title: Susanne Bier

text: Bier's films often deal with the traditional family framework, with the collapse of the bourgeois middle class under the pressure of globalization, terrorism, and war, and the way in which people deal with a disaster or a formative event outside their lives. She notes that the moment that interests her in characters' lives is when their sense of security cracks and the outside world knocks on the door. The main questions in her films are questions of morality: whether it is moral to leave a partner who has become disabled, whether personal good precedes the general good, and how to respond to the violence directed at the individual. Bier often raises questions about how far one would go for a child is in distress, if social services appear to be unable or unwilling to help, and the limits one exceeds to get their own desires fulfilled.


title: Susanne Bier

text: Bier's style of direction gives the players a great deal of freedom, allowing improvisation in both texts and presentation. Her films have a common visual code - all of them are filmed in a shoulder camera, and emotional peaks use extreme close-ups of eyes, lips, and fingers. In addition, the editing method is not faithful to the continuous editing tradition, and it adds to a more free and random feeling.


title: Susanne Bier

text: Bier's films are characterized by the fact that, despite their tragic structure, there is a "flattening" of the dramatic events, or, alternatively, no dramatization of the major events. For example, in the scene of the first encounter between the father and his daughter in "After the Wedding", the two of them are silent for most of the scene, and talk about a bottle of water he brings to her. This style of direction creates the feeling that nothing happens in her films, but a thorough analysis of the events shows that the films are faithful to the dramatic structure of the theatre of ancient Greece.


title: Susanne Bier

text: Moreover, Bier makes sure to finish her films with a slightly optimistic tone, saying that although her films are not purely commercial, they are also not pure art, and therefore she should communicate with her audience and give them some light to lean on.


title: Susanne Bier

text: In Susan King's article, Bier claims her Jewish heritage embedded a strong sense of family in conjunction to a sense of instability and turmoil. This pertains to her father's need to flee Germany in 1933 to Denmark, where he met Bier's mother. The two of them fled by boat to Sweden after Nazis began rounding up Jews in Denmark. Originally, Bier imagined herself married to a nice Jewish man with six children. She later decided that she wanted to pursue a career. She has been married twice and has two children, Gabriel and Alice. Despite this, she still holds family as her biggest influence and claims she would have never become a filmmaker without her children. To Bier, "family is a sense of identity". "I speak to my parents every day. I have a very close relationship to my aunts and uncles, but also my ex-husband…who comes to stay with us. I have this almost obsessive desire to whomever is close to me, I want to have a very intense, close, intimate relationship with them. That way of living definitely informs the stories I tell.”Although she frequently depicts international stories in third world countries, Bier had never been to Africa or India until she started making movies there. On her frequent interest and depiction of the Third World, Bier insists that "it is sort of pointing out that the Third World is really a part of our lives. It is unavoidable, and we need to relate to it…" As she writes in a public letter after winning the Oscar for "In a Better World", "My particular world is not just Copenhagen. It had to be broader than this. My world is larger than it used to be." In Sylvaine Gold's article, Bier claims she doesn't like to be in a state of comfort when working. Typically in her films, happy and comfortable characters are met by situations of extreme sadness and catastrophe. She attributes this obsession to her parents experience during World War II when “society suddenly turned against them” because they were Jewish. Despite this obsession with tragedy, Bier says “I've had a very fortunate, very privileged life [but] I say that with all humility, because it could change tomorrow. But I have a very strong ability to empathize, to understand what things feel like." Her frequent writing collaborator Anders Thomas Jensen confirms this "humanness" in her, that "She's very good at putting herself in a character's place, which is really a gift." Bier also insists that despite her negative depictions in her films, she always wants to end a film with some vestige of hope. She never wants to alienate her audience, that it is always key to "have an ability to communicate".


title: Susanne Bier

text: Bier was married to Swedish actor and director Philip Zanden. After her divorce from Zanden, she met her current partner, the Danish singer and composer Jesper Winge Leisner , who wrote the music for several of her films. Bier has two children. Her first child is Gabriel Bier Gislason (born 5.7.1989), son of Bier's first husband, Danish/Icelandic film director Tómas Gislason . Gabriel works in the film industry like his parents. Her second child is Alice Esther Zanden (born in 1995).


title: Bengali cuisine

text: Bengali cuisine () is the culinary style of Bengal, a region in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent encompassing Bangladesh and the Indian states of West Bengal, Tripura, Jharkhand and Assam's Barak Valley. The cuisine has been shaped by the region's diverse history and climate. It is known for its varied use of flavours, as well as the spread of its confectioneries and desserts. Bengali cuisine has the only traditionally developed multi-course custom in the South Asia that is analogous in structure to the modern "service à la russe" style of French cuisine, with food served in courses rather than all at once. There is a strong emphasis on rice as a staple, served with fish, meat, vegetables, and lentils. Many Bengali food traditions draw from social activities, such as adda, or the "Mezban".


title: Bengali cuisine

text: Muslims conquered Bengal around the mid-thirteenth century, bringing with them Persian and Arabic cuisine. Such dishes as "biryani", "korma" and "bhuna" had once been meals of the higher courts, but the cooks of the Mughals brought their recipes to the lower and middle classes. The influence was reinforced during the rule of the British Raj, where Kolkata became the place of refuge for many prominent exiled Nawabs, notably the family of Tipu Sultan from Mysore and Wajid Ali Shah, the ousted Nawab of Awadh. The exiles brought with them hundreds of cooks and "masalchis" (spice mixers), and as their royal patronage and wealth diminished, they became interspersed into the local population. These cooks came with the knowledge of a very wide range of spices (most notably "jafran" and mace), the extensive use of "ghee", and marinating meat with yoghurt and chilli.


title: Bengali cuisine

text: In Bangladesh, this food has become common fare for the population while in West Bengal, they have remained the food of professional chefs. Further innovations include "chap" (ribs slow cooked on a tawa), "rezala" (meat in a thin yogurt and cardamom gravy) and "kathi" roll (kebabs in a wrap).


title: Bengali cuisine

text: The Mughals had a particular fixation on meat, bringing mutton and beef into mainstream Bengali cuisine as well as already known kinds of meat like chicken and venison.


title: Bengali cuisine

text: Furthermore, traditional desserts had been primarily based on rice pastes and jaggery, but under Mughal influence moved towards significantly increased use of milk, cream, and sugar along with expensive spices such as cardamom and saffron.


title: Bengali cuisine

text: In Hindu patriarchal tradition, widows were not allowed to eat foods that would not be classified as "bitter", necessitating experiment and innovation. While most Bengali castes ate meat and fish, this was barred for widows. Widows also could not use "heating" foods such as shallot and garlic, but ginger was allowed. This style found a core place in Bengali curries in general, both vegetarian and non-vegetarian. Expensive spices such as saffron, cinnamon or cloves were used very sparingly—if at all. Nuts, dry fruits, milk and milk products (such as cream, ghee or curd) were similarly scarce. These economic and social restrictions influenced Bengali widows to create a brand new set of meals that utilized only vegetables and cheap spices.


title: Bengali cuisine

text: The large-scale displacement along religious lines as a result of the partition led to changes in meal-taking, as to adhere to religious restrictions. In Bangladesh (former East Bengal and East Pakistan), Mughlai food is common, and includes foods that are less popular in West Bengal, such as beef kebab. Additionally, sweets such as zarda and firni-payesh are eaten. In rural Bangladesh, many people eat makna fried, popped, or raw.


title: Bengali cuisine

text: In West Bengal, the only restriction is beef, which applies only to Hindus. During the colonial period, many Western food shops were established in Kolkata, making puff pastries, channa, chocolate, and chips especially popular. Dishes such as chop, gravy cutlet, sponge rasogolla, and ledikeni. As a result of a multi-cultural community, Kolkata city's cuisine continuously changes, and takes heavy influence from Chinese and Marwari palates.


title: Bengali cuisine

text: Bengali cuisine can be subdivided into four different types of dishes, "charbya" (), or food that is chewed, such as rice or fish; "choṣya" (), or food that is sucked, such as ambal and tak; "lehya" (), or foods that are meant to be licked, like chutney; and "peya" (), which includes drinks, mainly milk.


title: Bengali cuisine

text: Different parts of Bengal are famed for certain dishes, food items and ingredients. For example, South Bengali districts around the Sundarbans boast of the expensive "chui jhal" chilli, which they peel and chop into small pieces to be cooked in their dishes and give off a strong aroma. On the other hand, North Bengal are the homes of many Bengali desserts such as the Mishti doi of Bogra, the Kachagolla of Natore and the Chomchom of Porabari. However, other regions also have famous desserts like the "Balish Mishti" (pillow-sweet) of Netrokona, the Monda of Muktagachha, the Red Yoghurt of Nabadwip and the famed Roshmolai of Comilla.


title: Bengali cuisine

text: Chittagonian culinary tradition is mostly known for Mezban and mixed rice dishes like kala bhuna, which has shoulder pieces of beef and traditional spices. Dried fish ("shutki") is more available in the Chittagong region than in other parts of Bengal.


title: Bengali cuisine

text: "Mezban" (locally known as "Mejjan") is the Bengali word for special occasion feasts in the Chittagong region of Bangladesh. Historically Mezbani is a traditional regional feast where people are invited to enjoy a meal with white rice and beef, besides other dishes rich in animal fat and dairy. It is held on the occasions such as death anniversary, birth anniversary, celebrating successes, launching of a new business, entry into a new house, the birth of a child, marriage, aqiqah and circumcision, ear piercing of girls and naming of the newborn. The invitation of the Mezban ceremony generally remains open for all and various people to different places and neighbourhoods convey the invitation for the feast.In urban areas, attending a mezban is by invitation only. Usually, the consumption of food at Mezbani takes place from morning to afternoon.


title: Bengali cuisine

text: Beef-based dishes are preferred by Bengali Muslims and are a symbol of social prestige for a Mezban feast. The rich and the poor arrange feasts on various occasions as much as circumstances allow them. It has a distinct style of cooking and proper Mezban meat demands a certain skill; for example: The unique beef curry served in this feast is known as "Mezbani gosht", that carries a distinctive recipe, knowledge of which is essentially confined within the Chittagonian cooks.


title: Bengali cuisine

text: Fish is used instead of beef while cooking Mezban in Hindu tradition. The Hindu community of Chittagong organises Mezbani each year under the banner of "Chittagong Parishad", with curries made from fish, vegetable and dried fish.


