title: Eucharist in the Catholic Church

text: In the Western Church, "the administration of the Most Holy Eucharist to children requires that they have sufficient knowledge and careful preparation so that they understand the mystery of Christ according to their capacity and are able to receive the body of Christ with faith and devotion. The Most Holy Eucharist, however, can be administered to children in danger of death if they can distinguish the body of Christ from ordinary food and receive communion reverently" (Code of Canon Law, canon 913). In Catholic schools in the United States and Canada, children typically receive First Communion in second grade. In the Eastern Catholic Churches, the Eucharist is administered to infants immediately after Baptism and Confirmation (Chrismation).


title: Eucharist in the Catholic Church

text: Holy Communion may be received under one kind (the Sacred Host or the Precious Blood alone), or under both kinds (both the Sacred Host and the Precious Blood). "Holy Communion has a fuller form as a sign when it is distributed under both kinds. For in this form the sign of the eucharistic banquet is more clearly evident and clear expression is given to the divine will by which the new and eternal Covenant is ratified in the Blood of the Lord, as also the relationship between the Eucharistic banquet and the eschatological banquet in the Father's Kingdom... (However,) Christ, whole and entire, and the true Sacrament, is received even under only one species, and consequently that as far as the effects are concerned, those who receive under only one species are not deprived of any of the grace that is necessary for salvation" (General Instruction of the Roman Missal).


title: Eucharist in the Catholic Church

text: "The Diocesan Bishop is given the faculty to permit Communion under both kinds whenever it may seem appropriate to the priest to whom, as its own shepherd, a community has been entrusted, provided that the faithful have been well instructed and there is no danger of profanation of the Sacrament or of the rite's becoming difficult because of the large number of participants or some other reason" (General Instruction of the Roman Missal).


title: Eucharist in the Catholic Church

text: The General Instruction of the Roman Missal mentions a "Communion-plate for the Communion of the faithful", distinct from the paten, and speaks of its use in relation to the administration of Communion by intinction, in which receiving Communion directly in the mouth is obligatory. The Instruction "Redemptionis sacramentum" states: "The Communion-plate for the Communion of the faithful should be retained, so as to avoid the danger of the sacred host or some fragment of it falling."


title: Eucharist in the Catholic Church

text: Validly baptized non-Catholics may receive the Eucharist from Catholic ministers only in special situations:


title: Eucharist in the Catholic Church

text: The principal fruits of receiving the Eucharist in Holy Communion is an intimate union with Christ Jesus; preserves, increases, and renews the life of grace received at Baptism; separates from sin; strengthens charity, which tends to be weakened in daily life; preserves from future mortal sins and unites to all the faithful in one body - the Church.


title: Eucharist in the Catholic Church

text: The bread used for the Eucharist must be wheaten only, and recently made, and the wine must be natural, made from grapes, and not corrupt. The bread is unleavened in the Latin, Armenian and Ethiopic Rites, but is leavened in most Eastern Catholic churches. A small quantity of water is added to the wine.


title: Eucharist in the Catholic Church

text: The Congregation for Divine Worship provided guidance on the character of bread and wine to be used by Catholics in a letter to bishops dated 15 June 2017. It included instructions concerning gluten-free or low-gluten bread and non-alcoholic substitutes for wine.


title: Eucharist in the Catholic Church

text: Whether the agape feast, a full meal held by Christians in the first centuries, was in all cases associated with a celebration of the Eucharist is uncertain. In any case, abuses connected with the celebration of the full meal, abuses denounced by the apostles Paul and Jude, led to a distinct celebration of the Eucharist. The form of this celebration in the middle of the second century is described by Justin Martyr as very similar to today's Eucharistic rites known in the West as the Mass and in much of the East as the Divine Liturgy. The regular celebration was held each week on the day called Sunday, which Christians were also calling the Lord's Day. They included readings from Scripture, a homily, prayer by all, a prayer by "the president of the brethren" over bread and wine mixed with water, to which all respond with "Amen", and then a distribution to those present of that over which thanks have been given, while "deacons" take portions to those who are absent. There was also a collection to help widows and orphans and those in need because of reasons such as sickness. Justin wrote that the Christians did not receive the bread and the wine mixed with water over which the thanksgiving was pronounced and which they called Εὐχαριστία (the Eucharist - literally, Thanksgiving), as common bread and common drink, having been taught that "the food which is blessed by the prayer of His word, and from which our blood and flesh by transmutation are nourished, is the flesh and blood of that Jesus who was made flesh."


title: Eucharist in the Catholic Church

text: As Justin indicated, the word "Eucharist" is from the Greek word εὐχαριστία ("eucharistia"), which means "thanksgiving". Catholics typically restrict the term 'communion' to the reception of the Body and Blood of Christ by the communicants during the celebration of the Mass and to the communion of saints.


title: Eucharist in the Catholic Church

text: Earlier still, in about 106, Saint Ignatius of Antioch criticized those who "abstain from the Eucharist and the public prayer, because they will not admit that the Eucharist is the self-same Body of our Savior Jesus Christ, which [flesh] suffered for our sins, and which the Father in His goodness raised up again" ("Epistle to the Smyrnaeans" 6, 7). Similarly, St. Ambrose of Milan countered objections to the doctrine, writing "You may perhaps say: 'My bread is ordinary.' But that bread is bread before the words of the Sacraments; where the consecration has entered in, the bread becomes the Flesh of Christ" ("The Sacraments", 333/339-397 A.D. v.2,1339,1340).


title: Eucharist in the Catholic Church

text: The earliest known use, in about 1079, of the term "transubstantiation" to describe the change from bread and wine to body and blood of Christ was by Hildebert de Savardin, Archbishop of Tours (died 1133). He did this in response to Berengar of Tours declaring that the Eucharist was only symbolic. This was long before the Latin West, under the influence especially of Saint Thomas Aquinas (c. 1227-1274), accepted Aristotelianism. (The University of Paris was founded only between 1150 and 1170.)


title: Eucharist in the Catholic Church

text: In 1215, the Fourth Lateran Council used the word "transubstantiated" in its profession of faith, when speaking of the change that takes place in the Eucharist.


title: Eucharist in the Catholic Church

text: In 1551 the Council of Trent officially defined that "by the consecration of the bread and of the wine, a conversion is made of the whole substance of the bread into the substance of the body of Christ our Lord, and of the whole substance of the wine into the substance of His blood; which conversion is, by the holy Catholic Church, suitably and properly called Transubstantiation."


title: Eucharist in the Catholic Church

text: The attempt by some twentieth-century Catholic theologians to present the Eucharistic change as an alteration of significance (transignification rather than transubstantiation) was rejected by Pope Paul VI in his 1965 encyclical letter. In his 1968 "Credo of the People of God", he reiterated that any theological explanation of the doctrine must hold to the twofold claim that, after the consecration, 1) Christ's body and blood are really present; and 2) bread and wine are really absent; and this presence and absence is "real" and not merely something in the mind of the believer.


title: Eucharist in the Catholic Church

text: In his encyclical "Ecclesia de Eucharistia" of 17 April 2003, Pope John Paul II taught that all authority of bishops and priests is primarily a function of their vocation to celebrate the Eucharist. Their governing authority flows from their priestly function, not the other way around.


title: Eucharist in the Catholic Church

text: Receiving Holy Communion as part of the first Fridays devotion is a Catholic devotion to offer reparations for sins through the Sacred Heart of Jesus. In the visions of Christ reported by Saint Margaret Mary Alacoque in the 17th century, several promises were made to those people that practiced the first Fridays devotion, one of which included final perseverance.


title: Eucharist in the Catholic Church

text: The devotion consists of several practices that are performed on each first Friday of nine consecutive months. On these days, a person is to attend Holy Mass and receive Communion. In many Catholic communities the practice of the Holy Hour of meditation during the exposition of the Blessed Sacrament during the First Fridays is encouraged.


title: Eucharist in the Catholic Church

text: Practicing Eucharistic adoration before the tabernacle (especially made in front of the most forgotten and abandoned tabernacles) as part of the first Thursdays devotion is a Catholic devotion to offer reparation for the Holy Wounds of Christ. In the visions of Christ reported by Blessed Alexandrina of Balazar in the 20th century, several promises were made by Jesus to those who practice the first Thursdays devotion, one of which included the salvation of the soul at the moment of death.


title: Eucharist in the Catholic Church

text: The devotion consists of several practices that are performed on the first Thursdays of six consecutive months. The number six represents Jesus five wounds of the Crucifixion (hands, feet, and side) plus His shoulder wound from carrying the Holy Cross. On these days, a person is to attend the Holy Mass and receive the Holy Communion in a state of grace ""with sincere humility, fervor and love"" and spend one hour before a Church tabernacle containing the Blessed Sacrament, meditating on the wounds of Jesus (particularly His often-overlooked shoulder wound which He received from carrying the Cross) and the sorrows of Mary.


title: Eucharist in the Catholic Church

text: A Nuptial Mass is simply a Mass within which the sacrament of Marriage is celebrated. Other sacraments too are celebrated within Mass. This is necessarily so for the sacrament of Orders, and is normal, though not obligatory, for the Sacrament of Confirmation, as well as that of Marriage. Unless the date chosen is that of a major liturgical feast, the prayers are taken from the section of the Roman Missal headed "Ritual Masses". This section has special texts for the celebration, within Mass, of Baptism, Confirmation, Anointing of the Sick, Orders, and Marriage, leaving Confession (Penance or Reconciliation) as the only sacrament not celebrated within a celebration of the Eucharist. There are also texts for celebrating, within Mass, Religious Profession, the Dedication of a Church and several other rites.


title: Eucharist in the Catholic Church

text: If, of a couple being married in the Catholic Church, one is not a Catholic, the rite of Marriage outside Mass is to be followed. However, if the non-Catholic has been baptized in the name of all three persons of the Trinity (and not only in the name of, say, Jesus, as is the baptismal practice in some branches of Christianity), then, in exceptional cases and provided the bishop of the diocese gives permission, it may be considered suitable to celebrate the Marriage within Mass, except that, according to the general law, Communion is not given to the non-Catholic ("Rite of Marriage", 8).


title: Eucharist in the Catholic Church

text: Exposition of the Eucharist is the display of the consecrated host on an altar in a Monstrance. The rites involving exposition of the Blessed Sacrament are the Benediction of the Blessed Sacrament and Eucharistic adoration.


