title: Herman's Head

text: In the final episode of the series, Herman is hit by a car and spends the episode lying in a hospital room near death. His coworkers speak of remembering Herman as they first met him, and we see each of the selves filling in for the emotion the friend first saw Herman displaying. Meanwhile, William Ragsdale appears as a head character, Herman's spirit. He announces his determination to keep the group alive, declaring "I'll be all that's left after Herman Brooks is gone." Animal immediately moans, "Oh my God, "you're our student loan!""


title: Herman's Head

text: When "Herman's Head" was still on the air, one of its writers was a regular contributor to an online BBS forum devoted to Fox shows. He had stated in the forum that if the series were to continue for a fourth season, that four new "head characters" were going to be added for Heddy, so that viewers could see the inner workings of her head. Thus, a new angle to the show would have been added, as it would have been finally understood what made Heddy tick, and had motivated her to be so haughty and manipulative. Her head activity would have run in tandem with Herman's. With Fox's cancellation of the series after season three, the exploration of "Heddy's head" was never introduced. The story line addition was viewed to have made sense, as viewers predicted that Herman and Heddy were still destined to wind up together just as Jay and Louise had.


title: Herman's Head

text: Both Hank Azaria and Yeardley Smith are cast members of "The Simpsons", which debuted on Fox two seasons earlier. One episode had Yeardley Smith's character, Louise, after hanging up the telephone, ask her colleague across the room, "Herman, I don't sound like that Lisa Simpson, do I?" A similar reference occurs when Mr. Bracken receives a complaint about one of the workers. The complainant didn't get the worker's name, but reported that she sounded like a cartoon character. After some furtive glances from Louise, Mr. Bracken dresses down a female coworker who sounds like Betty Boop. "The Simpsons" also referenced "Herman's Head" when Lisa (voiced by Smith) is asked what she is laughing at in the episode "Duffless"; she replies that she has just remembered "a joke I saw on "Herman's Head"". In the later episode "Marge vs. Singles, Seniors, Childless Couples and Teens, and Gays", when Marge Simpson asks him to sign a petition, Comic Book Guy (voiced by Azaria) explains that he only signs petitions to bring back television shows, exclaiming "America needs the wisdom of "Herman's Head" now more than ever." Further, Lisa is revealed to have a "Herman's Head"-like chorus of her own, seen when she's processing feelings of jealousy over Marge's publishing a novel. When asked about "Herman's Head" on a "Simpsons" commentary, Azaria said people were discussing shows that actors would rather forget, stating that he "always had that. I didn't love "Herman's Head", really."


title: Herman's Head

text: During the November 17, 1991, broadcast of "Herman's Head" ("Near-Death Wish"), the very first commercial advertisement for condoms aired in the United States.


title: Herman's Head

text: During the 2012 United States presidential election, former "Herman's Head" actors Molly Hagan, Ken Hudson Campbell and Peter Mackenzie reunited to make a video parody for the comedy site Funny or Die, titled "Herman Cain's Head"; it referenced then-presidential candidate Herman Cain.


title: Herman's Head

text: "Herman's Head" is referenced in series 1, episode 6 of the Hulu series "Only Murders in the Building" when one character compares herself to Herman, saying that she used to imagine people being inside her head like Herman had.


title: Daylily

text: A daylily or day lily is a flowering plant in the genus Hemerocallis , a member of the family Asphodelaceae, subfamily Hemerocallidoideae. Despite the common name, it is not in fact a lily. Gardening enthusiasts and horticulturists have long bred daylily species for their attractive flowers. Thousands of cultivars have been registered by local and international "Hemerocallis" societies. Daylilies are perennial plants, whose name alludes to its flowers, which typically last about a day.


title: Daylily

text: "Hemerocallis" are herbaceous clump forming perennials growing from rhizomes, some produce spreading stolons. They have a fibrous or fibrous-tuberous root system with contractile roots. The tuberous roots are used to store nutrients and water. The arching leaves are produced from the base of the plant (basal) and lack petioles, they are strap-like, long, linear lanceolate leaves and grouped into opposite fans. The crown is the small portion between the leaves and the roots. The large showy flowers are produced on scapes. The slightly irregular shaped flowers are arranged in helicoid cymes, or produced solitarily. The scapes of some species and cultivars produce small leafy proliferations arising from the nodes or in bracts. The proliferations are clones that root when planted.


title: Daylily

text: Typically "Hemerocallis" flowers have three similar petals and three sepals, collectively called tepals, and each have a midrib. The centermost part of the flower, called the throat, may be a different color than the more distal areas of the tepals. Each flower has six stamens joined to the perianth tube, each with a two-lobed anther. The unequal stamen filaments are curved upward with the linear-oblong anthers dorsifixed. The superior ovary is green, with three chambers and the stigma is 3-lobed or capitate. The fruit is a capsule (often erroneously called a pod since botanical pods are found in Fabaceae). The fruits may have no seeds (sterile), or many relatively large, shiny, black, roundish seeds. The flowers of most species open in early morning and wither during the following night, possibly replaced by another one on the same scape the next day. Some species are night-blooming. The haploid number of chromosomes is eleven.


title: Daylily

text: Despite the name, daylilies are not true lilies, although the flower has a similar shape. Before 2009, the scientific classification of daylilies put them into the family Liliaceae. In 2009, under the APG III system, daylilies were removed from the family Liliaceae and assigned to the family Xanthorrhoeaceae, subfamily Hemerocallidoideae. Xanthorrhoeaceae was renamed in 2016 to Asphodelaceae in the APG IV system


title: Daylily

text: A number of hybrid names appear in the horticultural literature but are not recognized as valid by the World Checklist of Selected Plant Families. These include:


title: Daylily

text: "Hemerocallis" species are native to Asia, primarily eastern Asia, including China, Korea, Japan and southern Siberia. This genus is popular worldwide because of the showy flowers and hardiness of many kinds. There are over 80,000 registered cultivars. Hundreds of cultivars have fragrant flowers, and more scented cultivars are appearing more frequently in northern hybridization programs. Some earlier blooming cultivars rebloom later in the season, particularly if their capsules, in which seeds are developing, are removed.


title: Daylily

text: Daylilies have been found growing wild for millennia throughout China, Mongolia, northern India, Korea, and Japan. There are thousand-year-old Chinese paintings showing orange daylilies that are remarkably similar to the flowers that grace modern gardens.


title: Daylily

text: Daylilies may have been first brought to Europe by traders along the silk routes from Asia. However it was not until 1753 that daylilies were given their botanic name of "Hemerocallis" by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus.


title: Daylily

text: Daylilies were first brought to North America by early European immigrants, who packed the roots along with other treasured possessions for the journey to the New World. By the early 1800s, the plant had become naturalized, and a bright orange clump of flowers was a common sight in many homestead gardens.


title: Daylily

text: The orange or tawny daylily ("Hemerocallis fulva"), common along roadsides in much of North America, is native to Asia. Along with the lemon lily ("Hemerocallis flava"), it is the foundational species for most modern cultivars.


title: Daylily

text: As popular as daylilies were for many hundreds of years, it was not until the late 19th century that botanists and gardeners began to experiment with hybridizing the plants. Over the next hundred years, thousands of different hybrids were developed from only a few wild varieties. In fact, most modern hybrids are descended from two types of daylily. One is "Hemerocallis flava"—the yellow lemon lily. The other is "Hemerocallis fulva", the familiar tawny-orange daylily, also known affectionately as the "ditch lily."


title: Daylily

text: The daylily has been nicknamed "the perfect perennial" by gardeners, due to its brilliant colors, ability to tolerate drought and frost and to thrive in many different climate zones, and for being generally low maintenance. It is a vigorous perennial that lasts for many years in a garden, with very little care and adapts to many different soil and light conditions. Daylilies have a relatively short blooming period, depending on the type. Some will bloom in early spring while others wait until the summer or even autumn. Most daylily plants bloom for 1 through 5 weeks, although some bloom twice in one season ("rebloomers)". Daylilies are not commonly used as cut flowers for formal flower arranging, yet they make good cut flowers otherwise, as new flowers continue to open on cut stems over several days.


title: Daylily

text: "Contarinia quinquenotata", commonly known as the daylily gall midge, is a small gray insect infesting the flower buds of "Hemerocallis" species causing the flower to remain closed and rot. It is a pest within the horticultural trade in several parts of the world, including Southern and Eastern Europe, the United Kingdom, Canada, and the United States.


title: Daylily

text: There are more than 35,000 daylily cultivars. Depending on the species and cultivar, daylilies grow in USDA plant hardiness zones 1 through 11, making them some of the more adaptable landscape plants. Hybridizers have developed the vast majority of cultivars within the last 100 years. The large-flowered, bright yellow "Hemerocallis" 'Hyperion', introduced in the 1920s, heralded a return to gardens of the once-dismissed daylily, and is still widely available in the nursery trade. Daylily breeding has been a specialty in the United States, where daylily heat- and drought-resistance made them garden standbys since the 1950s. New cultivars have sold for thousands of dollars, but many sturdy and prolific cultivars sell at reasonable prices of US$20 or less.


title: Daylily

text: "Hemerocallis" is one of the very highly hybridized plant genera. Hybridizers register hundreds of new cultivars yearly. Hybridizers have extended the genus' color range from the yellow, orange, and pale pink of the species, through vibrant reds, purples, lavenders, greenish tones, near-black, near-white, and more. However, hybridizers have not yet been able to produce a daylily with primarily blue flowers. Flowers of some cultivars have small areas of cobalt blue.


title: Daylily

text: Other flower traits that hybridizers developed include height, scent, ruffled edges, contrasting "eyes" in the center of a bloom, and an illusion of glitter called "diamond dust." Sought-after improvements include foliage color, variegation, plant disease resistance, and the ability to form large, neat clumps. Hybridizers also seek to make cultivars cold-hardier by crossing evergreen and semi-evergreen plants with dormant varieties.


title: Daylily

text: In recent decades, many hybridizers have focused on breeding tetraploid plants, which tend to have sturdier scapes and tepals than diploids, as well as some flower-color traits that are not found in diploids. Until this trend took root, nearly all daylilies were diploid. "Tets," as they are called by aficionados, have 44 chromosomes, while triploids have 33 chromosomes and diploids have 22 chromosomes per individual plant. Diploid and tetraploid daylilies cannot be crossed to produce new cultivars "Hemerocallis fulva" 'Europa', "H. fulva" 'Kwanso', "H. fulva" 'Kwanso Variegata', "H. fulva" 'Kwanso Kaempfer', "H. fulva" var. "maculata", "H. fulva" var. "angustifolia", and "H. fulva" 'Flore Pleno' are all triploids that almost never produce seeds and reproduce almost solely by underground runners (stolons) and dividing groups by gardeners. A polymerous daylily flower is one with more than three sepals and more than three petals. Although some people synonymize "polymerous" with "double," some polymerous flowers have as many as twice the normal number of sepals and petals.