title: Bengali cuisine

text: Dhakaiya food is one of the most notable regional cuisines. The rich culinary customs are influenced by Mughlai, Central Asian, Armenian, Hindustani and native Bengali cuisines. However, it also has dishes unique to Dhaka. The Nawabs of Dhaka had brought Mughlai cuisine to Bengal, that were wholly retained by Dhaka's culinary community. Due to the high costs of producing Mughlai food, the recipes were limited to the elite classes in colonial India, and slowly expanded as Bangladesh's economy grew. The main focus on lamb, mutton, beef, yoghurt, and mild spices define the taste of the style. Such dishes as kebab; stuffed breads; "kacchi biriyani"; roast lamb, duck, and chicken; "patisapta"; Kashmiri tea; and "korma" are still served at special occasions like Eid and weddings. Due to the high class of the food, using an excess amount of expensive ingredients like ghee, and making the food melt in one's mouth were essential to the feel of the food.


title: Bengali cuisine

text: Old Dhaka boasts a variation of the famous pilaf - the Morog Polao - in which the rice is cooked after and the chicken pieces are cut. Other include and . Dhakaiyas are noted for introducing paneer and boiled eggs to khichuri. Dhakai bakarkhani is a thick, biscuit-like flat-bread which is a traditional street-food snack, famed for its quality and taste. It is mainly dished up with tea. Dhakaiyas proudly hold a heritage of creating the best "khili paan" using various herbs and spices. They also offer a khili paan for diabetic patients called the "paan afsana". Haji biryani is a dish, invented by a restaurateur in 1939, made with highly seasoned rice, goat's meat and number of spices and nuts. The restaurant has become an integral part of Dhakaiya culture.


title: Bengali cuisine

text: In Kolkata, many local street vendors own small shops from which they sell their own homemade goods. Items like cheeses ("paneer") can be eaten as is, or can be made into sweet "sandesh", "rosogolla", or "chanar payesh". Milk is especially used in Kolkata's various types of payesh, differing in use of different grains and additives like dates, figs, and berries. In addition to European foodstuffs like chocolate, Kolkata takes culinary influence from its Chinese diaspora. "Phuchka", also copied by the rest of India as "panipuri", is a common kind of Bengali street food made with a fried dough casing and a potato and chickpea filling, usually found in small stalls alongside bhelpuri, masala chai, ghugni and chaat stalls.


title: Bengali cuisine

text: During the 19th century many Odia cooks migrated to Bengal to work in the households of affluent Kolkata families. They were also hired to cook in weddings and other family ceremonies. Introduction of Odia cooks into their kitchens brought in subtle but significant changes to Kolkata's cuisine. Many of Kolkata's classic dishes were originally from Odisha but were refined in Kolkata kitchens by Odia cooks. In fact some researchers say that dishes like "kanika" (Bengali "mishti pulao") were first introduced to Kolkata kitchens by Odia cooks although this is contested by other researchers. Even to this date most of the cooks in Kolkata kitchens and hotels are Odia cooks.


title: Bengali cuisine

text: The Chinese of Kolkata originally settled into a village called Achipur south of Kolkata in the late 18th century, later moving into the city and finally into its present home in Tangra at the eastern edge of Kolkata. The Chinese-origin people of Kolkata form a substantial and successful community with a distinct identity. With this identity came Chinese food, available at almost every street corner in Kolkata at present, due to the taste, quick cooking procedure, and no similarity with the original Chinese recipe other than the use of soy sauce. They were mostly Cantonese tradesmen and sailors who first settled down here and decided to cook with whatever items they had at hand.


title: Bengali cuisine

text: Calcuttan immigrants to other countries have started carrying this abroad as well; Indian Chinese restaurants have appeared in many places in the United States and UK.


title: Bengali cuisine

text: Indian Chinese food has been given a second boost in popularity since the 1950s when a large number of Tibetans migrated into Indian Territory, following the 14th Dalai Lama's flight. Tibetans brought their own taste preferences to add to the genre, such as the popular momo (a kind of dumpling) or thukpa (a hearty noodle soup). Tibetans and Nepali immigrants found ready employment in the many kitchens that can now be found on virtually every street in Kolkata.


title: Bengali cuisine

text: Adda () is a traditional Bengali means of socialising over food during the work day. Food taken during adda consists usually of mishti or sweetmeats, tea, and coffee, although heartier meats such as fried fish may be brought out as well.


title: Bengali cuisine

text: The adda saw a rise during the colonial era among the Bhadralok guild members to meet and talk about a range of topics:"You could be discussing Charles and Camilla's marriage this moment, and the next moment you're swinging over to the latest cricket series between India and Pakistan, and then swing back to the recent controversy over Tagore." Being a hobby for artisans, women were largely secluded from adda, a sentiment that has begun to disappear with the democratization of adda and women occupying a larger space in social life. For this reason, adda was seen as a refuge "...from the home, a neutral rendezvous away from both the perceived drudgery of the workplace and domesticity".


title: Bengali cuisine

text: In the post-colonial era, the adda has been fading due to the more rigid structure of work and exploitative perceptions of unnecessary laziness. This has inspired a sizeable movement of Bengalis who believe it integral to the idea of "lyadh", or doing nothing to relax and recharge. However, adda does still exist, being attended during vacation time or after work at clubs or coffee shops. The tradition even has an equivalent to the Greek symposium, as students may meet for a study session over food or have a teacher teach in a more relaxed environment.


title: Bengali cuisine

text: Sylhet boasts a variation of the famous pilaf dish – Akhni – in which the rice is cooked after and the chicken pieces are cut. Commonly consumed varieties of meat include beef, chicken, Mutton and duck/goose in dishes such as Hash O Bash. They also proudly hold the heritage of Beef Hatkora, a rice dish consisting of a wild citrus fruit not found in other parts of Bengal.


title: Bengali cuisine

text: During the British period, biscuits and loaves were introduced in Sylhet and received popularity within the Muslim community. The middle-class Hindus of Cachar and Sylhet however were very suspicious of biscuits and breads as they believed they were baked by Muslims. In one occasion, a few Hindus in Cachar caught some Englishman eating biscuits with tea which caused an uproar. The information reached the Hindus of Sylhet and a little rebellion occurred. In response to this, companies started to advertise their bread as "machine-made" and "untouched by (Muslim) hand" to tell Hindus that the breads were "safe for consumption". This incident is mentioned in Bipin Chandra Pal's autobiography and he mentions how gradually culinary habits of Hindus eventually changed.


title: Bengali cuisine

text: Bengali food is often served on plates which have a distinct flowery pattern often in blue or pink. Another characteristic of Bengali food is the use the boti (also called "dao" or "da"). It is a long curved blade on a platform held down by one or both feet; both hands are used to hold whatever is being cut and move it against the blade, which faces the user. This method gives effective control over the cutting process, and can be used to cut anything from prawns to large pumpkins.


title: Bengali cuisine

text: A korai is a cooking vessel for most Bengali sauces and stir-fry. The dekchi (a flat-bottomed pan) is used generally for larger amounts of cooking or for making rice. It comes with a thin flat lid which is used also to strain out the starch while finishing up cooking rice. The tawa is used to make roti and paratha. The other prominent cooking utensil is a hari, which is a round-bottomed pot-like vessel. The three mentioned vessels all come in various sizes and in various metals and alloys.


title: Bengali cuisine

text: A flat metal spatula, khunti, is used often, along with hata (scoop with a long handle), jhanjri (round-shaped sieve-like spatula to deep-fry food), the shanrashi (pincers to remove vessels from the fire), the ghuntni (wooden hand blender) for puréeing dal, the wooden "belun chaki" (round pastry board and rolling pin), and the "shil nora", which is a rough form of a mortar and pestle or grinding stone. The kuruni is used only to grate coconuts.


title: Bengali cuisine

text: The typical Bengali fare includes a certain sequence of food—somewhat like the courses of Western dining. Two sequences are commonly followed, one for ceremonial dinners such as a wedding and the day-to-day sequence.


title: Bengali cuisine

text: Bengalis usually eat sitting on the floor with food served on a dostorkhan. They historically ate without silverware, with a large banana or plantain leaf serving as the plate, or with plates made from dried sal leaves sewn together.


title: Bengali cuisine

text: It is customary to offer guests food and drink appropriate to the time of their visit. At meals, guests are served first, with the possible exception of very old or very young members of the host family. Within the family, serving starts with the senior males (those of highest social rank or eldest). School-age children are served before wives, daughter-in-laws, and the cook, who are the last to eat.


title: Bengali cuisine

text: Prior to colonisation, adherence to meal order was a marker of social status, but with British and Portuguese influence and the growth of the middle class, this has slowly disappeared. Courses are frequently skipped or combined with everyday meals. Meals were usually served course by course to the diners by the youngest housewives, but increasing influence of nuclear families and urbanisation has replaced this. It is common to place everything on platters in the centre of the table, and each diner serves themselves. Ceremonial occasions such as weddings used to have elaborate serving rituals, but professional catering and buffet-style dining is now commonplace. However, large family occasions and more lavish ceremonial feasts may still abide by these rules.


title: Bengali cuisine

text: Daily meals are usually simple, geared to balance nutrition and making extensive use of vegetables. The courses progress broadly from lighter to richer and heavier and go through various tastes and taste cleansers. Rice remains common throughout the meal and is the main constituent of the meal, until the "chaţni" (chutney) course.


title: Bengali cuisine

text: Bengalis eat copious amounts of fish and typically look for freshwater and brackish fish when making meals. They also temper it with phoron. Popular fish curries include "boal", "rohu", "ilish", and "pabda".


title: Bengali cuisine

text: One tradition includes the left side of the cidal fish being cooked in oil. Bengali Vaishnavas avoid all types of fish, eggs and meat.


title: Bengali cuisine

text: Bengali sweets have a long history. The Portuguese friar Sebastien Manrique, travelling in the region in the 17th century, noted the multitude of milk-based foods and sweets prepared in traditional ways. Falooda, shahi jilapi and shemai are popular sweet foods and desserts.


title: Bengali cuisine

text: Roshogolla, a Bengali traditional sweet, is one of the most widely consumed sweets in India. It spread to Bengal in 1868. Chhana based sweets were introduced in Eastern India from about the 18th century; as the process and technology involved in synthesizing "Chhana" was introduced to the Indians by the Dutch in the 1790s. The cottage cheese "schmierkase" was also known as Dutch cheese. The earlier versions of Rossogolla lacked binding capacity of the modern avatar that is well known and highly acclaimed today. This was due to the fact that the know-how involved in synthesizing such a sweet was unknown before being experimentally developed by Nobin Chandra Das and then constantly improved and further standardized by his successors. Furthermore, the "chhana" manufactured in those days was a coarse and granular variety and had low binding capacity. It was made by citric and ascorbic acid from natural fruit extracts. This type of "chhana" cannot be worked on to compact into any regular and firm shape for the purpose of sweet-making, leave alone making Rossogolla. This is because of a documented technological issue – lactic acid (extracted from whey) used to curdle milk now was introduced to India in the late 18th century by Dutch and Portuguese colonists (along with acetic acid). It is this method that creates the fine, smooth modern "chhana" with high binding capacity – which is now the staple raw material for Bengali confectioners. At present, Nobin Chandra Das is referred to have invented the spongy variant of rossogolla.