title: Eucharist in the Catholic Church

text: Adoration of the Eucharist is a sign of devotion to and worship of Christ, who is believed to be truly present. The host is generally reserved in the tabernacle after Mass and displayed in a monstrance during adoration. As a Catholic devotion, Eucharistic adoration and meditation are more than merely looking at the host, but a continuation of what was celebrated in the Eucharist. From a theological perspective, the adoration is a form of latria, based on the tenet of the presence of Christ in the Blessed Host.


title: Eucharist in the Catholic Church

text: Christian meditation performed in the presence of the Eucharist outside Mass is called "Eucharistic meditation". It has been practiced by saints such as Peter Julian Eymard, Jean Vianney and Thérèse of Lisieux. Authors such as the Venerable Concepcion Cabrera de Armida and Blessed Maria Candida of the Eucharist have produced large volumes of text based on their Eucharistic meditations.


title: Eucharist in the Catholic Church

text: When the exposure and adoration of the Eucharist is constant (twenty-four hours a day), it is called "Perpetual adoration". in a monastery or convent, it is done by the resident monks or nuns and in a parish, by volunteer parishioners since the 20th century. On June 2, 1991 (feast of Corpus Christi), the Pontifical Council for the Laity issued specific guidelines that permit perpetual adoration in parishes. In order to establish a "perpetual adoration chapel" in a parish, the local priest must obtain permission from his Bishop by submitting a request along with the required information for the local "perpetual adoration association", its officers, etc.


title: Eucharist in the Catholic Church

text: Since the Middle Ages the practice of Eucharistic adoration outside Mass has been encouraged by the popes. In "Ecclesia de Eucharistia" Pope John Paul II stated that "The worship of the Eucharist outside the Mass is of inestimable value for the life of the Church... It is the responsibility of Pastors to encourage, also by their personal witness, the practice of Eucharistic adoration, and exposition of the Blessed Sacrament. In the opening prayer of the Perpetual chapel in St. Peter Basilica Pope John Paul II prayed for a perpetual adoration chapel in every parish in the world. Pope Benedict XVI instituted perpetual adoration for the laity in each of the five districts of the Diocese of Rome.


title: Jewish mythology

text: Jewish mythology is the body of myths associated with Judaism. Elements of Jewish mythology have had a profound influence on Christian mythology and on Islamic mythology, as well as on world culture in general. Christian mythology directly inherited many of the narratives from the Jewish people, sharing in common the narratives from the Old Testament. Islamic mythology also shares many of the same stories; for instance, a creation-account spaced out over six periods, the legend of Abraham, the stories of Moses and the Israelites, and many more.


title: Jewish mythology

text: The writings of the biblical prophets, including Isaiah, Ezekiel, and Jeremiah, express a concept of the divine that is distinct from the mythologies of its neighbors. Instead of seeing the god of Israel as just one national god, these writings describe Yahweh as the one god of the universe.


title: Jewish mythology

text: The prophetic writings condemned Hebrew participation in nature worship, and did not completely identify the divine with natural forces.


title: Jewish mythology

text: Through the prophets' influence, Jewish theology increasingly portrayed God as independent from nature and acting independently of natural forces. Instead of eternally repeating a seasonal cycle of acts, Yahweh stood outside nature and intervened in it, producing new, historically unprecedented events; Eliade wrote: "That was theophany of a new type, hitherto unknown—"the intervention of Jahveh in history". It was therefore something irreversible and unrepeatable. The fall of Jerusalem does not repeat the fall of Samaria: the ruin of Jerusalem presents a new historic theophany, another 'wrath' of Jahveh. […] Jahveh stands out from the world of abstractions, of symbols and generalities; he acts in history and enters into relations with actual historical beings."


title: Jewish mythology

text: Two creation stories are found in the first two chapters of the Book of Genesis. In the first Elohim, the Hebrew generic word for God, creates the heavens and the earth in six days, then rests on, blesses and sanctifies the seventh. In the second story, God, now referred to by the personal name Yahweh, creates Adam, the first man, from dust and places him in the Garden of Eden, where he is given dominion over the animals. Eve, the first woman, is created from Adam and as his companion. God creates by spoken command and names the elements of the world as he creates them.


title: Jewish mythology

text: In the second story (Genesis 2:4–2:25) the order is different; God created man, the Garden of Eden and planted trees, the living creatures and then the first woman.


title: Jewish mythology

text: Many of the Hebrews' neighbors had a "combat myth" about the good god battling the demon of chaos; one example of this mytheme is the Babylonian "Enûma Eliš". A lesser known example is the very fragmentary myth of Labbu. According to historian Bernard McGinn, the combat myth's imagery influenced Jewish mythology. The myth of God's triumph over Leviathan, a symbol of chaos, has the form of a combat myth. In addition, McGinn thinks the Hebrews applied the combat myth motif to the relationship between God and Satan. Originally a deputy in God's court, assigned to act as mankind's "accuser" ("satan" means "to oppose" – Hebrew: שָּׂטָן "satan", meaning "adversary"), Satan evolved into a being with "an apparently independent realm of operation as a source of evil" – no longer God's deputy but his opponent in a cosmic struggle.


title: Jewish mythology

text: Even the Exodus story shows combat-myth influence. McGinn believes the "Song of the Sea", which the Hebrews sang after seeing God drown the Egyptian army in the Red Sea, includes "motifs and language from the combat myth used to emphasize the importance of the foundational event in Israel's religious identity: the crossing of the Red Sea and deliverance from the Pharaoh". Likewise, Armstrong notes the similarity between pagan myths in which gods "split the sea in half when they created the world" and the story of the Exodus from Egypt, in which Moses splits the Sea of Reeds (the Red Sea) – "though what is being brought into being in the Exodus, is not a cosmos but a people". In any case, the motif of God as the "divine warrior" fighting on Israel's behalf is clearly evident in the Song of the Sea (Ex. 15). This motif recur in poetry throughout the Hebrew Scriptures (I Samuel 2; Zechariah 9:11–16;14:3-8).


title: Jewish mythology

text: Some comparative mythologists think Jewish mythology absorbed elements from pagan mythology. According to these scholars, even while resisting pagan "worship", the Jews willingly absorbed elements of pagan mythology.


title: Jewish mythology

text: According to the creation narratives in Genesis, Adam and Eve were the first man and woman. In the Book of Genesis of the Hebrew Bible, chapters one through five, there are two creation narratives with two distinct perspectives. In the first, Adam and Eve (though not referenced by name) were created together in God's image and jointly given instructions to multiply and to be stewards over everything else that God had made. In the second narrative, God fashions Adam from dust and places him in the Garden of Eden where he is to have dominion over the plants and animals. God places a tree in the garden which he prohibits Adam from eating the fruit of. Eve is later created from one of Adam's ribs to be Adam's companion.


title: Jewish mythology

text: The biblical story of Garden of Eden, most notably in the Book of Genesis chapters 2 and 3, and also in the Book of Ezekiel depicts Adam and Eve as walking around the Garden of Eden naked due to their innocence. The man was free to eat off of any tree in the garden, but forbidden to eat from the tree of knowledge of good and evil. Last of all, the God made a woman (Eve) from a rib of the man to be a companion to the man. However, the serpent tricks Eve into eating fruit from the forbidden tree. Following Eve, Adam broke the commandment and ate of the forbidden fruit. God curses only the serpent and the ground. He prophetically tells the woman and the man what will be the consequences of their sin of disobeying God. Then he banishes "the man" from the Garden of Eden to prevent him from eating also of the tree of life, and thus living for ever. East of the garden there were placed Cherubim, "and a flaming sword which turned every way, to keep the way of the tree of life". (Gen.3:24)


title: Jewish mythology

text: The story of the Garden of Eden makes theological use of mythological themes to explain human progression from a state of innocence and bliss to the present human condition of knowledge of sin, misery, and death.


title: Jewish mythology

text: Joseph Campbell notes that the Garden of Eden narrative's forbidden tree is an example of a motif "very popular in fairy tales, known to folklore students as the One Forbidden Thing". For another example of the One Forbidden Thing, see the Serbian fairy tale Bash Chelik, in which the hero is forbidden to open a certain door but he does anyway, thereby releasing the villain. Also see the classic story of Pandora's box in ancient Greek mythology.


title: Jewish mythology

text: The story of the Tower of Babel explains the origin of different human languages. According to the story, which is recorded in , everyone on earth spoke the same language. As people migrated from the east, they settled in the land of Shinar (Mesopotamia). People there sought to make bricks and build a city and a tower with its top in the sky, to make a name for themselves, so that they not be scattered over the world. God came down to look at the city and tower, and remarked that as one people with one language, nothing that they sought would be out of their reach. God went down and confounded their speech, so that they could not understand each other, and scattered them over the face of the earth, and they stopped building the city. Thus the city was called Babel.


title: Jewish mythology

text: The Genesis flood narrative has similarities to ancient flood stories told worldwide. One of the closest parallels is the Mesopotamian myth of a world flood, recorded in "The Epic of Gilgamesh". In the Hebrew Bible flood story (Genesis 6:5–22), God decides to flood the world and start over, due to mankind's sinfulness. However, God sees that a man named Noah was righteous (because he walked with God) and blameless among the people. God instructs Noah to build an ark and directs him to bring at least two of every animal inside the boat, along with his family. The flood comes and covers the world. After 40 days, Noah sends a raven to check whether the waters have subsided, then a dove; after exiting the boat, Noah offers a sacrifice to God, who smells "the sweet savour" and promises never to destroy the earth by water again – making the rainbow a symbol of this promise. Similarly, in the Mesopotamian "Epic of Gilgamesh", the bustle of humanity disturbs the gods, who decide to send a flood. Warned by one of the gods, a man named Utnapishtim builds a boat and takes his family and animals inside. After the flood, Utnapishtim sends a dove, then a swallow, then a raven to check whether the waters have subsided. After exiting the boat, Utnapishtim offers a sacrifice to the gods, who smell "the sweet savour" and repent their choice to send the flood.


title: Jewish mythology

text: Another ancient flood myth is the Hindu story of Matsya the fish. According to this story, the god Vishnu takes the form of a fish and warns the ancestor Manu about a coming flood. He tells Manu to put all the creatures of the earth into a boat. Unlike the biblical flood, however, this flood is not a unique event brought on by a divine choice; instead, it's one of the destructions and recreations of the universe that happen at regular intervals in Hindu mythology. This recurrence also happens in Mesopotamian floods or disasters, although is because of the discontent of the gods because of the noise made by humans, told in the Erra Epic.


