title: Aiden Aslin

text: They were likewise accused of violating the constitution of the DPR by committing "terrorist acts, diversions, explosions, shelling from artillery, mortar [and] small arms" [against] "settlements, peaceful citizens, military of the Armed Forces of DPR," [and] "committing murders of the citizens of DPR, threatening of the civilians, who carried out their will during the referendum on May 11, 2014, which resulted in the forming of the state Donetsk People Republic."


title: Aiden Aslin

text: On 7 June Aslin, Pinner and Brahim were tried by the Supreme Court of the Donetsk People's Republic and Judge Aleksandr Nikulin, Aslin responded "Tak tochno [так точно]" when asked if he understood the information in his indictment and stated that he had no objections to proceeding with the trial. It is unclear if he had legal assistance during the proceedings. On 9 June the Court found the trio guilty on all charges, and stated that "[o]n the basis of the totality of crimes, Aslin Aiden, Pinner Sean and Saadun Brahim are finally given the death penalty as punishment." On 5 July, Aslin's defence team filed an appeal, requesting the dismissal of the verdict due to lack of "corpus delicti".


title: Aiden Aslin

text: On 21 September, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Saudi Arabia reported that Russia released ten foreign prisoners of war in a prisoner exchange after mediation by Mohammed bin Salman, Prime Minister of Saudi Arabia. According to his MP Robert Jenrick, Aiden Aslin was among the prisoners released.


title: Aiden Aslin

text: Following his release, Aslin claimed in an interview that he was punched on the nose when his captors discovered that he was British and that he was tortured during his interrogation and his time in captivity.


title: Aiden Aslin

text: British Foreign Secretary Liz Truss called the verdict "a sham judgment with absolutely no legitimacy" and MP Robert Jenrick called the trial a "disgusting Soviet-era show trial". A spokesperson for Ukraine's foreign ministry said "Such public trials place the interests of propaganda above law and morality, and undermine the exchange mechanisms of war prisoners." The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights said that "[s]uch trials against prisoners of war amount to a war crime ... According to the chief command of Ukraine, all the men were part of the Ukrainian armed forces and if that is the case, they should not be considered as mercenaries ... Since 2015, we have observed that the so-called judiciary within these self-contained republics have not complied with essential fair trial guarantees, such as public hearings, independence, impartiality of the courts and the right not to be compelled to testify."


title: Aiden Aslin

text: On 12 June, Denis Pushilin, head of the DPR, appeared to rule out an executive pardon for the defendants, as "[t]hey came to Ukraine to kill civilians for money ... I don't see any conditions for any mitigation or modification of the sentence." On 23 June, the BBC reported that Aslin had informed his family via telephone that he had been told by DPR officials that "time is running out" and that no attempts have been made by British government officials to negotiate on his behalf.


title: Aiden Aslin

text: Aslin is reported to have either a fiancée or a wife of Ukrainian descent and to have settled in the Mykolaiv area prior to the conflict. Aslin goes by the online username "Cossack Gundi" on his public Social Media accounts.


title: Scale armour

text: Scale armour (or scale mail) is an early form of armour consisting of many individual small armour scales (plates) of various shapes attached to each other and to a backing of cloth or leather in overlapping rows. Scale armour was worn by warriors of many different cultures as well as their horses. The material used to make the scales varied and included bronze, iron, steel, rawhide, leather, cuir bouilli, seeds, horn, or pangolin scales. The variations are primarily the result of material availability.


title: Scale armour

text: Scale armour – a defence of great antiquity – began in the Middle East. The earliest representation is the tomb of Kenamon, who lived in Egypt in the reign of Amenhotep II (1436–1411 BC).


title: Scale armour

text: Scale armour is armour in which the individual scales are sewn or laced to a backing by one or more edges and arranged in overlapping rows resembling the scales of a fish/reptile or roofing tiles. The scales are usually assembled and strapped by lacing or rivets. Lorica squamata is an ancient Roman armour of this type.


title: Scale armour

text: Other types of armour made from individual scales but constructed in a different manner have their own separate names, such as lamellar armour where the individual scales are perforated on several or all edges and lashed tightly to each other in straight ridged rows and do not need to be attached to a backing. The Romans also had a variant called lorica plumata in which the scales were attached to mail.


title: Scale armour

text: The Scythians' horse warriors appear to have used scale or possibly lamellar armour, evident both from contemporary illustrations and burial finds in kurgans. The armour was made from small plates of iron or bronze.


title: Scale armour

text: Due to the semi-rigid nature of the armour, the Scythian variety was made as breast- and back-plates, with separate shoulder pieces. Some finds indicate partial armour, where a leather shirt or similar garment has sewn-on scales in places, particularly around the neck and upper chest.


title: Scale armour

text: During Roman times, scale armour ("lorica squamata") was a popular alternative to mail ("lorica hamata") as it offered better protection against blunt force trauma. Hellenistic-Attic lamellar armour was also widely used in Middle Eastern empires, such as Persia and Byzantium. In these areas, scales were commonly dished (that is, with a bowl effect from a depression being hammered into a flat piece of metal) in order to benefit from the extra protection offered by a rounded scale.


title: Scale armour

text: According to the statement of Herodotus, the ancient Persians wore tunics with sleeves of diverse colours, having upon them iron scales of the shape of fish-scales; this comparison indicates scale armour, and not mail, is meant.


title: Scale armour

text: Scale armour is not of frequent occurrence on the grave monuments of the German frontier. On two tombstones of the Sertorii at Verona (one that of a centurion, the other that of a standard-bearer) both figures are represented wearing a tunic of scale armour which covers the shoulders and comes down below the belt. The Carnuntum monument of Calidius (a work of the middle of the first century) shows also a scaled tunic of a centurion. Again, in the collection of marble portrait-busts from the great Gallo-Roman villa of Chiragan near Toulouse, the Emperors Antoninus Pius and Severus both appear wearing corselets of scale armour.