title: Bengali cuisine

text: Laddu (or as it is known as "darbesh" in Bengal) is a very common sweet in West Bengal and Bangladesh, as well as the rest of the subcontinent, especially during celebrations and festivities. They are usually made out of flour, ghee/butter/oil and sugar. Alternative recipes can be made of coconut shavings and jaggery, raisins, chopped nuts, oatmeal, khoa, nutmeg, cardamom, or poppy seeds, among other ingredients. The sweet dates back to the year 4 BCE, where it was used for medicinal purposes and to keep the hormones of 9-11-year-old girls' hormones "in check".


title: Bengali cuisine

text: Several varieties of "doi" such as "mishţi doi", fruit-floured doi like "aam doi", custards, and rice pudding ("khir" or "firni") are also popular in West Bengal.


title: Bengali cuisine

text: "Shôndesh", "chhanar jilapi", "kalo jam", "raghobshai", "pantua", "jolbhora shondesh", "roshbhora", "lord chomchom", "payesh", "bundiya", "nalengurer shôndesh", "malpoa", "shor bhaja", "langcha", "babarsa", and a variety of others are examples of sweets in Bengali cuisine.


title: Bengali cuisine

text: Common beverages include shorbot, lachhi, ghol, matha, falooda and Rooh Afza. The two main types of Bengali tea are dudh cha (milk tea) and masala cha. Srimangal, the tea capital of Bengal, is famed for the Seven Color Tea whilst Dhaka is famed for the borhani. Traditional fruit juices ("rosh") are also drunk such as sugarcane juice, mango juice, palm fruit juice, date juice as well as basil seed or tukma-based drinks.


title: RH (company)

text: RH (formerly Restoration Hardware) is an upscale American home-furnishings company headquartered in Corte Madera, California. The company sells its merchandise through its retail stores, catalog, and online. As of August 2018, the company operated a total of 70 galleries, 18 full-line design galleries, and 6 baby-and-child galleries. The company also has 36 outlet stores in the United States and Canada.


title: RH (company)

text: Stephen Gordon founded Restoration Hardware in Eureka, California, in 1979 while restoring a Victorian home and finding affordable, high-quality hardware and fixtures unavailable. The company expanded slowly in Northern California and Boston before raising outside capital from Cardinal Investments which allowed it to accelerate its expansion. The company had 47 stores when it went public in 1998, ending the year at over 65 stores. It then expanded to over 100 stores in 31 states, with $369.5 million in net sales by 2001.


title: RH (company)

text: In 2001, Gary Friedman joined the company from Williams-Sonoma, Inc. as Chief Executive Officer after being passed over for the CEO position at Williams-Sonoma by Howard Lester. Restoration Hardware's sales were waning and the company was seeking additional capital. In 2005, Gordon left the company in order to take over as CEO of Robert Redford's Sundance Catalog Company. In 2007, Sears Holdings Corporation purchased 13.7% of the share of Restoration Hardware, prompting speculation that Sears might attempt a full takeover. After the United States housing bubble burst, the company was slated to close two stores in 2008, including the original store located in Old Town Eureka, and open one in Canada. In June 2008, the company completed the transaction without Sears Holding, but instead with Catterton Partners.


title: RH (company)

text: Catterton took Restoration Holdings private in June 18, 2008. That year, the company also launched its baby-and-child line. In 2012, Restoration Hardware underwent an initial public offering, trading at $24 a share at its opening. The company was renamed RH, and trades on the New York Stock Exchange under the symbol RH. In 2007, about 65% of the company's products were made outside the US, particularly from contract manufacturers in southern China. The company is the largest importer of Belgian Linen and Italian bedding in the United States.


title: RH (company)

text: RH created a small spaces line in 2012, composed of furnishings scaled down for smaller living spaces. The 2014 Small Spaces source book depicts 18 different smaller-scale homes in the United States and Europe. In 2013, RH also released the Objects of Curiosity source book, showing character pieces, artifacts, and unique décor. The tableware line was released in 2013.


title: RH (company)

text: In 2012, the company was accused of copying the designs of other companies, specifically those used for the US military. On March 7, 2013, RH opened a gallery in Boston's Back Bay in an 1864 brick and brownstone structure at 234 Berkeley Street. In May 2013, the company announced a multichannel RH contemporary art platform when it acquired the first edition of Rain Room by Random International with exclusive showing rights in North America. RH loaned Rain Room to the Museum of Modern Art in New York for the U.S. premier of EXPO 1: New York from mid-May through July 2013. In 2014, RH opened a 70,000 square foot store which Atlanta Magazine called RH's "next-generation full-line design gallery", which includes amenities like a 50-foot infinite pool.


title: RH (company)

text: RH operates six stores in Canada: one full-line design gallery at Yorkdale Shopping Centre in Toronto, three galleries and two outlets.


title: RH (company)

text: "Time" magazine was critical of the company for its large catalog called the "Source Book" for its length (992 pages), specifically its waste of paper. The full 2014 catalogue weighed 17 lbs and had over 3000 pages. The company stated that by combining all of the different sourcebooks into one package it reduced their carbon footprint, while critics still stated that the volume of paper used for the publication's mass delivery was wasteful.


title: RH (company)

text: As of September 2010, company representatives declared a change in focus for the company. In an attempt to go further "up-market", the company has focused itself on furniture gallery offerings at higher price points to distinguish itself from competitors like Pottery Barn. Locations have begun adding the term "Gallery" to their marques to indicate the change. The company designs, markets, and sells its collections through its retail stores, source books, and online. The "San Francisco Chronicle" has reported that, "One of the key strategies that set RH apart is its approach to inventory. While most retailers design things in-house, RH created a different model. "We have one full-time designer, Suzi Bolognese, working directly from London on our catalogs and displays" [its CEO] Friedman said. "We find artists we love and 'curate' [the client]."" The company has partnered with artisans and designers in the production of its lines. Jim Cramer of CNBC stated that source books were a tactic to move past the "four walls of the web" and to make it "exciting for people to shop again". He also stated that RH is a market disruptor, often to the point that it "disrupts itself". In a different piece, Cramer stated that the company was reinventing the concept of the brick and mortar store, including the use of very large flagship stores in unusual locations.


title: RH (company)

text: RH operates 12 restaurants inside of some RH Gallery locations in addition to one standalone location.


title: RH (company)

text: Gary Friedman was the company's chairman and co-chief executive officer from 2001 until his resignation in 2012 following an independent report from Weil, Gotshal & Manges into his inappropriate romantic relationship with a younger female employee. Following his dismissal, Friedman continued the relationship with the woman. He was reappointed as co-CEO and chairman in July 2013. The company also announced that concurrent with Friedman's appointment, RH acquired the exclusive right to develop Hierarchy and that the new concept would be rebranded as RH Atelier, focusing on the development of luxury apparel, accessories, footwear, and jewelry.


title: RH (company)

text: Carlos Alberini joined as co-CEO in 2010, but resigned in 2013 to accept a position as CEO of Lucky Brand Jeans, upon which Friedman became the Chairman and CEO of the company.


title: Muqaddimah

text: The Muqaddimah, also known as the Muqaddimah of Ibn Khaldun () or Ibn Khaldun's Prolegomena (), is a book written by the Arab historian Ibn Khaldun in 1377 which records an early view of universal history. Some modern thinkers view it as the first work dealing with the social sciences of sociology, demography, and cultural history. The "Muqaddimah" also deals with Islamic theology, historiography, the philosophy of history, economics, political theory, and ecology. It has also been described as a precursor or an early representative of social Darwinism, and Darwinism.


title: Muqaddimah

text: Ibn Khaldun wrote the work in 1377 as the introduction chapter and the first book of his planned work of world history, the "Kitābu l-ʻibar" ("Book of Lessons"; full title: "Kitābu l-ʻibari wa Dīwāni l-Mubtada' wal-Ḥabar fī ayāmi l-ʻarab wal-ʿajam wal-barbar, waman ʻĀsarahum min Dhawī sh-Shalṭāni l-Akbār", i.e.: "Book of Lessons, Record of Beginnings and Events in the history of the Arabs and Foreigners and Berbers and their Powerful Contemporaries"), but already in his lifetime it became regarded as an independent work on its own.


title: Muqaddimah

text: Muqaddimah (مقدمة) is an Arabic word used to mean "Prologue" or "The Introduction", to introduce a larger work


title: Muqaddimah

text: The concept of "ʿasabiyyah" (Arabic: "tribalism, clanism, communitarism", or in a modern context, "group feeling" , "social cohesion", "solidarity" or even "nationalism") is one of the best known aspects of the "Muqaddimah". As this ʿasabiyyah declines, another more compelling ʿasabiyyah may take its place; thus, civilizations rise and fall, and history describes these cycles of ʿasabiyyah as they play out.


title: Muqaddimah

text: Ibn Khaldun argues that each dynasty has within itself the seeds of its own downfall. He explains that ruling houses tend to emerge on the peripheries of great empires and use the unity presented by those areas to their advantage in order to bring about a change in leadership. As the new rulers establish themselves at the center of their empire, they become increasingly lax and more concerned with maintaining their lifestyles. Thus, a new dynasty can emerge at the periphery of their control and effect a change in leadership, beginning the cycle anew.


title: Muqaddimah

text: Ibn Khaldun wrote on economic and political theory in the "Muqaddimah", relating his thoughts on ʿasabiyyah to the division of labor: the greater the social cohesion, the more complex the division may be, the greater the economic growth:


title: Muqaddimah

text: Ibn Khaldun noted that growth and development positively stimulate both supply and demand, and that the forces of supply and demand are what determine the prices of goods. He also noted macroeconomic forces of population growth, human capital development, and technological developments effects on development. Ibn Khaldun held that population growth was a function of wealth.


title: Muqaddimah

text: He understood that money served as a standard of value, a medium of exchange, and a preserver of value, though he did not realize that the value of gold and silver changed based on the forces of supply and demand. Ibn Khaldun also introduced the labor theory of value. He described labor as the source of value, necessary for all earnings and capital accumulation, obvious in the case of craft. He argued that even if earning "results from something other than a craft, the value of the resulting profit and acquired (capital) must (also) include the value of the labor by which it was obtained. Without labor, it would not have been acquired."