title: Jewish mythology

text: The Patriarchs in Hebrew bible are Abraham, his son Isaac, and Isaac's son Jacob, also named Israel, the ancestor of the Israelites. These three figures are referred to collectively as the patriarchs of Judaism, and the period in which they lived is known as the patriarchal age. The narrative in Genesis revolves around the themes of posterity and land. Abraham is called by God to leave the house of his father Terah and settle in the land originally given to Canaan but which God now promises to Abraham and his progeny. Various candidates are put forward who might inherit the land after Abraham; and, while promises are made to Ishmael about founding a great nation, Isaac, Abraham's son by his half-sister Sarah, inherits God's promises to Abraham. Jacob is the son of Isaac and Rebecca and regarded as a Patriarch of the Israelites as his twelve sons became the progenitors of the "Tribes of Israel".


title: Jewish mythology

text: The story of the exodus is told in the books of Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. The Israelites had settled in the Land of Goshen in the time of Joseph and Jacob, but a new pharaoh arose who enslaved and oppressed the children of Israel. At this time Moses was born; the Pharaoh had commanded that all male Hebrew children born would be drowned in the river Nile, but Moses' mother placed him in an ark and concealed the ark in the bulrushes by the riverbank, where the baby was discovered and adopted by Pharaoh's daughter, and raised as an Egyptian. One day after Moses had reached adulthood he killed an Egyptian who was beating a Hebrew. Moses, in order to escape the Pharaoh's death penalty, fled to Midian.


title: Jewish mythology

text: There, on Mount Horeb, God appeared to Moses as a burning bush revealed to Moses his name YHWH and commanded him to return to Egypt and bring his chosen people (Israel) out of bondage and into the Promised Land. During the journey, God tried to kill Moses, but Zipporah saved his life. Moses returned to carry out God's command, but God caused the Pharaoh to refuse, and only after God had subjected Egypt to ten plagues did the Pharaoh relent. Moses led the Israelites to the border of Egypt, but there God hardened the Pharaoh's heart once more, so that he could destroy the Pharaoh and his army at the Red Sea Crossing as a sign of his power to Israel and the nations.


title: Jewish mythology

text: From Egypt, Moses led the Israelites to biblical Mount Sinai, where he was given the Ten Commandments from God, written on stone tablets. Later at Mount Sinai, Moses and the elders entered into a covenant, by which Israel would become the people of YHWH, obeying his laws, and YHWH would be their god. Moses delivered the laws of God to Israel, instituted the priesthood under the sons of Moses' brother Aaron, and destroyed those Israelites who fell away from his worship. After the forty years had passed, Moses eventually led the Israelites into the Land of Canaan.


title: Jewish mythology

text: Gideon was a military leader, judge and prophet whose calling and victory over the Midianites was decisive. He went on to send out messengers to gather together men in order to meet an armed force of the people of Midian and the Amalek that had crossed the Jordan River, and they encamped at the Well of Harod in the Valley of Jezreel. But God informed Gideon that the men he had gathered were too many – with so many men, there would be reason for the Israelites to claim the victory as their own instead of acknowledging that God had saved them. At first Gideon sent home those men who were afraid and invited any man who wanted to leave, to do so; 22,000 men returned home and 10,000 remained. Yet with the number, God told Gideon they were still too many; Gideon brought his troops to the water, where all those who lap the water with their tongues, were put to one side; all those who kneel down to drink, putting their hands to their mouths, were put to the other side. The number of those that lapped was three hundred; but all the rest of the troops knelt down to drink water. Then the Lord said to Gideon, "With the three hundred that lapped I will deliver you, and give the Midianites into your hand. Let all the others go to their homes". ().


title: Jewish mythology

text: During the night, God instructed Gideon to approach the Midianite camp. There, Gideon overheard a Midianite man tell a friend of a dream in which "a loaf of barley bread tumbled into the camp of Midian" (), causing their tent or camp to collapse. This was interpreted as meaning that God had given the Midianites over to Gideon. Gideon returned to the Israelite camp and gave each of his men a trumpet ("shofar") and a clay jar with a torch hidden inside. Divided into three companies, Gideon and his 300 men marched on the enemy camp. He instructed them to blow the trumpet, give a battle cry and light torches, simulating an attack by a large force. As they did so, the Midianite army fled (). Later, their leaders were caught and killed.


title: Jewish mythology

text: Samson was the last of the judges of the ancient Israelites mentioned in the Book of Judges. The biblical account states that Samson was a Nazirite, and that he was given immense strength to aid him against his enemies and allow him to perform superhuman feats, however, if Samson's long hair was cut, then his Nazirite vow would be violated and he would lose his strength. The first instance of this is seen when Samson was on his way to ask for the Philistine woman's hand in marriage, when he was attacked by a lion. He simply grabbed it and ripped it apart, as the spirit of God divinely empowered him.


title: Jewish mythology

text: After the Philistines burned Samson's wife and father-in-law to death, Samson, in revenge, slaughtered many more Philistines, saying, "I have done to them what they did to me". Samson then took refuge in a cave in the rock of Etam. An army of Philistines came to the Tribe of Judah and demanded that 3,000 men of Judah deliver them Samson. In order to avoid a war and with Samson's consent, they tied him with two new ropes and were about to hand him over to the Philistines when he broke free of the ropes. Using the jawbone of a donkey, he slew 1,000 Philistines.


title: Jewish mythology

text: Samson falls in love with Delilah in the valley of Sorek. The Philistines approach Delilah and induce her with 1,100 silver coins to find the secret of Samson's strength so that they can capture their enemy. While Samson refuses to reveal the secret and teases her with false answers, he is finally worn down and tells Delilah that God supplies his power because of his consecration to God as a Nazirite and that if his hair is cut off he will lose his strength. Delilah then woos him to sleep "in her lap" and calls for a servant to shave his hair. Samson loses his strength and he is captured by the Philistines who blind him by gouging out his eyes. They then take him to Gaza, imprison him, and put him to work turning a large millstone and grinding corn.


title: Jewish mythology

text: One day, the Philistine leaders assemble in a temple for a religious sacrifice to Dagon, for having delivered Samson into their hands. They summon Samson so that people can watch him perform for them. The temple is so crowded and all the rulers of the entire government of Philistia have gathered there too, some 3,000 people in all. Samson is led into the temple, and he asks his captors to let him lean against the supporting pillars to rest. He prays for strength and God gives him strength to break the pillars, causing the temple to collapse, killing him and the people inside.


title: Jewish mythology

text: Academics have interpreted Samson as a demigod (such as Heracles or Enkidu) enfolded into Jewish religious lore, or as an archetypical folk hero.


title: Jewish mythology

text: According to the Book of Samuel, Saul and the Israelites are facing the Philistines in the Valley of Elah. Goliath, the champion of the Philistines, comes out between the lines and challenges the Israelites to send out a champion of their own to decide the outcome in single combat, but Saul is afraid. David, bringing food for his elder brothers, hears that Goliath has defied the armies of God and of the reward from Saul to the one that defeats him, and accepts the challenge. Saul reluctantly agrees and offers his armor, which David declines, taking only his staff, sling ( "") and five stones from a brook.


title: Jewish mythology

text: David and Goliath confront each other, Goliath with his armor and javelin, David with his staff and sling. David hurls a stone from his sling and hits Goliath in the center of his forehead, Goliath falls on his face to the ground, and David cuts off his head. The Philistines flee and are pursued by the Israelites "as far as Gath and the gates of Ekron". David puts the armor of Goliath in his own tent and takes the head to Jerusalem, and Saul sends Abner to bring the boy to him. The king asks whose son he is, and David answers, "I am the son of your servant Jesse the Bethlehemite."


title: Jewish mythology

text: Also possibly derived from pagan mythology is the story of the "Watchers" (Genesis 6:1–4). According to this story, heavenly beings once descended to earth, intermarried with humans, and produced the "nephilim", "the heroes of old, men of renown". Jewish tradition regards those heavenly beings as wicked angels, but the myth may represent a fragment of pagan mythology about gods interbreeding with humans to produce heroes.


title: Jewish mythology

text: R. C. Zaehner, a professor of Eastern religions, argues for Zoroastrianism's direct influence on Jewish eschatological myths, especially the resurrection of the dead with rewards and punishments.


title: Jewish mythology

text: The mythologist Joseph Campbell believed the Judeo-Christian idea of linear history originated with the Iranian religion of Zoroastrianism. In the mythologies of India and the Far East, "the world was not to be reformed, but only known, revered, and its laws obeyed". In contrast, in Zoroastrianism, the current world is "corrupt [...] and to be reformed by human action". According to Campbell, this "progressive view of cosmic history" "can be heard echoed and re-echoed, in Greek, Latin, Hebrew and Aramaean, Arabic, and every tongue of the West".


title: Jewish mythology

text: Other traditional cultures limited mythical events to the beginning of time, and saw important historical events as repetitions of those mythical events. According to Mircea Eliade, the Hebrew prophets "valorized" history, seeing historical events as episodes in a continual divine revelation. This doesn't mean that "all" historical events have significance in Judaism; however, in Jewish mythology, significant events happen throughout history, and they are not merely repetitions of each other; each significant event is a new act of God:


title: Jewish mythology

text: By portraying time as a linear progression of events, rather than an eternal repetition, Jewish mythology suggested the possibility for progress. Inherited by Christianity, this view of history has deeply influenced Western philosophy and culture. Even supposedly secular or political Western movements have worked within the world-view of progress and linear history inherited from Judaism. Because of this legacy, the religious historian Mircea Eliade argues that "Judaeo-Christianity makes an innovation of the first importance" in mythology.


title: Jewish mythology

text: Eliade believes that the Hebrews had a sense of linear time before their contact with Zoroastrianism, but agrees with Zaehner that Judaism elaborated its mythology of linear time with eschatological elements that originated in Zoroastrianism. According to Eliade, these elements include ethical dualism, the myth of a savior, and "an optimistic eschatology, proclaiming the final triumph of Good".


title: Jewish mythology

text: The Jewish people's tendency to adopt the neighboring pagan practices, denounced as it had been by the Jewish prophets, returned with force during the Talmudic period. However, almost no mythology was borrowed until the Midrashic and Talmudic periods, when what can be described as mysticism emerged in the kabbalistic schools.


