: For example, in Norway and Sweden the meanings of single green and double green are contradictory. Drivers have to know the difference (already with traditional systems) to drive beyond the national borders safely. In Sweden, the "ETCS Level 1" list of signal aspects are not fully included in the traditional list, so there is a special marking saying that such signals have slightly different meanings.


title: European Train Control System

text: Whereas ETCS L1 Full Supervision requires supervision to be provided at every signal, ETCS L1 Limited Supervision allows for only a part of the signals to be included, thus allowing to tailor the installation of equipment, only to points of the network where the increase in functionality justifies the cost. Formally, this is possible for all ETCS levels, but it is currently only applied with Level 1. As supervision is not provided at every signal, this implies that cab signalling is not available and the driver must still look out for trackside signals. For this reason, the level of safety is not as high, as not all signals are included and there is still reliance on the driver seeing and respecting the trackside signalling. Studies have shown that "ETCS L1 LS" has the same capacity as plain Level 1 FS for half the cost. Cost advantages come from reduced efforts necessary for calibrating, configuring and designing the track equipment and ETCS telegrams. Another advantage is, that "Limited Supervision" has little requirements for the underlying interlocking, hence it can be applied even on lines with mechanical interlockings as long as LEUs can read respective signal aspects. In contrast Level 2 requires to replace older interlockings with electronic or digital interlockings. That has led to railway operators pushing for the inclusion of "Limited Supervision" into the "ETCS Baseline 3". Although interoperable according to TSI, implementations of "Limited Supervision" are much more diverse than other ETCS modes, e.g. functionality of L1LS in Germany is strongly based on PZB principles of operation and common signal distances.


title: European Train Control System

text: "Limited Supervision" mode was proposed by RFF/SNCF (France) based on a proposal by SBB (Switzerland). Several years later a steering group was announced in spring 2004. After the UIC workshop on 30 June 2004 it was agreed that UIC should produce a "FRS document" as the first step. The resulting proposal was distributed to the eight administrations that were identified: ÖBB (Austria), SNCB/NMBS (Belgium), BDK (Denmark), DB Netze (Germany), RFI (Italy), CFR (Romania), Network Rail (UK) and SBB (Switzerland). After 2004 German Deutsche Bahn took over the responsibility for the change request.


title: European Train Control System

text: In Switzerland the "Federal Office of Transport" (BAV) announced in August 2011 that beginning with 2018 the Eurobalise-based EuroZUB/EuroSignum signalling will be switched to Level 1 Limited Supervision. High-speed lines are already using ETCS Level 2. The north–south corridor should be switched to ETCS by 2015 according to international contracts regarding the TEN-T Corridor-A from Rotterdam to Genova (European backbone). But it is delayed and will be used with December 2017 timetable change.


title: European Train Control System

text: Level 2 is a digital radio-based system. "Movement authority" and other signal aspects are displayed in the cab for the driver. Apart from a few indicator panels, it is therefore possible to dispense with trackside signalling. However, the train detection and the train integrity supervision still remain in place at the trackside. Train movements are monitored continually by the "radio block centre" using this trackside-derived information. The "movement authority" is transmitted to the vehicle continuously via GSM-R or GPRS together with speed information and route data. The Eurobalises are used at this level as passive positioning beacons or "electronic milestones". Between two positioning beacons, the train determines its position via sensors (axle transducers, accelerometer and radar). The positioning beacons are used in this case as reference points for correcting distance measurement errors. The on-board computer continuously monitors the transferred data and the maximum permissible speed.


title: European Train Control System

text: With Level 3, ETCS goes beyond pure train protection functionality with the implementation of full radio-based train spacing. Fixed train detection devices (GFM) are no longer required. As with Level 2, trains find their position themselves by means of positioning beacons and via sensors (axle transducers, accelerometer and radar) and must also be capable of determining train integrity on board to the very highest degree of reliability. By transmitting the positioning signal to the radio block centre, it is always possible to determine that point on the route the train has safely cleared. The following train can already be granted another "movement authority" up to this point. The route is thus no longer cleared in fixed track sections. In this respect, Level 3 departs from classic operation with fixed intervals: given sufficiently short positioning intervals, continuous line-clear authorisation is achieved and train headways come close to the principle of operation with absolute braking distance spacing ("moving block"). Level 3 uses radio to pass movement authorities to the train. Level 3 uses train reported position and integrity to determine if it is safe to issue the movement authority. Level 3 is currently under development. Solutions for reliable train integrity supervision are highly complex and are hardly suitable for transfer to older models of freight rolling stock. The Confirmed Safe Rear End (CSRE) is the point in rear of the train at the furthest extent of the safety margin. If the Safety margin is zero, the CSRE aligns with the Confirmed Rear End. Some kind of end-of-train device is needed or special lines for rolling stock with included integrity checks like commuter multiple units or high speed passenger trains. A ghost train is a vehicle in the Level 3 Area that are not known to the Level 3 Track-side.


title: European Train Control System

text: A variant of Level 3 is ERTMS Regional, which has the option to be used with virtual fixed blocks or with true moving block signalling. It was early defined and implemented in a cost sensitive environment in Sweden. In 2016 with "SRS 3.5+" it was adopted by core standards and is now officially part of Baseline 3 Level 3.


title: European Train Control System

text: It is possible to use train integrity supervision, or by accepting limited speed and traffic volume to lessen the effect and probability of colliding with detached rail vehicles. "ERTMS Regional" has lower commissioning and maintenance costs, since trackside train detection devices are not routinely used, and is suitable for lines with low traffic volume. These low-density lines usually have no automatic train protection system today, and thus will benefit from the added safety.


title: European Train Control System

text: ETCS Hybrid Level 3 is under development. The basic setup is like Level 2 with fixed blocks supervised by trackside train detection systems. But for approved trains, there can be much shorter virtual blocks, "Virtual Sub-Sections", which allow such trains to go more dense, without having so many expensive and fault prone trackside detection systems. These trains, mainly passenger trains, must have their own train integrity supervision and other requirements like known train length, and software for Hybrid Level 3. Only one non-approved train allowed per Level 2 block at each time, which make traditional freight trains possible, but consuming more capacity. For metros, CBTC is a system in operation using similar ideas.


title: European Train Control System

text: Instead of using fixed balises to detect train location there may be "virtual balises" based on satellite navigation and GNSS augmentation. Several studies about the usage of GNSS in railway signalling solutions have been researched by the UIC (GADEROS/GEORAIL) and ESA (RUNE/INTEGRAIL). Experiences in the LOCOPROL project show that real balises are still required in railway stations, junctions, and other areas where greater positional accuracy is required. The successful usage of satellite navigation in the GLONASS-based Russian ABTC-M block control has triggered the creation of the ITARUS-ATC system that integrates Level 2 RBC elements – the manufacturers Ansaldo STS and VNIIAS aim for certification of the ETCS compatibility of this system.


title: European Train Control System

text: The first real implementation of the virtual balise concept has been done during the ESA project "3InSat" on 50 km of track of the Cagliari–Golfo Aranci Marittima railway on Sardinia in which a SIL-4 train localisation at signalling system level has been developed using differential GPS.


title: European Train Control System

text: There is a pilot project ""ERSAT EAV"" running since 2015 with the objective to verify the suitability of EGNSS as the enabler of cost-efficient and economically sustainable ERTMS signalling solutions for safety railway applications.


title: European Train Control System

text: Ansaldo STS has come to lead the UNISIG working group on GNSS integration into ERTMS within "Next Generation Train Control" (NGTC) WP7, whose main scope is to specify ETCS virtual balise functionality, taking into account the interoperability requirement. Following the NGTC specifications the future interoperable GNSS positioning systems, supplied by different manufacturers, will reach the defined positioning performance in the locations of the virtual balises.


title: European Train Control System

text: Level 4 is an idea that has been mooted that envisages Train Convoys or Virtual Coupling as ways to increase track capacity, it is merely for discussion at the moment.


title: European Train Control System

text: Operation under ETCS requires that each train be fitted with a number of interlinked on-board systems that monitor the position and the status of the train, and that allow the driver to receive Movement Authorities and interact with the ETCS system. The equipment must be certified by the appropriate Notified Bodies.