title: Muqaddimah

text: Ibn Khaldun describes a theory of prices through his understanding that prices result from the law of supply and demand. He understood that when a good is scarce and in demand, its price is high and when the good is abundant, its price is low.


title: Muqaddimah

text: His theory of ʿasabiyyah has often been compared to modern Keynesian economics, with Ibn Khaldun's theory clearly containing the concept of the multiplier. A crucial difference, however, is that whereas for John Maynard Keynes it is the middle class's greater propensity to save that is to blame for economic depression, for Ibn Khaldun it is the governmental propensity to save at times when investment opportunities do not take up the slack which leads to aggregate demand.


title: Muqaddimah

text: Another modern economic theory anticipated by Ibn Khaldun is supply-side economics. He "argued that high taxes were often a factor in causing empires to collapse, with the result that lower revenue was collected from high rates." He wrote:


title: Muqaddimah

text: Ibn Khaldun introduced the concept now popularly known as the Laffer curve, that increases in tax rates initially increase tax revenues, but eventually the increases in tax rates cause a decrease in tax revenues. This occurs as too high a tax rate discourages producers in the economy.


title: Muqaddimah

text: Ibn Khaldun used a dialectic approach to describe the sociological implications of tax choice (which now forms a part of economics theory):


title: Muqaddimah

text: This analysis is very similar to the modern economic concept known as the Laffer curve. Laffer does not claim to have invented the concept himself, noting that the idea was present in the work of Ibn Khaldun and, more recently, John Maynard Keynes.


title: Muqaddimah

text: The "Muqaddimah" is also held to be a foundational work for the schools of historiography, cultural history, and the philosophy of history. The "Muqaddimah" also laid the groundwork for the observation of the role of state, communication, propaganda and systematic bias in history.


title: Muqaddimah

text: The "Muqaddimah" states that history is a philosophical science, and historians should attempt to refute myths. Ibn Khaldun approached the past as strange and in need of interpretation. The originality of Ibn Khaldun was to claim that the cultural difference of another age must govern the evaluation of relevant historical material, to distinguish the principles according to which it might be possible to attempt the evaluation, and lastly, to feel the need for experience, in addition to rational principles, in order to assess a culture of the past. Ibn Khaldun often criticized "idle superstition and uncritical acceptance of historical data". As a result, he introduced a scientific method to the study of history, which was considered something "new to his age", and he often referred to it as his "new science", now associated with historiography.


title: Muqaddimah

text: The "Muqaddimah" emphasized the role of systemic bias in affecting the standard of evidence. Khaldun was quite concerned with the effect of raising the standard of evidence when confronted with uncomfortable claims, and relaxing it when given claims that seemed reasonable or comfortable. He was a jurist, and sometimes participated reluctantly in rulings that he felt were coerced, based on arguments he did not respect. Besides al-Maqrizi (1364–1442), Ibn Khaldun's focused attempt systematically to study and account for biases in the creation of history wouldn't be seen again until Georg Hegel, Karl Marx, and Friedrich Nietzsche in 19th-century Germany, and Arnold J. Toynbee, a 20th-century British historian.


title: Muqaddimah

text: Ibn Khaldun also examines why, throughout history, it has been common for historians to sensationalize historical events and, in particular, exaggerate numerical figures:


title: Muqaddimah

text: The "Muqaddimah" contains discussions on Islamic theology which show that Ibn Khaldun was a follower of the orthodox Ash'ari school of Sunni Islamic thought and a supporter of al-Ghazali's religious views. He was also a critic of Neoplatonism, particularly its notion of a hierarchy of being.


title: Muqaddimah

text: The "Muqaddimah" covers the historical development of kalam and the different schools of Islamic thought, notably the Mu'tazili and Ash'ari schools. Ibn Khaldun, being a follower of the Ash'ari school, criticizes the views of the Mu'tazili school, and bases his criticisms on the views of Abu al-Hasan al-Ash'ari, whom he describes as "the mediator between different approaches in the kalam". Ibn Khaldun also covers the historical development of Islamic logic in the context of theology, as he viewed logic as being distinct from early Islamic philosophy, and believed that philosophy should remain separate from theology. The book also contains commentaries on verses from the Qur'an.


title: Muqaddimah

text: Ibn Khaldun was an Islamic jurist and discussed the topics of sharia (Islamic law) and fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) in his "Muqaddimah". Ibn Khaldun wrote that "Jurisprudence is the knowledge of the classification of the laws of God." In regards to jurisprudence, he acknowledged the inevitability of change in all aspects of a community, and wrote:


title: Muqaddimah

text: Ibn Khaldun further described Fiqh jurisprudence as "knowledge of the rules of God which concern the actions of persons who own themselves bound to obey the law respecting what is required ("wajib"), forbidden ("haraam"), recommended ("mandūb"), disapproved ("makruh") or merely permitted ("mubah")".


title: Muqaddimah

text: Some of Ibn Khaldun's thoughts, according to some commentators, anticipate the biological theory of evolution. Ibn Khaldun asserted that humans developed from "the world of the monkeys", in a process by which "species become more numerous" in Chapter 1 of the "Muqaddimah":


title: Muqaddimah

text: Ibn Khaldun believed that humans are the most evolved form of animals, in that they have the ability to reason. The "Muqaddimah" also states in Chapter 6:


title: Muqaddimah

text: His evolutionary ideas appear to be similar to those found in the "Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity". Ibn Khaldun was also an adherent of environmental determinism. He believed that the black skin, practices, and customs of the people of sub-Saharan Africa were due to the region's hot climate, a theory that according to Rosenthal may have been influenced by the Greek geographical ideas expounded by Ptolemy's "Tetrabiblos". Ibn Khaldun viewed the Hamitic theory, where the sons of Ham became black as the result of a curse from God, as a myth.


title: Muqaddimah

text: Shoaib Ahmed Malik has pointed out that Ibn Khaldun's theory, while remarkable for its acceptance of the kinship between monkeys and humans, should be understood in the context of the late antique and medieval concept of the great chain of being. This theory postulates a linked hierarchy between all entities in creation but is not properly a theory of evolution. The system of the great chain of being implies a graded similarity between the various stages in the hierarchy from minerals to plants, animals, humans, angels, and God, but not a temporal process in which one species originates from the other. While according to some mystical interpretations individual souls may move up the 'ladder' in order to reunite with the divine, the species (or 'substantial forms', in the language of Aristotelian and Neoplatonic ontology) themselves are eternal and fixed. Malik also notes that quotes from the like the first one cite above are often given without proper regard for their context. The quote is taken from a section called "The Real Meaning of Prophecy", which argues that prophets occupy a place in the great chain of being just beneath angels. In Ibn Khaldun's view, this explains why individual prophets may temporarily ascend to the rank of angels and share with them in the knowledge of the divine, which they may then bring back to humanity in the form of revelation. According to Malik, interpretations that see in this an early form of scientific evolution theory ought to explain how angels, prophets and the upwards ascent of the soul fit into that theory.


title: Muqaddimah

text: Ibn Khaldun was a critic of the practice of alchemy. The "Muqaddimah" discusses the history of alchemy, the views of alchemists such as Jabir ibn Hayyan, and the theories of the transmutation of metals and elixir of life. One chapter of the book contains a systematic refutation of alchemy on social, scientific, philosophical and religious grounds.


title: Muqaddimah

text: He begins his refutation on social grounds, arguing that many alchemists are incapable of earning a living and end up "losing their credibility because of the futility of their attempts", and states that if transmutation were possible, the disproportionate growth of gold and silver "would make transactions useless and would run counter to divine wisdom". He argues that some alchemists resort to fraud, either openly by applying a thin layer of gold on top of silver jewelry, or by secretly using an artificial procedure of covering whitened copper with sublimated mercury.


title: Muqaddimah

text: Ibn Khaldun states that most alchemists are honest and believe that the transmutation of metals is possible, but he argues that transmutation is an implausible theory since there has been no successful attempt to date. He ends his arguments with a restatement of his position: "Alchemy can only be achieved through psychic influences ("bi-ta'thirat al-nufus"). Extraordinary things are either miracles or witchcraft ... They are unbounded; nobody can claim to acquire them."


title: Muqaddimah

text: In the "Muqaddimah"s introductory remarks, Ibn Khaldun agrees with the classical republicanism of the Aristotelian proposition that man is political by nature, and that man's interdependence creates the need for the political community. Yet he argues that men and tribes need to defend themselves from potential attacks, and thus political communities are formed. The glue which holds such tribes together and eventually forms "royal authority" or the state, according to Ibn Khaldun, is ʿasabiyyah. He argues that the best type of political community is a caliphate or Islamic state, and argues that the neo-Platonist political theories of al-Farabi and Ibn Sina and the "perfect state" ("Madinatu l-Faḍīlah") are useless because God's Law, the sharia, has been revealed to take account of public interest and the afterlife. The second most perfect state, Ibn Khaldun argues, is one based on justice and consideration for public welfare in this life, but not based on religious law and so not beneficial to one's afterlife. Ibn Khaldun calls this state blameworthy. Yet the worst type of state, according to Ibn Khaldun, is a tyranny wherein government usurps property rights and rules with injustice against the rights of men. He argues that if that is not possible for a ruler to be both loved and feared, then it is better to be loved, because fear creates many negative effects in the state's population.


title: Muqaddimah

text: Ibn Khaldun writes that civilizations have lifespans like individuals, and that every state will eventually fall because sedentary luxuries distract them, and eventually government begins to overtax citizens and begin injustice against property rights, and "injustice ruins civilization". Eventually after one dynasty or royal authority falls, it is replaced by another, in a continuous cycle.


title: Muqaddimah

text: The British philosopher-anthropologist Ernest Gellner considered Ibn Khaldun's definition of government, "an institution which prevents injustice other than such as it commits itself", the best in the history of political philosophy.


title: Army Black Knights football

text: The Army Black Knights football team, previously known as the Army Cadets, represents the United States Military Academy in college football. Army is a Division I Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) member of the NCAA. The Black Knights play home games in Michie Stadium with a capacity of 38,000 at West Point, New York. The Black Knights are coached by Jeff Monken who is in his ninth season as head coach. Army claims three national championships from 1944 to 1946. In addition, major selectors have awarded Army championships in 1914 and 1916. Army has produced 24 players and 4 coaches in the College Football Hall of Fame, 37 consensus All-Americans, and 3 Heisman Trophy winners.


title: Army Black Knights football

text: With the exception of seven seasons (1998–2004) where the team was a member of Conference USA, Army has competed as an independent, meaning that they have no affiliation with any conference. As of the 2022 college football season, Army is one of seven FBS schools whose football teams do not belong to any conference, the others being BYU, Liberty, New Mexico State, Notre Dame, UConn, and UMass. However, for all other sports Army is primarily a member of the Patriot League.