title: Scale armour

text: Metal scale armour was used throughout most of the European world for the duration of the medieval period. It was commonly used to augment other armour types, predominantly mail, but also plate armour taking the form of a cuirass over mail, scale pauldrons, or faulds (the lower part of a breastplate that protects the lower stomach, hips and groin). There is also evidence for scale sabatons (protective shoe coverings) and scale aventails. The use of these scale armoured components is commonly depicted in period art and funeral effigies. The funeral effigy of Sir Albrecht Von Hohenlohe circa 1325 AD depicts him wearing scaled body armour underneath his surcoat and over a mail haubergeon. Sir Albrecht's armour appears to be additionally riveted to the backing.


title: Scale armour

text: Scale armour consisting of many plates and studs were used for the military officers from the Samgukji era pre-1000 B.C. and were very effective against light missiles such as arrows. It was also used in the battles against Japanese invasion during the late 1500s, which proved the armour against Japanese weapons.


title: Scale armour

text: Japanese scale armour constructed from fish type scales were reportedly constructed in Japan as far back as the Fujiwara period (11th century). "A primitive type of Japanese harness, the single laminae being of boiled leather, cut and beaten into pieces shaped like fish-scales."


title: Scale armour

text: The Javanese people has a type of scale armour called siping-siping. It is a protective jacket with scale-shaped metal plates, possibly made of brass.


title: Scale armour

text: At the ancient site of Dura-Europos, there were two full sets of scale armor for horses found during archaeology excavations. These sets of armor were determined to be from the Roman occupation of the city in the 3rd century CE. They were found in Tower 19, a defensive tower on the edge of the city, after destruction and fire due to defensive tactics. They were folded, one with an arrowhead still in it, and very well preserved. These horse "trappers"-- a term used in Simon James' excavation report-- were made of a textile base covered by a layer of metal scales, one with iron and one with bronze. Seeing as the armor sets were found within the city walls, they are assumed to have belonged to the Romans. However, the style of armor is tied to the Sasanian Empire so there is some confusion as to who the armor belonged to. Also found at Dura-Europos were drawings, or graffiti, that depicted scale armor on horses and cavalrymen.


title: Scale armour

text: Scale armour offers better and more solid protection from piercing and blunt attacks than chain mail. It is also cheaper to produce, but it is not as flexible and does not offer the same amount of coverage. Forms other than brigandine and coat of plates were uncommon in medieval Europe, but scale and lamellar remained popular elsewhere.


title: Scale armour

text: Modern forms of scale armour are sometimes worn for decorative or LARP purposes, and may be made from materials such as steel, aluminium, or even titanium.


title: Scale armour

text: A similar type of modern personal armour is Dragon Skin body armour, which uses ballistic fabric and high-impact resistant ceramic plates to protect against pistol and rifle fire. However, its "scales" are not exposed.


title: LED circuit

text: In electronics, an LED circuit or LED driver is an electrical circuit used to power a light-emitting diode (LED). The circuit must provide sufficient current to light the LED at the required brightness, but must limit the current to prevent damaging the LED. The voltage drop across an LED is approximately constant over a wide range of operating current; therefore, a small increase in applied voltage greatly increases the current. Very simple circuits are used for low-power indicator LEDs. More complex, current source circuits are required when driving high-power LEDs for illumination to achieve correct current regulation.


title: LED circuit

text: The simplest circuit to drive an LED is through a series resistor. It is commonly used for indicators and digital displays in many consumer appliances. However, this circuit is not energy-efficient, because energy is dissipated in the resistor as heat.


title: LED circuit

text: An LED has a voltage drop specified at the intended operating current. Ohm's law and Kirchhoff's circuit laws are used to calculate the appropriate resistor value, by subtracting the LED voltage drop from the supply voltage and dividing by the desired operating current. With a sufficiently high supply voltage, multiple LEDs in series can be powered with one resistor.


title: LED circuit

text: If the supply voltage is close or equal to the LED forward voltage, then no reasonable value for the resistor can be calculated, so some other method of current limiting is used.


title: LED circuit

text: The voltage versus current characteristics of an LED are similar to any diode. Current is approximately an exponential function of voltage according to the Shockley diode equation, and a small voltage change may result in a large change in current. If the voltage is below or equal to the threshold no current flows and the result is an unlit LED. If the voltage is too high, the current will exceed the maximum rating, overheating and potentially destroying the LED.


title: LED circuit

text: LED drivers are designed to handle fluctuation load, providing enough current to achieve the required brightness while not allowing damaging levels of current to flow. Drivers may be constant current (CC) or constant voltage (CV). In CC drivers, the voltage changes while the current stays the same. CC drivers are used when the electrical load of the LED circuit is either unknown or fluctuates, for example, a lighting circuit where a variable number of LED lamp fixtures may be installed.


title: LED circuit

text: As an LED heats up, its voltage drop decreases (band gap decrease). This can encourage the current to increase.


title: LED circuit

text: An active constant current regulator is commonly used for high power LEDs, stabilizing light output over a wide range of input voltages which might increase the useful life of batteries. Active constant current is typically regulated using a depletion-mode MOSFET (metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor), which is the simplest current limiter. Low drop-out (LDO) constant current regulators also allow the total LED voltage to be a higher fraction of the power supply voltage.


title: LED circuit

text: Switched-mode power supplies are used in LED flashlights and household LED lamps. Power MOSFETs are typically used for switching LED drivers, which is an efficient solution to drive high-brightness LEDs. Power integrated circuit (IC) chips such as the Supertex HV9910B are widely used to drive the MOSFETs directly, without the need for additional circuitry. These MOSFET-based Supertex IC chips are the most common LED drivers for solid-state lighting with LED lamps. In 2008, they were used for controlling the solid-state lighting in the Beijing National Aquatics Center during the 2008 Summer Olympics.