title: Daylily

text: Formerly daylilies were only available in yellow, pink, fulvous (bronzed), and rosy-fulvous colors, now they come in an assortment of many more color shades and tints thanks to intensive hybridization. They can now be found in nearly every color except pure blue and pure white. Those with yellow, pink, and other pastel flowers may require full sun to bring out all of their colors; darker varieties, including many of those with red and purple flowers are not colorfast in bright sun.


title: Daylily

text: The highest award a cultivar can receive in the United States is the Stout Silver Medal, given in memory of Dr. Arlow Burdette Stout, who is considered to be the father of modern daylily breeding in North America. This annual award—as voted by American Hemerocallis Society Garden judges—can be given only to a cultivar that has first received the Award of Merit not less than two years previously. The 2014 winner of the Stout Silver Medal is 'Webster's Pink Wonder', hybridized by Richard Webster and introduced by R. Cobb. A complete list of Stout Silver Medal winners can be seen on the AHS website.


title: Daylily

text: In the UK the following cultivars have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:-


title: Daylily

text: Eating too many uncooked flowers of some species can cause diarrhea. "Hemerocallis" species are toxic to cats and ingestion may be fatal. Treatment is usually successful if started before kidney failure has developed.


title: Daylily

text: Daylilies are an economically important group of plants used medicinal, as food, and as horticultural plants, they have been cultivated in China for thousands of years. Hemerocallin, a root neurotoxin, is both poisonous and has been used as a medicine. The flowers of "Hemerocallis citrina" are used in Chinese cuisine. They are sold (fresh or dried) in Asian markets as gum jum (金针 in Chinese; pinyin: jīn zhēn) or yellow flower vegetables (黃花菜 in Chinese; pinyin: huáng huā cài). They are used in hot and sour soup, daylily soup (金針花湯), Buddha's delight, and moo shu pork. The tubers and young leaves of "H. fulva" can be eaten raw or cooked. The flowers are more palatable when cooked.


title: Daylily

text: In Asia, the flowers (buds and perianths), shoots, and tuberous roots (following suitable preparation) are important foods (G. Kunkel 1984). Daylilies are among the most popular North American garden plants. Registered cultivars of Hemerocallis now exceed 38,000, including more than 13,000 named clones of H. fulva (G. Grosvenor 1999; R. M. Kitchingman 1985; R. W. Munson Jr. 1989; W. B. Zomlefer 1998)


title: Ocean world

text: An ocean world, ocean planet, panthalassic planet, maritime world, water world or aquaplanet, is a type of planet that contains a substantial amount of water in form of oceans, either beneath the surface, as subsurface oceans, or on the surface with a hydrosphere, potentially submerging all dry land. The term "ocean world" is also used sometimes for astronomical bodies with an ocean composed of a different fluid or thalassogen, such as lava (the case of Io), ammonia (in a eutectic mixture with water, as is likely the case of Titan's inner ocean) or hydrocarbons like on Titan's surface (which could be the most abundant kind of exosea).


title: Ocean world

text: Earth is the only astronomical object known to have bodies of liquid water on its surface, although several exoplanets have been found with the right conditions to support liquid water. For exoplanets, current technology cannot directly observe liquid surface water, so atmospheric water vapor may be used as a proxy. The characteristics of ocean worlds provide clues to their history and the formation and evolution of the Solar System as a whole. Of additional interest is their potential to originate and host life.


title: Ocean world

text: In June 2020, NASA scientists reported that it is likely that exoplanets with oceans are common in the Milky Way galaxy, based on mathematical modeling studies.


title: Ocean world

text: Ocean worlds are of extreme interest to astrobiologists for their potential to develop life and sustain biological activity over geological timescales. Major moons and dwarf planets in the Solar System thought to harbor subsurface oceans are of substantial interest because they can be reached and studied by space probes, in contrast to exoplanets. The best established water worlds in the Solar System, other than the Earth, are Callisto, Enceladus, Europa, Ganymede, and Titan. Europa and Enceladus are considered among the most compelling targets for exploration due to their comparatively thin outer crusts and observations of cryovolcanism.


title: Ocean world

text: A host of other bodies in the Solar System are considered candidates to host subsurface oceans based upon a single type of observation or by theoretical modeling, including Ariel, Ceres, Dione, Eris, Mimas, Miranda, Oberon, Pluto, and Triton.


title: Ocean world

text: Outside the Solar System, GJ 1214 b, Kepler-22b, Kepler-62f, Kepler-62e and the planets of TRAPPIST-1 are some of most likely known candidates for an extrasolar ocean planet.


title: Ocean world

text: Although 70.8% of all Earth's surface is covered in water, water accounts for only 0.05% of Earth's mass. An extraterrestrial ocean could be so deep and dense that even at high temperatures the pressure would turn the water into ice. The immense pressures in the lower regions of such oceans could lead to the formation of a mantle of exotic forms of ice such as ice V. This ice would not necessarily be as cold as conventional ice. If the planet is close enough to its star that the water reaches its boiling point, the water will become supercritical and lack a well-defined surface. Even on cooler water-dominated planets, the atmosphere can be much thicker than that of Earth, and composed largely of water vapor, producing a very strong greenhouse effect. Such planets would have to be small enough not to be able to retain a thick envelope of hydrogen and helium, or be close enough to their primary star to be stripped of these light elements. Otherwise, they would form a warmer version of an ice giant instead, like Uranus and Neptune.


title: Ocean world

text: Important preliminary theoretical work was carried prior to the planetary missions launched starting in the 1970s. In particular, Lewis showed in 1971 that radioactive decay alone was likely sufficient to produce subsurface oceans in large moons, especially if ammonia () was present. Peale and Cassen figured out in 1979 the important role of tidal heating (aka: tidal flexing) on satellite evolution and structure. The first confirmed detection of an exoplanet was in 1992. Alain Léger "et al" figured in 2004 that a small number of icy planets that form in the region beyond the snow line can migrate inward to ∼1 AU, where the outer layers subsequently melt.


title: Ocean world

text: The cumulative evidence collected by the Hubble Space Telescope, as well as "Pioneer", "Galileo", "Voyager", "Cassini–Huygens", and "New Horizons" missions, strongly indicate that several outer Solar System bodies harbour internal liquid water oceans under an insulating ice shell. Meanwhile, the "Kepler" space observatory, launched on March 7, 2009, has discovered thousands of exoplanets, about 50 of them of Earth-size in or near habitable zones.


title: Ocean world

text: Planets of almost all masses, sizes, and orbits have been detected, illustrating not only the variable nature of planet formation but also a subsequent migration through the circumstellar disc from the planet's place of origin.


title: Ocean world

text: In June 2020, NASA scientists reported that it is likely that exoplanets with oceans may be common in the Milky Way galaxy, based on mathematical modeling studies.


title: Ocean world

text: Planetary objects that form in the outer Solar System begin as a comet-like mixture of roughly half water and half rock by mass, displaying a density lower than that of rocky planets. Icy planets and moons that form near the frost line should contain mostly and silicates. Those that form farther out can acquire ammonia () and methane () as hydrates, together with CO, , and .


title: Ocean world

text: Planets that form prior to the dissipation of the gaseous circumstellar disk experience strong torques that can induce rapid inward migration into the habitable zone, especially for planets in the terrestrial mass range. Since water is highly soluble in magma, a large fraction of the planet's water content will initially be trapped in the mantle. As the planet cools and the mantle begins to solidify from the bottom up, large amounts of water (between 60% and 99% of the total amount in the mantle) are exsolved to form a steam atmosphere, which may eventually condense to form an ocean. Ocean formation requires differentiation, and a heat source, either radioactive decay, tidal heating, or the early luminosity of the parent body. Unfortunately, the initial conditions following accretion are theoretically incomplete.


title: Ocean world

text: Planets that formed in the outer, water-rich regions of a disk and migrated inward are more likely to have abundant water. Conversely, planets that formed close to their host stars are less likely to have water because the primordial disks of gas and dust are thought to have hot and dry inner regions. So if a water world is found close to a star, it would be strong evidence for migration and "ex situ" formation, because insufficient volatiles exist near the star for "in situ" formation. Simulations of Solar System formation and of extra-solar system formation have shown that planets are likely to migrate inward (i.e., toward the star) as they form. Outward migration may also occur under particular conditions. Inward migration presents the possibility that icy planets could move to orbits where their ice melts into liquid form, turning them into ocean planets. This possibility was first discussed in the astronomical literature by Marc Kuchner and Alain Léger in 2004.


title: Ocean world

text: The internal structure of an icy astronomical body is generally deduced from measurements of its bulk density, gravity moments,


title: Ocean world

text: and shape. Determining the moment of inertia of a body can help assess whether it has undergone differentiation (separation into rock-ice layers) or not. Shape or gravity measurements can in some cases be used to infer the moment of inertia – if the body is in hydrostatic equilibrium (i.e. behaving like a fluid on long timescales). Proving that a body is in hydrostatic equilibrium is extremely difficult, but by using a combination of shape and gravity data, the hydrostatic contributions can be deduced. Specific techniques to detect inner oceans include magnetic induction, geodesy, librations, axial tilt, tidal response, radar sounding, compositional evidence, and surface features.


title: Ocean world

text: A generic icy moon will consist of a water layer sitting atop a silicate core. For a small satellite like Enceladus, an ocean will sit directly above the silicates and below a solid icy shell, but for a larger ice-rich body like Ganymede, pressures are sufficiently high that the ice at depth will transform to higher pressure phases, effectively forming a "water sandwich" with an ocean located between ice shells. An important difference between these two cases is that for the small satellite the ocean is in direct contact with the silicates, which may provide hydrothermal and chemical energy and nutrients to simple life forms. Because of the varying pressure at depth, models of a water world may include "steam, liquid, superfluid, high-pressure ices, and plasma phases" of water. Some of the solid-phase water could be in the form of ice VII.


title: Ocean world

text: Maintaining a subsurface ocean depends on the rate of internal heating compared with the rate at which heat is removed, and the freezing point of the liquid. Ocean survival and tidal heating are thus intimately linked.