title: European Train Control System

text: The (DMI), formerly "Man-Machine Interface" (MMI), is the standardised interface for the driver. It consists of a set of colour displays that show the train's speed, the ETCS Movement Authority (where relevant), and other information about the status of the ETCS equipment. It is also used to display train control information sourced from pre-ETCS signalling and train protection systems when the train is not under ETCS control. To allow access to setup and configuration menus, the DMI is provided with either a touchscreen or an array of soft keys.


title: European Train Control System

text: The Balise Transmission Module (BTM) is a wireless transceiver that facilitates the traffic of data telegrams between the train and the Eurobalises mounted on the track.


title: European Train Control System

text: The odometric sensors allow the train to determine the distance it has travelled along the track since it last passed a Eurobalise or other known fixed position, which is necessary for the train's ETCS controller to ensure that the train does not proceed past the end of its Movement Authority. A number of different technologies are applied for this purpose, including rotation counters mounted on one or more of the train's axles, accelerometers, and Doppler radar.


title: European Train Control System

text: The (EVC), sometimes referred to as Eurocab, is the heart of train's on-board ETCS equipment. It receives and processes the information received from the train's sensors and communications equipment, sends the display image to the DMI, monitors the train's compliance with Movement Authorities and other operational constraints, and intervenes if necessary to ensure safety by making an emergency brake application or otherwise overriding the driver's controls. Because there is an upper limit to length of the cables that connect the EVC to the other ETCS components, longer multiple-unit trains can sometimes require a separate EVC for each driver's cab.


title: European Train Control System

text: The Euroradio communication unit is for both voice and data communication. Because in ETCS Level 2 all signalling information is exchanged via GSM-R, the radio equipment is capable of maintaining two simultaneous connections to the ETCS Radio Block Centre.


title: European Train Control System

text: The Juridical Recording Unit (JRU) is an event recorder, usually integrated with the EVC, that logs the actions of the driver and the state of both the signalling and the ETCS equipment itself. It can be considered equivalent to an aircraft's flight recorder.


title: European Train Control System

text: The Train Interface Unit (TIU) is the interface between the EVC and the train/locomotive, for submitting commands or receiving information.


title: European Train Control System

text: A Specific Transmission Module (STM) is a special interface for the EVC that enables operation with one or more Class B "ATP" systems, such as PZB, MEMOR, or ATB. It consists of the hardware needed to link the specific sensors and receivers that pick up on-track and lineside signals from the legacy installation with the EVC, and the software that allows the EVC to emulate the processing functions that would be performed by the legacy system controller on a non-ETCS train. The information provided by the legacy system is then shown to the driver via the DMI. It is possible to fit an EVC with STMs for multiple legacy systems, as required.


title: European Train Control System

text: Lineside equipment is the fixed installed part of ETCS installation. According to ETCS Levels the rail related part of installation is decreasing. While in Level 1 sequences with two or more of eurobalises are needed for signal exchange, in Level 2 balises are used for milestone application only. It is replaced in Level 2 by mobile communication and more sophisticated software. In Level 3 even less fixed installation is used. In 2017 first positive tests for satellite positioning were done.


title: European Train Control System

text: The Eurobalise is a passive or active antenna device mounted on rail sleepers. Mostly it transmits information to the driving vehicle. It can be arranged in groups to transfer information. There are Fixed and "Transparent Data Balises". "Transparent Data Balises" are sending changing information from LEU to the trains, e.g. signal indications. "Fixed Balises" are programmed for a special information like gradients and speed restrictions.


title: European Train Control System

text: The is an extension for Eurobalises in ETCS Level 1. It is a special Leaky feeder for transmitting information telegrams to the car.


title: European Train Control System

text: The Lineside Electronic Unit (LEU) is the connecting unit between the "Transparent Data Balises" with signals or "Signalling control" in ETCS Level 1.


title: European Train Control System

text: A is a specialised computing device with specification Safety integrity level 4 (SIL) for generating "Movement Authorities" (MA) and transmitting it to trains. It gets information from Signalling control and from the trains in its section. It hosts the specific geographic data of the railway section and receives cryptographic keys from trains passing in. According to conditions the RBC will attend the trains with MA until leaving the section. RBC have defined interfaces to trains, but have no regulated interfaces to Signalling Control and only have national regulation.


title: European Train Control System

text: GSM is no longer being developed outside of GSM-R. However, as of 2021, ERA expected GSM-R equipment suppliers to support the technology until at least 2030. ERA is considering what action is needed to smoothly transition to a successor system such as GPRS or Edge. The Baseline 3 of ETCS contains functionality for this.


title: European Train Control System

text: In July 2009, the European Commission announced that ETCS is mandatory for all EU-funded projects that include new or upgraded signalling, and GSM-R is required when radio communications are upgraded. Some short stretches in Switzerland, Italy, the Netherlands, Germany, France, Sweden, and Belgium are equipped with Level 2 and in operation.


title: European Train Control System

text: Based on the proposal for 30 TEN-T Priority Axes and Projects during 2003, a cost/benefit analysis was performed by the UIC, presented in December 2003. This identified ten rail corridors covering about 20% of the TEN network that should be given priority in changing to ETCS, and these were included in decision 884/2004/EC by the "European Commission".


title: European Train Control System

text: In 2005 the UIC combined the axes into the following ETCS Corridors, subject to international development contracts:


title: European Train Control System

text: The Trans-European Transport Network Executive Agency (TEN-T EA) publishes ETCS funding announcements showing the progress of trackside equipment and onboard equipment installation.


title: European Train Control System

text: Corridor A has two routes in Germany – the double track east of the Rhine (rechte Rheinstrecke) will be ready with ETCS in 2018 (Emmerich, Oberhausen, Duisburg, Düsseldorf, Köln-Kalk, Neuwied, Oberlahnstein, Wiesbaden, Darmstadt, Mannheim, Schwetzingen, Karlsruhe, Offenburg, Basel), while the upgrade of the double track west of the Rhine (linke Rheinstrecke) will be postponed.


title: European Train Control System

text: Corridor F will be developed in accordance with Poland as far as it offers ETCS transport: Frankfurt – Berlin – Magdeburg will be ready in 2012, Hanover to Magdeburg – Wittenberg – Görlitz in 2015. At the other end Aachen to Oberhausen will be ready in 2012, the missing section from Oberhausen to Hanover in 2020. The other two corridors are postponed and Germany chooses to support the equipment of locomotives with STMs to fulfill the requirement of ETCS transport on the corridors.


title: European Train Control System

text: Implementation in Austria started in 2001 with a level 1 test section on the Eastern Railway between Vienna and Nickelsdorf. By the end of 2005 the whole line between Vienna and Budapest had been equipped with ETCS L1.


title: European Train Control System

text: The newly built stretches of the Western Railway between Vienna and St. Pölten and the New Lower Inn Valley Railway are equipped with ETCS L2, as is the North railway from Vienna to Bernhardstal.


title: European Train Control System

text: In Belgium the state railway company SNCB (in French, in Dutch NMBS, in German NGBE) led all activities for introduction of ETCS since the end of the 1990s. The interest resulted from new High Speed Lines (HSL) under construction, the development of the ports at the Atlantic and technically rotting national signalling systems.


title: European Train Control System

text: in 1999 the council of SNCB decided the opening of HSL 2 with proprietary system TBL 2, but all following lines should use ETCS. To rise the level of security on conventional lines, it was thought to use ETCS L1 for compatibility. But because of high costs for full implementation on rolling stock, it was chosen to select standard components from ETCS for interfacing locos (receiver) and rails (balises) to easy support existing infrastructure. The balises were sending information with reserved national packet type 44, compatible with common signalling. The system was named TBL1+. Later it can be complemented with standardised ETCS information. This is the same migration path as chosen in Italy (SCMT) or Switzerland (Euro-Signum and "Euro-ZUB").


title: European Train Control System

text: In 2003 the SNCB selected a consortium to supply ETCS for the next high-speed lines with Level 2 and fallback with Level 1.


title: European Train Control System

text: It was chosen to supply ETCS L1LS first and later migrate to L1FS. So it was started tendering the renewing of 4000 signals with TBL1+ and L1 including support for 20 years in 2001. In 2006 Siemens was selected for delivery.