title: Jewish mythology

text: One such aspect was the appearance of the "shedim"; these became ubiquitous to the ordinary Jews with the increased access to the study of the Talmud after the invention of the printing press.


title: Jewish mythology

text: The classical rabbis themselves were at times not free from sharing in the popular beliefs. Thus, while there is a whole catalog of prognostications by means of dreams in Ber. 55 et seq., and Rabbi Johanan claimed that those dreams are true which come in the morning or are dreamed about us by others, or are repeated, Rabbi Meïr declares that dreams help not and injure not. Dream interpretation is not however a factor in considering mythologyfication of Talmud knowledge since it was at the time a part of the wider nascent development of what later became the discipline of Psychology, and also incorporated Astrology, and effect of digestion on behaviour.


title: Jewish mythology

text: An example of typical mythology in the Talmud exists as a discussion about a giant deer and a giant lion which both originated in a mythical forest called "Bei Ilai". ('Bei' means house in Aramaic) The deer is called "Keresh", it has one horn, and its skin measures 15 cubits in length. The lion, called "Tigris", is said to be so big that there is a space of 9 cubits between its ears. The Roman emperor Hadrian once asked Rabbi Joshua ben Hananiah to show him this lion, since every lion can be killed, but the Rabbi refused and pointed out that this is not a normal lion. The emperor insisted, so the Rabbi reluctantly called for the lion of "Bei Ilai". He roared once from a distance of 400 parasangs, and all pregnant women miscarried and all the city walls of Rome tumbled down. Then he came to 300 parasangs and roared again, and the front teeth and molars of Roman men fell out, and even the emperor himself fell from his throne. He begged the Rabbi to send it back. The Rabbi prayed, and it returned to its place.


title: Jewish mythology

text: The authorities of the Talmud seem to be particularly influenced by popular conception in the direction of folk medicine. A belief in the Evil eye was also prevalent in Talmudic times, and occasionally omens were taken seriously, though in some cases recognized as being merely popular beliefs. Thus, while it is declared to be unlucky to do things twice, as eating, drinking, or washing, Rabbi Dunai recognized that this was an old tradition.


title: Jewish mythology

text: A remarkable custom mentioned in the Talmud is that of planting trees when children are born and intertwining them to form the huppah when they marry. Yet this idea may be originally Iranian and is also found in India.


title: Jewish mythology

text: It may be possible to distinguish in the haggadic legends of biblical character those portions that probably formed part of the original accounts from those that have been developed by the exegetic principles of the haggadists.


title: Jewish mythology

text: The uniqueness of the Talmudic style of both recording meaning and deriving it using exegesis places the many seemingly mythological components of the much larger halachic content into a content very unlike the purely story-telling corpus of other cultures.


title: Jewish mythology

text: In the past century to modern day, there have been many retellings of Jewish myths (mostly from the Torah), and adaptations for the modern public. They have mostly been in the regions of science fiction, as Isaac Asimov noted in his introduction to "More Wandering Stars":


title: Jewish mythology

text: The Hugo Awards, one of the highest distinctions for science fiction writers, have been awarded to biblically derived stories. For instance Harlan Ellison's "I Have No Mouth, and I Must Scream", Larry Niven's "Inconstant Moon" and Harlan Ellison's "The Deathbird".


title: Jewish mythology

text: Another example is Hideaki Anno's "Neon Genesis Evangelion" anime series, which uses kabbalah elements while narrating a reinterpretation of events surrounding Adam, Eve and Lilith in a futuristic and apocalyptic way.


title: Jewish mythology

text: Edward M. Erdelac's weird western book and short story series "Merkabah Rider" features a Hasidic mystic gunslinger and draws heavily from Jewish myth and folklore.


title: Jewish mythology

text: It is often suggested that Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster, the two Jewish creators of Superman, essentially the beginning of superhero comics and comic books, were partly inspired by the story of the Golem of Prague.


title: Tower of Hercules

text: The Tower of Hercules () is the oldest existent lighthouse known. It has an ancient Roman origin on a peninsula about from the centre of A Coruña, Galicia, in north-western Spain. Until the 20th century, it was known as the Farum Brigantium. The Latin word "farum" is derived from the Greek Φάρος, "Pharos", for the Lighthouse of Alexandria. The structure stands tall and overlooks the North Atlantic coast of Spain. It was built in the 1st century and renovated in 1791.


title: Tower of Hercules

text: There is a sculpture garden featuring works by Pablo Serrano and . The Tower of Hercules is a National Monument of Spain, and has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 27 June 2009. It is the second-tallest lighthouse in Spain, after the Faro de Chipiona.


title: Tower of Hercules

text: The tower is known to have existed by the 1st century, built or perhaps rebuilt under Trajan, possibly on foundations following a design that was Phoenician in origin. Built with the original plans of the Lighthouse of Alexandria. Its base preserves a cornerstone with the inscription , permitting the original lighthouse tower to be ascribed to the architect Gaius Sevius Lupus, from Aeminium (present-day Coimbra, Portugal) in the former province of Lusitania, as an offering dedicated to the Roman god of war, Mars. The tower has been in constant use since the 2nd century and is considered to be the oldest existent lighthouse. The original tower was shorter and wider, as the surviving core was surrounded by a spiral ramp. The outline of this ramp is still visible in the restored exterior. The final storey was likely surmounted with a dome.


title: Tower of Hercules

text: The earliest known reference to the lighthouse at Brigantium is by Paulus Orosius in written around 415–417:


title: Tower of Hercules

text: In 1788, the surviving tower core was given a neoclassical restoration, including a new fourth story. The restoration was undertaken by naval engineer Eustaquio Giannini during the reign of Charles III of Spain, and was finished in 1791. UNESCO praised the work: "The Tower of Hercules was restored in the 18th century in an exemplary manner, which has protected the central core of the original Roman monument while restoring its technical functions". Within, the much-repaired Roman and medieval masonry may be inspected.


title: Tower of Hercules

text: The Romans who conquered this region of Spain believed it to be, in a figurative sense, the end of the Earth – hence its name, . This region is notorious for shipwrecks, earning it the name , "Coast of Death".


title: Tower of Hercules

text: Through the millennia many mythical stories of the lighthouse's origin have been told. According to a myth that mixes Celtic and Greco-Roman elements, the hero Hercules slew the giant tyrant Geryon after three days and three nights of continuous battle. Hercules then—in a Celtic gesture—buried the head of Geryon with his weapons and ordered that a city be built on the site. The lighthouse atop a skull and crossbones representing the buried head of Hercules’ slain enemy appears in the coat-of-arms of the city of A Coruña.


title: Tower of Hercules

text: Another legend embodied in the 11th-century Irish compilation —the "Book of Invasions"—King Breogán, the founding father of the Galician Celtic nation, constructed a massive tower of such a grand height that his sons could see a distant green shore from its top. The glimpse of that distant green land lured them to sail north to Ireland. According to the legend, Breogán's descendants stayed in Ireland and are the Celtic ancestors of the current Irish people. A colossal statue of Breogán has been erected near the Tower.


title: Tower of Hercules

text: Throughout the Middle Ages multiple naval crusading itineraries to the Holy Land mentioned the obligatory stopover at the Lighthouse. Usually, the crusader fleets would disembark there to reach the shrine of the Apostle James the Greater at Santiago de Compostela on foot. and helped to perpetuate the legend that the lighthouse had been built by Julius Caesar perhaps by a misreading of the ancient inscription.


title: Tower of Hercules

text: Early geographical descriptions on the location of "Brigantia" point out that the town could be actually located in A Coruña or in the locality of the modern town of Betanzos. There is some debate about this, as the people from Betanzos claim it as a fact that Betanzos was referred to as "the former city of Brigancia" until the 17th century, both in literary accounts as well as in maps, and they also believe that the name "Betanzos" is a phonetical evolution from "Brigantium > Breganzo > Betanzos". This, however, could be a false etymology.


title: Tower of Hercules

text: The Betanzos tradition claims that the port of Betanzos was getting too small for the larger mediaeval ships, and that king Alfonso IX of León decided to create a bigger port nearby in the 13th century. The place he chose was an uninhabited place called "Clunia", which later on evolved to "Cruña" and Coruña, and so (in English) to Corunna. The place name Clunia is believed to come from the Proto-Celtic root *klou̯ni (cf. Old Irish "cluain"), meaning "meadow".


title: Tower of Hercules

text: However, the A Coruña tradition maintains that the "port" of Betanzos (which is a fluvial one, in a quite small river) was far too small for Roman warships to dock at, for example when Julius Caesar visited this area with "more than a hundred triremes". It is demonstrated that A Coruña was an important Roman site, as graveyards and other Roman remains have been found in the city centre, demonstrating that the site was inhabited in the Roman period, and was deserted only during the early Middle Ages due to Viking attacks, when its people moved inland to O Burgo (now Culleredo). The proponents of A Coruña also explain the different name as a change that occurred in the Middle Ages, and point out that the lighthouse, which was called "Pharum Brigantium", was erected in A Coruña, and is at least 25 km (or a day's walk) from Betanzos.


title: Tower of Hercules

text: Also in A Coruña there was the tribe of the Brigantes, in Betanzos the tribe of the Nemeti. Today almost all historians agree that Brigantia is A Coruña. Brigantia is not only A Coruña; today it is believed that Brigantia was located from A Coruña until A Laracha and Carballo in the Bergantiños region (Brigantes > Brigantinos > Bergantiños undoing the modification of medieval Galician).


title: José Enrique (footballer)

text: José Enrique Sánchez Díaz (born 23 January 1986), known as José Enrique, is a Spanish former professional footballer who played as a left-back.


title: José Enrique (footballer)

text: Starting his career with Levante, José Enrique was signed by their rivals Valencia and made La Liga appearances for Celta Vigo and Villarreal. He then spent nine years in England with Newcastle United and Liverpool, totalling 161 Premier League appearances. With the latter club, he won the Football League Cup and lost the FA Cup final in 2012. He retired through injury in 2017, after a year back in Spain with Real Zaragoza.


title: José Enrique (footballer)

text: José Enrique was born in Valencia. He began his football career at hometown club Levante before being acquired by rivals Valencia, who sent him to Celta Vigo for a season-long loan. At the conclusion of this loan spell, he was signed by Villarreal in 2006.


title: José Enrique (footballer)

text: On 6 August 2007, José Enrique signed for English Premier League club Newcastle United for a fee believed to be £6.3 million. He signed a five-year contract with the club. He made his Newcastle debut on 29 August against Barnsley in which he played the full 90 minutes in a 2–0 victory, and his Premier League debut as a substitute against West Ham United on 23 September.