title: Ocean world

text: Smaller ocean planets would have less dense atmospheres and lower gravity; thus, liquid could evaporate much more easily than on more massive ocean planets. Simulations suggest that planets and satellites of less than one Earth mass could have liquid oceans driven by hydrothermal activity, radiogenic heating, or tidal flexing. Where fluid-rock interactions propagate slowly into a deep brittle layer, thermal energy from serpentinization may be the primary cause of hydrothermal activity in small ocean planets. The dynamics of global oceans beneath tidally flexing ice shells represents a significant set of challenges which have barely begun to be explored. The extent to which cryovolcanism occurs is a subject of some debate, as water, being denser than ice by about 8%, has difficulty erupting under normal circumstances. Nevertheless, recent studies suggest that cryovolcanism may occur on ocean planets that harbor internal oceans beneath layers of surface ice as it does on the icy moons Enceladus and Europa in our own solar system.


title: Ocean world

text: To allow water to be liquid for long periods of time, a planet—or moon—must orbit within the habitable zone (HZ), possess a protective magnetic field, and have the gravitational pull needed to retain an ample amount of atmospheric pressure. If the planet's gravity cannot sustain that, then all the water will eventually evaporate into outer space. A strong planetary magnetosphere, maintained by internal dynamo action in an electrically conducting fluid layer, is helpful for shielding the upper atmosphere from stellar wind mass loss and retaining water over long geological time scales.


title: Ocean world

text: A planet's atmosphere forms from outgassing during planet formation or is gravitationally captured from the surrounding protoplanetary nebula. The surface temperature on an exoplanet is governed by the atmosphere's greenhouse gases (or lack thereof), so an atmosphere can be detectable in the form of upwelling infrared radiation because the greenhouse gases absorb and re-radiate energy from the host star. Ice-rich planets that have migrated inward into orbit too close to their host stars may develop thick steamy atmospheres but still retain their volatiles for billions of years, even if their atmospheres undergo slow hydrodynamic escape. Ultraviolet photons are not only biologically harmful but can drive fast atmospheric escape that leads to the erosion of planetary atmospheres; photolysis of water vapor, and hydrogen/oxygen escape to space can lead to the loss of several Earth oceans of water from planets throughout the habitable zone, regardless of whether the escape is energy-limited or diffusion-limited. The amount of water lost seems proportional with the planet mass, since the diffusion-limited hydrogen escape flux is proportional to the planet surface gravity.


title: Ocean world

text: During a runaway greenhouse effect, water vapor reaches the stratosphere, where it is easily broken down (photolyzed) by ultraviolet radiation (UV). Heating of the upper atmosphere by UV radiation can then drive a hydrodynamic wind that carries the hydrogen (and potentially some of the oxygen) to space, leading to the irreversible loss of a planet's surface water, oxidation of the surface, and possible accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere. The fate of a given planet's atmosphere strongly depends on the extreme ultraviolet flux, the duration of the runaway regime, the initial water content, and the rate at which oxygen is absorbed by the surface. Volatile-rich planets should be more common in the habitable zones of young stars and M-type stars.


title: Ocean world

text: There are challenges in examining an exoplanetary surface and its atmosphere, as cloud coverage influences the atmospheric temperature, structure as well as the observability of spectral features. However, planets composed of large quantities of water that reside in the habitable zone (HZ) are expected to have distinct geophysics and geochemistry of their surface and atmosphere. For example, in the case of exoplanets Kepler-62e and -62f, they could possess a liquid ocean outer surface, a steam atmosphere, or a full cover of surface Ice I, depending on their orbit within the HZ and the magnitude of their greenhouse effect. Several other surface and interior processes affect the atmospheric composition, including but not limited to the ocean fraction for dissolution of and for atmospheric relative humidity, redox state of the planetary surface and interior, acidity levels of the oceans, planetary albedo, and surface gravity.


title: Ocean world

text: The atmospheric structure, as well as the resulting HZ limits, depend on the density of a planet's atmosphere, shifting the HZ outward for lower mass and inward for higher mass planets. Theory, as well as computer models suggest that atmospheric composition for water planets in the habitable zone (HZ) should not differ substantially from those of land-ocean planets. For modeling purposes, it is assumed that the initial composition of icy planetesimals that assemble into water planets is similar to that of comets: mostly water (), and some ammonia (), and carbon dioxide (). An initial composition of ice similar to that of comets leads to an atmospheric model composition of 90% , 5% , and 5% .


title: Ocean world

text: Atmospheric models for Kepler-62f show that an atmospheric pressure of between 1.6 bar and 5 bar of are needed to warm the surface temperature above freezing, leading to a scaled surface pressure of 0.56–1.32 times Earth's.


title: Ocean world

text: The characteristics of ocean worlds or ocean planets provide clues to their history, and the formation and evolution of the Solar System as a whole. Of additional interest is their potential to form and host life. Life as we know it requires liquid water, a source of energy, and nutrients, and all three key requirements can potentially be satisfied within some of these bodies, that may offer the possibility for sustaining simple biological activity over geological timescales. In August 2018, researchers reported that water worlds could support life.


title: Ocean world

text: An ocean world's habitation by Earth-like life is limited if the planet is completely covered by liquid water at the surface, even more restricted if a pressurized, solid ice layer is located between the global ocean and the lower rocky mantle. Simulations of a hypothetical ocean world covered by 5 Earth oceans' worth of water indicate the water would not contain enough phosphorus and other nutrients for Earth like oxygen-producing ocean organisms such as plankton to evolve. On Earth, phosphorus is washed into the oceans by rainwater hitting rocks on exposed land so the mechanism would not work on an ocean world. Simulations of ocean planets with 50 Earth oceans' worth of water indicate the pressure on the sea floor would be so immense that the planet's interior would not sustain plate tectonics to cause volcanism to provide the right chemical environment for terrestrial life.


title: Ocean world

text: On the other hand, small bodies such as Europa and Enceladus are regarded as particularly habitable environments because their oceans are in direct contact with the underlying silicate core, a potential source of both heat and biologically important chemical elements. The surface geological activity of these bodies may also lead to the transport to the oceans of biologically-important building blocks implanted at the surface, such as organic molecules from comets or tholins —formed by solar ultraviolet irradiation of simple organic compounds such as methane or ethane, often in combination with nitrogen.


title: Ocean world

text: Molecular oxygen () can be produced by geophysical processes, as well as a byproduct of photosynthesis by life forms, so although encouraging, is not a reliable biosignature. In fact, planets with high concentration of in their atmosphere may be uninhabitable. Abiogenesis in the presence of massive amounts of atmospheric oxygen could be difficult because early organisms relied on the free energy available in redox reactions involving a variety of hydrogen compounds; on an -rich planet, organisms would have to compete with the oxygen for this free energy.


title: Muppets from Space

text: Muppets from Space is a 1999 American science-fiction comedy film directed by Tim Hill (in his feature film directorial debut) and written by Jerry Juhl, Joseph Mazzarino, and Ken Kaufman. The sixth theatrical film in "The Muppets" franchise, it is the first Muppets film to not be a musical and the first film since the death of Muppets creator Jim Henson to have an original Muppets-focused plot. In addition to the Muppet performers, the film stars Jeffrey Tambor, F. Murray Abraham, David Arquette, Josh Charles, Hollywood Hogan, Ray Liotta, and Andie MacDowell. In the film, Gonzo attempts to discover his origins. After he and Rizzo the Rat are captured by government officials during his search, Kermit the Frog and the rest of the Muppet gang set out to rescue them.


title: Muppets from Space

text: The film was shot in Wilmington, North Carolina in 1998, and was released in the United States on July 14, 1999 by Sony Pictures Releasing under its Columbia Pictures label. It grossed $22.3 million and had a budget of $24 million. Alongside "The Adventures of Elmo in Grouchland", it is the last Muppets feature film to have the involvement of Frank Oz prior to his retirement from Muppet performing the following year. It is also the last Muppet film written by Juhl prior to his death in 2005, the last Muppets film to be released theatrically until "The Muppets" in 2011, and the last theatrically released Muppet film to be produced by The Jim Henson Company before the franchise was acquired by The Walt Disney Company in 2004.


title: Muppets from Space

text: Gonzo has always been identified as a "whatever"; but, after having dreams of abandonment and rejection, including him being denied entry to Noah's Ark, he begins to realize just how alone he is in the world.


title: Muppets from Space

text: Gonzo tells Kermit that he is getting tired of being referred to as a "whatever". After an alien species appears to be trying to send a message through his bowl of cereal, Gonzo realizes that he may not be alone after all and that evening, he climbs to the rooftop of the Muppet boarding house to watch the sky. Suddenly, he is struck by a bolt of lightning, which allows him to communicate with a pair of cosmic knowledge fish, who reveal his origins as an alien from outer space.


title: Muppets from Space

text: Hoping to contact the aliens, Gonzo makes an impromptu appearance at the television studio for "UFO Mania", where Miss Piggy works. Unable to convince Kermit and his friends of the aliens' existence, Gonzo is lured by Agent Barker to K. Edgar Singer of C.O.V.N.E.T., a top secret national security facility disguised as a cement factory, whose mission is to investigate threats of extraterrestrial attacks. Singer is aware of the aliens' attempts to communicate with Earth and, having seen Gonzo on television, believes that he is the key to convincing his superior General Luft that aliens exist.


title: Muppets from Space

text: Gonzo and Rizzo are taken to C.O.V.N.E.T., where Hulk Hogan, who is working there as an agent, flushes Rizzo down a tube to the facility's rat medical research held by Dr. Tucker, alongside other Muppet rats. Unable to get answers from Gonzo about the aliens, Singer decides to have Gonzo's brain surgically removed, and has him taken to a holding cell. Meanwhile, after Miss Piggy interrogates Barker, she, Kermit, Fozzie, Pepe, and Animal go to rescue Gonzo and Rizzo from C.O.V.N.E.T., using various inventions from Bunsen and Beaker.


title: Muppets from Space

text: While Gonzo is in his cell, an alien channeling his voice through a sandwich asks him where the alien ship can land, and Gonzo suggests a beach known by the name of Cape Doom, unaware that Singer's assistant Agent Rentro (Bobo the Bear) is listening. Gonzo is then taken to the surgery room, and the Muppets arrive to rescue Gonzo and Rizzo.


title: Muppets from Space

text: Meanwhile, Rizzo escapes from medical research and frees Gonzo from the dissection table, while Singer and Luft witness the other rats attack the surgeon Dr. Phil Van Neuter. Luft feels that his time has been wasted and angrily leaves. Upon discovering from Rentro that Gonzo is heading for Cape Doom, Singer prepares the Subatomic Neutro-Destabilizer weapon to use on the aliens. Singer and Rentro then head to Cape Doom.