title: European Train Control System

text: Following the privatisation of SNCB in 2006 a split-off company Infrabel stepped in to be responsible for the whole state railway infrastructure. It continued the introduction of ETCS railway infrastructure, whereas SNCB was responsible for rolling material. Following some serious accidents (i.e. Halle train collision) caused by missing or malfunctioning protection systems, there was the obvious target to raise the security level in the whole network.


title: European Train Control System

text: The first line in ETCS operation was HSL 3 in 2007, which is 56 km (35 mi) long. Because of lack of trains equipped with ETCS, the commercial start of operations was in 2009 with ICE 3 and Thalys trains. The operations started with ETCS SRS 2.2.2 and were later upgraded to 2.3.0.


title: European Train Control System

text: The HSL 4 high-speed line was constructed at the same time as "HSL 3" and so got the same ETCS equipment. Testing began in 2006 and commercial traffic started about 2008 with locomotive-hauled trains under Level 1. In 2009 commercial high-speed traffic started under ETCS L2 with supported Thalys- and ICE-trains like on "HSL 3". A special feature is the first full-speed gapless border crossing under ETCS L2 supervision with HSL Zuid.


title: European Train Control System

text: In 2009 all railway lines in Belgium were covered by GSM-R, a foundation of ETCS L2 installation and also useful in L1 operation.


title: European Train Control System

text: In 2011 was released a first national "ETCS–Masterplan", which was renewed in 2016. It names following four phases of ETCS introduction:


title: European Train Control System

text: The first conventional railway line, which was equipped with ETCS L1, was Brussels–Liège. It started public service in March 2012.


title: European Train Control System

text: Next was in December 2014 the Liefkenshoek rail link with ETCS L2 in Antwerp, connecting the north and south banks of Scheldt by tunnel for cargo traffic.


title: European Train Control System

text: Infrabel has budgeted about 332 Million Euro for signalling including ETCS in 2015. After tendering it was given in summer 2015 a long time order to the consortium of Siemens Mobility and Cofely-Fabricom about the installation of ETCS L2 on more than 2200 km of rails. The order includes the delivery of computer based interlockings for the full network until 2025.


title: European Train Control System

text: The complete Belgian part of the European north-south Corridor C (port of Antwerp–Mediterranean Sea) with a length of about 430 km is crossable with ETCS L1 since the end of 2015. According to Infrabel this was the longest conventional railway supported with ETCS in Europe.


title: European Train Control System

text: Summarizing at end of 2015, there were 1225 km mainlines (about a fifth of the network) usable with ETCS L1 or L2.


title: European Train Control System

text: In 2016 was given an order for 1362 double deck coaches of Belgium type M7. They are to be delivered between 2018 and 2021 and have a complete ETCS equipment for replacement of older types.


title: European Train Control System

text: Alstom will be implementing ERTMS, including ETCS, in the upgrade of the network of Toronto-area regional operator GO Transit, under contract to the Ontario provincial agency Metrolinx.


title: European Train Control System

text: In December 2008: In Denmark, plans were announced in for the conversion of its entire national network to Level 2. This was necessitated by the near obsolete nature of parts of its network. The total cost of the project is estimated at €3.3bn, with conversion beginning in 2009 and projected for completion in 2021. Denmark has decided to drop its older ATC, which will reach its end of life between 2015 and 2020, switching the network of 2100 km to ETCS. The S-train network in Copenhagen will use the Siemens TrainGuard system. Two suppliers will equip the rest of the country to Level 2 with an option for Level 3 (ERTMS Regional) in rural parts. Implementation will be between 2014 and 2018. Denmark will be the first to introduce GPRS support on its network by 2017. Hence Banedanemark is driving this development with other ETCS users in Europe that has led to the inclusion in B3R2 in late 2015. Due to complexity the completion date was moved by two years to 2023, especially for testing in the S-train network, while the equipment of the first three main lines will be done in 2018.


title: European Train Control System

text: In November 2017: Further delays of the complete roll-out from 2023 to 2030 were announced. The following dilemma has appeared: ETCS must be introduced before electrification. Electrification must be introduced before new trains are obtained. New trains must be purchased before ETCS is introduced. Because the old signalling system was not built compatible with electrification, and many components (which often have to be developed anew and be certified) must be replaced to make them compatible, expensive and time-consuming and fairly meaningless if it shall soon be replaced by ETCS. Diesel trains must mainly be custom-made and are expensive (like IC4) because of little demand in Europe, and DSB wants to have electric trains for the future. But most lines are not electrified yet. The plan was to fit the existing old diesel trains such as IC3 with ETCS, but that has proven difficult, since they are not well documented because various ad hoc spare parts have been fitted in various ways and other problems. Furthermore, the new Copenhagen–Ringsted high-speed line was planned for opening in 2018 with ETCS only, creating a deadline, but there is a decision to introduce old signalling there, and delay ETCS roll-out for several years (still the dilemma must be solved by fitting ETCS into the trains).


title: European Train Control System

text: In September 2022: The roll-out proceeds according to the delayed plan; some lines in the Jutland peninsula have been successfully converted and the goal of complete roll-out in 2030 is confirmed.


title: European Train Control System

text: Germany intends to use Level 1 only as Limited Supervision – neither Full Supervision nor Euroloops will be installed.


title: European Train Control System

text: The first project that was intended to implement ETCS was the Köln–Frankfurt high-speed rail line that had been under construction since 1995. Due to the delays in the ETCS specification a new variant of LZB (CIR ELKE-II) was implemented instead.


title: European Train Control System

text: The next planned and first actual implementation was on the Leipzig-Ludwigsfelde main line to Berlin. There, SRS 2.2.2 was tested together with a PZB and LZB mixed installation in conditions of fast and mixed traffic. The section was co-financed by the EU and DB to gain more experience with the ETCS Level 2 mode. Since April 2002 the ETCS section was in daily usage and in March 2003 it was announced that it had reached the same degree of reliability as before using ETCS. Since 6. December 2005 an ETCS train ran at 200 km/h as a part of the normal operation plan on the line north of Leipzig to obtain long-term recordings. As of 2009, the line had been decommissioned for ETCS and is henceforth in use with LZB and PZB. In May 2022 construction started for a new SRS 3.4.0 installation between Berlin and Leipzig.


title: European Train Control System

text: In 2011, the installation of ETCS L2 (SRS 2.3.0d) was ordered for 14 Mio EUR following the reconstruction and enhancement of the railway line Berlin-Rostock. A first part of 35 km was finished at the end of 2013 between Lalendorf and Kavelstorf, but never went into service.


title: European Train Control System

text: The newly built Ebensfeld–Erfurt segment of Nuremberg–Erfurt high-speed railway as well as the Erfurt–Leipzig/Halle high-speed railway and the upgraded Erfurt–Eisenach segment of the Halle–Bebra railway are equipped with ETCS L2. The north-eastern part (Erfurt–Leipzig/Halle) is in commercial use since December 2015 exclusively with ETCS L2 SRS 2.3.0d. The southern part (Ebensfeld–Erfurt) started test running and driver training in the end of August 2017 and regular operation with ETCS L2 in December 2017. Starting in December 2017 there are about 20 high-speed trains per day from Munich to Berlin. ECTS on the western part (Erfurt–Eisenach) was also scheduled for commencing operation in December 2017 but commission was delayed until August 2018.


title: European Train Control System

text: Germany started replacing some of its PZB and LZB systems in 2015. During 2014 it was planned to use a dual equipment for the four main freight corridors to comply with the EC 913/2010 regulation. Further testing showed that a full ETCS system can increase capacity by 5-10% leading into a new concept "Zukunft Bahn" to accelerate the deployment, presented in December 2015. The overall cost reduction of about half a billion euro may be reinvested to complete the switch to ETCS that may take about 15 years. The Deutsche Bahn expected to get further federal funding after the 2017 German federal election. In a first step, another 1750 km of existing railway lines are planned to be equipped with ETCS until 2023, focusing on the Rhine-Alpine corridor, the Paris–Southwest Germany corridor and border-crossing lines.


title: European Train Control System

text: With Germany pressing for Baseline 3, neighbouring countries like Austria intend to update their vehicle fleet, especially modernizing the GSM-R radio on the trains. One of the last additions to B3R2 was the usage of EDGE in GSM-R. This is already widely deployed in the German rail network (including better frequency filters for the GSM-R radio equipment).