title: José Enrique (footballer)

text: José Enrique's performances were rewarded when he was made the official Newcastle United Player of the Season for 2009–10, voted for by the fans. He also achieved the accolade of being named in the PFA Team of the Year alongside Newcastle teammates Fabricio Coloccini, Kevin Nolan and Andy Carroll. José Enrique scored his only goal for the club in a 2–0 league win over Nottingham Forest on 29 March 2010. He made 36 Premier League appearances for Newcastle in the 2010–11 season.


title: José Enrique (footballer)

text: On 12 August 2011, José Enrique signed for Liverpool for a reported fee of £6 million. He made his debut two days later in Liverpool's first game of the 2011–12 Premier League season, starting in a 1–1 draw against Sunderland. On 26 February 2012, he helped Liverpool win the 2012 Football League Cup Final against Cardiff City, their first honour since 2006. On 1 April, he was forced to play as a goalkeeper for the remaining 13 minutes of the match at his old club Newcastle after Pepe Reina was sent off for headbutting James Perch. Although José Enrique kept a clean sheet, Liverpool, being down 2–0 at the time of Reina's red card, failed to level the score. He also played in the 2012 FA Cup Final on 5 May, a 2–1 loss to Chelsea.


title: José Enrique (footballer)

text: On 17 November 2012, in a league match against Wigan Athletic, José Enrique scored his first goal for Liverpool in the 65th minute, having been increasingly reinvented as a left wing-back in a 3–5–2 formation under manager Brendan Rodgers. On 1 October 2014, he made his UEFA Champions League debut for Liverpool against Basel in Switzerland, playing the full 90 minutes in a 1–0 defeat.


title: José Enrique (footballer)

text: In his final three seasons at Liverpool, José Enrique made only 21 total appearances, 12 of which were in the league. He was hampered by a persistent injury to his right knee, and the side-effects of medication to deal with it. He captained the club in his final appearances, against Exeter City in the FA Cup in January 2016. José Enrique was released by Liverpool at the end of the 2015–16 season.


title: José Enrique (footballer)

text: On 7 September 2016, José Enrique signed for Segunda División club Real Zaragoza on a two-year contract. He made his debut on 8 October, playing the full 90 minutes of a 2–1 loss away to Sevilla Atlético, and scored his first goal on 5 November in a 2–2 draw away to RCD Mallorca.


title: José Enrique (footballer)

text: On 6 September 2017, José Enrique announced his retirement from football due to a persistent knee injury.


title: José Enrique (footballer)

text: José Enrique was diagnosed with chordoma, a rare brain tumour, in May 2018. On 23 June 2018, he announced that he was recovering from surgery to remove a brain tumour. He stated, "I am now in recovery and so thankful. Life is too precious." In April 2019, he received the all-clear.


title: Vibrio

text: Vibrio is a genus of Gram-negative bacteria, possessing a curved-rod (comma) shape, several species of which can cause foodborne infection, usually associated with eating undercooked seafood. Being highly salt tolerant and unable to survive in fresh water, "Vibrio" spp. are commonly found in various salt water environments. "Vibrio" spp. are facultative anaerobes that test positive for oxidase and do not form spores. All members of the genus are motile. They are able to have polar or lateral flagellum with or without sheaths. "Vibrio" species typically possess two chromosomes, which is unusual for bacteria. Each chromosome has a distinct and independent origin of replication, and are conserved together over time in the genus. Recent phylogenies have been constructed based on a suite of genes (multilocus sequence analysis).


title: Vibrio

text: O. F. Müller (1773, 1786) described eight species of the genus "Vibrio" (included in Infusoria), three of which were spirilliforms. Some of the other species are today assigned to eukaryote taxa, e.g., to the euglenoid "Peranema" or to the diatom "Bacillaria". However, "Vibrio" Müller, 1773 became regarded as the name of a zoological genus, and the name of the bacterial genus became "Vibrio" Pacini, 1854. Filippo Pacini isolated micro-organisms he called "vibrions" from cholera patients in 1854, because of their motility. In Latin "vibrio" means "to quiver".


title: Vibrio

text: The genus "Vibrio" contains a large number of species. So, variation in the biochemical characteristics are most common in case of the genus "Vibrio". Colony, morphological, physiological, and biochemical characteristics of the genus "Vibrio" are shown in the Table below.


title: Vibrio

text: Note: Group-1: "Vibrio alginolyticus"; Group-2: "Vibrio natriegens, Vibrio pelagius, Vibrio azureus"; + = Positive; – =Negative; V =Variable (+/–)


title: Vibrio

text: Several species of "Vibrio" are pathogens. Most disease-causing strains are associated with gastroenteritis, but can also infect open wounds and cause sepsis. They can be carried by numerous marine animals, such as crabs or prawns, and have been known to cause fatal infections in humans after exposure. Risk of clinical disease and death increases with certain factors, such as uncontrolled diabetes, elevated iron levels (cirrhosis, sickle cell disease, hemochromatosis), and cancer or other immunocompromised states. Pathogenic "Vibrio" species include "V. cholerae" (the causative agent of cholera), "V. parahaemolyticus", and "V. vulnificus." "V. cholerae" is generally transmitted by contaminated water. Pathogenic "Vibrio" species can cause foodborne illness (infection), usually associated with eating undercooked seafood. When ingested "Vibrio" bacteria can primarily result in watery diarrhea along with other secondary symptoms.The pathogenic features can be linked to quorum sensing, where bacteria are able to express their virulence factor via their signalling molecules.


title: Vibrio

text: "V. vulnificus" outbreaks commonly occur in warm climates and small, generally lethal, outbreaks occur regularly. An outbreak occurred in New Orleans after Hurricane Katrina, and several lethal cases occur most years in Florida. As of 2013 in the United States, "Vibrio" infections as a whole were up 43% when compared with the rates observed in 2006–2008. "V. vulnificus", the most severe strain, has not increased. Foodborne "Vibrio" infections are most often associated with eating raw shellfish.


title: Vibrio

text: "V. parahaemolyticus" is also associated with the Kanagawa phenomenon, in which strains isolated from human hosts (clinical isolates) are hemolytic on blood agar plates, while those isolated from nonhuman sources are not hemolytic.


title: Vibrio

text: Many "Vibrio" species are also zoonotic. They cause disease in fish and shellfish, and are common causes of mortality among domestic marine life.


title: Vibrio

text: A common sign of "Vibrio" infection is cholera. Cholera primarily presents with rapid water loss by watery diarrhea. Other symptoms include vomiting and muscle cramps. Water loss can lead to dehydration which can be mild to moderate to severe. Moderate to severe dehydration requires immediate treatment. "V. cholerae" is the most common pathogen that causes cholera. The gold standard for detecting cholera is through cultures of stool samples or rectal swabs. Identification is then done through microscopy or by agglutination of antibodies. Cultures are done in thiosulfate citrate bile-salts sucrose agar. "V cholerae" will form yellow colonies.


title: Vibrio

text: Vibriosis is a sign of a more severe "Vibrio" infection. Common causes of vibriosis include consumption of raw or undercooked seafood, primarily oysters, or wound exposure to sea water. The majority of "V. parahemolyticus" infections can be self-limiting and symptoms include diarrhea, nausea, headaches, fever and chills. "V. vulnificus" can lead to a more serious disease, particularly in wound infection which can turn into necrotizing fasciitis. "V. parahaemolyticu"s is the most common pathogen in vibriosis, however "V. vulnificus" is more common in people who have certain risk factors like older age, liver disease or diabetes mellitus. Like all vibrio diagnosis, vibriosis can also be determined in stool cultures. "V. parahemolyticus" and "V. vulnificus" will form green colonies.


title: Vibrio

text: Because "Vibrio" gastroenteritis is self-limited in most patients, no specific medical therapy is required. Patients who cannot tolerate oral fluid replacement may require intravenous fluid therapy.


title: Vibrio

text: Although most "Vibrio" species are sensitive to antibiotics such as doxycycline or ciprofloxacin, antibiotic therapy does not shorten the course of the illness or the duration of pathogen excretion. However, if the patient is ill and has a high fever or an underlying medical condition, oral antibiotic therapy with doxycycline or ciprofloxacin can be initiated.


title: Vibrio

text: Patients with noncholera "Vibrio" wound infection or sepsis are much more ill and frequently have other medical conditions. Medical therapy consists of:


title: Vibrio

text: The most effective method to prevent cholera is the improvement of water and food safety. This includes the sanitation of water, proper preparation of food and community awareness of outbreaks. Prevention has been most effective in countries where cholera is endemic.


title: Vibrio

text: Prevention of vibriosis is mostly effected in food processing. Food items, mostly seafood, that commonly contain "vibrio" organisms are regularly controlled. The water that seafood is fished or farmed from is analyzed to determine microorganism content. Food processing methods like pasteurization and high pressure are used to eliminate microorganisms and pathogens.


title: Vibrio

text: "V. harveyi" is a pathogen of several aquatic animals, and is notable as a cause of luminous vibriosis in shrimp (prawns). "Aliivibrio fischeri" (or "V. fischeri") is known for its mutualistic symbiosis with the Hawaiian bobtail squid, which is dependent on microbial luminescence.


title: Vibrio

text: The "typical", early-discovered "Vibrio" species, such as "V. cholerae", have a single polar flagellum (monotrichous) with sheath. Some species, such as "V. parahaemolyticus" and "V. alginolyticus", have both a single polar flagellum with sheath and thin flagella projecting in all directions (peritrichous), and the other species, such as "V. fischeri", have tufts of polar flagella with sheath (lophotrichous).


title: Vibrio

text: Typical bacterial flagellum structure contains three components: the basal body, the hook and the filament. Like typical bacteria, "Vibrio" spp, have these three components, but with increased complexity in the basal body. In addition, "Vibrio" spp. use five or six distinct flagellum subunits to construct the flagellar filament, rather than the single flagellin found in many other bacteria. In "Vibrio" spp, most have a single flagellum located on one pole of the bacterium, although some species have additional flagella in peritrichous or lophotrichous arrangements. Another difference is that the gradient used to power the flagellar motor is sodium driven rather than proton driven; this creates greater torque, and "Vibrio" flagella have been shown to rotate over five times faster than the H+-driven flagella of "E. coli". The flagellum is also surrounded by a sheath extending from the membrane. The purpose of this sheath has yet to be determined.