title: Muppets from Space

text: The Muppets rescue Gonzo from the facility, then arrive at Cape Doom where a crowd of alien believers await their arrival. After an hour-long wait, the ship comes to Earth and the aliens, who all resemble Gonzo, explain that many years ago they lost him, but now welcome him back. Singer shows up and tries to kill the aliens, ultimately failing to do so (Rentro having removed the weapon's battery) and is laughed at. Gonzo considers going with his long-lost family to their home planet, but chooses to stay on Earth with the Muppets with his family's blessing. Singer is invited by the aliens to go with them and leaves as Earth's ambassador.


title: Muppets from Space

text: Additionally, Whitmire, Kennedy, Linz, Massey, and Rickey Boyd make on-screen cameos as hippies at Cape Doom.


title: Muppets from Space

text: As with "Muppet Treasure Island" (1996), veteran Muppet performer Frank Oz was unavailable for most of the shooting of "Muppets from Space" due to scheduling conflicts with his directing career. As a result, his characters were performed on set by other Muppet performers, with Oz later looping his voice in post-production. For most of the filming, Peter Linz, John Kennedy, and Rickey Boyd performed his characters, with Linz performing Miss Piggy, Boyd performing Animal and Kennedy performing Sam Eagle and Fozzie Bear. Kennedy and Linz's voices can be heard in the film's theatrical trailer.


title: Muppets from Space

text: The film would mark the first appearance of Scooter since the theme park attraction "Muppet*Vision 3D" (1991). His voice was performed in "Muppets from Space" by Adam Hunt, the brother of Scooter's initial performer Richard Hunt.


title: Muppets from Space

text: An earlier draft of the story was written by Kirk Thatcher called "Muppets in Space". In the screenplay, aliens abducted Kermit because they believed him to be their leader, leading the other Muppets to attempt to save him. A set of Welch's Jelly Glasses were produced based around this theme. According to the production notes featured on the DVD, the film was inspired by Gonzo's song in "The Muppet Movie" (1979), "I'm Going to Go Back There Someday".


title: Muppets from Space

text: In a 2009 interview, co-writer Joseph Mazzarino revealed that he left the project before shooting started, due to changes made to his draft of the screenplay. Mazzarino stated that his draft included parodies of "Men in Black", "Contact" (both 1997) and "Alien" (1979), and that Randal Kleiser had been selected to direct the film. However, shortly before shooting began, The Jim Henson Company fired Kleiser, as they felt he was not "bringing enough vision", with Mazzarino subsequently hiring Timothy Hill as the new director, and the parodies were removed, as Hill wanted the film to be "more real".


title: Muppets from Space

text: In addition, Mazzarino disliked the revised ending of the film, and stated in his draft Gonzo did not turn out to be an alien. Instead, the aliens were getting signals from episodes of "The Muppet Show" and made themselves look like Gonzo, as they considered him to be the "ultimate being". In the end, they would reveal their true forms, and Gonzo would remain a "whatever", with his family being the Muppets.


title: Muppets from Space

text: "Muppets from Space" was the first Muppet film to not feature original music, opting instead for a soundtrack consisting primarily of classic soul and funk tracks.


title: Muppets from Space

text: Some tracks were remade by contemporary artists, such as "Shining Star" by the Dust Brothers featuring Jeymes, and "Dazz" by G. Love and Special Sauce, recorded at Muscle Shoals Sound Studio in Sheffield, Alabama. The band was in the studio recording with Little Milton on the "Welcome To Little Milton" record. The band got a call from Jason Brown, their manager, while in the studio, to record a song for the movie. Will McFarlane, who was a Shoals/Malaco studio regular, and former Bonnie Raitt guitarist, played with the band on the song. Parliament's "Flash Light" was updated by George Clinton as a duet with Pepe the King Prawn named "Flash Light (Spaceflight)".


title: Muppets from Space

text: Two soundtracks were released featuring music from the film. The first album, Muppets from Space: The Ultimate Muppet Trip, consisted of the classic soul and funk tracks featured in the film and was jointly released by Sony Wonder, Epic Records, and Sony Music Soundtrax a day before the film's premiere, while the other was an album containing the film's score, which was composed by Jamshied Sharifi with additional work by Rupert Gregson-Williams. This album was released by Varèse Sarabande on August 13, 1999.


title: Muppets from Space

text: Earlier drafts of the film contained original music, including the song "Eye 2 the Sky", written and recorded by Ween, which was not included on the soundtrack. This song was intended to be sung by Gonzo. Gonzo's performer Dave Goelz had also recorded a new rendition of "I'm Going to Go Back There Someday" for this film, a song which had originally appeared in "The Muppet Movie" (1979). This song was also dropped, but was included on the "Muppets from Space" soundtrack, also sung by Gonzo.


title: Muppets from Space

text: To promote the film's theatrical release, "Muppets from Space" was accompanied with a marketing campaign with promotional tie-ins such as Wendy's and Travelodge. From May 17 to May 21, 1999, "Wheel of Fortune" had a theme called "Wheel Goes to the Movies" which featured a prize on the Wheel that included a four day trip to Los Angeles for the world premiere of "Muppets from Space". For the film's home video release, the pizza restaurant chain Sbarro promoted the film with six figurines in a set, along with Muppet pizza boxes and bags.


title: Muppets from Space

text: On October 26, 1999, the film was released on VHS and DVD with supplemental features such as a blooper reel and an audio commentary by Kermit the Frog, Gonzo, Rizzo, and director Tim Hill. It was released alongside "The Muppets Take Manhattan" on a double feature DVD by Sony Pictures Home Entertainment on June 9, 2008. The film received a Blu-ray release on August 16, 2011 also alongside "The Muppets Take Manhattan", with all of the special features from the DVD included.


title: Muppets from Space

text: "Muppets from Space" was released on July 16, 1999 in 2,265 theaters and grossed $7 million during its five-day opening frame. At the end of its theatrical run, the film grossed $22.3 million worldwide against its $24 million budget.


title: Muppets from Space

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 63% based on 57 reviews and an average score of 6.17/10. The site's consensus reads: "If "Muppets from Space" lacks the magic and wit of its cinematic predecessors, this pleasingly silly space romp is funny and clever enough to make for better-than-average family entertainment."


title: Muppets from Space

text: Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times" gave the film a two-star rating (out of four) and concluded his review by saying that "maybe "Muppets from Space" is just not very good, and they'll make a comeback. I hope so. Because I just don't seem to care much anymore." Conversely, Robin Rauzi of the "Los Angeles Times" gave the film a positive review, stating that "twenty years after "The Muppet Movie" and 30 after the beginning of "Sesame Street", there is still life in these creations of felt, foam rubber and fake fur. With care, they will easily entertain and educate a third or fourth generation of children. The magic is back."


title: Muppets from Space

text: Michael Wilmington, reviewing for "The Chicago Tribune", praised the puppeteers' performances, but remarked "[t]his picture isn't goofy or dreamy enough, however engaging it may be to re-encounter the intrigues of Miss Piggy, the wistfulness of Kermit or the weirdness of Gonzo. Or relax into the period funk soundtrack (including the O'Jays' "Survival," Earth, Wind and Fire's "Shining Star" and many others)." Lawrence Van Gelder of "The New York Times" felt the "Frenetic movement and loud music overwhelm warmth and compassion, and the balance of character, plot, irreverent humor and innate decency that made some of the earlier Muppet movies so welcome is lost."


title: Muppets from Space

text: In a 2000 interview, Frank Oz described the film as not "up to what it should have been" and "not the movie that we wanted it to be."


title: Park Hoon

text: Park Won-hee (born April 27, 1981), better known by his stage name Park Hoon, is a South Korean actor. He starred in TV series such as "Descendants of the Sun" (2016), "Naked Fireman" (2017), "Two Cops" (2017) and "Memories of the Alhambra" (2018).


title: Tanga Loa

text: Tevita Tu'amoeloa Fetaiakimoeata Fifita (born May 7, 1983) is an American professional wrestler, currently working for New Japan Pro-Wrestling (NJPW), under the ring name Tanga Loa (タンガ・ロア　"Tanga Roa") (originally Tanga Roa).


title: Tanga Loa

text: Fifita started his wrestling career in WWE's farm territory Florida Championship Wrestling in 2009. He was promoted to the main roster in 2011, where he worked as Camacho in a tag team with Hunico. They worked on the undercard on SmackDown and NXT for a few years. After he left WWE in 2014, he worked for two years in Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (TNA) under the name Micah, where he won the 2015's Gut Check. Later, he left the promotion and joined NJPW as Tanga Loa, joining his brother Tama Tonga as Guerrillas of Destiny, a subgroup of the heel faction Bullet Club. In NJPW, he and Tonga are seven-time IWGP Tag Team Champions and former three-time NEVER Openweight 6-Man Tag Team Champions with Bad Luck Fale and Taiji Ishimori. He also has made appearances in the U.S. based promotion Ring of Honor (ROH), where the Guerrillas of Destiny are former one-time ROH World Tag Team Champions.


title: Tanga Loa

text: Fifita is part of a large wrestling family, as he is the brother of Tama Tonga and Hikuleo and the son of Haku.


title: Tanga Loa

text: Born in Honolulu, Hawaii, Fifita attended the University of Texas at El Paso, where he played football as a defensive end. Fifita graduated with a degree in liberal arts with major in Communications Electronic Media and minor in criminal justice.


title: Tanga Loa

text: After taking part in a World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) tryout alongside his adoptive brother Alipate, Fifita signed a developmental contract with the promotion on February 10, 2009, and was assigned to its developmental territory Florida Championship Wrestling (FCW) as Tonga. In March, he became known as Agent T, as part of Abraham Washington's Secret Service stable, alongside Agent D and Agent J. He later changed his name to Donny Marlow. On July 21, 2011, Marlow and CJ Parker defeated Calvin Raines and Big E Langston to win the FCW Florida Tag Team Championship. On November 3, Marlow and Parker lost the Tag Team Championship to Brad Maddox and Briley Pierce.