title: European Train Control System

text: In January 2018 the project "Digitale Schiene" (digital rail) was unveiled that intended to bring about a transition plan by mid 2018. Deutsche Bahn intends to equip 80% of the rail network with GSM-R by 2030 razing any lineside signals in the process. This will bring about 20% more trains that can be operated in the country. In the process 160,000 signals and 400,000 km of interlocking cables become dispensable. The Digital Rail project came about shortly after the Nuremberg–Erfurt high-speed railway was operational in December 2017 being the first high-speed line to have no lineside signals anymore. After some teething problems with radio reception it settled within the expected range of usability.


title: European Train Control System

text: Priority is on the 1450 km Rhine Corridor that is about to be equipped with ETCS Level 2. Bringing ETCS to the corridor has been agreed on at the EU level in 2016 as part of the TEN Core network that has expectations set to 2023. The Digital Rail project of 2018 has set the completion date to 2022 for using ETCS Level 2 while Switzerland intends to switch to ETCS Level 2 no later than 2025. Switzerland is expecting an increase in capacity of 30% that will probably come out the same on congested sections along the Rhine.


title: European Train Control System

text: New high speed line Athens to Thessaloniki will be the first ETCS Level 1 in Greece. System expected to be ready by the end of 2021


title: European Train Control System

text: The Békéscsaba-Lőkösháza line was equipped with Level 1 as an extension of the Level 2 network until further refurbishments will take place.


title: European Train Control System

text: In Hungary Level 2 is under construction in the Kelenföld-Székesfehérvár line as a part of a full reconstruction, and planned to be ready before 2015.


title: European Train Control System

text: In Hungary Level 2 is under construction, but due to problems with the installation of GSM-R, all of them are delayed.


title: European Train Control System

text: The Level 2 system is under construction in several phases. Currently the Boba-Hodoš, Székesfehérvár station, Székesfehérvár-Ferencváros, Ferencváros-Monor, Monor-Szajol, Szajol-Gyoma and the Gyoma-Békéscsaba sections are under construction.


title: European Train Control System

text: National Capital Region Transport Corporation has decided to equip European Train Control System (ETCS) on its Sarai Kale Khan hub in India's First Rapid Rail corridor-Delhi Meerut RRTS Route.


title: European Train Control System

text: LRT Palembang is equipped with ETCS Level 1 for train protection system and PT. LEN Industri (Persero) provides the trackside fixed-block signalling. The line is slated to open mid-2018.


title: European Train Control System

text: As of June 2022 the plan is to equip 3400 km of lines by 2026 and the entire State-owned network (16,800 km) by 2036.


title: European Train Control System

text: In Israel ETCS Level 2 will begin replacing PZB in 2020. Three separate tenders were issued in 2016 for this purpose (one contract each was let for track-side infrastructure, rolling-stock integration, and the erection of a GSM-R network). Initial test runs of the system began on 31-March-2020. Concurrent with the implementation of ERTMS are railway electrification works, and an upgrade of the signaling system in the northern portion of Israel Railways' network from relay-based to electronic interlocking. (The southern portion of the network already employs electronic signaling.)


title: European Train Control System

text: In Libya, Ansaldo STS was awarded a contract in July 2009 to install Level 2. This has stalled because of civil war.


title: European Train Control System

text: Procurement for ETCS started in 1999 and the tender was won by Alcatel SEL in July 2002. By 1. March 2005 a small network had been established that was run under ETCS Level 1. The track-side installations were completed in 2014 after spending about 33 million Euro.


title: European Train Control System

text: The equipment of the rolling stock did take a bit longer. In early 2016 it became known that the new Class 2200 could not run on Belgium lines. In February 2017 the changeover of Class 3000 was not even started, and Class 4000 had just one prototype installation. However the problems were resolved later with the complete rolling stock having ETCS installations by December 2017.


title: European Train Control System

text: The government had pushed for the changeover following the rail accident of Bettembourg on 14. February 2017. With the rolling stock being ready as well, the end date of the usage of the old Memor-II+-systems was set to 31. December 2019. With the decision of 29. January 2018 all trains have to use ETCS by default and it should be continued to use on tracks in Belgium and France as far as possible.


title: European Train Control System

text: ETCS equips and will equip the high-speed lines that link Tangier to Kénitra (in service from 2018) and Kénitra to Casablanca "via" Rabat (under construction, planned to open in 2020). Other high-speed lines planned to link Casablanca to Agadir and Rabat to Oujda from 2030 will likely be equipped as well.


title: European Train Control System

text: In August 2015 the eastern branch of the Østfold Line becomes first line with ETCS functionality in Norway.


title: European Train Control System

text: In 2022, Level 1 was installed by Alstom on the Manila LRT Line 1 in preparation for the Cavite extension of the line. Level 1 shall also be installed for the South Main Line as part of the PNR South Long Haul project, and as a minimum requirement on the Mindanao Railway.


title: European Train Control System

text: Level 2 shall also be installed on the North–South Commuter Railway with a maximum speed of . Hitachi Rail STS (formerly Ansaldo STS) is the sole bidder for the supply of such equipment.


title: European Train Control System

text: In Poland, Level 1 was installed in 2011 on the CMK high-speed line between Warsaw and Katowice-Kraków, to allow speeds to be raised from to , and eventually to . The CMK line, which was built in the 1970s, was designed for a top speed of 250 km/h, but was not operated above 160 km/h due to lack of cab signalling. The ETCS signalling on the CMK was certified on 21 November 2013, allowing trains on the CMK to operate at .


title: European Train Control System

text: In Poland, Level 2 has been installed as part of a major upgrading of the 346 km Warsaw-Gdańsk-Gdynia line that reduced Warsaw – Gdańsk travel times from five to two hours and 39 minutes in December 2015. Level 2 has been installed on line E30 between Legnica – Węgliniec – Bielawa Dolna on the German border and is being installed on the Warsaw-Łódź line.


title: European Train Control System

text: In Slovakia, Level 1 has been deployed as part of the Bratislava–Košice mainline modernisation program, currently between Bratislava (east of Bratislava-Rača station) and Púchov, with the rest of the line to follow. The current implementation is limited to 160 km/h due to limited braking distances between the control segments. In addition, Level 2 has been istalled on the route Žilina - Čadca.


title: European Train Control System

text: State Railway of Thailand selected ETCS Level 1 for signalling for Bangkok's Suburban Commuter (SRT Red Lines) to be open in early 2021. ETCS Level 1 will also be installed in mainlines extended from Bangkok to Chumphon (Southern Line), Nakhon Sawan (Northern Line), Khon Kaen (Northeastern Line), Si Racha (Eastern Coast Line) and in shortcut line from Chachoengsao to Kaeng Khoi (Shortcut from Eastern Line to North/Northeastern Line) along with Double Tracking Phase I projects and ATP system upgrade of existing double track lines, both scheduled to be completed in 2022.


title: European Train Control System

text: In Turkey, Level 2 is installed on the Ankara–Konya high-speed line designed for . The new high-speed line has reduced Ankara-Konya travel times from hours to 75 minutes.


title: Jo Van Fleet

text: Catherine Josephine Van Fleet (December 29, 1915 – June 10, 1996) was an American stage, film, and television actress. During her long career, which spanned over four decades, she often played characters much older than her actual age. Van Fleet won a Tony Award in 1954 for her performance in the Broadway production "The Trip to Bountiful", and the next year she won an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for her supporting role in "East of Eden".


title: Jo Van Fleet

text: Josephine was born in 1915 in Oakland, California, the younger of two daughters of Indiana and Michigan natives Roy H. Van Fleet and Elizabeth "Bessie" Catherine (née Gardner). Her father Roy worked for the railroads, but died of a streptococcus throat infection which was lanced, inadvertently spreading the disease throughout his body. Federal census records show that by age five Josephine, her 18-year-old sister Corinne, and their mother were living in Oakland with Bessie's relatives, Ralph and Mary Gardner. To help support herself and her two daughters at her parents' home, Bessie, who had been widowed by 1920, worked as a "sales lady" in an Oakland dry goods store.