title: LED circuit

text: Series resistors are a simple way to stabilize the LED current, but energy is wasted in the resistor.


title: LED circuit

text: Miniature indicator LEDs are normally driven from low voltage DC via a current-limiting resistor. Currents of 2 mA, 10 mA and 20 mA are common. Sub-mA indicators may be made by driving ultrabright LEDs at very low current. Efficiency tends to reduce at low currents, but indicators running on 100 μA are still practical.


title: LED circuit

text: In coin cell powered keyring-type LED lights, the resistance of the cell itself is usually the only current limiting device.


title: LED circuit

text: LEDs with built-in series resistors are available. These may save printed circuit board space, and are especially useful when building prototypes or populating a PCB in a way other than its designers intended. However, the resistor value is set at the time of manufacture, removing one of the key methods of setting the LED's intensity.


title: LED circuit

text: The value for the series resistance may be obtained from Ohm's law, considering that the supply voltage is offset by the voltage drop across the diode, which varies little over the range of useful currents:


title: LED circuit

text: Using the algebraic formula (above) and assuming formula_4 is 0, the resistance is calculated as follows:


title: LED circuit

text: Strings of multiple LEDs are normally connected in series. In one configuration, the source voltage must be greater than or equal to the sum of the individual LED voltages; typically the LED voltages add up to around two-thirds of the supply voltage. A single current-limiting resistor may be used for each string.


title: LED circuit

text: Parallel operation is also possible but can be more problematic. Parallel LEDs must have closely matched forward voltages ("V") in order to have similar branch currents and, therefore, similar light output. Variations in the manufacturing process can make it difficult to obtain satisfactory operation when connecting some types of LEDs in parallel.


title: LED circuit

text: LEDs are often arranged in ways such that each LED (or each string of LEDs) can be individually turned on and off.


title: LED circuit

text: Direct drive is the simplest-to-understand approach—it uses many independent single-LED (or single-string) circuits.


title: LED circuit

text: For example, a person could design a digital clock such that when the clock displays "12:34" on a seven-segment display,


title: LED circuit

text: the clock would turn on the appropriate segments directly and leave them on until something else needs to be displayed.


title: LED circuit

text: However, multiplexed display techniques are more often used than direct drive, because they have lower net hardware costs.


title: LED circuit

text: For example, most people who design digital clocks design them such that when the clock displays "12:34" on a seven-segment display, at any one instant the clock turns on the appropriate segments of one of the digits—all the other digits are dark. The clock scans through the digits rapidly enough that it gives the illusion that it is "constantly" displaying "12:34" for an entire minute. However, each "on" segment is actually being rapidly pulsed on and off many times a second.


title: LED circuit

text: An extension of this technique is Charlieplexing where the ability of some microcontrollers to tri-state their output pins means larger numbers of LEDs can be driven, without using latches. For N pins, it is possible to drive n-n LEDs.


title: LED circuit

text: The use of integrated circuit technology to drive LEDs dates back to the late 1960s. In 1969, Hewlett-Packard introduced the HP Model 5082-7000 Numeric Indicator, an early LED display and the first LED device to use integrated circuit technology. Its development was led by Howard C. Borden and Gerald P. Pighini at HP Associates and HP Labs, who had engaged in research and development (R&D) on practical LEDs between 1962 and 1968. It was the first intelligent LED display, making it a revolution in digital display technology, replacing the Nixie tube and becoming the basis for later LED displays.


title: LED circuit

text: Unlike incandescent light bulbs, which illuminate regardless of the electrical polarity, LEDs will only light with correct electrical polarity. When the voltage across the p-n junction is in the correct direction, a significant current flows and the device is said to be "forward-biased". If the voltage is of the wrong polarity, the device is said to be "reverse biased", very little current flows, and no light is emitted. LEDs can be operated on an alternating current voltage, but they will only light with positive voltage, causing the LED to turn on and off at the frequency of the AC supply.


title: LED circuit

text: Most LEDs have low reverse breakdown voltage ratings, so they will also be damaged by an applied reverse voltage above this threshold. The cause of damage is overcurrent resulting from the diode breakdown, not the voltage itself. LEDs driven directly from an AC supply of more than the reverse breakdown voltage may be protected by placing a diode (or another LED) in inverse parallel.


title: LED circuit

text: The manufacturer will normally advise how to determine the polarity of the LED in the product datasheet. However, there is no standardization of polarity markings for surface mount devices.


title: LED circuit

text: Many systems pulse LEDs on and off, by applying power periodically or intermittently. So long as the flicker rate is greater than the human flicker fusion threshold, and the LED is stationary relative to the eye, the LED will appear to be continuously lit. Varying the on/off ratio of the pulses is known as pulse-width modulation (PWM). In some cases PWM-based drivers are more efficient than constant current or constant voltage drivers.


title: LED circuit

text: Most LED data sheets specify a maximum DC current that is safe for continuous operation. Often they specify some higher maximum pulsed current that is safe for brief pulses, as long as the LED controller keeps the pulse short enough and then turns off the power to the LED long enough for the LED to cool off.


title: LED circuit

text: In addition to emission, an LED can be used as a photodiode in light detection. This capability may be used in a variety of applications including ambient light detection and bidirectional communications.


title: LED circuit

text: As a photodiode, an LED is sensitive to wavelengths equal to or shorter than the predominant wavelength it emits. For example, a green LED is sensitive to blue light and to some green light, but not to yellow or red light.


title: LED circuit

text: This implementation of LEDs may be added to designs with only minor modifications in circuitry. An LED can be multiplexed in such a circuit, such that it can be used for both light emission and sensing at different times.