title: Vibrio

text: Motility is very important for "Vibrio" spp for infection. Research has shown that a variety of "Vibrios" mutants that are defective in flagella synthesis or non-motile are defective in infection. Loss of motility in "Vibrio" has shown impaired colonization and adherence to host's intestines.


title: Vibrio

text: Natural transformation is a common bacterial adaptation for DNA transfer that employs numerous bacterial gene products. For a recipient bacterium to bind, take up, and recombine exogenous DNA into its chromosome, it must become competent, that is, enter a special physiologic state. The DNA-uptake process of naturally competent "V. cholerae" involves an extended competence-induced pilus and a DNA-binding protein that acts as a ratchet and reels DNA into the periplasm. Natural transformation has also been described for "V. fisheri", "V. vulnificus" and "V. parahaemolyticus".


title: Vibrio

text: "V. cholerae" has been used in discoveries of many bacterial small RNAs. Using sRNA-Seq and Northern blot candidate sRNAs were identified and characterised as IGR-sRNA (intragenic region), AS-sRNAs (transcribed from the antisense strand of the open reading frame (ORF) and ORF-derived. One of the candidates from this study, IGR7, was shown to be involved in carbon metabolism and later renamed MtlS RNA. Other sRNAs identified in "V. cholerae" through genetic screens and computational methods include Qrr RNA, Vibrio regulatory RNA of OmpA, MicX sRNA, Vibrio cholerae ToxT activated RNAs, tfoR RNA, and VqmR sRNA.


title: Pakistan Military Academy

text: Pakistan Military Academy (), also referred to by its acronym PMA. PMA is an officers training school located near Kakul village in the city and district of Abbottabad, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa established in 1947. It is the sole service academy in Pakistan tasked with transforming cadets into Army Officers. For educational training, the institution is accredited by NUST.


title: Pakistan Military Academy

text: Cadets have to go through 2 years of rigorous military training until they can finally be termed an Officer. Pakistan Military Academy provides training to Gentlemen Cadets (Officer Cadets) of Pakistan Army and Allied countries. The academy has four training battalions, and 16 companies. Approximately 2,000 invited guests from over 34 countries visit this institution each year. Many close allies of Pakistan send their own cadets and officers to receive premier training in modern military doctrine at PMA.


title: Pakistan Military Academy

text: Before the dissolution of British India in 1947, the location had initially been used as the premises of a PT and Mountaineering School of the British Indian Army, on the site of a vacant POW Camp for prisoners from the Boer War, and later it became the premises of the Royal Indian Army Service Corps. After the division of the old Indian Army between India and Pakistan in 1947, Brigadier Francis Ingall, an officer of the British Indian Army, was selected by the C-in-C India, Field Marshal Sir Claude Auchinleck, as first commandant of the Pakistan Military Academy, established at Kakul. He determined that the PMA would be organized based upon the model established by Sandhurst and requested a regimental sergeant major from the Brigade of Guards to help with training. He was fortunate to have the support of a number of old Indian Army officers who were transferred to the Pakistan Army, among them Lieutenant-Colonel Attiqur Rahman, Major S.G.Mehdi M.C., the first PMA adjutant and founder of Qasim company, fondly known as "Killer" Mehdi, who later went on to command the SSG ( Special Service Group) of the Pakistan Army. In spite of facilities which were nowhere near the level of those enjoyed by the Indian Military Academy at Dehra Dun, Ingall won the confidence of his cadets and instructors. When, late in 1947, the dispute over the accession of Jammu and Kashmir led to armed conflict between India and Pakistan, Ingall was able to structure the Academy’s training to enable newly commissioned officers to be immediately effective when they joined units on active service. Ingall was appointed OBE after completing his term as commandant in 1950. What probably gave him more satisfaction was the decision to name Kakul’s central lecture theatre Ingall Hall - though this was not built until many years after he had left. He kept in touch with the academy for the rest of his life, making his last visit in November, 1997 where he said:


title: Pakistan Military Academy

text: Cadets from IMA (66) arrived in October 1947 and new cadets for Ist PMA Long Course (78) and Ist Graduates Course (63) were selected in Pakistan and training started officially in January 1948. Two hundred and seven cadets started their training in January 1948. On January 25, 1948, "The First Pakistan Battalion" was instituted. This battalion has four companies which were "named after the luminaries of Muslim military history" ("e.g.", Khalid, Tariq, Qasim, and Salahuddin). In March 1948, the First Battalion "was bestowed with Quaid-e-Azam’s patronage as Colonel-in-Chief, and the most coveted claim “The Quaid-e-Azam’s Own".


title: Pakistan Military Academy

text: Khawaja Nazimuddin gave the Quaid-e-Azam banner to the Pakistan Military Academy on behalf of Quaid-e-Azam Mohammed Ali Jinnah. The Quaid-e-Azam banner is held aloft by the champion company at every passing out parade. "Regimental colours presented in 1950 by Liaquat Ali Khan, the first Prime Minister of Pakistan and the National Standard in 1961 by General Muhammad Musa, the then-Commander-in-Chief of the Pakistan Army, have been some of the honours showered on the Academy, which it has always zealously guarded and kept high in letter and spirit."


title: Pakistan Military Academy

text: The 1965 war led to expansion of the academy, and the second battalion of the academy was created in December 1965. This battalion consisted of four companies, called Ghaznavi, Babur, Aurangzeb, and Tipu. In early 1989, the third battalion of the academy was founded. The third battalion's four companies are Haider, Ubaida, Saad, and Hamza.


title: Pakistan Military Academy

text: The academy offers a two-year undergraduate program leading to the Bachelors in Military Art and Science (BMAS) including some common subjects as English, Military Geography, National and International Affairs, Islamic Studies, Military and General Science or Social Science. The long course cadets study two years for the degree before commissioning and complete their degree in their units. Every Gentleman Cadet passing out of the academy has a minimum graduation (from MCE, CEME, MCS, AM College or civil institutes) except for Long Course cadets who complete their degree after their passing out...


title: Pakistan Military Academy

text: The academy believes in proper discipline of a cadet and proper induced discipline. It is based on the principles of Discipline, Honor, Patriotism and the qualities are strictly monitored. Cadets are made to go through current world affairs and ammunition with everything taught being in relation to military. Cadets are also made to adore officer traditional code of conduct and are perfectly sculptured into an Army Officer by the end of their term. Communication skills are given great importance and courteousness and consistency are kept a record of and stressed upon. Cadets are provided with modern educational facilities and are equipped with modern labs to boaster learning. A cadet is also made to react during stress situations and his overall mental capability is worked on.


title: Pakistan Military Academy

text: War tactics are presented to cadets and are part of the curriculum. These include discussion of previous war models and the ones to be used in future. Cadets are also given navigation training in equipped map rooms and then overall judged in the tactical exercises without troops and professionalism are judged in weapon training areas.


title: Pakistan Military Academy

text: "GCs" (Gentlemen Cadets) are required to pass various physical tests. The academy has very high physical standards, which all cadets have to achieve in order to pass. The physical requirements increase with promotion to the next term. The basic requirement for cadets of first term is to be able to complete one mile run (1.6 kilometers) in six minutes and thirty seconds. In second term, cadets are required to complete one mile run in six minutes and fifteen seconds. For third term cadets one mile time is six minutes and for fourth term cadets i.e. the senior most cadets are required to run one mile within six minutes. Other tests includes push ups, sit ups, chin up, rope test, five mile running, assault course, and the acid test. These tests generally test the stamina and strength of a cadet.


title: Pakistan Military Academy

text: In the acid test, cadets begin by traversing a mountain while carrying logs on their shoulders. This is followed by a 14.5 km run in full gear to an obstacle course. Those completing the course are given five rounds with which to hit a target at a distance of 22m.


title: Pakistan Military Academy

text: "Lady Cadets" are also required to pass physical efficiency tests like GCs, but the standards are bit less keeping in view to their physique. The basic requirement for all lady cadets is to run one mile (1.6 km) within ten minutes. Other tests includes push ups, sit ups, bar hanging, assault course and also undergoes an exercise Qiyadat with GCs.


title: Pakistan Military Academy

text: For the sake of training the Gentlemen Cadets are organized in battalions and then further into companies. There are 16 companies in Pakistan Military Academy, all of them are named after famous Muslim warriors and commanders.


title: Pakistan Military Academy

text: The PMA Long Course is for regular commission officers of combat and combat support arms & services. The Long Course has a duration of two years, which is further divided into four terms of six months each. After the 2-year training period Cadets pass out as 2nd Lieutenants.


title: Pakistan Military Academy

text: Candidates who wish to join the army as an engineer apply for this course. It is necessary that the candidate has attained 12 years of academic education with Physics, Chemistry and Mathematics. Candidates who are successful in all tests conducted by the army for selection are then sent to one of these institutions for a Bachelor of Engineering degree, depending on the field they choose:


title: Pakistan Military Academy

text: All of the above institutions are campuses of a public sector university, National University of Sciences and Technology, Islamabad which is one of the major engineering universities of Pakistan. After completing their Bachelor of Engineering degree from one of these institutions, the E-Cadets, as they are called, are sent to Pakistan Military Academy, Kakul for military training of one year after which they directly attain the rank of captain in their respective units.


title: Pakistan Military Academy

text: To be eligible for this course, a candidate must have attained 16 (18 preferred) years of academic education with Physics, Chemistry and Biology. Candidates who pass initial and GHQ Selection Board tests conducted by the army are sent to Army Medical College for MBBS or for Bachelor of Dental Surgery after which they go through a Basic Military Training at Pakistan Military Academy, Kakul for 22 weeks. Apart from GCs of AM College, IC accepts cadets who will to join EME, Signals, RVFC and Army Education Corps with minimum masters in different fields. The IC has a duration of six months. Cadets pass out as Captains. Their military training includes all the essential components required for commissioning as an officer apart from boxing and acid test.


title: Pakistan Military Academy

text: The PMA Lady Cadet's Course was first started in November 2006. The course is taken by masters and bachelors qualified ladies who are sound professionals in their fields. The lady cadets undergo a training period of six months and pass out as Captains in supporting arms of the Pakistan Army.


title: Pakistan Military Academy

text: The Mujahid course was first started in 2011. This course is taken by those candidates who are declared twice low merit from PMA long course. The Mujahid Course cadets go under the training of one year at PMA, Kakul and pass out 2nd Lieutenants. They mostly serve in Kashmir area near LOC, and the area near the border with India. The headquarter of Mujahid Regiment is in Bhimber,Kashmir. It only comes once a year in Summer entry.