title: Jo Van Fleet

text: While she had an early interest in stage productions, "Jo" graduated from the University of California, Berkeley in 1936, focusing on a variety of subjects, and then spent several years as a high school teacher in Morro Bay, California. She continued her theatrical training in a graduate program at the College of the Pacific in Stockton, California. She moved after her graduation from her masters program to New York City, where she continued her training with Sanford Meisner at the Neighborhood Playhouse.


title: Jo Van Fleet

text: In 1944, Van Fleet began her professional stage career and immediately distinguished herself in the role of Miss Phipps in the production of "Uncle Harry" at the National Theatre in Washington, D.C. Two years later, in New York, she distinguished herself as well on Broadway by her performances as Dorcas in Shakespeare's "The Winter's Tale"; and yet again, in 1950, as Regan opposite Louis Calhern in "King Lear". She won the Tony Award for Best Featured Actress in a Play in 1954 for her portrayal of Jessie Mae Watts in Horton Foote's "The Trip to Bountiful", costarring Lillian Gish and Eva Marie Saint.


title: Jo Van Fleet

text: Despite her early successes on the stage, Van Fleet continued to refine her skills in the late 1940s and early 1950s by studying with Elia Kazan and Lee Strasberg at the Actors Studio in New York. Kazan in 1952 directed her in the play "Flight to Egypt" and the following year in "Camino Real". In 1954 he encouraged her to work in films in Hollywood. There Kazan cast her in his screen adaptation of John Steinbeck's "East of Eden" (1955) for Warner Bros. In that production—her film debut—Van Fleet portrays Cathy Ames, the mother of James Dean's character. Her performance, which was widely praised by critics, won her an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress. Her subsequent film work was steady through 1960 and included films such as "The Rose Tattoo" (1955), "I'll Cry Tomorrow" (1955), "The King and Four Queens" (1956), and "Gunfight at the O.K. Corral" (1957). Her career, however, did not progress as she had hoped. Her friend and mentor, Kazan, personally experienced her frustrations: "'Jo stagnated, and, since she knew it, was bitter. And as she became bitter, she became more difficult.'" In an interview for the "Los Angeles Times" after her Oscar-winning performance in "East of Eden", Van Fleet openly expressed her concerns "about being typecast in tragic roles".


title: Jo Van Fleet

text: In 1958, Van Fleet was nominated for a Tony Award for Best Actress in a Play for her performance in "Look Homeward, Angel", in which she played the acquisitive mother of Anthony Perkins' character. Her later films included "Wild River" (1960), one of the productions in which she played a character far older than her actual age. Only age 44 at the time of "Wild River", Van Fleet spent five hours every morning getting into make-up for her role as Ella, the 89-year-old matriarch of the Garth family. Some of her other notable roles include the Wicked Stepmother in "Rodgers and Hammerstein's Cinderella" (1965), Paul Newman's mother in "Cool Hand Luke" (1967), and the mother in "I Love You, Alice B. Toklas" (1968).


title: Jo Van Fleet

text: Van Fleet's work on television included such series as "Naked City", "Thriller", "Bonanza", "The Wild Wild West", and "Police Woman". Among her most emotionally charged dramatic performances on television is her portrayal of the bitter, explosive Mrs. Shrike in the 1956 episode "Shopping for Death" on "Alfred Hitchcock Presents".


title: Jo Van Fleet

text: Van Fleet's final performance, a brief but "delicious" supporting turn in the 1986 TV adaptation of Saul Bellow's "Seize the Day", elicited this comment from "Washington Post" critic Tom Shales:


title: Jo Van Fleet

text: Jo Van Fleet, who seems even to walk and blink legendarily, has a tiny part and only two small scenes as Mrs. Einhorn, an old woman with two incontinent dachshunds, but what a piquant impression she makes.


title: Jo Van Fleet

text: Van Fleet in 1946 married choreographer William G. Bales, and they remained together until his death in 1990. The couple had one child, Michael.


title: Jo Van Fleet

text: In February 1960, in recognition of her career in the motion-picture industry, as well as her work on stage and in television, Van Fleet was awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. It is located at 7010 Hollywood Boulevard. Politically, she was a Democrat, and in the 1952 United States presidential election she supported Adlai Stevenson.


title: Jo Van Fleet

text: Van Fleet, at age 80, died from undisclosed causes in New York City at Jamaica Hospital in Queens. Her body was cremated and her ashes were returned to her family.


title: Megaproject

text: According to the "Oxford Handbook of Megaproject Management", "Megaprojects are large-scale, complex ventures that typically cost $1 billion or more, take many years to develop and build, involve multiple public and private stakeholders, are transformational, and impact millions of people". However, $1 billion is not a constraint in defining megaprojects; in some contexts a relative approach is needed, such as in developing countries, where a much smaller project (such as one with a $100 million budget) could constitute a megaproject. Therefore, a more general definition is "Megaprojects are temporary endeavours (i.e. projects) characterized by: large investment commitment, vast complexity (especially in organizational terms), and long-lasting impact on the economy, the environment, and society".


title: Megaproject

text: Bent Flyvbjerg, a professor at the Saïd Business School of the University of Oxford says that globally, megaprojects make up 8 percent of total global GDP. Megaprojects refer not only to construction projects but also decommissioning projects, which are projects that can reach multi-billion budgets, and have a high level of innovation and complexity, and are affected by a number of techno-socio-economic and organizational challenges.


title: Megaproject

text: Care in the project development process is required to reduce any possible optimism bias and strategic misrepresentation, as a curious paradox exists in which more and more megaprojects are being proposed despite their consistently poor performance against initial forecasts of budget, schedule, and benefits.


title: Megaproject

text: According to the European Cooperation in Science and Technology (COST), megaprojects are characterized both by "extreme complexity (both in technical and human terms) and by a long record of poor delivery". Megaprojects attract a lot of public attention because of substantial impacts on communities, environment, and budgets, and the high costs involved. Megaprojects can also be defined as "initiatives that are physical, very expensive, and public".


title: Megaproject

text: Megaprojects include special economic zones, public buildings, power plants, dams, airports, seaports, bridges, highways, tunnels, railways, wastewater projects, oil and natural gas extraction projects, aerospace projects, weapons systems, information technology systems, large-scale sporting events and, more recently, mixed use waterfront redevelopments; however, the most common megaprojects are in the categories of hydroelectric facilities, nuclear power plants, and large public transportation projects. Megaprojects can also include large-scale high-cost initiatives in scientific research and infrastructure, such as the sequencing of the human genome, a significant global advance in genetics and biotechnology.


title: Megaproject

text: According to Bent Flyvbjerg, "As a general rule of thumb, 'megaprojects' are measured in billions of dollars, 'major projects' in hundreds of millions, and 'projects' in millions and tens of millions."


title: Megaproject

text: The logic on which many of the typical megaprojects are built is collective benefits; for example electricity for everybody (who can pay), road access (for those that have cars), etc. They may also serve as a means to open frontiers. Megaprojects have been criticised for their top-down planning processes and their ill effects on certain communities. Large scale projects often advantage one group of people while disadvantaging another, for instance, the Three Gorges Dam in China, the largest hydroelectric project in the world, required the displacement of 1.2 million farmers. In the 1970s, the highway revolts in some Western nations saw urban activists opposing government plans to demolish buildings for freeway route construction, on the basis that such demolitions would unfairly disadvantage the urban working class and benefit commuters. Anti-nuclear protests against proposed nuclear power plants in the United States and Germany prevented developments due to environmental and social concerns.


title: Megaproject

text: More recently, new types of megaprojects have been identified that no longer follow the old models of being singular and monolithic in their purposes, but have become quite flexible and diverse, such as waterfront redevelopment schemes that seem to offer something to everybody. However, just like the old megaprojects, the new ones also foreclose "upon a wide variety of social practices, reproducing rather than resolving urban inequality and disenfranchisement". Because of their plethora of land uses "these mega-projects inhibit the growth of oppositional and contestational practices". The collective benefits that are often the underlying logic of a mega-project, are here reduced to an individualized form of public benefit.


title: Megaproject

text: Proponents of infrastructure-based development advocate for funding large-scale projects to create long-term economic benefits. Investing in megaprojects in order to stimulate the general economy has been a popular policy measure since the economic crisis of the 1930s. Recent examples are the 2008–2009 Chinese economic stimulus program, the 2008 European Union stimulus plan, and the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009.