title: Irrational Games

text: Irrational Games (known as 2K Boston between 2007 and 2009) was an American video game developer founded in 1997 by three former employees of Looking Glass Studios: Ken Levine, Jonathan Chey, and Robert Fermier. Take-Two Interactive acquired the studio in 2006. The studio was known for its games "System Shock 2", "Freedom Force", "SWAT 4", and most notably, two of the games in the "BioShock" series. In 2014, following the release of "BioShock Infinite", Levine opted to significantly restructure the studio from around 90 to 15 employees and focus more on narrative games. In February 2017, the studio announced that it had been rebranded as Ghost Story Games and considered a fresh start from the original Irrational name, though still operating at the same business subsidiary under Take-Two.


title: Irrational Games

text: Shortly after "BioShock" was released, rumors arose that many of the staff who had worked on the game were leaving 2K Boston/Australia. In 2007, five members of the 2K Boston team moved to a new 2K studio in Novato, California. Soon after, 2K announced the formation of 2K Marin in Novato.


title: Irrational Games

text: In late July 2010, several media outlets reported that a recently created website, whatisicarus.com, was a promotion relating to Irrational Games' unannounced project. The following week, information about the game was again teased, with the trailer confirmed for release on August 12, 2010. This was eventually revealed to be "BioShock Infinite".


title: Irrational Games

text: Before Irrational started development on "BioShock Infinite", the studio did preliminary work for the "XCOM" project that later became "".


title: Irrational Games

text: Development on "BioShock Infinite", what would be Irrational's last game, started in 2008, about half a year after completion of the original "BioShock". Following the game's public announcement in 2010, the company was pressured by 2K Games and the gaming consumers to make sure the title lived up to the expectations that the promotional material had set for it. Irrational hired more staff and allocated work to additional studios to help with the game, but this only served to complicate matters; from post-mortem interviews with Irrational staff, Levine was continually changing some of the core story beats for the game, which would dramatically change game assets that had already developed. Levine also admitted to difficulties in managing the larger staff. Conflicts over development leadership led to the departure of some high-level individuals in 2012. To bring the game back onto schedule for release, 2K hired industry professionals to assist Levine in managing the large team and focusing the game's content including eliminating planned multiplayer modes. "BioShock Infinite" was released by March 2013.


title: Irrational Games

text: On February 18, 2014, Levine announced that the vast majority of the Irrational Games studio staff would be laid off, with all but fifteen members of the staff losing their positions. Levine said that he wanted to start "a smaller, more entrepreneurial endeavor at Take-Two," speaking to how much stress completing a large game like "BioShock: Infinite" had caused him. Levine said, "I need to refocus my energy on a smaller team with a flatter structure and a more direct relationship with gamers. In many ways, it will be a return to how we started: a small team making games for the core gaming audience." Levine had considered starting a new development studio for this, knowing that building the ideas would take several years before any game product would be made. Still, Take-Two offered to let him keep the division within Take-Two, with Levine saying that they told him, "there was no better place to pursue this new chapter than within their walls." The studio helped to find positions for the displaced employees, and 2K hosted a career day for the remaining 75 employees to help seek employment at 57 other studios.


title: Irrational Games

text: Levine and the 15 remaining members of the team began the process of creating new, smaller games focusing on a replayable narrative for the core gamers. It was said that Levine's studio would continue to keep the Irrational name, although Take-Two later stated that it was not true. From 2014 to 2015, Irrational Games continued to post several openings for jobs at the studio. In January 2015, Levine and the remaining staff are currently developing their first game, which will be a "first-person sci-fi" game.


title: Irrational Games

text: On February 22, 2017, the studio announced it had rebranded itself as Ghost Story Games, founded by 12 of the former Irrational members with Levine continuing as president and creative director. The studio's focus is "to create immersive, story-driven games for people who love games that ask something of them"; the name was chosen as ghost stories "are immersive, exciting, and steeped in community," similar to the studio's design philosophies. As of this point, the studio had about 25 employees.


title: Civil War II

text: "Civil War II" is a 2016 comic book crossover storyline published by Marvel Comics. Debuting in June of that year, it is the sequel to 2006's "Civil War" and consists of a nine-issue eponymous core limited series, by writer Brian Michael Bendis and artists David Marquez and Justin Ponsor, and a number of tie-in books. Functioning as an allegory about the nature of determinism versus free will, the story sees opposing factions of superheroes led by Captain Marvel and Iron Man come into conflict when a new Inhuman named Ulysses emerges with the ability to predict the future. The debut of the series was scheduled to capitalize on the release of the 2016 Marvel Studios film "".


title: Civil War II

text: The storyline was preluded by a series of comic books collectively titled "The Road to Civil War II". "Civil War II" also ties into several new limited series including: "Civil War II: Amazing Spider-Man", "Civil War II: Choosing Sides", "Civil War II: Gods of War", "Civil War II: Kingpin", "Civil War II: Ulysses", and "Civil War II: X-Men", the one-shots: "Civil War II: The Accused" and "Civil War II: The Fallen", and numerous ongoing series. The storyline was succeeded by the one-shot "Civil War II: The Oath".


title: Civil War II

text: "Civil War II" received mixed reviews from critics and modest yet declining sales figures from its high in June 2016 to its end in December. The repercussions of the storyline resulted in the new status quo of the Marvel Universe presented in the subsequent "Divided We Stand" storyline, which was released as part of the company's 2016 Marvel NOW! relaunch.