title: M. Scott Peck

text: Morgan Scott Peck (1936–2005) was an American psychiatrist and best-selling author who wrote the book "The Road Less Traveled", published in 1978.


title: M. Scott Peck

text: Peck was born on May 22, 1936, in New York City, the son of Zabeth (née Saville) and David Warner Peck, an attorney and judge. His parents were Quakers. Peck was raised a Protestant (his paternal grandmother was from a Jewish family, but Peck's father identified himself as a WASP and not as Jewish).


title: M. Scott Peck

text: His parents sent him to the prestigious boarding school Phillips Exeter Academy in Exeter, New Hampshire, when he was 13. In his book, "The Road Less Traveled", he confides the story of his brief stay at Exeter, and admits that it was a most miserable time. Finally, at age 15, during the spring holiday of his third year, he came home and refused to return to the school, whereupon his parents sought psychiatric help for him and he was (much to his amusement in later life) diagnosed with depression and recommended for a month's stay in a psychiatric hospital (unless he chose to return to school). He then transferred to Friends Seminary (a private K–12 school) in late 1952, and graduated in 1954, after which he received a BA from Harvard in 1958, and an MD degree from Case Western Reserve University in 1963.


title: M. Scott Peck

text: Peck served in administrative posts in the government during his career as a psychiatrist. He also served in the US Army and rose to the rank of lieutenant colonel. His army assignments included stints as chief of psychology at the Army Medical Center in Okinawa, Japan, and assistant chief of psychiatry and neurology in the office of the surgeon general in Washington, DC. He was the medical director of the New Milford Hospital Mental Health Clinic and a psychiatrist in private practice in New Milford, Connecticut. His first and best-known book, "The Road Less Traveled", sold more than 10 million copies.


title: M. Scott Peck

text: Peck's works combined his experiences from his private psychiatric practice with a distinctly religious point of view. In his second book, "People of the Lie", he wrote, "After many years of vague identification with Buddhist and Islamic mysticism, I ultimately made a firm Christian commitment – signified by my non-denominational baptism on the ninth of March 1980..." (Peck, 1983/1988, p11). One of his views was that people who are evil attack others rather than face their own failures.


title: M. Scott Peck

text: In December 1984, Peck co-founded the Foundation for Community Encouragement (FCE), a tax-exempt, nonprofit, public educational foundation, whose stated mission is "to teach the principles of community to individuals and organizations." FCE ceased day-to-day operations from 2002 to 2009. In late 2009, almost 25 years after FCE was first founded, the organization resumed functioning, and began offering community building and training events in 2010.


title: M. Scott Peck

text: Peck married Lily Ho in 1959, and they had three children. In 1994, they jointly received the Community of Christ International Peace Award.


title: M. Scott Peck

text: While Peck's writings emphasized the virtues of a disciplined life and delayed gratification, his personal life was far more turbulent. For example, in his book "In Search of Stones", Peck acknowledged having extramarital affairs and being estranged from two of his children. In 2004, just a year before his death, Peck divorced Lily and married Kathleen Kline Yates.


title: M. Scott Peck

text: Peck died at his home in Connecticut on September 25, 2005. He had had Parkinson's disease and pancreatic and liver duct cancer. Fuller Theological Seminary houses the archives of his publications, awards, and correspondence.


title: M. Scott Peck

text: "The Road Less Traveled", published in 1978, is Peck's best-known work, and the one that made his reputation. It is, in short, a description of the attributes that make for a fulfilled human being, based largely on his experiences as a psychiatrist and a person.


title: M. Scott Peck

text: The book consists of four parts. In the first part Peck examines the notion of discipline, which he considers essential for emotional, spiritual, and psychological health, and which he describes as "the means of spiritual evolution". The elements of discipline that make for such health include the ability to delay gratification, accepting responsibility for oneself and one's actions, a dedication to truth, and "balancing". "Balancing" refers to the problem of reconciling multiple, complex, possibly conflicting factors that impact an important decision—on one's own behalf or on behalf of another.


title: M. Scott Peck

text: In the second part, Peck addresses the nature of love, which he considers the driving force behind spiritual growth. He contrasts his own views on the nature of love against a number of common misconceptions about love, including:


title: M. Scott Peck

text: Peck argues that "true" love is rather an "action" that one undertakes "consciously" to extend one's ego boundaries by including others or humanity, and is therefore the spiritual nurturing—which can be directed toward oneself, as well as toward one's beloved.


title: M. Scott Peck

text: In the third part Peck deals with religion, and the commonly accepted views and misconceptions concerning religion. He recounts experiences from several patient case histories, and the evolution of the patients' notion of God, religion, atheism—especially of their own "religiosity" or atheism—as their therapy with Peck progressed.


title: M. Scott Peck

text: The fourth and final part concerns "grace", the powerful force originating outside human consciousness that nurtures spiritual growth in human beings. To focus on the topic, he describes the miracles of health, the unconscious, and serendipity—phenomena which Peck says:


title: M. Scott Peck

text: He concludes that "the miracles described indicate that our growth as human beings is being assisted by a force other than our conscious will" (Peck, 1978/1992, p281).


title: M. Scott Peck

text: Random House, where the then little-known psychiatrist first tried to publish his original manuscript, turned him down, saying the final section was "too Christ-y." Thereafter, Simon & Schuster published the work for $7,500 and printed a modest hardback run of 5,000 copies. The book took off only after Peck hit the lecture circuit and personally sought reviews in key publications. Later reprinted in paperback in 1980, "The Road" first made best-seller lists in 1984 – six years after its initial publication.


title: M. Scott Peck

text: First published in 1983, "People of the Lie: The Hope For Healing Human Evil" () followed on from Peck's first book. Peck describes the stories of several people who came to him whom he found particularly resistant to any form of help. He came to think of them as evil and goes on to describe the characteristics of evil in psychological terms, proposing that it could become a psychiatric diagnosis. Peck points to "narcissism" as a type of evil in this context.


title: M. Scott Peck

text: His perspective on love (in "The Road Less Traveled") is that love is not a "feeling", it is an "activity" and an "investment". He defines love as, "The will to extend one's self for the purpose of nurturing one's own or another's spiritual growth" (Peck, 1978/1992, p85). Peck expands on the work of Thomas Aquinas over 700 years ago, that love is primarily actions towards nurturing the spiritual growth of another.


title: M. Scott Peck

text: Peck seeks to differentiate between love and cathexis. Cathexis is what explains sexual attraction, the instinct for cuddling pets and pinching babies' cheeks. However, cathexis is not love. All the same, love cannot begin in isolation; a certain amount of cathexis is necessary to get sufficiently close to be able to love.


title: M. Scott Peck

text: Once through the cathexis stage, the work of love begins. It is not a feeling. It consists of what you do for another person. As Peck says in "The Road Less Traveled", "Love is as love does." It is about giving yourself and the other person what they need to grow.


title: M. Scott Peck

text: "The Road Less Traveled" begins with the statement "Life is difficult". Life was never meant to be easy and is essentially a series of problems which can either be solved or ignored. Peck wrote of the importance of discipline, describing four aspects of it:


title: M. Scott Peck

text: Peck argues that these are techniques of suffering, that enable the pain of problems to be worked through and systematically solved, producing growth. He argues that most people avoid the pain of dealing with their problems and suggests that it is through facing the pain of problem-solving that life becomes more meaningful.


title: M. Scott Peck

text: Peck believes that it is only through suffering and agonizing using the four aspects of discipline (delaying gratification, acceptance of responsibility, dedication to truth, and balancing) that we can resolve the many puzzles and conflicts that we face. This is what he calls undertaking "legitimate suffering". Peck argues that by trying to avoid legitimate suffering, people actually ultimately end up suffering more. This extra unnecessary suffering is what Scott Peck terms "neurotic suffering". He references Carl Jung 'Neurosis is always a substitute for legitimate suffering'. Peck says that our aim must be to eliminate neurotic suffering and to work through our legitimate suffering to achieve our individual goals.


title: M. Scott Peck

text: Peck discusses evil in his book "People of the Lie: The Hope for Healing Human Evil", and also in a chapter of "The Road Less Traveled". Peck characterizes evil as a malignant type of self-righteousness in which there is an active rather than passive refusal to tolerate imperfection (sin) and its consequent guilt. This syndrome results in a projection of evil onto selected specific innocent victims (often children), which is the paradoxical mechanism by which the People of the Lie commit their evil. Peck argues that these people are the most difficult of all to deal with, and extremely hard to identify. He describes in some detail several individual cases involving his patients. In one case which Peck considers as the most typical because of its subtlety, he describes Roger, a depressed teenage son of respected, well-off parents. In a series of parental decisions justified by often subtle distortions of the truth, they exhibit a consistent disregard for their son's feelings, and a consistent willingness to destroy his growth. With false rationality and normality, they aggressively refuse to consider that they are in any way responsible for his resultant depression, eventually suggesting his condition must be incurable and genetic.


title: M. Scott Peck

text: Peck makes a distinction between those who are on their way to becoming evil and those who have already crossed the line and are irretrievably evil. In the first instance, he describes George. Peck says, "Basically, George, you're a kind of a coward. Whenever the going gets a little bit rough, you sell out." Of note, this is the kind of evil that inspired the film "Session 9". When asked where evil lives, Simon concludes, "I live in the weak and the wounded." On the other hand, those who have crossed the line and are irretrievably evil are described as having malignant narcissism.


title: M. Scott Peck

text: Some of his conclusions about the psychiatric condition that he designates as "evil" are derived from his close study of one patient he names Charlene. Although Charlene is not dangerous, she is ultimately unable to have empathy for others in any way. According to Peck, people like her see others as playthings or tools to be manipulated for their own uses or entertainment. Peck states that these people are rarely seen by psychiatrists, and have never been treated successfully.


title: M. Scott Peck

text: Evil is described by Peck as "militant ignorance". The original Judeo-Christian concept of "sin" is as a process that leads us to "miss the mark" and fall short of perfection. Peck argues that while most people are conscious of this, at least on some level, those that are evil actively and militantly refuse this consciousness. Peck considers those he calls evil to be attempting to escape and hide from their own conscience (through self-deception), and views this as being quite distinct from the apparent absence of conscience evident in sociopathy.