title: Megaproject

text: Megaprojects often raise capital based on expected returns—though projects often go overbudget and over time, and market conditions like commodity prices can change. Concern at cost overruns is often expressed by critics of megaprojects during the planning phase. Bent Flyvbjerg has noted the existence of incentives to overstate income, underestimate costs, and exaggerate future social and economic benefits due to lack of accountability and risk-sharing mechanisms. If the megaproject is delivered in a country with relevant corruption the likelihood and magnitude of having overbudgets increases.


title: Megaproject

text: One of the most challenging aspects of megaprojects is obtaining sufficient funding. Alan Altshuler and David Luberoff have found that creative and politically adept political leadership is required to secure resources as well as generate public support, mollify critics, and manage conflict through many years of planning, authorization and implementation. Other challenges faced by those planning megaprojects include laws and regulations that empower community groups, contested information and methodologies, high levels of uncertainty, avoiding impacts on neighborhoods and the environment, and attempting to solve a wicked problem.


title: Sailor Jupiter

text: , better known as , is a fictional character in the "Sailor Moon" manga series created by Naoko Takeuchi. Makoto is her sailor form's alternative human identity as part of the Sailor Soldiers, female supernatural fighters who protect the Solar System from evil.


title: Sailor Jupiter

text: In the series, Makoto is the third Sailor Soldier to be discovered by Usagi Tsukino, and serves as the "coordinator" of the group, as she possesses superhuman strength, as well as powers associated with electricity and plants.


title: Sailor Jupiter

text: Aside from the main body of the "Sailor Moon" series, Makoto features in her own manga short story, "The Melancholy of Mako-chan". A number of image songs mentioning her character have been released as well, including the contents of three different CD singles.


title: Sailor Jupiter

text: Makoto's strong, independent personality is hinted at in her most striking physical feature—her unusual height (5'6" or 1.68 meters). She is stated at her first appearance in the series to be very tall, and considerable notice is taken in the original Japanese versions, although this trait is downplayed in English translations (as her relative height is not all that uncommon in most Europeans). She is strong, and was rumoured to have been kicked out of her previous school for fighting. She is introduced to the series after transferring to Azabu Jūban Junior High, where Usagi Tsukino and Ami Mizuno are students, and where she stands out all the more because her school uniform is different from everyone else's; unable to find anything in her size, her school's administration tells her to wear her old one. It has a long skirt, which when coupled with her hair, was a common visual cue for a tough or delinquent girl at the time the series was created. However, unlike these delinquent girls, her reddish, wavy hair is natural. Despite her tough appearance, she is very gentle. She always wears pink rose earrings and a green hair tie that decorates her ponytail.


title: Sailor Jupiter

text: One of the most consistent characters across the many versions of the series, Makoto is always depicted as simultaneously the most determined of the four Guardian Soldiers. Her most closely held dream is to get married and own a cake and flower shop. After entering high school, she also joins the cooking and gardening clubs.


title: Sailor Jupiter

text: Her domestic talents are explained as a deliberate effort to overcome her tomboyishness. In the live-action series she enjoys shopping, but eschews "girly" things (she can be seen shopping for basketball shoes in one scene, for instance); she cooks, but also physically overpowers delinquents; she reorganizes her home, but does so with a sledgehammer. She also excels in dancing, especially ice-skating. She insists that she is not the least bit feminine, and seems surprised and touched when someone tells her she is.


title: Sailor Jupiter

text: This dual nature comes from a need to be self-sufficient: her parents died in an aviation accident as a child and she has since then looked after herself. She is self-sufficient almost to a fault, and gets shocked when an airplane passes overhead. In the anime adaptation, Makoto lives alone. In "Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon", Makoto's parents' death is told in a flashback in Act 6, but how they died is not mentioned.


title: Sailor Jupiter

text: Makoto has at least one former boyfriend, which is the importance of this subplot. Her "senpai" is mentioned only once or twice. In the anime adaptation Makoto is extremely boy-crazy, with a tendency to fall for every boy who reminds her of her "senpai". "Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon" is an integral part of why Makoto feels she needs to be alone. In each version, there are mentions of other men who were very briefly a part of her life. Makoto is generally attracted to Motoki Furuhata, especially in the anime, but only in the live-action show do they become close. By the end of the direct-to-DVD Special Act, they are engaged to be married.


title: Sailor Jupiter

text: As a character with different incarnations, special powers, transformations and extended longevity; a really long ageless lifetime virtually spanned between the Silver Millennium era and the 30th Century, Makoto gains multiple aspects and aliases as the series progresses.


title: Sailor Jupiter

text: Makoto's Soldier identity is Sailor Jupiter. She wears a sailor suit colored in green and pink, with rose-shaped earrings in green, laced-up boots with height just above the ankles. In the manga and live-action series she has a belt carrying a small ball of potpourri. She is given specific titles throughout the various series, including "Soldier of Protection", "Herculean Jupiter", "Soldier of Thunder and Courage", and "Soldier of Caring". Her personality is no different from when she is a civilian, although certain powers are unavailable to her in that form.


title: Sailor Jupiter

text: In Japanese, the name for the planet Jupiter is , the first kanji meaning 'wood' and the second indicating a celestial object. Although the Roman planet-name is used, Sailor Jupiter's dominant element is wood due to this aspect of Japanese mythology. Unusually, most of her attacks are based on her secondary power, lightning, which is in reference to the Roman god Jupiter. She is by far the most skilled of the Sailor Soldiers, able to lift a full-grown man above her head, even while ice skating or to stop a stone pillar from falling. In the early manga, she always has a short antenna coming from her tiara, which serves as a lightning rod; eventually this takes on the same role as in the anime, and extends upward only when she summons lightning. It does not appear in the live-action series.


title: Sailor Jupiter

text: Sailor Jupiter gains additional special abilities and powers, and at key points her Sailor Soldier uniform changes to reflect this. The first change takes place in Act 37 of the manga, when she obtains the Jupiter Crystal and her outfit becomes similar to that of Super Sailor Moon. She is not given a new title. A similar event is divided between Episodes 143 and 154 of the anime, and she is given the name Super Sailor Jupiter. A third form appears in Act 42 of the manga, unnamed but analogous to Eternal Sailor Moon ("sans" wings). In the official visual book for Sailor Moon Eternal, this form was named "Eternal Sailor Jupiter".


title: Sailor Jupiter

text: In Silver Millennium, Sailor Jupiter was also the Princess of her home planet. She was among those given the duty of protecting Princess Serenity of the Moon Kingdom. As Princess Jupiter, she dwelt in Io Castle and wore a green gown—she appears in this form in the original manga, as well as in supplementary art. Naoko Takeuchi once drew her in the arms of Nephrite, but no further romantic link between them was established in the manga or the first anime adaptation. However, in "Sailor Moon Crystal" it is clearly stated that Sailor Jupiter and Nephrite were in love at the time of the Moon Kingdom. This is also established in the stage musicals, and it is implied in the video game.


title: Sailor Jupiter

text: Makoto is portrayed as unusually strong for a teenage girl, but like the other Sailor Soldiers, she must transform in order to gain access to her celestial powers. She transforms into a Sailor Soldier by raising a special device (pen, bracelet, wand, or crystal) into the air and shouting a special phrase, originally "Jupiter Power, Make-up!" As she becomes more powerful and obtains new transformation devices, this phrase changes to evoke Jupiter Star, Planet, or Crystal Power. In both anime, Sailor Jupiter's transformation sequence evolves slightly over time, whether to update the background images or to accommodate changes to her uniform or a new transformation device, but they all involve electric charges forming an atom path which encircles her body.


title: Sailor Jupiter

text: In the manga, Sailor Jupiter's first named attack is "Flower Hurricane", which is immediately followed by calling down lightning. Emphasis is quickly placed upon her electric-based powers, and these are the norm in all versions of the series. Her primary attack for the first story arc and most of the second is "Supreme Thunder", for which she calls down lightning from the sky with a tiny lightning rod that extends from the stone on her tiara (or, in the live-action series, with her leg). Sometimes, before performing the attack she would call out "Waga shugo Mokusei yo! Arashi wo okose! Kumo wo yobe! Ikazuchi wo furaseyo!" (我が守護木星よ！嵐を起こせ！雲を呼べ！雷を降らせよ！; My guardian Jupiter! Brew a storm! Call the clouds! Bring down the lightning!). Although she channels this power, she is not immune to its effects, and can use her body to focus the electricity in a suicide move. It is upgraded twice for one-off attacks in the anime series: once to "Supreme Thunder Dragon", and much later to "Super Supreme Thunder".