title: Tanga Loa

text: On the December 15, 2011 episode of "Superstars", Fifita came to the ring as the new enforcer of Hunico, and his new ring name was revealed as Camacho. Hunico and Camacho first teamed together on the April 26 episode of "Superstars" where they beat the Usos. Camacho made his pay-per-view debut at Over the Limit, where he was defeated by Ryback in a singles match. Camacho began appearing again on WWE's developmental territory, the former FCW, which had been rebranded into NXT Wrestling; He made his NXT debut on the July 4, 2012 episode of the rebooted "NXT", first losing to Seth Rollins but emerging victorious later that episode in a six-man tag match while teaming with Hunico and Michael McGillicutty against Rollins, Bo Dallas, and Tyson Kidd. On the next episode of "NXT", Camacho defeated Kidd in a singles match following a distraction from McGillicutty. In the pre-show of Money in the Bank, he and Hunico lost to the WWE Tag Team Champions, Kofi Kingston and R-Truth in a non-title match. At "Raw 1,000", Camacho, along with Hunico and four other wrestlers attempted to ambush Kane to make a statement, but The Undertaker's return resulted in the Brothers of Destruction disposing of all six would-be attackers. With Hunico out injured, Camacho continued to compete on NXT; after a $5,000 bounty was promised to anyone who could put Big E Langston "on the shelf"; Camacho attempted to claim the bounty in late-2012 so that he could "get Hunico out of Mexico", but he was squashed by Langston. On April 4, 2013, Camacho reunited with Hunico at the WrestleMania Axxess live event. On the November 6, 2013 episode of "Main Event" he and Hunico made their first televised tag team match since July 2012, losing to The Usos. He and Hunico then started a feud against The Ascension, defeating them in a non-title match, but were then defeated in a NXT championship match.


title: Tanga Loa

text: Once Hunico started portraying Sin Cara again, Camacho started to wrestle solo on "NXT". Camacho scored a rare victory over the returning Oliver Grey at the March 13 television tapings. His last feud in WWE was with Adam Rose on "NXT", which began when he attacked one of Rose's followers after a match and ended at NXT TakeOver when Camacho lost to Rose. On June 12, 2014, Camacho was released from his contract.


title: Tanga Loa

text: On February 16, 2015, Fifita participated at Total Nonstop Action Wrestling's TNA One Night Only's Gut Check, where he won a tournament to earn a spot in the company. On March 15, 2015, Fifita, under the ring name of Micah and announcing himself as the son of Haku, made his debut at "Impact Wrestling" as a member of The Rising, a stable consisting of himself, Drew Galloway, and Eli Drake. On the April 24 edition of "Impact Wrestling", Micah defeated Kenny King. On the May 22 episode of "Impact Wrestling", Micah wrestled against Kenny King for his TNA X Division Championship, but failed to win the title. On the June 3 episode of "Impact Wrestling", The Rising defeated The Beat Down Clan. On the July 1 edition of "Impact Wrestling", The Beat Down Clan defeated The Rising in a 4-on-3 handicap match, forcing The Rising to dissolve. On the September 9 edition of "Impact Wrestling", Micah, Tigre Uno and Robbie E defeated Jessie Godderz, Kenny King and his former partner Eli Drake in a six man tag team match. From October to November (during which "Impact Wrestling" had been taped from July 22-July 25), Micah participated in the TNA World Title Series in the "Future 4" group, during which he earned 4 points and thus failed to qualify for the successive round of 16. On the December 16 edition of "Impact Wrestling", Micah wrestled his final match for TNA, where he teamed up with Eli Drake, Jessie Godderz and Crimson in a losing effort against Tigre Uno, DJ Z, Manik and Mandrews in an Eight-Man Tag Team match. Micah did not appear after this leading to his release.


title: Tanga Loa

text: On March 12, 2016, Fifita was announced as the newest member of New Japan Pro-Wrestling (NJPW) stable Bullet Club. The announcement was made by his brother Tama Tonga, who challenged Togi Makabe and Tomoaki Honma to a match for the IWGP Tag Team Championship at Invasion Attack 2016. Two days later, Fifita was given the new ring name Tanga Loa (sometimes spelled "Tanga Roa"), while his team with his brother was dubbed Guerrillas of Destiny (G.O.D). Fifita's ring name was taken from Tangaloa, a family of gods in Tongan mythology. Loa made his NJPW debut on March 27 by attacking Togi Makabe during his match with Tonga, causing a disqualification. Loa's debut match took place on April 1, when he and Bullet Club stablemates Tonga, Bad Luck Fale, Kenny Omega and Yujiro Takahashi were defeated by Makabe, Honma, Juice Robinson, Hiroshi Tanahashi and Michael Elgin in a ten-man elimination tag team match. On April 10 at Invasion Attack 2016, G.O.D defeated Makabe and Honma to become the new IWGP Tag Team Champions. They lost the title to The Briscoe Brothers (Jay and Mark) on June 19 at Dominion 6.19 in Osaka-jo Hall. On October 10 at King of Pro-Wrestling, the Guerrillas of Destiny regained the IWGP Tag Team Championship from the Briscoe Brothers. In December, the Guerrillas of Destiny won their block in the 2016 World Tag League with a record of six wins and one loss and advanced to the finals of the tournament. On December 10, the Guerrillas of Destiny were defeated in the finals of the tournament by Togi Makabe and Tomoaki Honma. On January 4, 2017, Loa and Tonga lost the IWGP Tag Team Championship to Tomohiro Ishii and Toru Yano in a three-way match, also involving Makabe and Honma. On June 11 at Dominion 6.11 in Osaka-jo Hall, Loa and Tonga defeated War Machine (Hanson and Raymond Rowe) to win the IWGP Tag Team Championship for the third time. They lost the title back to War Machine in a no disqualification match on July 1 at G1 Special in USA. In December, Guerrillas of Destiny won their block in the 2017 World Tag League with a record of five wins and two losses, advancing to the finals of the tournament. On December 11, they were defeated in the finals of the tournament by "Los Ingobernables de Japón" (Evil and Sanada). Six days later, Guerrillas of Destiny and Bad Luck Fale defeated Evil, Sanada and Bushi to become the new NEVER Openweight 6-Man Tag Team Champions. They lost the title to Chaos (Beretta, Tomohiro Ishii and Toru Yano) in a five-team gauntlet match on January 4, 2018, at Wrestle Kingdom 12 in Tokyo Dome. The following day at New Year's Dash, they would regain the title from Chaos.


title: Tanga Loa

text: At The New Beginning in Sapporo, Bullet Club stablemate Cody turned on the leader of the stable, Kenny Omega. This led to there being two sides to Bullet Club; Team Cody and Team Kenny. While Tama and Loa stayed neutral at Strong Style Evolved before a tag team match against Marty Scurll and Cody, Loa speaking for both himself and his brother, stated if they were to be on a team it wouldn't be Team Cody. On the first night of the Wrestling Dontaku 2018 shows, G.O.D and Fale lost the NEVER Openweight 6-Man Tag Team Championship to the Super Villains (Marty Scurll and the Young Bucks). The second night, Tama debuted the newest member to Bullet Club, Taiji Ishimori. Later, it was announced that Tama will be competing in the G1 Climax 28.


title: Tanga Loa

text: At the G1 Special in San Francisco, Tama, Loa, King Haku, Chase Owens, and Yujiro Takahashi defeated CHAOS members Gedo, Yoshi-Hashi, and Roppongi 3K (Rocky Romero, Sho and Yoh), with Tama pinning Gedo after a Tongan Death Grip by Haku to Gedo followed by a Gun Stun. At the end of the night, following Kenny's victory over Cody in the main event, Tama, Loa, and Haku came out to seemingly celebrate with Kenny and the Young Bucks in a show of loyalty, only to attack The Elite, as well as fellow Bullet Club members Hangman Page, Marty Scurll, even Chase and Takahashi, and finally Cody, when they tried to intervene. They then left the ring declaring that they were the true Bullet Club.


title: Tanga Loa

text: On January 30, 2019, they lost the NEVER Openweight 6-Man Championship against Ryusuke Taguchi, Makabe and Yano.


title: Tanga Loa

text: On February 23, 2019, they would regain the IWGP Heavyweight Tag Team Titles by defeating Sanada & Evil at : Day 2, starting their fifth reign. After defending the championships seven times, their reign would end when G.O.D lost to FinJuice (Juice Robinson & David Finlay) at Wrestle Kingdom 14. They would soon immediately regain the belts at The New Beginning in the USA event in Atlanta, before again losing them without a defence to Golden*Ace (Hiroshi Tanahashi & Kota Ibushi) on a New Japan Road show in Korakuen Hall.


title: Tanga Loa

text: After the 2020 Pandemic, Guerrillas of Destiny would make their return to Japan as participants of the World Tag League. They would win the tournament for the first time after defeating FinJuice in the finals. They would go on to win an IWGP Tag Team Title match at the Tokyo Dome for the first time, defeating champions Dangerous Tekkers (Taichi & Zack Sabre Jr.) after Loa hit 'ApeSh*t' (a Sitout Reverse Piledriver) on Taichi after 19 minutes & 18 seconds. They lost the championships back to the Dangerous Tekkers on June 1.


title: Tanga Loa

text: On June 1, 2016, the Mexican Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre (CMLL) promotion announced Roa and Tonga as participants in the 2016 International Gran Prix. On June 24, Roa, Tonga and Sam Adonis defeated Atlantis, Diamante Azul and Volador Jr. in Arena México. On July 1, Roa took part in the 2016 International Gran Prix, from which he was eliminated by Último Guerrero.


title: Tanga Loa

text: Fifita is a second generation professional wrestler; his father Tonga was the professional wrestler better known as Meng or Haku. He has a biological sister, Vika. His adopted brothers Alipate and Taula are also wrestlers; currently all three brothers, as well as cousin Simi Taitoko Fale, wrestle together in New Japan Pro-Wrestling as part of the Bullet Club stable. The Anoa'i family such as The Usos, The Rock and Roman Reigns are considered family to the Tongans despite no blood relation after Peter Maivia helped train his father Haku and the close bond the family shares with one another.


title: Magisterium

text: The magisterium of the Roman Catholic Church is the church's authority or office to give authentic interpretation of the Word of God, "whether in its written form or in the form of Tradition." According to the 1992 Catechism of the Catholic Church, the task of interpretation is vested uniquely in the Pope and the bishops, though the concept has a complex history of development. Scripture and Tradition "make up a single sacred deposit of the Word of God, which is entrusted to the Church", and the magisterium is not independent of this, since "all that it proposes for belief as being divinely revealed is derived from this single deposit of faith."