title: Civil War II

text: In December 2015, Marvel Comics announced the details of "Civil War II", whose core miniseries would be produced by writer Brian Michael Bendis, artist David Marquez, colorist Justin Ponsor, and editor Tom Brevoort. The series, which debuted in June 2016, is a sequel to the 2006 "Civil War" storyline which pitted Iron Man against Captain America (Steve Rogers) in a conflict about national security versus civil liberties. Brevoort, who also edited the first series, stated, "The attempt was to craft the conflict so that each side held a valid and defensible position, so that a reader could fundamentally agree with either one side or the other, with neither being painted as absolutely right or absolutely wrong. While the issues involved are different, we'll be taking the same approach to Civil War II." Bendis, who wrote "The New Avengers" tie-in issues for the original "Civil War" storyline, stated that he only agreed to write the sequel after Mark Millar and Steve McNiven, the creators of the 2006 miniseries, turned it down.


title: Civil War II

text: The idea of the sequel was conceived at one of Marvel's semi-annual editorial retreats. Axel Alonso, editor-in-chief of Marvel Comics, stated that unlike other major comic book storylines which take years of planning, he only had three to four months to plan "Civil War II". This abbreviated timetable was necessary in order to capitalize on the release of the feature film "", which was released in May 2016. According to the official synopsis, a strange new character with the power to accurately predict the outcome of future events comes to the attention of the world. This power divides the heroes on how best to utilize the information, with Captain Marvel advocating the prevention of future crimes before they occur by targeting the would-be perpetrators, and Iron Man believing that "the punishment cannot come before the crime." The situation reaches a turning point when it is predicted that one of the heroes will be the cause of major destruction, forcing the others to make a difficult decision. Bendis said, "People's personal accountability is the theme of this one ... from the way cops are acting on camera, to the way people talk to each other online." The plot for "Civil War II" began to develop in the second volume of "The Invincible Iron Man", which is also written by Bendis and drawn by Marquez.


title: Civil War II

text: In March 2016, Marvel revealed which characters will appear on the opposing factions. They also revealed two spin-off series: "Civil War II: Spider-Man" from writer Christos Gage and artist Travel Foreman, and "Civil War II: X-Men" from writer Cullen Bunn and artist Andrea Broccardo. Bunn explained, "This tale is set into motion by the same catalyst that sets 'Civil War II' into motion. A new power emerges among the Inhumans. This power, in Magneto's eyes, could be very dangerous to the mutant population, so—in typical Master of Magnetism fashion—he decides to take it for himself. As you can imagine, something like that could very easily start a war between the Inhumans and the mutants. Storm sees this and decides to stand in Magneto's way." In "Civil War II: Amazing Spider-Man", Spider-Man helps a precognitive Inhuman use his powers responsibly. "Over the course of the miniseries, the Inhuman will make a prediction that, while not of the world-or universe-ending variety, could well mean the end of one character's world. It's really dealing with classic Spider-Man themes: power and responsibility; facing a situation where even if you win, you can also lose – or you can just lose," Gage elaborated.


title: Civil War II

text: At the 2016 Chicago Comic & Entertainment Expo in March, two additional spin-off series were announced: "Civil War II: Choosing Sides", an anthology series by Declan Shalvey which will feature a different character in each issue and have an overarching story involving Nick Fury; and "Civil War II: Gods of War" by writer Dan Abnett and artist Luke Ross, which stars Hercules. Abnett said, "Hercules is going to get involved more on a personal level in terms of his individual friendships with people rather than specifically taking a side because he objects to the whole thing anyway. He doesn't want to be taking a side." Marvel also named ten additional tie-in series: "All-New Wolverine", "Captain America: Sam Wilson", "Deadpool", "Invincible Iron Man", "Ms. Marvel", "The New Avengers", "Nova", "The Totally Awesome Hulk", "Ultimates", and "Uncanny Inhumans".


title: Civil War II

text: The following month, Marvel announced "Civil War II: Kingpin" by writer Matthew Rosenberg and artist Ricardo Lopez Ortiz. Rosenberg said, "Wilson Fisk is an opportunist, first and foremost. Under his selfish motives, his brutal exterior, or even the facade he puts up as a pillar of his community, he is a man who sees ways to benefit himself and he takes them ... He wants to get whatever he can, however he can, and see how far he can push things. He is in the business of furthering Wilson Fisk, and the new Civil War will provide him a unique opportunity. He is a Civil War profiteer."


title: Civil War II

text: In May 2016, Marvel released additional prelude stories in a Free Comic Book Day edition by Bendis and artist Jim Cheung, and a zero issue by Bendis and artist Oliver Coipel. Also in May, details were shared on a three issue tie-in series titled "Civil War II: Ulysses" from writer Al Ewing and artist Jefte Palo. The series focuses on Ulysses, the new Inhuman with the power to predict the future at the center of "Civil War II". Ewing described the series as "a prequel of sorts", explaining, "we're following Ulysses as he's taken to the Tower of Wisdom – a sort of Inhuman temple of learning, for want of a better term – to be trained by Karnak, whose Inhuman ability is to see the flaw in all things. Karnak's training methods might be more than Ulysses can handle, though." The next month, Alonso said "Civil War II" would set a new status quo in the Marvel Universe, which would be presented in the "Divided We Stand" storyline as part of the company's 2016 Marvel NOW! relaunch.


title: Civil War II

text: In July 2016, Marvel announced three additional one-shots: "Civil War II: The Accused", "Civil War II: The Fallen", and "Civil War II: The Oath". "Civil War II: The Accused", by Marc Guggenheim and Ramon Bachs, follows the events of "Civil War II" #3 and depicts the trial of Hawkeye for killing the Hulk with Daredevil as lead prosecutor. Guggenheim described the book as a legal thriller saying, "The way I pitched this to Marvel was that it is a 30-page Scott Turow novel. But at the same time it is also a comic book." "Civil War II: The Fallen", by Greg Pak and Mark Bagley, takes place at the Hulk's funeral. "Civil War II: The Oath", by Nick Spencer and Rod Reis, is an epilogue story that parallels "Civil War: The Confession" #1 (May 2007), the epilogue of the original "Civil War", which featured the final conversation between Iron Man and Steve Rogers. In "The Oath", Iron Man and Captain Marvel turn to Rogers, the one person that they both trust.