title: Sailor Jupiter

text: In the second story arc Sailor Jupiter gains "Sparkling Wide Pressure", an attack consisting of a lightning ball which, aside from a manga-only power called "Jupiter Coconut Cyclone", remains her primary attack for the rest of the second story arc, all of the third, and much of the fourth. When she takes on her second Soldier form (Super Sailor Jupiter in the anime), she acquires a special item, a wreath of oak leaves, which is described in the manga as "the emblem of thunder and lightning." It appears in her hair and enables her to use "Jupiter Oak Evolution".


title: Sailor Jupiter

text: Sailor Jupiter's earrings, large pink roses, are occasionally significant. She wears them in both her Soldier and civilian forms, and can use them as a projectile weapon if she needs to. When they first meet in the manga, Usagi thinks the roses have a nice fragrance, and late in the anime the sight of them brings her back from temporary memory loss because it reminds her of Tuxedo Mask. Much more important, in the manga, are the Jupiter Crystal and Leaves of Oak. The former is Makoto's Sailor Crystal and the source of all of her power, which becomes especially important in the fifth story arc. In the live-action series, she frequently uses unnamed electric attacks, and is given a tambourine-like weapon (the Sailor Star Tambo) by Artemis. In the final episode, the Tambo transforms into a lance.


title: Sailor Jupiter

text: Makoto is present in the original proposal for a hypothetical "" anime, but her name is given as Mamoru Chino. Creator Naoko Takeuchi confirms that this character eventually became Makoto, and writes that the original concept was quite different—Makoto was not only tough, but in fact was meant to be the leader of a female gang as well as a smoker. A very similar name was later given to the series' male protagonist, Mamoru Chiba.


title: Sailor Jupiter

text: Sailor Jupiter's original costume design, like the others', was fully unique. It featured buckles, very long gloves, blue and yellow highlights, a bare lower torso, and a profusion of thin, dark pink ribbons—along with a face-plate and communicator. Later, Takeuchi was surprised by these sketches and stated that she did not remember drawing them. Her instructions to the animators included a note that Makoto should appear muscular, "a little meatier than normal."


title: Sailor Jupiter

text: The kanji of Makoto's surname translate as and . The Japanese word for Jupiter is 木星, which literally translates as "wood planet," and is referenced in her last name. Her given name is in hiragana and therefore difficult to translate. Possible meanings include "truth", "fidelity", and "sincerity". The given name "Makoto," however, is a unisex name usually given to boys, but is sometimes given to girls; its use here highlights Makoto's tomboyishness.


title: Sailor Jupiter

text: In the original Japanese series, Makoto is voiced by Emi Shinohara in the original series, and by Ami Koshimizu in "Sailor Moon Crystal" and all media since.


title: Sailor Jupiter

text: In the DIC/Cloverway English adaptation, her name was changed to "Lita" and was voiced by Susan Roman. In the Viz Media English adaptation, her voice is supplied by Amanda C. Miller.


title: Sailor Jupiter

text: In the stage musicals, Makoto has been portrayed by 13 actresses: Noriko Kamiyama, Marie Sada, Takako Inayoshi, Emika Satoh, Akari Tonegawa, Chiho Oyama (whose older sister Anza was the first to play Sailor Moon), Emi Kuriyama, Yuriko Hayashi, Ayano Sugimoto, Kaori Sakata, Karina Okada, Mai Watanabe, Yu Takahashi, Kaede., Ami Noujo, Minami Umezawa, Kie Obana, Kanna Matsuzaki and Shio Yamazaki


title: Sailor Jupiter

text: In "Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon", Makoto is played by Mew Azama. Also, child actress Misho Narumi portrays Makoto in flashbacks, dream sequences, and childhood photos.


title: Sailor Jupiter

text: The official "Sailor Moon" character popularity polls listed Makoto Kino and Sailor Jupiter as separate entities. In 1992, readers ranked them at eleventh and fifth respectively, out of thirty eight choices. One year later, now with fifty choices, Jupiter dropped to the eleventh most popular while Makoto was twelfth most popular. In 1994, with fifty one choices, Sailor Jupiter was the seventeenth most popular character and Makoto was eighteenth. In early 1996, with fifty one choices, Makoto was the twenty third most popular character and Jupiter was the twenty seventh.


title: Sailor Jupiter

text: A five-book series was published, one book on each of the Sailor Soldiers and Sailor Moon. Makoto's was released in 1996. This book was later translated into English by Mixx.


title: Passi de Preposulo

text: The early surname of this noble Bergamo family was “de Preposulo”. It has remained until now in the coat of arms of the Counts Passi de Preposulo in abbreviated form, and was in use, especially in Latin, until the eighteenth century.


title: Passi de Preposulo

text: They began to be called "Passi" when, in 1307, Ottopasso de Preposulo helped negotiate the peace between the Guelphs and Ghibellines in Bergamo. Since then they have been called "quelli de la pas" from which “I Pas” and then “the Passi”.


title: Passi de Preposulo

text: The first mention dates back to a Henricus de Preposulo, "filius quondam Petri Federici, Sacri Palatii judicis" (Archive of the Cathedral of Bergamo).


title: Passi de Preposulo

text: They distinguished themselves as magistrates, in arms, in letters and, in particular, in the ecclesiastical field. The family was admitted in 1743 to the Council of the Nobility of Bergamo and acquired the comital title.


title: Passi de Preposulo

text: One of the properties owned is the Villa Tiepolo Passi in Carbonera, Veneto. Here the Hollywood actress Jessica Chastain married Gian Luca Passi de Preposulo in June 2017.


title: Passi de Preposulo

text: Marco Celio Passi, di Fermo, di Enrico and di Luca, count, knight and noble, doctor of law, (1828-1897), son of Fermo and of noblewoman Elisabetta . He married, firstly, Giulia of the Counts , patrician of Venice, and secondly, Carolina of the Counts Passi, with whom he had:


title: Taylor Jenkins

text: Taylor Vetter Jenkins (born September 12, 1984) is an American professional basketball coach who is the head coach of the Memphis Grizzlies of the National Basketball Association (NBA).


title: Taylor Jenkins

text: Jenkins attended the St. Mark's School of Texas in Dallas. He was a two-time captain on their basketball team, where he played as an undersized forward. He studied at the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania and earned a Bachelor's of Science in Economics while concentrating in Management and minoring in Psychology. He did not play college basketball.


title: Taylor Jenkins

text: Jenkins interned with the San Antonio Spurs basketball operations department during the 2007–08 season.


title: Taylor Jenkins

text: From 2008 to 2013, Jenkins worked as an assistant coach and a head coach for the San Antonio Spurs D-League affiliate, the Austin Toros. As the head coach, Jenkins led the Toros to a 27–23 (.540) record during the 2012–13 season and a first-round playoff victory over the Bakersfield Jam before falling to the Santa Cruz Warriors in the semifinals. In 2011–2012, Jenkins was an assistant on the coaching staff when the Toros won the D-League Championship.


title: Taylor Jenkins

text: Jenkins worked as an assistant coach for the Atlanta Hawks for five years (2013–2018) under head coach Mike Budenholzer. The Hawks reached the playoffs four consecutive years including a trip to the Eastern Conference Finals in 2015. Jenkins helped develop four of the Hawks 2015 starting five into NBA All-Stars (four starters appeared on the 2015 NBA All-Star roster). Jenkins later followed Budenholzer to be an assistant for the Milwaukee Bucks during the 2018–19 NBA season. The Bucks finished with a league best 60 wins, and clinched the #1 spot in the Eastern Conference for the first time in 45 years.


title: Taylor Jenkins

text: His name was brought into the spotlight when an ESPN clip showed Jenkins springing up from the bench to hold the players back during a small on-court scuffle. The video led to a profile of him in "The Athletic".