title: Magisterium

text: The exercise of the Catholic Church's magisterium is sometimes, but only rarely, expressed in the solemn form of an "ex cathedra" papal declaration, "when, in the exercise of his office as shepherd and teacher of all Christians, in virtue of his supreme apostolic authority, [the Bishop of Rome] defines a doctrine concerning faith or morals to be held by the whole Church," or of a similar declaration by an ecumenical council. Such solemn declarations of the church's teaching involve the infallibility of the Church.


title: Magisterium

text: Pope Pius IX's definition of the Immaculate Conception of Mary and Pope Pius XII's definition of the Assumption of Mary are examples of such solemn papal pronouncements. Most dogmas have been promulgated at ecumenical councils. Examples of solemn declarations by ecumenical councils are the Council of Trent's decree on justification and the First Vatican Council's definition of papal infallibility.


title: Magisterium

text: The Catholic Church's magisterium is exercised without this solemnity in statements by popes and bishops, whether collectively (as by an episcopal conference) or singly, in written documents such as catechisms, encyclicals, and pastoral letters, or orally, as in homilies. These statements are part of the "ordinary" magisterium of the church.


title: Magisterium

text: The First Vatican Council declared that, "all those things are to be believed with divine and Catholic faith which are contained in the Word of God, written or handed down, and which the Church, either by a solemn judgment or by her ordinary and universal teaching magisterium, proposes for belief as having been divinely revealed."


title: Magisterium

text: The Second Vatican Council declared further that not everything contained in the statements of the ordinary magisterium is infallible, but the Catholic Church holds that the Church's infallibility is invested in the statements of its "universal" ordinary magisterium: "Although the bishops, taken individually, do not enjoy the privilege of infallibility, they do, however, proclaim infallibly the doctrine of Christ on the following conditions: namely, when, even though dispersed throughout the world but preserving for all that amongst themselves and with Peter's successor the bond of communion, in their authoritative teaching concerning matters of faith or morals, they are in agreement that a particular teaching is to be held definitively and absolutely."


title: Magisterium

text: Such teachings of the ordinary and universal magisterium are obviously not given in a single specific document. They are teachings upheld as authoritative, generally for a long time, by the entire body of bishops. Examples given are the teaching on the reservation of ordination to males and on the immorality of procured abortion.


title: Magisterium

text: Even public statements by popes or bishops on questions of faith or morals that do not qualify as "ordinary and universal magisterium" have an authority that Catholics are not free to merely dismiss. They are required to give that teaching religious submission:


title: Magisterium

text: The word "magisterium" is derived from Latin "magister", which means "teacher" in ecclesiastical Latin. (It originally had a more general meaning, and could designate president, chief, director, superintendent, etc., and was only rarely a tutor or instructor of youth.) The noun "magisterium" refers to the office of a "magister". Thus the relationship between "magister" and "magisterium" is the same as the relationship in English between "president" and "presidency".


title: Magisterium

text: Since the time of Pope Pius XII, the word "magisterium" has also been used to refer to the persons who hold this office.


title: Magisterium

text: The Catholic Church teaches that Jesus Christ is the source of divine revelation. The Catholic Church bases all of its teachings on sacred tradition and sacred scripture. The Magisterium consists of only all the infallible teachings of the Church, "Wherefore, by divine and Catholic faith all those things are to be believed which are contained in the word of God as found in Scripture and tradition, and which are proposed by the Church as matters to be believed as divinely revealed, whether by her solemn judgment or in her ordinary and universal Magisterium." (First Vatican Council, "Dei Filius", 8.) However, the criteria for the infallibility of these two functions of the sacred Magisterium are different. The sacred magisterium consists of both the extraordinary and dogmatic decrees of the Pope and ecumenical councils, and the Ordinary and Universal Magisterium.


title: Magisterium

text: The Second Vatican Council states, "For this reason Jesus perfected revelation by fulfilling it through His whole work of making Himself present and manifesting Himself: through His words and deeds, His signs and wonders, but especially through His death and glorious resurrection from the dead and final sending of the Spirit of truth." ("Dei verbum", 4). The content of Christ's divine revelation, as faithfully passed on by the Apostles, is called the Deposit of Faith, and consists of both Sacred Scripture and Sacred Tradition.


title: Magisterium

text: The infallible teachings of the ecumenical councils consist of the solemn dogmatic, theological or moral definitions as contained in declarations, decrees, doctrines and condemnations (traditionally expressed in conciliar canons and decrees) of councils consisting of the pope and the bishops from all over the world.


title: Magisterium

text: A teaching of ordinary and universal magisterium is a teaching of which all bishops (including the Pope) universally agree on and is also considered infallible. Such a teaching must also be a part of the "sensus fidelium".


title: Magisterium

text: Only the Pope and bishops in communion with him make up the magisterium; theologians and schismatic bishops do not.


title: Magisterium

text: The most basic foundation of the Magisterium, the apostolic succession of bishops and their authority as protectors of the faith, was one of the few points that was rarely debated by the Church Fathers. The doctrine was elaborated by Ignatius of Antioch (and others) in the face of Gnosticism, expounded by others such as Irenaeus, Tertullian, Cyprian, Ambrose, and Augustine, and by the end of the 2nd century AD was universally accepted by the bishops.


title: Magisterium

text: Some of the first problems began to arise, however, with the increasing worldliness of the clergy. Criticism arose against the bishops, and an attempt was made to have all bishops drawn from the ranks of monastic communities, whose men were seen as the holiest possible leaders. However, there had also developed in the Church a Roman sense of government, which insisted upon order at any cost, and this led to the phenomenon of the “imperial bishops,” men who had to be obeyed by virtue of their position, regardless of their personal holiness, and the distinction between “man” and “office.”


title: Magisterium

text: This understanding was not universally accepted. According to Robert B. Eno, Origen was one of the most famous critics of the episcopal corruption. He says that throughout Origen's life, many of his writings were considered to be questionably orthodox, and he seemed to espouse the idea of a teaching authority based on theological expertise alone rather than, or at least along with, apostolic succession.


title: Magisterium

text: Another early disagreement in the Church surrounding the issue of authority manifested itself in Montanism, which began as a movement promoting the charism of prophecy. Montanism claimed, among other things, that prophecies like those found in the Old Testament were continuing in the Church, and that new prophecies had the same authority as apostolic teaching. The Church, however, ruled that these new prophecies were not authoritative, and condemned Montanism as a heresy. Other times, private revelations were recognized by the Church, but the Church continues to teach that private revelations are altogether separate from the deposit of faith, and that they are not required to be believed by all Catholics.


title: Magisterium

text: The first seven ecumenical councils, presided over by the emperor with representatives from all important metropolitan sees including Jerusalem, Constantinople, and Rome among others, exercised an important authority to define doctrine seen as essential to most contemporary Christians, including the divinity of Christ and the two natures of Christ. These councils also produced various creeds, including the Nicene Creed. The official language of these councils, including all authoritative texts produced, was Greek. The relation between the councils and patriarchal authority was complex. For example, the sixth council, the Third Council of Constantinople, condemned both monoenergism and monothelitism and included those who had supported this heresy, including Pope Honorius I and four previous patriarchs of Constantinople.


title: Magisterium

text: Perceptions of teaching authority in the Middle Ages are hard to characterize because they were so varied. While there arose a keener understanding and acceptance of papal primacy (at least after the Great Schism), there was also an increased emphasis placed on the theologian, and there were numerous dissenters from both views.


title: Magisterium

text: As part of the flourishing of culture and renewal under his reign, the Emperor Charlemagne commissioned one of the first major church-wide studies of the patristic era. This "golden age" or Carolingian Renaissance greatly influenced the identity of the Church. New texts were being discovered and disseminated at rapid pace in the late 700s and early 800s and patristic authorship became important for establishing a text's authority in Catholic theology. Unfortunately also at this time, a series of power struggles emerged between diocesan bishops and their metropolitans. As part of this struggle, a series of elaborate forgeries were produced, capitalizing on the cultural renaissance of the time and eagerness to discover new texts. The Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals asserted Roman papal power to depose and appoint bishops for the first time by deriving this power from forgeries of texts of the fathers of early church, interlaced with texts already known to be legitimate. These decretals had an enormous influence on concentrating the teaching power of the pope, and were not uncovered as forgeries until the 1500s or universally acknowledged to be forgeries until the 1800s.


title: Magisterium

text: Many concepts of teaching authority gained prominence in the Middle Ages, including the concept of the authority of the learned expert, an idea which began with Origen (or even earlier) and still today has proponents. Some allowed for the participation of theologians in the teaching life of the church, but still drew distinctions between the powers of the theologian and bishops; one example of this view is in the writing of St. Thomas Aquinas, who spoke of the “Magisterium cathedrae pastoralis” ( of the pastoral chair) and the “Magisterium cathedrae magistralis” (Magisterium of a master’s chair). The highest order of the Magisterium cathedrae pastoralis mentioned is the episcopacy itself, and at the top the pope: "Magis est standum sententiae Papae, ad quem pertinet determinare de fide, quam in iudicio profert, quam quorumlibet sapientum hominum in Scripturis opinioni." Others held more extreme views, such as Godefroid of Fontaines, who insisted that the theologian had a right to maintain his own opinions in the face of episcopal and even papal rulings.


title: Magisterium

text: Until the formation of the Roman Inquisition in the 16th century, the central authority to discover the norm for Catholic truth by means of the study and commentary on scripture and tradition was universally seen as being the role of the theology faculties of universities. The Paris faculty of theology at the Sorbonne rose in prominence to be the most important in the Christian world. A common act of kings, bishops, and popes in matters of church or state with regard to religion was to poll the universities, especially the Sorbonne, on theological questions so as to obtain opinions from the masters before making their own judgment. In the Catholic Church today, this custom is still observed (at least pro forma) in the retention of an official Theologian of the Pontifical Household, who often advises the pope on matters of controversy.


title: Magisterium

text: Throughout the Middle Ages, support for the primacy of the pope (spiritually and temporally) and his ability to speak authoritatively on matters of doctrine grew significantly as the Decretals of Isadore became widely accepted. Two popes, Innocent III (1198–1216) and Boniface VIII (1294–1303), were especially influential in advancing the power of the papacy. Innocent asserted that the pope’s power was a right bestowed by God, and developed the idea of the pope not only as a teacher and spiritual leader but also a secular ruler. Boniface, in the papal bull "Unam Sanctam," asserted that the spiritual world, headed on earth by the pope, has authority over the temporal world, and that all must submit themselves to the authority of the pope to be saved.


title: Magisterium

text: In the "Decretum" of Gratian, a 12th-century canon lawyer, the pope is attributed the legal right to pass judgment in theological disputes, but he was certainly not guaranteed freedom from error. The pope’s role was to establish limits within which theologians, who were often better suited for the full expression of truth, could work. Thus, the pope’s authority was as a judge, not an infallible teacher.