title: Civil War II

text: In August 2016, Bendis stated issue #5 was delayed due to the birth of Marquez's son and that Marvel extended the series to eight issues, explaining, "David [Marquez] has been handing in about a page a day for the last couple of weeks so we're getting back on track. So much so that Marvel greenlit an 8th issue for us. I came up with a better ending but needed the pages. Very grateful that they let us do our thing." The delay also caused the remaining issues to be pushed back with issue #8 being released in December 2016.


title: Civil War II

text: Ulysses Cain, a student at Ohio State University, is exposed to the Terrigen Mist, which turns him into an Inhuman. When he emerges, Ulysses has a vision of a dystopian future.


title: Civil War II

text: Weeks later, the Inhumans help the Avengers defeat an invading Celestial Destroyer. After Ulysses reveals to the Avengers that he foresaw the invasion, Iron Man protests the logic of stopping crimes before they occur and leaves in frustration. Three weeks later, War Machine is killed and She-Hulk is mortally wounded in battle with Thanos. When he learns that they used Ulysses' precognitive power to ambush Thanos, Iron Man vows to make sure that nobody uses it again. As She-Hulk goes into cardiac arrest, she tells Captain Marvel to fight for the future.


title: Civil War II

text: Iron Man kidnaps Ulysses from New Attilan, home of the Inhumans. In response, the Inhumans attack Stark Tower, but are halted by the Avengers. To avoid further incident, they agree to confront Iron Man together at the secret facility where he has been running tests on Ulysses. During the confrontation, Ulysses has a vision of Hulk killing the Avengers.


title: Civil War II

text: Later, Bruce Banner, Hulk's former alter ego, is approached by Captain Marvel at his laboratory outside Alpine, Utah. Captain Marvel asks Banner to step outside where the Avengers are waiting to confront him. During the confrontation, Hawkeye shoots Banner dead and is immediately arrested.


title: Civil War II

text: At Hawkeye's trial, Hawkeye testifies that Banner approached him months earlier and asked that he kill him should Banner ever lose control. After Hawkeye is acquitted of all charges, Iron Man informs the other heroes of his test results: Ulysses' power is based on probability calculations, not absolute truth. Unpersuaded, Captain Marvel returns to the Triskelion, headquarters of the Ultimates, to continue her investigation of a suspected Hydra agent. There, Captain Marvel, the Ultimates, Alpha Flight, and Storm's X-Men are confronted by Iron Man, the Avengers, and Magneto's X-Men. Outnumbered, Captain Marvel calls in the Guardians of the Galaxy as back up as Iron Man's team is about to attack.


title: Civil War II

text: As the battle escalates, the Inhumans arrive to aid Captain Marvel while Ulysses has a vision of Miles Morales killing Steve Rogers. In reaction, Captain Marvel places Morales under arrest. While Iron Man and Captain Marvel argue the merits of arresting Morales, Rogers gives Morales the opportunity to decide for himself and Morales asks to go home. As Morales leaves, Maria Hill places Iron Man's team under arrest but Doctor Strange teleports them to one of Nick Fury's safehouses. At the safehouse, the younger Avengers sneak off to find Morales before the adults. Meanwhile, Hill receives communication that Morales is at the United States Capitol, the location seen in Ulysses' vision.


title: Civil War II

text: Ulysses has a vision of himself in the wasteland of an unknown future and meeting an older Wolverine. Wolverine tells Ulysses that the Inhumans have left the planet because Iron Man "pushed her too far." When the vision is over, Ulysses warns Medusa, queen of the Inhumans, about what he saw. Meanwhile, Rogers approaches Morales at the Capitol to gain some understanding about Ulysses' vision.


title: Civil War II

text: As Captain Marvel arrives to take Morales into custody, Iron Man intercepts and attacks Captain Marvel. Medusa warns the other heroes of Ulysses' vision and they try in vain to stop the fight. After Captain Marvel delivers a seemingly fatal blow to Iron Man, Ulysses has multiple visions of possible futures. Ulysses is then approached by Eternity and takes a place at his side as a new cosmic entity. Later, Captain Marvel meets with the President of the United States and is offered unlimited resources to lead the superhero community into the future.


title: Civil War II

text: According to the review aggregator website Comic Book Roundup, issue #0 received an average score of 7.3/10 based on 23 reviews from critics. Leia Calderon of Comic Book Resources (CBR) gave it four-out-of-five stars writing, "Overall, Bendis and Coipel's "Civil War II" #0 serves the sole purpose of laying out the foundation for the series. Despite being driven almost entirely by dialogue, it's never once boring, and the only real issue is the question on everyone's minds: Where is Iron Man?" Jesse Schedeen of IGN gave it an 8.3 out of 10 saying, "Between the lackluster FCBD Special and Marvel's general track record with major crossovers, there's plenty of reason to worry about Civil War II. But the good news is that this prologue issue makes a strong case for the upcoming event. It clearly lays out the brewing conflict and makes a strong case for both viewpoints." David Pepose of Newsarama gave it an 8 out of 10 and said, "Minor flaws in the premise aside, Bendis and Coipel deliver some surprisingly charming work with Civil War II #0, which — at least thus far — doesn't feel like the shameless cash-in that you might expect from this summer event sequel."