title: Army Black Knights football

text: Three players from Army have won the Heisman Trophy: Doc Blanchard (1945), Glenn Davis (1946), and Pete Dawkins (1958).


title: Army Black Knights football

text: The three major service academies—Air Force, Army, and Navy—compete for the Commander-in-Chief's Trophy, which is awarded to the academy that defeats the others in football that year (or retained by the previous year's winner in the event of a three-way tie). Army has won nine CIC Trophies, most recently in 2020.


title: Army Black Knights football

text: Army's football program began on November 29, 1890, when Navy challenged the cadets to a game of the relatively new sport. Navy defeated Army at West Point that year, but Army avenged the loss in Annapolis the following year. The academies still clash every December in what is traditionally the last regular-season Division I college-football game. The 2016 Army–Navy Game marked Army's first recent win after fourteen consecutive losses to Navy. From 1944 to 1950, the Cadets had 57 wins, 3 losses and 4 ties. During this time span, Army won three national championships.


title: Army Black Knights football

text: Army's football team reached its pinnacle of success during the Second World War under coach Earl Blaik when Army won three consecutive national championships in 1944, 1945 and 1946, and produced three Heisman trophy winners: Doc Blanchard (1945), Glenn Davis (1946) and Pete Dawkins (1958). Past NFL coaches Vince Lombardi and Bill Parcells were Army assistant coaches early in their careers.


title: Army Black Knights football

text: The football team plays its home games at Michie Stadium, where the playing field is named after Earl Blaik. Cadets attendance is mandatory at football games and the Corps stands for the duration of the game. At all home games, one of the four regiments marches onto the field in formation before the team takes the field and leads the crowd in traditional Army cheers.


title: Army Black Knights football

text: For many years, Army teams were known as the "Cadets." In the 1940s, several papers called the football team "the Black Knights of the Hudson." From then on, "Cadets" and "Black Knights" were used interchangeably until 1999, when the team was officially nicknamed the Black Knights.


title: Army Black Knights football

text: Between the 1998 and 2004 seasons, Army's football program was a member of Conference USA, but starting with the 2005 season Army reverted to its former independent status. Army competes with Navy and Air Force


title: Army Black Knights football

text: Army has won five national championships from NCAA-designated major selectors. Army claims the 1944, 1945, and 1946 titles. In addition, Army was selected by four major selectors in 1914 and one major selector in 1916. Charles Daly was the head coach of both teams.


title: Army Black Knights football

text: The Lambert-Meadowlands Trophy (known as the Lambert Trophy), established in 1936, is an annual award given to the best team in the East in Division I FBS (formerly I-A) college football and is presented by the Metropolitan New York Football Writers. Army has won the Lambert Trophy nine times; seven times under head coach Earl "Red" Blaik in the 1940s and 1950s, and twice under head coach Jeff Monken in 2018 and 2020.


title: Army Black Knights football

text: The NCAA's football oversight committee determined the number of primary bowl tie-ins for each FBS conference and FBS independent for the 2020–2025 bowl cycle using eligibility data from the 2014–2017 seasons. The Black Knights received one guaranteed tie-in per year. On October 24, 2019, the West Point Athletic Department announced that they had agreed to a contract that placed their team, if eligible, in the Independence Bowl for three of the six years, with the remaining years being contracted to an ESPN Events-owned bowl. Additionally, the contract contains a clause that allows Army the ability to accept a bid from a different bowl game once during the three-year agreement with the Independence Bowl and once during the three-year agreement with ESPN Events. Aligning with this, on November 5 Army announced that it had agreed to a secondary contractual tie-in with the Duke's Mayo Bowl. It agreed that it would serve as the primary backup for the bowl and would have the opportunity to accept an invitation to the game twice during the six-year cycle. The Duke's Mayo Bowl's primary tie-ins for the 2020–2025 cycle are the ACC (all years), the SEC (odd years), and the Big Ten (even years); if any of those conferences were unable to place a team into the bowl during any of those years, Army would be extended an invitation to fill their place. The opponent conferences for the Independence Bowl were announced to be the Pac-12 and the American on January 30, 2020.


title: Army Black Knights football

text: "The Duke's Mayo Bowl can extend an invitation to Army once during the even years (2020, 2022, 2026) and once during the odd years (2021, 2023, 2025) to fill a vacancy as part of a secondary tie-in."


title: Army Black Knights football

text: ESPN Events operates the following 16 bowls that Army could be invited to during odd years of the cycle:


title: Army Black Knights football

text: Air Force, Army, and Navy have played each other every year since 1972 for the Commander-in Chief's Trophy. Air Force leads the FBS service academies with 21 victories, Navy has 16 victories, and Army has 9 victories, with the trophy being shared 4 times. Air Force is the current holder of the trophy.


title: Army Black Knights football

text: Air Force and Army meet annually and vie for the Commander-in-Chief's Trophy. Air Force leads Army 37–18–1 through the 2021 season.


title: Army Black Knights football

text: After the Navy–Notre Dame game was canceled in 2020, the Army–Air Force game became the longest uninterrupted intersectional rivalry in college football.


title: Army Black Knights football

text: Army and Navy play each other annually in the Army–Navy game, which is also a part of the Commander-in-Chief's Trophy. This series is one of the oldest and traditional rivalries in the NCAA. They first met in 1890, and have played each other annually since 1930. The games are generally played at a neutral site. Navy leads the series 62–53–7 through the 2021 season.


title: Army Black Knights football

text: Notre Dame is a rivalry which some feel has fallen into obscurity. In much of the early 20th century, Army and Notre Dame were considered football powerhouses, and met 34 times between 1913 and 1947. Though the rivalry has slowed down, they last met in 2016. Many media members considered the 1946 contest to be the "Game of the Century". Notre Dame leads the series 39–8–4 through the 2018 season.


title: Army Black Knights football

text: Michie Stadium is the home stadium of the Army Black Knights in West Point, New York, which was opened in 1924. The stadium is named after the first Army football head coach, Dennis Michie. In 1999 the field was renamed Blaik Field at Michie Stadium in honor of Former Coach Earl Blaik.


title: Army Black Knights football

text: Alma Mater is the Army's school song. Army's fight song is On, Brave Old Army Team. Army also plays other organized cheers; Army Rocket Yell, Black, Gold, and Gray, and USMA Cheer.


title: Army Black Knights football

text: Army's mascots are the Army Mules. While dating back to 1899, they were officially adopted as mascots by USMA in 1936.


title: Army Black Knights football

text: The following 24 individuals have been inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame as players. Daly and McEwan also served as Army's head coach.


title: Army Black Knights football

text: President of the United States and General of the Army Dwight D. Eisenhower and General of the Army Omar Bradley were on the 1912 Army football team. Eisenhower was injured and his football career was over by 1913, when the two future generals were juniors. Bradley, a star of the Army baseball team for four years, was on the field in 1913 when Notre Dame upset Army in a historic college football game in which the forward pass was used for the first time. Bradley played end opposite the legendary Knute Rockne, the Notre Dame end who later coached the Irish to national championships before dying in a plane crash near Bazaar, Kansas, on Easter Friday in 1931.


title: Ferdinand de Lesseps

text: Ferdinand Marie, Comte de Lesseps (; 19 November 1805 – 7 December 1894) was a French diplomat and later developer of the Suez Canal, which in 1869 joined the Mediterranean and Red Seas, substantially reducing sailing distances and times between Europe and East Asia.


title: Ferdinand de Lesseps

text: He attempted to repeat this success with an effort to build a Panama Canal at sea level during the 1880s, but the project was devastated by epidemics of malaria and yellow fever in the area, as well as beset by financial problems, and the planned Lesseps Panama Canal was never completed. Eventually, the project was bought out by the United States, which solved the medical problems and changed the design to a non-sea level canal with locks. It was completed in 1914.


title: Ferdinand de Lesseps

text: The origins of Lesseps' family are traceable back as far as the end of the 14th century. His ancestors, it is believed, came from Spain, and settled at Bayonne during the period of English rule in the region. One of his great-grandfathers, Pierre de Lesseps (Bayonne, 2 January 1690 – Bayonne, 20 August 1759), son of Bertrand Lesseps (1649–1708) and wife (m. 18 April 1675) Louise Fisson (1654–1690), was town clerk and at the same time secretary to Queen Maria Anna of Neuburg, widow of Charles II of Spain.


title: Ferdinand de Lesseps

text: From the middle of the 18th century the ancestors of Lesseps followed diplomatic careers, and he himself occupied several diplomatic posts from 1825 to 1849. His uncle was ennobled by King Louis XVI, and his father was made a count by Emperor Napoleon I. His father, Mathieu de Lesseps (Hamburg, 4 May 1774 – Tunis, 28 December 1832), was in the consular service; his mother, Catherine de Grévigné (Málaga, 11 June 1774 – Paris, 27 January 1853), was Spanish on her mother's side, and aunt of the countess of Montijo, mother of the Empress Eugénie. She was a daughter of Henri de Grevigné (baptised Notre-Dame-aux-Fonts, Liège, 2 June 1744) and wife (m. Málaga, 1766) Francisca Antonia Gallegos (1751–1853).


title: Ferdinand de Lesseps

text: Ferdinand de Lesseps was born November 19, 1805 in Versailles, Yvelines. He had a sister, Adélaïde de Lesseps (1803–1879), married to Jules Tallien de Cabarrus (19 April 1801 – 1870), and two brothers, Théodore de Lesseps (Cádiz, 25 September 1802 – Saint-Germain-en-Laye, 20 May 1874), married in 1828 to Antonia Denois (Paris, 27 September 1802 – Paris, 29 December 1878), and Jules de Lesseps (Pisa, 16 February 1809 – Paris, 10 October 1887), married on 11 March 1874 to Hyacinthe Delarue.


title: Ferdinand de Lesseps

text: His first years were spent in Italy, where his father was occupied with his consular duties. He was educated at the College of Henry IV in Paris. From the age of 18 years to 20 he was employed in the commissary department of the army. From 1825 to 1827 he acted as assistant vice-consul at Lisbon, where his uncle, Barthélemy de Lesseps, was the French "chargé d'affaires". This uncle was an old companion of Jean-François de La Pérouse and the only survivor of the expedition in which La Pérouse perished. Barthélemy de Lesseps had left the expedition in Kamchatka to travel to St Petersburg overland.