title: Magisterium

text: The doctrine began to visibly develop during the Reformation, leading to a formal statement of the doctrine by St. Robert Bellarmine in the early 17th century, but it did not come to widespread acceptance until the 19th century and the First Vatican Council.


title: Magisterium

text: A significant development in the teaching authority of the Church occurred from 1414 to 1418 with the Council of Constance, which effectively ran the Church during the Great Schism, during which there were three men claiming to be the pope. An early decree of this council, "Haec Sancta", challenged the primacy of the pope, saying that councils represent the church, are imbued with their power directly by Christ, and are binding even for the pope in matters of faith. This declaration was later declared void by the Church because the early sessions of the council had not been confirmed by a pope, but it demonstrates that there were still conciliar currents in the church running against the doctrine of papal primacy, likely influenced by the corruption seen in the papacy during this time period.


title: Magisterium

text: The theologian continued to play a more prominent role in the teaching life of the church, as “doctors” were called upon more and more to help bishops form doctrinal opinions. Illustrating this, at the Council of Basle in 1439, bishops and other clergy were greatly outnumbered by doctors of theology.


title: Magisterium

text: Despite this growth in influence, popes still asserted their power to crack down on those perceived as “rogue” theologians, through councils (for example, in the cases of Peter Abelard and Beranger) and commissions (as with Nicolas of Autrecourt, Ockham, and Eckhart). With the coming of the Reformation in 1517, this assertion of papal power came to a head and the primacy and authority of the papacy over theologians was vigorously re-established. However, the Council of Trent re-introduced the collaboration between theologians and council Fathers, and the next centuries leading up to the First and Second Vatican Councils were generally accepting of a broader role for the learned in the Church, although the popes still kept a close eye on theologians and intervened occasionally.


title: Magisterium

text: In the late medieval period, statements of this papal power were common in the works of theologians as well. For example, Domingo Bañez attributed to the Pope the “definitive power to declare the truths of the faith," and Thomas Cajetan, in expanding the distinction made by St. Thomas Aquinas, drew a line between personal faith manifested in theologians and the authoritative faith presented as a matter of judgment by the pope.


title: Magisterium

text: In the late Middle Ages, the concept of papal infallibility came to fruition, but a definitive statement and explanation of these doctrines did not occur until the 19th century, with Pope Pius IX and the First Vatican Council (1869–1870). Pius IX was the first pope to use the term “Magisterium” in the sense that it is understood today, and the concept of the “ordinary and universal Magisterium” was officially established during Vatican I. In addition, this council defined the doctrine of papal infallibility, the ability of the pope to speak without error “when, acting in his capacity as pastor and teacher of all Christians, he commits his supreme authority in the universal Church on a question of faith or morals.” This declaration wasn't without some controversy; the bishops of Uniate Churches walked out en masse rather than voting against the declaration in session, and the resulting declaration also had a great deal to do with the finalization of the Old Catholic Church schism that had been festering for some time. John Henry Newman accepted the Council's authority, but questioned whether the Council was truly an "ecumenical" council.


title: Magisterium

text: Later, Pope Pius XII (reigned 1939-1958) authoritatively stated the scope of the Magisterium further, stating that the faithful must be obedient to even the ordinary Magisterium of the Pope, and that “there can no longer be any question of free discussion between theologians” once the Pope has spoken on a given issue.


title: Magisterium

text: Pope Paul VI (reigned 1963-1978) agreed with this view. Theology and the magisterium have the same source, revelation, and closely cooperate: the Magisterium does not receive a revelation to resolve disputed questions. The theologian, in obedience to the magisterium, tries to develop answers to new questions. The magisterium in turn needs this work in order to authoritatively give solutions to modern problems in the area of faith and morals. Theology again, accepts these answers and serves as a bridge between the magisterium and the faithful, explaining the reasons behind the teaching of the magisterium.


title: Magisterium

text: The debate concerning the Magisterium, papal primacy and infallibility, and the authority to teach in general has not lessened since the official declaration of the doctrines. Instead, the Church has faced contrary arguments; at one end there are those with the tendency to regard even technically non-binding papal encyclicals as infallible statements and, at the other, are those who refuse to accept in any sense controversial encyclicals such as "Humanae Vitae." There are also those who, like John Henry Newman, question whether the First Vatican Council was itself an ecumenical council, and as a result whether the dogma of papal infallibility itself as defined at that council was a fallible pronouncement. The situation is complicated by changing attitudes toward authority in an increasingly democratic world, the new importance placed on academic freedom, and new means of knowledge and communication. In addition, the authority of theologians is being revisited, with theologians pushing past the structures laid out by Pius XII to claim authority in theology in their own right such as was the case in the middle ages. Others simply regard themselves purely as academics not in the service of any institution.


title: Magisterium

text: In September 2018, the Synod of Bishops was granted Magisterium over documents which are approved at their Synods.


title: Riky Rick

text: Rikhado Muziwendlovu Makhado (20 July 1987 23 February 2022), known professionally as Riky Rick, was a South African rapper, singer and producer. He was also the founder and owner of record label Cotton Club Records and a member of Boyz N Bucks and he's well known of his hit songs like boss zonke and Nafukwa


title: Riky Rick

text: He came into the limelight between 2009 and 2010, when he dropped mixtapes such as "The Comeback Kid" and "Last Summer" with Da L.E.S.


title: Riky Rick

text: Rikhado Chifaro Makhado was born on 20 July 1987. He was raised in KwaMashu township near Durban, Natal. His childhood friends described him as a creative individual who was entrepreneurial, kind and artistically gifted, even at a young age.


title: Riky Rick

text: Makhado's music career actually began at a recording studio session with Bongani Fassie. It was by Fassie's side that Makhado was inspired to make his own music. That is when he released his first single "Barbershop" featuring Da L.E.S.


title: Riky Rick

text: His single "Nafukwa" which was released in 2014, won an MTV Africa Music Award for Video of the Year.


title: Riky Rick

text: On 3 April 2015, his debut studio album "Family Values" was released and received positive reviews from music critics. It featured guest appearances from Cassper Nyovest, Okmalumkoolkat, Zano and Black Motion. The album was certified platinum by the Recording Industry of South Africa (RiSA) with sales of over 50 000 units. Its success saw him nominated for eight South African Hip-Hop Awards (SAHHAs) that year, more than any other artist. "Family Values" remains his only studio album to date. It was released and made available for purchase on iTunes by Makhado Makhado Agency on 3 April 2015.


title: Riky Rick

text: On 24 April 2014, his single "Sondela", featuring Zano was released, which was dedicated to his beloved wife Bianca. On 28 October 2014,the smash hit "Boss Zonke" was released, which peaked at number 3 on the SA Hip Hop Top Ten List.


title: Riky Rick

text: One of the most popular tracks on the tracklist "Amantombazane" led to the "Amantombazane (Remix)" which featured fellow South African recording artists OkMalumkoolKat, Maggz, Kwesta, Ginger Bread Man, Kid X, Nadia Nakai and DJ Dimplez. The track was nominated for Remix of the Year at the 2015 South African Music Awards (SAMAs).


title: Riky Rick

text: In June 2016, his single "Sidlukotini" was released. "Sidlukotini" directly translates to "We are eating cotton" in Zulu. This song spoke to Makhado's love for fashion. For Sidlukotini, he won Best Hit Single at the 2016 Metro FM Music Awards, an award ceremony that infamously saw him take to the stage and criticise the awards for being rigged before encouraging upcoming musicians to forget the radio and make their songs "pop on the internet".


title: Riky Rick

text: He left independent record label Mabala Noise shortly after the awards. He then released the "Scooby Snacks" EP that features only one artist, Frank Casino. It includes the tracks "Oh Lord", "Bandz Over Fans" and "Family" (featuring Frank Casino). He followed up his growing body of work when he released "Buy It Out" on 15 September 2017. Just a year later, he released a new EP, "Stay Shining", through a licensing deal between his new label Cotton Club Records and Sony Music Entertainment Africa.


title: Riky Rick

text: In November 2018, he announced his first concert called "Cotton Fest", which he personally headlined on 2 February 2019. In an interview in 2019, Riky described the festival as being "... for us, by us, for the people, for everybody. It's not about me. It's not a one-man show."


title: Riky Rick

text: In early 2010, Makhado met his wife Bianca Naidoo in Sandton. She had a daughter, Jordan from a previous relationship. After close to three years of dating, the couple got married in 2013. About a year later, they welcomed their first child together, a son whom they named Maik Daniel.


title: Riky Rick

text: In 2020, in an interview with rapper Yanga Chief on his "Lab Live" YouTube series, Makhado opened up about his suicidal past. After battling alcohol and drug addiction in his youth, he practiced sobriety after going through a difficult time.


title: Riky Rick

text: Makhado died on 23 February 2022 in Johannesburg, aged 34. The cause of death was reported as suicide by hanging after a lengthy battle with depression.


title: Catherine Sutherland

text: Catherine Jane Sutherland (born 24 October 1974) is an Australian actress. She is known for her portrayal of Kat Hillard, the second Pink Power Ranger and later, the Pink Zeo Ranger and the first Pink Turbo Ranger in the "Power Rangers" television series.


title: Catherine Sutherland

text: Sutherland also appeared in the 2000 film "The Cell", which cut out her speaking part for the theatrical release.


title: Catherine Sutherland

text: Sutherland joined the cast of "Mighty Morphin Power Rangers" partway through its third season, replacing Amy Jo Johnson's character Kimberly Hart as the bearer of the title of Pink Ranger. Sutherland as Kat remained a member of the cast during the fourth season "Power Rangers Zeo", the film "", and the fifth season "Power Rangers Turbo" until she left the cast mid-season and was replaced by Patricia Ja Lee as Cassie Chan. Sutherland has said that "Turbo" was her favourite season to work on.


title: Catherine Sutherland

text: Sutherland also provided voice over work for some minor characters such as in the "Power Rangers Wild Force" episode "Forever Red". Sutherland has also appeared with other former cast members at fan conventions.


title: Catherine Sutherland

text: Sutherland also appeared in the 2000 film "The Cell", which cut out her speaking part for the theatrical release. She had received the role after appearing on the Australian reality show "Dream Factory". She also appeared in an advertising campaign for Rice Krispies cereal in the United States.