title: Civil War II

text: Issue #1 received an average score of 7.3/10 based on 26 reviews from critics on Comic Book Roundup. Greg McElhatton of CBR gave it four stars writing, "Overall, "Civil War II" #1 is a good launching point for this miniseries, even as it integrates the information from "Civil War II" #0 and the Free Comic Book Day special. I'm curious to see if Bendis and Marquez can maintain this level of tension and what they'll add into the mix to keep the conflict burning strong. For now, though, it's more than enough to get readers coming back for more." Schedeen gave it a 7.1 saying, "This first issue cleanly establishes the conflict and delivers a nonstop stream of gorgeous artwork. However, it offers few surprises for those not already familiar with the basics of this crossover, and it often fails to elicit a strong emotional response in the way the first issue of "Civil War" did ten years ago." Richard Gray of Newsarama gave it a 7 and said, "At this early stage, "Civil War II" suffers some of the problems that have beleaguered similar narratives in recent years, principally in seeing heroes all too quick to take sides against comrades on a possible future. Yet this is also just the beginning of something much larger, and while it may seem at times like this is an extended version of the 'zero' issue that preceded it, all the pieces are now in place for the 'war' proper to commence."


title: Civil War II

text: Issue #2 received an average score of 6.0/10 based on 26 reviews from critics on Comic Book Roundup. Schedeen gave it a 6.5 saying, "Given that this is technically the fourth Civil War II comic Bendis has written now, it's disappointing that the story is still in such a nascent stage. This isn't a civil war so much as 'Everybody is mad at Tony Stark.' Tony's characterization is sound, and the visuals in this book are downright fantastic, but those qualities aren't enough to give this Civil War sequel the spark it needs." Pepose gave it a 3 and said, "Right now, there's none of the thematic or dramatic weight of the original Civil War in this sequel, which is quickly burning off the initial goodwill from its zero issue and its Free Comic Book Day Special."


title: Civil War II

text: Issue #3 received an average score of 6.3/10 based on 23 reviews from critics on Comic Book Roundup. Schedeen gave it a 5.1 saying, ""Civil War II" looks every bit as good as you'd expect from Marvel's flagship event comic. Unfortunately, this series doesn't have nearly enough to offer beneath that gorgeous exterior. There's too much dialogue and exposition and not enough progress or dramatic weight to the story." Pepose gave it a 6 and said, ""Civil War II" #3 is a decent chapter of an event story that feels like plenty of other event stories. But as far as memorials go, it's unfortunately pretty forgettable fare."


title: Civil War II

text: Issue #4 received an average score of 5.7/10 based on 20 reviews from critics on Comic Book Roundup. Schedeen gave it a 7.3 saying, "Civil War II #4 picks up the pace and boasts more stunning art, but the characterization remains flawed." Pepose gave it a 3 and said, "I want to like this series. I want to like this story. But we're already halfway through this series, and Civil War II has barely even shown up."


title: Civil War II

text: Issue #5 received an average score of 5.7/10 based on 19 reviews from critics on Comic Book Roundup. Schedeen gave it a 4.4 saying, "This issue fixates on an extended superhero brawl that lacks dramatic weight (or even narrative logic) before transitioning into a very disappointing twist that threatens to derail the series for good." Pepose gave it an 8 and said, "While it appears that the superhero fisticuffs might be taking yet a breather["sic"] after this chapter, it's hard to deny the sheer fun "Civil War II" #5 has to offer."


title: Civil War II

text: Issue #6 received an average score of 5.8/10 based on 17 reviews from critics on Comic Book Roundup. Schedeen gave it a 6.3 saying, ""Civil War II" has had trouble building momentum from the beginning, and this issue does nothing to address that problem. There are some strong emotional moments here, and plenty of stunning artwork from Marquez and Ponsor, but the sluggish pace and generally listless nature of the conflict continue to frustrate." Pepose gave it a 3 and said, "We have two issues left on this series, and judging by the cliffhanger, it might mean something - but at this point, "Civil War II" has largely been about circling a conflict rather than diving into it head-on, leaving this event book about as unsatisfying as it gets."


title: Civil War II

text: Issue #7 received an average score of 6.3/10 based on 15 reviews from critics on Comic Book Roundup. Schedeen gave it a 7.8 saying, "Issue #7 is easily one of the stronger chapters of "Civil War II". That doesn't say a great deal at this point, but it is still nice to see Bendis focusing on a smaller, more intimate cast here." Pepose gave it a 6 and said, "With only one issue left to go, "Civil War II" remains a disappointing chapter for the House of Ideas. Even this series' biggest moments feel calculated rather than organic, trying to goose sales with a handful of character deaths without really digging in too deeply about the underlying issues underneath."


title: Civil War II

text: Issue #8 received an average score of 5.0/10 based on 20 reviews from critics on Comic Book Roundup. Schedeen gave it a 5.3 saying, ""Civil War II" ends with what is easily one of the weakest chapters of the entire crossover. This issue is anticlimactic and fails to wring much emotion from the final battle between Captain Marvel and Iron Man." Justin Partridge of Newsarama gave it a 3 and said, "To summarize, "Civil War II" #8 was basically an episode of "Whose Line Is It Anyway?": Everything was made up and the stakes didn't matter ... Brian Michael Bendis, who has delivered some fantastic events in his long career, limps across the finish line in this eighth issue, employing a hefty bit of deus ex 'Cosmic Power of the Universe' for what can only be described as the opposite of a game changer."


title: Civil War II

text: "Civil War II" #0 sold an estimated 177,283 copies in May 2016, making it the second best selling comic of the month behind "DC Universe: Rebirth" #1. Strong orders for the issue led Marvel to announce a second printing on May 5, thirteen days before the issue went on sale. In June 2016, issue #1 sold an estimated 381,737 copies, making it the best selling comic of the month, while issue #2 came in fifth place, selling an estimated 148,403 copies. In August, issue #3 came in fourth place, selling an estimated 176,876 copies, while issue #4 came in seventh place with 126,865 copies sold. In September, issue #5 debuted in fourth place, selling an estimated 120,208 copies. In October, issue #6 debuted in seventh place, selling an estimated 118,625 copies. In November, issue #7 debuted in third place, selling an estimated 116,446 copies. In December, issue #8 debuted in sixth place, selling an estimated 105,658 copies.