title: M. Scott Peck

text: Most evil people realize the evil deep within themselves, but are unable to "tolerate the pain of introspection", or admit to themselves that they are evil. Thus, they constantly run away from their evil by putting themselves in a position of "moral superiority" and putting the focus of evil on others. Evil is an extreme form of what Peck, in "The Road Less Traveled", calls a character and personality disorder.


title: M. Scott Peck

text: Using the My Lai massacre as a case study, Peck also examines group evil, discussing how human group morality is strikingly less than individual morality. Partly, he considers this to be a result of specialization, which allows people to avoid individual responsibility and pass the buck, resulting in a reduction of group conscience.


title: M. Scott Peck

text: Though the topic of evil has historically been the domain of religion, Peck makes great efforts to keep much of his discussion on a scientific basis, explaining the specific psychological mechanisms by which evil operates. He was also particularly conscious of the danger of a psychology of evil being misused for personal or political ends. Peck considered that such a psychology should be used with great care, as falsely labeling people as evil is one of the very characteristics of evil. He argued that a diagnosis of evil should come from the standpoint of healing and safety for its victims, but also with the possibility even if remote, that the evil themselves may be cured.


title: M. Scott Peck

text: Ultimately, Peck says that evil arises out of free choice. He describes it thus: Every person stands at a crossroads, with one path leading to God, and the other path leading to the devil. The path of God is the right path, and accepting this path is akin to submission to a higher power. However, if a person wants to convince himself and others that he has free choice, he would rather take a path which cannot be attributed to its being the right path. Thus, he chooses the path of evil.


title: M. Scott Peck

text: Peck also discussed the question of the devil. Initially he believed, as with "99% of psychiatrists and the majority of clergy" (Peck, 1983/1988, p182), that the devil did not exist; but, after starting to believe in the reality of human evil, he then began to contemplate the reality of spiritual evil. Eventually, after having been referred several possible cases of possession and being involved in two exorcisms, he was converted to a belief in the existence of Satan. Peck considered people who are possessed as being victims of evil, but of not being evil themselves. Peck, however, considered possession to be rare, and human evil common. He did believe there was some relationship between Satan and human evil, but was unsure of its exact nature. Peck's writings and views on possession and exorcism are to some extent influenced and based on specific accounts by Malachi Martin; however, the veracity of these accounts and Peck's own diagnostic approach to possession have both since been questioned by a Catholic priest who is a professor of theology. It has been argued that it is not possible to find formal records to establish the veracity of Father Malachi Martin's described cases of possession, as all exorcism files are sealed by the Archdiocese of New York, where all but one of the cases took place.


title: M. Scott Peck

text: Peck argues that while transitions from Stage I to Stage II are sharp, transitions from Stage III to Stage IV are gradual. Nonetheless, these changes are noticeable and mark a significant difference in the personality of the individual.


title: M. Scott Peck

text: In his book "The Different Drum: Community Making and Peace", Peck says that community has three essential ingredients:


title: M. Scott Peck

text: Based on his experience with community building workshops, Peck says that community building typically goes through four stages:


title: M. Scott Peck

text: The four stages of community formation are somewhat related to a model in organization theory for the five stages that a team goes through during development. These five stages are:


title: M. Scott Peck

text: It is in this third stage that Peck's community-building methods differ in principle from team development. While teams in business organizations need to develop explicit rules, guidelines and protocols during the "norming" stage, the "emptiness" stage of community building is characterized, not by laying down the rules explicitly, but by shedding the resistance within the minds of the individuals.


title: M. Scott Peck

text: Peck started the Foundation for Community Encouragement (FCE) to promote the formation of communities, which, he argues, are a first step towards uniting humanity and saving us from self-destruction.


title: M. Scott Peck

text: The Blue Heron Farm is an intentional community in central North Carolina, whose founders stated that they were inspired by Peck's writings on community. Peck himself had no involvement with this project, however.


title: M. Scott Peck

text: The Exosphere Academy of Science & the Arts uses community building in their teaching methodology to help students practice deeper communication, remove their "masks", and feel more comfortable collaborating and building innovative projects and startups.


title: M. Scott Peck

text: Based on research by Robert E. Roberts (1943–2013), Chattanooga Endeavors has used Community Building since 1996 as a group intervention to improve the learning experience of former offenders participating in work-readiness training. Roberts' research demonstrates that groups that are exposed to Community Building achieve significantly better training outcomes.


title: Lee Boo-jin

text: Lee Boo-jin (born 1970) is a South Korean billionaire businesswoman, and the president and chief executive of Hotel Shilla, one of Seoul's leading hotels and conference centers. Lee has been dubbed by the media as "Little Lee Kun-hee" and is regarded as a successful businesswoman for her work in Hotel Shilla. She is the younger sister of Samsung Electronics Vice Chairman Lee Jae-yong. She is also the older sister of Lee Seo-hyun, president of Samsung C&T's fashion division.


title: Lee Boo-jin

text: She is the daughter of Lee Kun-hee, the late billionaire chairman of Samsung Group. She graduated from Daewon Foreign Language High School, a prestigious Korean high school. She earned a bachelor's degree from Yonsei University, major in children's studies.


title: Lee Boo-jin

text: Lee began her career at Samsung Foundation in 1995 and formerly served as an advisor for the trading department of Samsung C&T.


title: Lee Boo-jin

text: In 1999, she married Im Woo-jae, known in the South Korean press as "Mr. Cinderella" because of his humble background, as an "employee of a security service affiliate of Samsung Group". They separated in 2012, and have one son together.


title: Lee Boo-jin

text: In a court ruling in July 2017, Lee was ordered to pay her ex-husband Im Woo-jae $7.6 million, as part of their divorce settlement, with Lee receiving sole custody of their son. Im allegedly counter-sued and sought $1.1 billion as a division of assets, one of the largest amounts ever requested in an asset split trial in South Korea. Their divorce was settled in January 2020 with Lee ordered to pay Im $12.1 million in an asset split.


title: Modjo

text: Modjo were a French house musical duo formed in Paris in 1999. The duo was made up of producer Romain Tranchart (born 9 June 1976) and vocalist Yann Destagnol (Yann Destal; born 14 July 1978). They had major success in 2000 with their hit single "Lady (Hear Me Tonight)".


title: Modjo

text: Romain Tranchart moved with his family to Algeria and Mexico, to finally live in Brazil. There, he started learning the guitar, finding inspiration through jazz classics.


title: Modjo

text: At that time he became a fan of house music, influenced by DJ Sneak, Ian Pooley, and Daft Punk. He released his first house single as Funk Legacy titled "What You're Gonna Do, Baby" on Vertigo Records (FR) in 1998. Later, he decided to enter the American School of Modern Music in Paris, the French division of the Berklee School of Music.


title: Modjo

text: Also Parisian, Yann learned to play flute and clarinet when he was a small child. As he aged he became deeply influenced by the Beatles, the Beach Boys, David Bowie and other pop acts. He started to play drums by emulating them. He also learned to play the piano and the guitar. He later bought himself a four-track recording machine and started songwriting and singing. Fascinated more by voices than by charismatic band leaders, he liked bands such as Aerosmith, The Police and Queen and lately became a great fan of R&B divas.


title: Modjo

text: After being a drummer and sometimes-vocalist in a few bands, he met Romain in 1998, and the partnership was born. The two quickly began recording, and from those sessions came "Lady (Hear Me Tonight)". The single got recognition later on in 2000. It is a "French-flavour" house track with heavy pop and disco influences, which featured a sample from Chic's "Soup for One". The track became an instant number-one across Europe, and was followed up by other singles "Chillin'", "What I Mean" and "No More Tears". Their live version of the band was named Modjo Band, which saw the duo being accompanied by guitars, bass and drums.


title: Modjo

text: After "No More Tears" and "On Fire", they started their respective solo careers, with Romain Tranchart remixing songs from various artists like Res ("Golden Boys"), Shaggy ("Sexy Lady"), Mylène Farmer ("California") and post producing the likes of Everynote's "Once Upon a Time". Yann Destal's released a Queen-esque album, titled "The Great Blue Scar" , reaching some success in France.


title: Barney Rubble

text: Barney Rubble is a fictional character who appears in the television animated series "The Flintstones". He is the diminutive, blond-haired caveman husband of Betty Rubble and adoptive father of Bamm-Bamm Rubble. His best friend is his next door neighbor, Fred.


title: Barney Rubble

text: Barney's personality was based on that of Ed Norton on the 1950s television series "The Honeymooners", played by Art Carney. Like Ralph Kramden on "The Honeymooners", Fred was constantly on the lookout for get-rich-quick schemes, while Barney, like Norton, found life satisfactory as it was, but participated in said schemes because Fred was his friend. Usually, after Fred had hatched one of his plans, Barney showed his agreement by laughing and saying, "Uh hee hee hee... OK, Fred!" or "Hee hee hee... whatever you say, Fred!"


title: Barney Rubble

text: In early episodes, Barney had a New Jersey accent. It was soon changed to a deeper, more chuckle-like voice. In "On the Rocks" and the late 2000s, his Jersey accent returns.


title: Barney Rubble

text: Barney's interests included bowling, playing pool, poker, tinkering around in Fred's garage, and playing golf (though in some episodes, Barney did not know how to play golf). He, like Fred, was also a member of the Loyal Order of Water Buffaloes lodge and its predecessor in earlier episodes, the Loyal Order of Dinosaurs. He is also a talented pianist and drummer. In the first episode of the original series, he was an inventor of a human-powered helicopter. Another time Barney actually built an advanced sports car racer; which almost but did not win a $50.000 race because the car's stone wheels crumbled at the last minute. Although clearly depicted as being in better shape than Fred, he is not shown to be quite as enthusiastic a sportsman as Fred is. This distinction can be attributed to Fred's fondness for food, though Barney is shown to be almost as capable of excessive appetite on a number of occasions.


title: Barney Rubble

text: Barney grew up at 142 Boulder Avenue in Granitetown [north of Bedrock]. He was acknowledged to be the maternal nephew of Fred Flintstone's boss, Mr. George Slate. As young adults, Barney and Fred worked as bellhops at a resort, where they first met Wilma and Betty, who were working as cigarette girls. Eventually, Barney married Betty (as Fred did Wilma).


title: Barney Rubble

text: Several episodes and spinoffs suggest that Barney, along with Fred, spent some time in the army early in their marriages, though said references may be to Barney and Fred's military service in the first-season episode "The Astr'nuts."