title: Ferdinand de Lesseps

text: In 1828 Lesseps was sent as an assistant vice-consul to Tunis, where his father was consul-general. He aided the escape of Youssouff, pursued by the soldiers of the Bey, of whom he was one of the officers, for violation of the seraglio law. Youssouff acknowledged this protection given by a Frenchman by distinguishing himself in the ranks of the French army at the time of the French conquest of Algeria. Lesseps was also entrusted by his father with missions to Marshal Count Bertrand Clausel, general-in-chief of the army of occupation in Algeria. The marshal wrote to Mathieu de Lesseps on 18 December 1830: "I have had the pleasure of meeting your son, who gives promise of sustaining with great credit the name he bears."


title: Ferdinand de Lesseps

text: In 1832 Lesseps was appointed vice-consul at Alexandria. While the vessel, in which Lesseps sailed to Egypt, was in quarantine at the Alexandrian lazaretto, M. Mimaut, consul-general of France at Alexandria, sent him several books, among which was the memoir written upon the previously filled and abandoned Ancient Suez Canal, according to Napoleon Bonaparte's instructions, by the civil engineer Jacques-Marie Le Père, one of the scientific members of the French expedition.


title: Ferdinand de Lesseps

text: This work struck Lesseps's imagination, and was one of the influences that gave him the idea of constructing a canal across the African isthmus. Fortunately for Lesseps, Muhammad Ali, the viceroy of Egypt, owed his position in part to the recommendations made on his behalf to the French government by Lesseps himself, who was consul-general in Egypt when Ali was a colonel. Because of this, Lesseps received a warm welcome from the viceroy and became good friends with his son, Said Pasha. Politically, the British were allied with the Ottoman government in Istanbul (doing so in order to prevent the Russians from gaining access to the Mediterranean) and had also assisted in repelling Ali's attempt to capture Istanbul in 1833. The French were able to manoeuvre in Egypt under Ali's graces by playing off the British intervention against Ali in Istanbul.


title: Ferdinand de Lesseps

text: In 1833 Lesseps was sent as consul to Cairo, and soon afterwards given the management of the consulate general at Alexandria, a post that he held until 1837. While in Egypt he encountered and was influenced by Barthélemy Prosper Enfantin, who was working on a dam north of Cairo for Ali while preaching for a union of the Mediterranean and Red Seas. While he was there an epidemic of plague broke out and lasted for two years, resulting in the deaths of more than a third of the inhabitants of Cairo and Alexandria. During this time Lesseps went from one city to the other with zeal and energy. Towards the close of the year 1837 he returned to France, and on 21 December married Agathe Delamalle (1819–1853), daughter of the government prosecuting attorney at the court of Angers. By this marriage de Lesseps became the father of five sons: Charles Théodore de Lesseps (1838–1838), Charles Aimé de Lesseps (1840–1923), Ferdinand Marie de Lesseps (1842–1846), Ferdinand Victor de Lesseps (1847–1853) and Aimé Victor de Lesseps (1848–1896).


title: Ferdinand de Lesseps

text: In 1839 Lesseps was appointed consul at Rotterdam, and in the following year transferred to Málaga, the ancestral home of his mother's family. In 1842 he was sent to Barcelona, and soon afterwards promoted to the grade of consul general. In the course of a bloody insurrection in Catalonia, which ended in the bombardment of Barcelona, de Lesseps offered protection to a number of men threatened by the fighting regardless of their factional sympathies or nationalities. From 1848 to 1849 he was minister of France at Madrid.


title: Ferdinand de Lesseps

text: In 1849 the government of the French Republic sent Lesseps to Rome to negotiate the return of Pope Pius IX to the Vatican. He tried to negotiate an agreement whereby Pope Pius could return peacefully to the Vatican but also ensuring the continued independence of Rome. But, during negotiations, the elections in France caused a change in the foreign policy of the government – Alexis de Tocqueville replaced the previous foreign minister. Lesseps course was disapproved; he was recalled and brought before the Council of State. Louis-Napoleon needed a scapegoat and Lesseps was an easy target. Lesseps was accused of causing dishonor to the French army and was censured although he was not told to leave the Foreign Ministry.


title: Ferdinand de Lesseps

text: Lesseps was created on 30 August 1851 the 334th Commander and then the 200th Grand Cross of the Order of the Tower and Sword.


title: Ferdinand de Lesseps

text: Lesseps then retired from the diplomatic service, and never again occupied any public office. In 1853 he lost his wife and his son Ferdinand Victor at a few days' interval. In 1854, the accession to the viceroyalty of Egypt of Said Pasha gave Lesseps a new impulse to act upon the creation of a Suez Canal.


title: Ferdinand de Lesseps

text: Lesseps had corresponded at least once with the Société d'Études du Canal de Suez during the reign of Abbas I in Egypt, but Abbas had closed off most of Egypt to foreign influence. Upon Abbas' assassination in 1854, Lesseps, made inquiries with a former, if short-term, acquaintance and successor in Egypt, Said Pasha. On 7 November 1854 he landed at Alexandria; on the 30th of the same month Said Pasha signed the concession authorizing him to build the Suez Canal.


title: Ferdinand de Lesseps

text: A first scheme, initiated by Lesseps, was immediately drawn out by two French engineers who were in the Egyptian service, Louis Maurice Adolphe Linant de Bellefonds called "Linant Bey" and Mougel Bey. This project, differing from others that were previously presented or that were in opposition to it, provided for a direct link between the Mediterranean and the Red Sea. After being slightly modified, the plan was adopted in 1856 by the civil engineers constituting the International Commission for the piercing of the isthmus of Suez. Encouraged by the engineers' approval, Lesseps no longer allowed anything to stop him. He listened to no adverse criticism and receded before no obstacle. Neither the opposition of Lord Palmerston, who considered the projected disturbance as too radical and a threat to the commercial position of the British Empire. Lesseps was similarly not deterred by the opinions entertained, in France as well as in Britain, that the sea in front of Port Said was full of mud which would obstruct the entrance to the canal, and that the sands from the desert would fill the trenches.


title: Ferdinand de Lesseps

text: Lesseps succeeded in rousing the patriotism of the French and obtaining by their subscriptions more than half of the capital of two hundred million francs which he needed in order to form a company, but could not attract any substantial capital contribution from the general public in British or other foreign countries. The Egyptian government thus subscribed for eighty million francs worth of shares.


title: Ferdinand de Lesseps

text: The Compagnie universelle du canal maritime de Suez was organized at the end of 1858. On 25 April 1859 the first blow of the pickaxe was given by Lesseps at Port Said. During the following ten years, Lesseps had to overcome the continuing resistance of the British government, which kept the Sultan from approving the construction of the canal; at one stage even seeking the support of his cousin, Empress Eugenie, to persuade the Emperor Napoleon III to act as arbitrator in the disputes. Finally, on 17 November 1869, the canal was officially opened by the Khedive, Ismail Pasha.


title: Ferdinand de Lesseps

text: While in the interests of his canal Lesseps resisted British government opposition to an enterprise which threatened to give France control of the shortest route to India, he acted favourably towards Britain's interests after Benjamin Disraeli acquired the Suez shares belonging to the Khedive, by admitting to the board of directors of the company three representatives from the government of Britain. The consolidation of interests which resulted, and which was strengthened by the addition in 1884 of seven more British directors, chosen from among shipping merchants and business men, increased, for the benefit of all concerned, the commercial character of the enterprise.


title: Ferdinand de Lesseps

text: Lesseps steadily endeavored to keep out of politics. If in 1869 he appeared to deviate from this principle by being a candidate at Marseille for the Corps Législatif, it was because he yielded to the entreaties of the Imperial government in order to strengthen its goodwill for the Suez Canal. Once this goodwill had been shown, he bore no malice towards those who rendered him his liberty by preferring Léon Gambetta. Afterward, Lesseps declined the other candidatures that were offered to him: for the Senate in 1876, and for the Chamber in 1877. In 1873 he became interested in a project for uniting Europe and Asia by a railway to Mumbai, with a branch to Beijing. The same year, he became a member of the French Academy of Sciences. He subsequently encouraged Major Roudaire, who wished to transform a stretch of the Sahara into an inland sea to increase rainfall in Algeria.


title: Ferdinand de Lesseps

text: Lesseps accepted the presidency of the French committee of Leopold II of Belgium's International African Society. From this position he facilitated Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza's explorations, and acquired stations that Brazza subsequently abandoned to the French government. These stations were the starting-point of French Congo. Lesseps was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1879.


title: Ferdinand de Lesseps

text: From 17 November 1899 to 23 December 1956, a monumental statue of Ferdinand de Lesseps by Emmanuel Frémiet stood at the entrance of the Suez Canal.


title: Ferdinand de Lesseps

text: In May 1879 a congress of 136 delegates (including Lesseps) assembled in the rooms of the Société de géographie in Paris, under the presidency of Admiral de la Roncire le Noury, and voted in favor of the creation of a Panama Canal, which was to be without locks, like the Suez Canal. Lesseps was appointed President of the Panama Canal Company, despite the fact that he had reached the age of 74. It was on this occasion that Gambetta bestowed upon him the title of "Le Grand Français". However, the decision to dig a Panama Canal at sea level to avoid the use of locks, and the inability of contemporaneous medical science to deal with epidemics of malaria and yellow fever, doomed the project.


title: Ferdinand de Lesseps

text: In February 1880, Lesseps arrived in New York City to raise money for the project. When he stayed at the Windsor Hotel, its staff flew the French flag in his honor. He met the American Society of Civil Engineers and the Geographic Society while touring the area. Lesseps then went to Washington D.C., met with President Rutherford B. Hayes, and testified to the House Interoceanic Canal Committee. He later went to Boston, Chicago, and several other American cities to raise interest and capital for the project.


title: Ferdinand de Lesseps

text: In June 1880, Lesseps gave a speech in Liverpool where he was able to find support from a Captain Peacock, who felt the canal project was worth supporting as it would provide routes to save time.


title: Ferdinand de Lesseps

text: Lesseps went with his youngest child to Panama to see the planned pathway. He estimated in 1880 that the project would take 658 million francs and eight years to complete. After two years of surveys, work on the canal began in 1882. However, the technical difficulties of operating in the wet tropics dogged the project. Particularly disastrous were recurrent landslides into the excavations from the bordering water-saturated hills, and the death toll from malaria and yellow fever. In the end, insufficient financial capital and financial corruption ended the project. The Panama Canal Company declared itself bankrupt in December 1888 and entered liquidation in February 1889.