title: Catherine Sutherland

text: In 2018, she returned to the role of Katherine Hillard for an episode of "Power Rangers Super Ninja Steel" entitled “Dimensions in Danger”, which celebrated the franchise’s 25th anniversary. Sutherland is due to return in a 30th-anniversary special set to be released on Netflix in 2023.


title: Soccer in the United States

text: Soccer in the United States is run by different organizations. The United States Soccer Federation (USSF) governs most levels of soccer in the country, including the national teams, professional leagues, and amateur leagues, being the highest soccer authority in the country. The National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) governs most colleges; secondary schools are governed by state-level associations, with the National Federation of State High School Associations (NFHS) setting the rules at that level. The match regulations are generally the same between the three governing bodies although there are many subtle differences.


title: Soccer in the United States

text: , over 24.4 million people play soccer in the United States. In 2017, Gallup reported that soccer was the third-most watched team sport in the U.S., behind only basketball and American football. The popularity of the sport in the U.S. has been growing since the late 1960s and received a significant boost when the United States hosted the 1994 FIFA World Cup and 1999 FIFA Women's World Cup. It is the fourth most popular sport in the United States behind American football, baseball, and basketball.


title: Soccer in the United States

text: The highest-level men's professional soccer league in the U.S. is Major League Soccer (MLS). The league's predecessor was the major professional North American Soccer League (NASL), which existed from 1968 until 1984. MLS began to play in 1996 with 10 teams and has grown to 28 teams (25 in the United States and 3 in Canada), with further expansion planned to 30 teams. MLS is currently the largest first division professional football league in the world. The MLS season runs from February to November, with the regular-season winner awarded the Supporters' Shield and the post-season winner awarded the MLS Cup. With an average attendance of over 20,000 per game, MLS has the third-highest average attendance of any sports league in the U.S. after the National Football League (NFL) and Major League Baseball (MLB), and is the seventh-highest attended professional soccer league worldwide. MLS uses franchised clubs similar to other major U.S. sports leagues, rather than the promotion and relegation model used for club soccer in other countries such as the United Kingdom.


title: Soccer in the United States

text: The first women's professional soccer league in the U.S. formed after the success of the 1999 Women's World Cup. The Women's United Soccer Association (WUSA) ran from 2001 to 2003 and featured many of the World Cup stars, including Mia Hamm, Michelle Akers and Brandi Chastain. Its successor Women's Professional Soccer (WPS) ran from 2009 to 2012. Currently, the National Women's Soccer League (NWSL) is the top professional league in the country; it was formed in 2012 with play starting in 2013. The NWSL season runs from spring to early fall (typically April – October).


title: Soccer in the United States

text: U.S. soccer fans follow the U.S. national teams in international competition. The 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup Final drew a record 26.7 million viewers, greater than final games of the 2014 World Series or the 2015 NBA Finals, and the 2010 Men's World Cup final drew 26.5 million viewers. The women's national team has won four Women's World Cup titles and four gold medals at the Summer Olympics and the men's national team played in every World Cup from 1990 to 2014 and returned to the World Cup in 2022.


title: Soccer in the United States

text: In the United States, the sport of association football is mainly referred to as "soccer", as the term "football" is primarily used to refer to the sport of American football.


title: Soccer in the United States

text: There has been some debate about the origins of modern soccer in the United States. It has long been held that the modern game entered the States through Ellis Island in the 1860s. However, 2013 research has shown that soccer entered America through the port of New Orleans, as Irish, English, Scottish, Italian and German immigrants brought the game with them. It was in New Orleans that many of the first games of soccer in America were held. The origins of the game in general trace back to ancient Greece, Rome, Egypt, or China. It is difficult to say for sure which country was the true origin.


title: Soccer in the United States

text: Oneida Football Club has been named as the first association football club in the United States but there is still discussion on what rules the club used, and it broke up within the space of a few years. According to "Encyclopædia Britannica", the club is often credited with inventing the "Boston Game", which allowed players to both kick a round ball along the ground, and to pick it up and run with it. On the other hand, in 1869, Princeton and Rutgers played the first intercollegiate "football" game. Although each team had 25 players, the use of a soccer ball and the rules based on the 1863 London Football Association laws made it was considered the first collegiate soccer match and the birth of soccer in the United States.


title: Soccer in the United States

text: Nevertheless, the earliest known game of organized soccer in the United States was played on October 11, 1866, in Waukesha, Wisconsin under the 1863 London Football Association laws.


title: Soccer in the United States

text: The earliest examples of governance in the sport started in 1884 when the American Football Association (AFA) was incarnated. The AFA sought to standardize rules for the local soccer teams based in the Northeastern United States, particularly in northern New Jersey and southern New York state. By 1886, the AFA had spread in influence into Pennsylvania and Massachusetts.


title: Soccer in the United States

text: Within a year of its founding, the AFA organized the first non-league cup in American soccer history, known as the American Cup. For the first dozen years, clubs from New Jersey and Massachusetts dominated the competition. It would not be until 1897 that a club from outside those two states won the American Cup. Philadelphia Manz brought the title to Pennsylvania for the first time. Due to conflicts within the AFA, the cup was suspended in 1899, and it was not resumed until 1906.


title: Soccer in the United States

text: Early soccer leagues in the U.S. mostly used the name "football", for example: the AFA (founded in 1884), the American Amateur Football Association (1893), the American League of Professional Football (1894), the National Association Foot Ball League (1895), and the Southern New England Football League (1914). Common confusion between the terms "American football" and "association football" eventually led to a more domestic widespread use of the term "soccer" with regard to association football. Originally seen as a British slang term for "association", the use of "soccer" began appearing in the late 1910s and early 1920s. A noticeable example was the American Soccer League (ASL), which formed in 1919. The governing body of the sport in the U.S. did not have the word "soccer" in its name until 1945 when it became the United States Soccer Football Association. It did not drop the word "football" from its name until 1974, when it became the United States Soccer Federation, often going simply as U.S. Soccer.


title: Soccer in the United States

text: In October 1911, a competing body, the American Amateur Football Association (AAFA) was created. The association quickly spread outside of the Northeast and created its own cup in 1912, the American Amateur Football Association Cup.


title: Soccer in the United States

text: The conflicts within the AFA led to a movement to create a truly national body to oversee American soccer. In 1913, both the AAFA and AFA applied for membership in FIFA, the international governing body for soccer. Drawing on both its position as the oldest soccer organization and the status of the American Cup, the AFA argued that it should be the nationally recognized body. Later that year, the AAFA gained an edge over the AFA when several AFA organizations moved to the AAFA.


title: Soccer in the United States

text: On April 5, 1913, the AAFA reorganized as the United States Football Association (USFA), presently known as the United States Soccer Federation. FIFA quickly granted a provisional membership and USFA began exerting its influence on the sport. This led to the establishment of the National Challenge Cup, which still exists as the Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup, that fall. The National Challenge Cup quickly grew to overshadow the American Cup. However, both cups were played simultaneously for the next ten years. Declining respect for the AFA led to the withdrawal of several associations from its cup in 1917. Further competition came in 1924 when USFA created the National Amateur Cup. That spelled the death knell for the American Cup. It played its last season in 1924.


title: Soccer in the United States

text: During the days of the American Soccer League, the league was seen as widely popular, and considered to be the second-most popular sports league in the United States, only behind Major League Baseball. However, the "soccer war" between the USFA and ASL, combined with the onset of the Great Depression in 1929, led to the demise of the ASL in 1933, and the demise of the professional sport in the United States; however, the sport continued in amateur and semi-professional leagues. The national soccer team competed in the first two FIFA World Cups, managing to qualify for the semifinals of the first tournament and qualifying for the following one in Italy, where the U.S. team was knocked out in the first match by would-be world champions Italy.


title: Soccer in the United States

text: The prominence of college soccer increased with the NCAA sanctioning an annual men's soccer championship, beginning in 1959 with the inaugural championship won by Saint Louis University.


title: Soccer in the United States

text: Two professional soccer leagues were started in 1967, the United Soccer Association (USA) and the National Professional Soccer League (NPSL), which merged to form the North American Soccer League (NASL) in 1968. The NASL enjoyed a significant boost in popularity when the New York Cosmos signed Pelé to play for three seasons in 1975–77. The Cosmos drew large throughout the late 1970s. Between 1977 and 1980, the Cosmos drew crowds of more than 60,000 on ten occasions, and over 70,000 on seven occasions (see Record attendances in United States club soccer). The NASL declined during the early 1980s and disbanded in 1984 amidst financial problems. The popularity of indoor soccer peaked in the 1980s, with both the NASL and the Major Indoor Soccer League operating indoor soccer leagues.


title: Soccer in the United States

text: The 1970s and 1980s saw increased popularity of the college game. Women's college soccer received a significant boost in 1972 with the passage of Title IX, which mandated equal funding for women's athletic programs, leading to colleges forming NCAA-sanctioned women's varsity teams. A men's match between Saint Louis University and local rival SIU Edwardsville drew a college record 22,512 fans to Busch Stadium on October 30, 1980. By 1984, more colleges played soccer (532) than American football (505).


title: Soccer in the United States

text: In 1967 there were 100,000 people playing soccer in the US; by 1984, that number had grown to over 4 million. Girls high school soccer experienced tremendous growth in playing numbers throughout the 1970s and 1980s—from 10,000 in 1976 to 41,000 in 1980, to 122,000 in 1990.


title: Soccer in the United States

text: The soccer matches for the 1984 Summer Olympics were well attended. Five matches drew over 75,000 fans, and two soccer matches at the Rose Bowl stadium in Pasadena, California, drew over 100,000 fans. These high attendance figures were one factor that FIFA took into consideration in 1988 when deciding to award the 1994 World Cup to the United States.


title: Soccer in the United States

text: Interest in soccer within the United States continued to grow during the 1990s. This growth has been attributed in significant part to the FIFA World Cup being held in the United States for the first time in 1994. This won the sport more attention from both the media and casual sports fans. The tournament was successful, drawing an average attendance of 68,991, a World Cup record that still stands today. The 1994 World Cup drew record TV audiences in the U.S.


title: Soccer in the United States

text: As part of the United States' bid to host the 1994 World Cup, U.S. Soccer pledged to create a professional outdoor league. Major League Soccer (MLS) launched in 1996, which helped develop American players in a way that was not possible without a domestic league. Many of these players competed in the 2002 FIFA World Cup, where the United States reached the quarterfinals, its best result in the modern era. The team would qualify for eight consecutive World Cup tournaments between 1990 and 2014 before failing to qualify for the 2018 tournament, which would be the first such occurrence since 1986.