title: Taylor Jenkins

text: Jenkins also served as an assistant coach for the NBA Eastern Conference All-Star Team and NBA World Team (Rising Stars) in 2015. Also, in August 2016, Jenkins participated in the Americas Team Camp presented by Nike in Mexico City. The camp consisted of four days of basketball drills and competition conducted by NBA players and coaches.


title: Taylor Jenkins

text: On June 11, 2019, the Memphis Grizzlies hired Jenkins as their new head coach. The Memphis "Commercial Appeal" called the hire a "defining moment for owner Robert Pera," as well as the front office.


title: Taylor Jenkins

text: Jenkins was named the Western Conference's Coach of the Month in both January 2020 and December 2021. In 2022, the Grizzlies won their division for the first time in franchise history.


title: Jessica Korda

text: Jessica Regina Korda () (born February 27, 1993) is an Czech-American professional golfer who plays on the LPGA Tour.


title: Jessica Korda

text: Korda was a member of the 2009 U.S. Junior Solheim Cup and the 2010 U.S. Curtis Cup teams. As an amateur, she won the 2010 South Atlantic Amateur and made the cut at the 2008 and 2009 U.S. Women's Opens. Korda finished T19 in her U.S. Open debut in 2008 where she shot the only round in the 60s on Sunday, shooting a 69. She finished runner-up at the 2010 U.S. Women's Amateur.


title: Jessica Korda

text: She represented the Czech Republic in the World Amateur Team Championship Espirito Santo Trophy in 2006, and represented the United States in 2010, finishing tied for 4th individually and silver medalist with her team.


title: Jessica Korda

text: Korda entered LPGA Tour Qualifying School in the fall of 2010 as a 17-year-old. She finished runner-up in the final Qualifying Tournament, making her eligible for full membership on the Tour in 2011.


title: Jessica Korda

text: Korda turned 18 during the second event of the 2011 season. She played in 15 events in her rookie year; her best finish was a tie for 19th at the Avnet LPGA Classic. Her first professional win was in the first event of the 2012 season, the Women's Australian Open at Royal Melbourne. After rounds of 72-70-73-74, her victory came on the second hole of a six-person playoff.


title: Jessica Korda

text: Korda won her second LPGA Tour title at the season opening Pure Silk-Bahamas LPGA Classic in January 2014, finishing one shot ahead of Stacy Lewis.


title: Jessica Korda

text: Korda is the daughter of retired professional tennis players Petr Korda and Regina Rajchrtová. Her father is a grand slam champion, winning the 1998 Australian Open crown. Her younger brother, Sebastian, won the 2018 Australian Open title in the boys' division.


title: Jessica Korda

text: Her personal and professional lives intersected at the 2013 U.S. Women's Open. During the third round of that event, she and caddy Jason Gilroyed had several disagreements, and she fired him after shooting 5-over-par for the first nine holes. She then called for her boyfriend, professional golfer Johnny DelPrete, to come in from the gallery and serve as her caddy for the rest of the round. Korda shot 1-under for the second nine, and she kept DelPrete on her bag for the final round.


title: Jessica Korda

text: Her younger sister Nelly Korda joined her on the 2017 LPGA Tour after earning her card via the Symetra Tour and advanced to world number one on the Women's World Golf Rankings in 2021.


title: Pardon of Richard Nixon

text: Proclamation 4311 was a presidential proclamation issued by president of the United States Gerald Ford on September 8, 1974, granting a full and unconditional pardon to Richard Nixon, his predecessor, for any crimes that he might have committed against the United States as president. In particular, the pardon covered Nixon's actions during the Watergate scandal. In a televised broadcast to the nation, Ford, who had succeeded to the presidency upon Nixon's resignation, explained that he felt the pardon was in the best interests of the country and that the Nixon family's situation was "a tragedy in which we all have played a part. It could go on and on and on, or someone must write the end to it. I have concluded that only I can do that, and if I can, I must."


title: Pardon of Richard Nixon

text: After Ford left the White House in 1977, he privately justified his pardon of Nixon by carrying in his wallet a portion of the text of "Burdick v. United States", a 1915 U.S. Supreme Court case where the dictum stated that a pardon carries an imputation of guilt and that its acceptance carries a confession of guilt.


title: Pardon of Richard Nixon

text: Following the release of the "smoking gun" tape on August 5, 1974, Nixon's position had become untenable. In his 1979 autobiography, "A Time to Heal", Ford wrote about a meeting he had with White House Chief of Staff Alexander Haig before Nixon's resignation. Haig was explaining what he and Nixon's staff thought were Nixon's only options. He could try to ride out the impeachment and fight against conviction in the Senate all the way, or he could resign. His options for resigning were to delay his resignation until further along in the impeachment process to try to settle for a censure vote in Congress or to pardon himself and then resign. Haig told Ford that some of Nixon's staff suggested that Nixon could agree to resign in return for an agreement that Ford would pardon him. On this subject, Ford wrote:


title: Pardon of Richard Nixon

text: In a "Washington Post" story published the night Ford died, journalist Bob Woodward said that Ford once told Woodward he decided to pardon Nixon for other reasons, primarily the friendship that Ford and Nixon shared.


title: Pardon of Richard Nixon

text: Following Nixon's resignation on August 9, 1974, the Nixons flew to their home La Casa Pacifica in San Clemente, California. According to his biographer, Jonathan Aitken, after his resignation, "Nixon was a soul in torment." Congress had funded Nixon's transition costs, including some salary expenses but reduced the appropriation from $850,000 to $200,000. With some of his staff still with him, Nixon was at his desk by 7 a.m. with little to do. His former press secretary, Ron Ziegler, sat with him alone for hours each day.


title: Pardon of Richard Nixon

text: Nixon's resignation had not put an end to the desire among many to see him punished. With his resignation, Congress dropped its impeachment proceedings against him but criminal prosecution was still a possibility both on the federal and state level.


title: Pardon of Richard Nixon

text: The Ford White House considered a pardon of Nixon, but it would be unpopular in the country. Nixon, contacted by Ford emissaries, was initially reluctant to accept the pardon but then agreed to do so. Ford, however, insisted on a statement of contrition; Nixon felt he had not committed any crimes and should not have to issue such a document. Ford eventually agreed, and on September 8, 1974, he granted Nixon a "full, free, and absolute pardon" that ended any possibility of an indictment. Nixon then released a statement:


title: Pardon of Richard Nixon

text: The Nixon pardon was controversial. Critics derided the move and claimed a "corrupt bargain" had been struck between the men: that Ford's pardon was granted in exchange for Nixon's resignation, elevating Ford to the presidency. Ford's first press secretary and close friend Jerald terHorst resigned his post in protest after the pardon.


title: Pardon of Richard Nixon

text: Historians believe that the controversy was one of the major reasons that Ford lost the election in 1976, and Ford agreed with that observation. In an editorial at the time, "The New York Times" stated that the Nixon pardon was a "profoundly unwise, divisive, and unjust act" that in a stroke had destroyed the new president's "credibility as a man of judgment, candor, and competence". Allegations of a secret deal made with Ford, promising a pardon in return for Nixon's resignation, led Ford to testify before the House Judiciary Committee on October 17, 1974. He was the first sitting president to testify before the House of Representatives since Abraham Lincoln. Ford's approval rating dropped from 71% to 50% following the pardon.


title: Pardon of Richard Nixon

text: In October 1974, Nixon fell ill with phlebitis. Told by his doctors that he could either be operated on or die, a reluctant Nixon chose surgery, and Ford visited him in the hospital. Nixon was under subpoena for the trial of three of his former aides (John Dean, H. R. Haldeman, and John Ehrlichman). The pardon would have put Nixon in a difficult position on the witness stand since he would not have been able to assert any Fifth Amendment privilege when questioned about his actions as president. "The Washington Post", disbelieving his illness, printed a cartoon showing Nixon with a cast on the "wrong foot". Judge John Sirica excused Nixon's presence despite the defendants' objections. Congress instructed Ford to retain Nixon's presidential papers, which began a three-decade legal battle over the documents that was eventually won by the former president and his estate. Nixon was in the hospital when the 1974 midterm elections were held, Watergate and the pardon were contributing factors to the Republican loss of 43 seats in the House and three in the Senate. Two years later, lingering public resentment over the pardon was a factor in Ford's narrow loss to Democratic Party nominee Jimmy Carter in the 1976 presidential election.