title: Ferdinand de Lesseps

text: The failure of the project is sometimes referred to as the Panama Canal Scandal, after rumors circulated that French politicians and journalists had received bribes. By 1892 it emerged that 150 French deputies had been bribed into voting for the allocation of financial aid to the Panama Canal Company, and in February 1893 Lesseps, his son Charles (born 1849), and a number of others faced trial and were found guilty. Lesseps was ordered to pay a fine and serve a prison sentence, but the latter was overturned by the Court of Cassation on the grounds that it had been more than three years since the crime was committed. Ultimately, in 1904 the United States bought out the assets of the Company and resumed work under a revised plan.


title: Ferdinand de Lesseps

text: In Paris on November 25, 1869—a week after the opening of the Suez Canal—Lesseps married his second wife, who was a third his age. Louise-Hélène Autard de Bragard was born on the island of Mauritius in 1848 at Plaines Wilhems and died on 29 January 1909 at Château de La Chesnay in Guilly, Vatan, Indre.


title: Ferdinand de Lesseps

text: She was the daughter of Gustave Adolphe Autard de Bragard, a former Magistrate of Mauritius, and wife Marie-Louise Carcenac (1817–1857), daughter of Pierre Carcenac (1771–1819) and wife Marie Françoise Dessachis. Eleven of her twelve children (six boys and six girls) with Lesseps survived their father:


title: Ferdinand de Lesseps

text: On 11 June 1884, Levi P. Morton, the Minister of the United States to France, gave a banquet in honor of the Franco-American Union and in celebration of the completion of the Statue of Liberty. Ferdinand de Lesseps, as head of the Franco-American Union, formally presented the statue to the United States, saying:


title: Ferdinand de Lesseps

text: This is the result of the devoted enthusiasm, the intelligence and the noblest sentiments which can inspire man. It is great in its conception, great in its execution, great in its proportions; let us hope that it will add, by its moral value, to the memories and sympathies that it is intended to perpetuate. We now transfer to you, Mr. Minister, this great statue and trust that it may forever stand the pledge of friendship between France and the Great Republic of the United States.


title: Ferdinand de Lesseps

text: In October 1886, Lesseps traveled to the United States to speak at the dedication ceremony of the Statue of Liberty on the date of the 28th, and attended by President Grover Cleveland.


title: Ferdinand de Lesseps

text: Lesseps died at Château de La Chesnaye in Guilly, Vatan, Indre, on 7 December 1894. He was buried in Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris. The grave stands at one of the junctions amongst other large family tombs.


title: Ferdinand de Lesseps

text: On 26 July 1956, Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser used de Lesseps' surname as the codeword to Egyptian personnel designated to seize the offices of Suez Canal Company. Nasser used the codeword repeatedly in a public address in Alexandria that was broadcast to the nation via radio, and minutes later announced that he had issued a presidential decree nationalising the Suez Canal Company. The statue of Lesseps at the entrance of the Suez Canal was removed from its pedestal, to symbolize the end of European control of the waterway. The statue now stands in a small garden of the Port Fuad shipyard.


title: Ferdinand de Lesseps

text: Lesseps was portrayed by Tyrone Power in the 1938 film "Suez", with Loretta Young, a film which provoked complaints and legal action from Lesseps' family and the Egyptian government.


title: Ferdinand de Lesseps

text: In addition, Manuel Soto played the part in a 1944 Spanish feature film, "Eugenia de Montijo". On television, Guy Marchand played Lesseps in the 1983 French/German mini-series "L'homme de Suez", and John Walters portrayed him in "The Panama Canal", an episode of the 2003 BBC docu-drama series "Seven Wonders of the Industrial World".


title: Ferdinand de Lesseps

text: Lesseps descendant Alexandre de Lesseps was married to Luann de Lesseps of The Real Housewives of New York.


title: Big Head Todd and the Monsters

text: Big Head Todd and The Monsters are a rock band formed by Todd Mohr, Brian Nevin, and Rob Squires in 1986 in Colorado. The band has released a number of albums since 1989 with their 1993 album "Sister Sweetly" going platinum in the United States. The band has developed a sizable live following especially in the Mountain States of the United States.


title: Big Head Todd and the Monsters

text: Their lineup changed in 1986 after Christerson left the band and was replaced on bass by Rob Squires. The trio had attended Columbine High School together. Mohr attended Colorado State University in Fort Collins, Colorado and transferred to the University of Colorado to join Nevin and Squires. The three began touring clubs in Denver, Fort Collins, and Boulder as Big Head Todd and the Monsters in 1987. The band soon built up a following throughout Colorado and the West. They toured extensively throughout the Mountain States and West Coast of the United States in their van dubbed "The Colonel", which was driven more than 400,000 miles.


title: Big Head Todd and the Monsters

text: In 1989, the band formed Big Records and released its first album "Another Mayberry" that same year. "Midnight Radio" was released the following year, and featured artwork from Chris Mars of The Replacements. By 1993, Big Head Todd and the Monsters had developed a considerable live following across the United States. Their first live album "Big Head Todd and the Monsters Live" was recorded at the H.O.R.D.E. Festival in 1993.


title: Big Head Todd and the Monsters

text: The group signed with Giant Records in 1993 and recorded "Sister Sweetly" with Prince associate David Z producing. This album went platinum and spawned three singles that made the rock charts, including "Bittersweet," "Broken Hearted Savior" and "Circle."


title: Big Head Todd and the Monsters

text: Mohr produced the next album "Strategem" released in 1994. It reached No. 30 on the "Billboard" 200, but did not sell as well as its predecessors.


title: Big Head Todd and the Monsters

text: Their song "In the Morning" was featured in the 1994 film "Blown Away". The band contributed "Tangerine" to the 1995 Led Zeppelin tribute album "".


title: Big Head Todd and the Monsters

text: Jerry Harrison, formerly of the Talking Heads, produced the next album, "Beautiful World", released in 1997. John Lee Hooker was recording an album in the same studio and played with the band on a version of his best-known song "Boom Boom". Squires described the recording of the track on the band's website. "Hooker has just this incredible presence. He walked into the room and literally everyone was intimidated including our producer and the people who work in the studio." Bernie Worrell, formerly of P-Funk, played some keyboards on the album's title track "Beautiful World". Corey Mauser filled out the other key parts on the album. The album spawned two hit singles on the rock charts, "Boom Boom" and "Resignation Superman." The "Live Monsters" album followed in 1998.


title: Big Head Todd and the Monsters

text: In 2002, the group released the follow-up studio album "Riviera". As Giant Records had closed its doors, the self-produced album was released through Big Records with distribution through Warner Music. "Crimes of Passion" was released in 2004 with Sanctuary Records distributing it. Another live album "Live at the Fillmore" was released in 2004.


title: Big Head Todd and the Monsters

text: In 2005, the group joined the growing trend of Internet-based music sales by releasing the single "Blue Sky" exclusively on iTunes. The song was written at the request of crewmembers of the Space Shuttle "Discovery" for their STS-114 Return to Flight mission in 2005, the first mission after the "Columbia" disaster. "Blue Sky" was written and performed as a tribute to all the people involved in the American space program. The song was used as Senator Hillary Clinton's presidential campaign song in 2008, and in the introduction of Clinton on her keynote address to the Democratic National Convention in 2008. "Blue Sky" was also performed acoustically on March 8, 2011 at Johnson Space Center as the first live version of a wake-up call to Space Shuttle Discovery during the STS-133 mission.


title: Big Head Todd and the Monsters

text: In June 2007 BHTM recorded their annual charity show to raise money for autism research at the Red Rocks Amphitheater in Colorado. The recordings were sold on USB flash drives at the merchandise stands following the performance.


title: Big Head Todd and the Monsters

text: BHTM toured in the summer of 2008. This extended tour was in support of the July release of their 8th studio album "All The Love You Need".


title: Big Head Todd and the Monsters

text: In 2010, Big Head Todd and the Monsters again returned to the studio to record "Rocksteady". This featured "Beast of Burden" by The Rolling Stones and "Smokestack Lightning" by Howlin' Wolf.


title: Big Head Todd and the Monsters

text: The band returned to the studio again in 2011 to record a new project under the name Big Head Blues Club. The album "100 Years of Robert Johnson" celebrates the songs of the late blues singer and musician Robert Johnson. The members of Big Head Todd and the Monsters were accompanied by B. B. King, Charlie Musselwhite, Cedric Burnside, David "Honeyboy" Edwards, Hubert Sumlin, Ruthie Foster, and Lightnin' Malcolm. Big Head Todd and the Monsters have also played shows under the name Big Head Blues Club, and have invited some of the legends featured on the album to perform with them.


title: Big Head Todd and the Monsters

text: They performed in the Denver Broncos Super Bowl 50 Championship Parade and in Indianapolis at the Vogue on February 9, 2016, using the Instagram hashtag #denver2indy to celebrate the dual event.


title: Anne Wilson (musician)

text: Anne Wilson is an American Christian musician and songwriter. Wilson made her debut in 2021, with the release of the single "My Jesus" through Capitol Christian Music Group. "My Jesus" was Wilson's breakthrough hit, having reached number one on "Billboard"'s Hot Christian Songs chart and Bubbling Under Hot 100 chart. Wilson also released her debut extended play, "My Jesus (Live in Nashville)" (2021), which reached number twelve on the Top Christian Albums Chart in the United States.


title: Anne Wilson (musician)

text: Anne Wilson was born in Lexington, Kentucky. Wilson was raised in a Christian home, and attended a Presbyterian church throughout most of her childhood.


title: Anne Wilson (musician)

text: Anne Wilson signed a record deal with Capitol Christian Music Group in late 2019. On April 16, 2021, Wilson released "My Jesus" as her debut single. "My Jesus" went on to become Wilson's breakthrough hit single, peaking at number one on the Hot Christian Songs chart, and the Christian Airplay chart. "My Jesus" was nominated for the "Billboard" Music Award for Top Christian Song at the 2022 "Billboard" Music Awards. On August 6, 2021, Wilson released her debut extended play titled "My Jesus (Live in Nashville)". The EP reached its peak at number twelve on the Top Christian Albums Chart in the United States. Wilson released "I Still Believe in Christmas" on October 29, 2021. "I Still Believe in Christmas" peaked at number 15 on the Hot Christian Songs chart. "Billboard" named Anne Wilson the Top New Christian Artist of 2021.


title: Anne Wilson (musician)

text: On January 14, 2022, Wilson released the single "Sunday Sermons". The song peaked at number five on the Hot Christian Songs chart. Anne Wilson released her debut studio album, "My Jesus", on April 22, 2022, "My Jesus" debuted at number one on the Top Christian Albums chart, and number 68 on the "Billboard" 200 chart in the United States, after garnering 13,000 equivalent album units in sales in its first week.


title: Rhea (moon)

text: Rhea () is the second-largest moon of Saturn and the ninth-largest moon in the Solar System. It is the smallest body in the Solar System for which precise measurements have confirmed a shape consistent with hydrostatic equilibrium. It was discovered in 1672 by Giovanni Domenico Cassini.


title: Rhea (moon)

text: Rhea was discovered by Giovanni Domenico Cassini on 23 December 1672. It was the second moon of Saturn that Cassini discovered, and the third moon discovered around Saturn overall.


title: Rhea (moon)

text: Rhea is named after the Titan Rhea of Greek mythology, the "mother of the gods" and wife of Kronos, the Greek counterpart of the god Saturn. It is also designated Saturn V (being the fifth major moon going outward from the planet, after Mimas, Enceladus, Tethys, and Dione).


title: Rhea (moon)

text: Cassini named the four moons he discovered (Tethys, Dione, Rhea, and Iapetus) "Sidera Lodoicea" (the stars of Louis) to honor King Louis XIV. Astronomers fell into the habit of referring to them and Titan as "Saturn I" through "Saturn V". Once Mimas and Enceladus were discovered, in 1789, the numbering scheme was extended to "Saturn VII", and then to "Saturn VIII" with the discovery of Hyperion in 1848.


title: Rhea (moon)

text: Rhea was not named until 1847, when John Herschel (son of William Herschel, discoverer of the planet Uranus, and two other moons of Saturn, Mimas and Enceladus) suggested in "Results of Astronomical Observations made at the Cape of Good Hope" that the names of the Titans, sisters and brothers of Kronos (Saturn, in Roman mythology), be used.


title: Rhea (moon)

text: Rhea is an icy body with a density of about 1.236 g/cm. This low density indicates that it is made of ~25% rock (density ~3.25 g/cm) and ~75% water ice (density ~0.93 g/cm). Although Rhea is the ninth-largest moon, it is only the tenth-most massive moon. Indeed, Oberon, the second-largest moon of Uranus, has almost the same size, but is significantly denser than Rhea (1.63 vs 1.24) and thus more massive, although Rhea is slightly larger by volume.


title: Rhea (moon)

text: Before the "Cassini-Huygens" mission, it was assumed that Rhea had a rocky core. However, measurements taken during a close flyby by the "Cassini" orbiter in 2005 cast this into doubt. In a paper published in 2007 it was claimed that the axial dimensionless moment of inertia coefficient was 0.4. Such a value indicated that Rhea had an almost homogeneous interior (with some compression of ice in the center) while the existence of a rocky core would imply a moment of inertia of about 0.34. In the same year another paper claimed the moment of inertia was about 0.37. Rhea being either partially or fully differentiated would be consistent with the observations of the "Cassini" probe. A year later yet another paper claimed that the moon may not be in hydrostatic equilibrium meaning that the moment of inertia cannot be determined from the gravity data alone. In 2008 an author of the first paper tried to reconcile these three disparate results. He concluded that there is a systematic error in the "Cassini" radio Doppler data used in the analysis, but after restricting the analysis to a subset of data obtained closest to the moon, he arrived at his old result that Rhea was in hydrostatic equilibrium and had a moment of inertia of about 0.4, again implying a homogeneous interior.


title: Rhea (moon)

text: The triaxial shape of Rhea is consistent with a homogeneous body in hydrostatic equilibrium rotating at Rhea's angular velocity. Modelling in 2006 suggested that Rhea could be barely capable of sustaining an internal liquid-water ocean through heating by radioactive decay; such an ocean would have to be at about 176 K, the eutectic temperature for the water–ammonia system. More recent indications are that Rhea has a homogeneous interior and hence that this ocean does not exist.


title: Rhea (moon)

text: Rhea's features resemble those of Dione, with dissimilar leading and trailing hemispheres, suggesting similar composition and histories. The temperature on Rhea is 99 K (−174 °C) in direct sunlight and between 73 K (−200 °C) and 53 K (−220 °C) in the shade.


title: Rhea (moon)

text: Rhea has a rather typical heavily cratered surface, with the exceptions of a few large Dione-type chasmata or fractures (wispy terrain) on the trailing hemisphere (the side facing away from the direction of motion along Rhea's orbit) and a very faint "line" of material at Rhea's equator that may have been deposited by material deorbiting from its rings. Rhea has two very large impact basins on its anti-Cronian hemisphere (facing away from Saturn), which are about 400 and 500 km across. The more northerly and less degraded of the two, called Tirawa, is roughly comparable to the basin Odysseus on Tethys. There is a 48 km-diameter impact crater at 112°W that is prominent because of an extended system of bright rays. This crater, called Inktomi, is nicknamed "The Splat", and may be one of the youngest craters on the inner moons of Saturn. No evidence of any endogenic activity has been discovered.


title: Rhea (moon)

text: Its surface can be divided into two geologically different areas based on crater density; the first area contains craters which are larger than 40 km in diameter, whereas the second area, in parts of the polar and equatorial regions, has only craters under that size. This suggests that a major resurfacing event occurred some time during its formation. The leading hemisphere is heavily cratered and uniformly bright. As on Callisto, the craters lack the high relief features seen on the Moon and Mercury. It has been theorized that these cratered plains are up to four billion years old on average. On the trailing hemisphere there is a network of bright swaths on a dark background and few visible craters. It had been thought that these bright areas might be material ejected from ice volcanoes early in Rhea's history when its interior was still liquid. However, observations of Dione, which has an even darker trailing hemisphere and similar but more prominent bright streaks, show that the streaks are actually ice cliffs resulting from extensive fracturing of the moon's surface. The extensive dark areas are thought to be deposited tholins, which are a mix of complex organic compounds generated on the ice by pyrolysis and radiolysis of simple compounds containing carbon, nitrogen and hydrogen.


title: Rhea (moon)

text: The January 17, 2006 distant flyby by the "Cassini" spacecraft yielded images of the wispy hemisphere at better resolution and a lower Sun angle than previous observations. Images from this and subsequent flybys showed that Rhea's streaks in fact are tectonically formed ice cliffs ("chasmata") similar to those of Dione.


title: Rhea (moon)

text: The moons of Saturn are thought to have formed through co-accretion, a similar process to that believed to have formed the planets in the Solar System. As the young giant planets formed, they were surrounded by discs of material that gradually coalesced into moons. However, a proposed model for the formation of Titan may also shine a new light on the origin of Rhea and Iapetus. In this model, Titan was formed in a series of giant impacts between pre-existing moons, and Rhea and Iapetus are thought to have formed from part of the debris of these collisions.


title: Rhea (moon)

text: On November 27, 2010, NASA announced the discovery of a tenuous atmosphere—an exosphere. It consists of oxygen and carbon dioxide in proportion of roughly 5 to 2. The surface density of the exosphere is from 10 to 10 molecules in a cubic centimeter depending on local temperature. The main source of oxygen is radiolysis of water ice at the surface by ions supplied by the magnetosphere of Saturn. The source of the carbon dioxide is less clear, but it may be related to oxidation of the organics present in ice or to outgassing of the moon's interior.


title: Rhea (moon)

text: On March 6, 2008, NASA announced that Rhea may have a tenuous ring system. This would mark the first discovery of rings around a moon. The rings' existence was inferred by observed changes in the flow of electrons trapped by Saturn's magnetic field as "Cassini" passed by Rhea. Dust and debris could extend out to Rhea's Hill sphere, but were thought to be denser nearer the moon, with three narrow rings of higher density. The case for a ring was strengthened by the subsequent finding of the presence of a set of small ultraviolet-bright spots distributed along Rhea's equator (interpreted as the impact points of deorbiting ring material). However, when "Cassini" made targeted observations of the putative ring plane from several angles, no evidence of ring material was found, suggesting that another explanation for the earlier observations is needed.


title: Rhea (moon)

text: There were five close targeted fly-bys by the "Cassini" orbiter: at a distance of 500 km on November 26, 2005, at a distance of 5,750 km on August 30, 2007, at a distance of 100 km on March 2, 2010, and at 69 km flyby on January 11, 2011 and a last flyby at 992 km on March 9, 2013. Rhea has been also imaged many times from long to moderate distances by the orbiter.


title: A Raisin in the Sun (1961 film)

text: A Raisin in the Sun is a 1961 American drama film directed by Daniel Petrie and starring Sidney Poitier, Ruby Dee, Claudia McNeil, Diana Sands, Roy Glenn, and Louis Gossett Jr. (in his film debut), and adapted from the 1959 play of the same name by Lorraine Hansberry. It follows a black family that wants a better life away from the city. "A Raisin in the Sun" was released by Columbia Pictures on May 29, 1961.


title: A Raisin in the Sun (1961 film)

text: In 2005, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant".


title: A Raisin in the Sun (1961 film)

text: Members of the Younger family are anticipating a life insurance check in the amount of $10,000 and each of them has an idea as to what he or she would like to do with the money. Matriarch Lena Younger wants to buy a house to fulfill the dream she shared with her deceased husband. Walter Lee, her son, would rather use the money to invest in a liquor store, believing the income would put an end to the family's financial woes. Ruth, Walter's wife, wanting to provide more space and better opportunities for her son Travis, agrees with Lena. Beneatha, Lena's daughter, would like to use the money to pay her medical school tuition.


title: A Raisin in the Sun (1961 film)

text: Lena spends $3,500 for a down payment on a house in Clybourne Park, and after being agitated many times by Walter, gives him the remaining $6,500 and tells him to save $3,000 of it for Beneatha's medical school and take the remaining $3,500 for his own investments. Meanwhile, Ruth discovers she is pregnant and, fearing another child will add to the financial pressures, considers having an abortion. Walter voices no objection, but Lena is strongly against it, saying "I thought we gave children life, not take it away from them".


title: A Raisin in the Sun (1961 film)

text: Beneatha rejects her suitor George, believing he is blind to the problems of their race. Her Nigerian classmate Joseph Asagai proposes to her, wanting to take her to Africa with him after they finish school, but she is unsure what to do.


title: A Raisin in the Sun (1961 film)

text: When their future neighbors find out the Youngers are moving in, they send Mark Lindner (known as Karl in the play) from the Clybourne Park Improvement Association to offer them money in return for staying away, but they refuse. Meanwhile, Walter loses the insurance money when one of his "partners" in the liquor store scheme, Willie Harris, skips town with the money.


title: A Raisin in the Sun (1961 film)

text: Desperate, Walter offers to take Lindner up on his offer to take money to stay out of Clybourne Park, even while his family begs him not to sell away their dignity. When Lindner arrives, Walter has a last-minute change of heart and rejects Lindner's offer. The Youngers eventually move out of their apartment, fulfilling their dream. The future seems uncertain and slightly dangerous, but they believe that they can succeed through optimism, determination, and remaining together as a family.