title: Civil War II

text: A storyline closely resembling "Civil War II" as it features Iron Man and the original Avengers and Captain Marvel and her team in opposition to each other was adapted in the four-part season finale of "Avengers: Ultron Revolution". In this version of the storyline, the Registration Act targets new Inhumans, and teams of Avengers come into conflict over the issue, as in other adaptations. It is revealed in Part 3, however, that the Inhuman Registration Act is actually part of a plan by Ultron (disguised as Truman Marsh) to begin the Ultron Revolution by manipulating humans and Inhumans into destroying each other, which is foiled by the combined efforts of the Avengers.


title: Civil War II

text: The storyline was the inspiration for an add-on mission in "". In the mission, a powerful new Inhuman called "The Profiler" has a vision in which Doctor Doom terminates the Inhumans. As the Inhumans move to capture Doom before the event occurs, the Avengers become divided in regards to punishing crimes before they occur.


title: Flag and seal of Virginia

text: The Seal of the Commonwealth of Virginia is the official seal of the Commonwealth of Virginia, a U.S. state. The state flag of Virginia consists of the obverse of the seal against a blue background. A state flag was first adopted at the beginning of the American Civil War in April 1861, readopted in 1912, and standardized by the General Assembly in February 1950. The standing allegorical female figure of "virtue" is shown having vanquished "tyranny", symbolized by a fallen king at her feet. She has an exposed breast in the manner of classical depictions of Amazons, making this the only state flag in the U.S. depicting a form of nudity. The motto, "Sic semper tyrannis," means "Thus always to tyrants." The flag may be decorated with a white fringe along the fly edge; this is usually done when the flag is displayed indoors.


title: Flag and seal of Virginia

text: In May 1776 the Virginia colony declared its independence from Great Britain. On July 1, 1776, a committee of four was appointed to make a proper seal for the Commonwealth of Virginia. The four men were Richard Henry Lee, George Mason, George Wythe, and Robert Carter Nicholas Sr. Four days later the committee's report for a design of the seal was read, and George Mason presented it to the Virginia government. It was voted on and approved that same day. It is not known for certain which members of the committee were chiefly responsible for the design of the seal, but it is generally believed to be principally the work of George Wythe.


title: Flag and seal of Virginia

text: The seal makers did not want a design which in any way resembled the style of coats-of-arms used in Great Britain. Because of the admiration for the Roman Republic felt by the Virginian leaders, the design of the new seal was taken from the mythology of Ancient Rome. They also chose a two-sided design, as shown above.


title: Flag and seal of Virginia

text: By 1912, many variants of the seal had become propagated, leading to confusion as which was the actual seal. Thus, Virginia decided to standardize the design of the seal to avoid confusion.


title: Flag and seal of Virginia

text: The obverse of the seal is the official seal of Virginia and is used on all the official papers and documents of the Commonwealth's government, as well as on its flag. On this side, a female figure personifying the Roman virtue of Virtus was selected to represent the genius of the new Commonwealth. Virginia's Virtus is a figure of peace, standing in a pose which indicates a battle already won. She rests on her long spear, its point turned downward to the ground. Her other weapon, a parazonium, is sheathed; it is the sword of authority rather than that of combat. Virtus is typically shown with a bare left breast; this is commonly recognized as the only use of nudity among the seals of the U.S. states.


title: Flag and seal of Virginia

text: Tyranny lies prostrate beneath the foot of Virtus, symbolizing Great Britain's defeat by Virginia. The royal crown which has fallen to the ground beside him symbolizes the new republic's release from the monarchical control of Great Britain; Maryland, Virginia and New York are the only U.S. states with a flag or seal displaying a crown. The broken chain in Tyranny's left hand represents Virginia's freedom from Britain's restriction of colonial trade and westward expansion. The useless whip in his right hand signifies Virginia's relief from the torturing whip of acts of punishment such as the Intolerable Acts. His robe is purple, a reference to Julius Caesar and the Etruscan king of Rome, Tarquinius Priscus.


title: Flag and seal of Virginia

text: The motto selected for the obverse of the Virginia seal is "Sic semper tyrannis", or in English, "Thus always to tyrants". This is a derived quote from the famous events in Roman history, attributed to Brutus upon his participation in the slaying of Julius Caesar. (Caesar had been named perpetual dictator of Rome in the same year, and some senators believed he had ambitions to abolish the Roman Republic and establish himself as a monarch.)


title: Flag and seal of Virginia

text: A joke referencing the image on the seal that dates as far back as the Civil War, is that ""Sic semper tyrannis"" actually means "Get your foot off my neck."


title: Flag and seal of Virginia

text: In 2010, Ken Cuccinelli, Attorney General of Virginia, gave his staff lapel pins with Virtus's bosom covered by an armored breastplate. His spokesman, Brian Gottstein, said the pin was paid for by Cuccinelli's political action committee, not with taxpayer funds.


title: Flag and seal of Virginia

text: The reverse of the seal pictures the blessings of freedom and peace, as represented by three Roman goddesses. In the center is the matron Libertas the goddess of individual liberties. In her hand she holds a wand showing her magical gifts, at the top of the wand hangs a Phrygian Cap, also called a Liberty Cap — later made popular by French revolutionaries.


title: Flag and seal of Virginia

text: To the left of Libertas stands Ceres, the Roman goddess of agriculture. In her left hand is a horn of plenty overflowing with the abundance of Virginia's harvests, while in her right hand is an enormous stalk of wheat, representing one of Virginia's leading crops. Aeternitas, representing Virginia's eternity, stands at the right of Libertas. In her right hand is a golden ball, an emblem of authority, and atop the ball is a Phoenix, symbolizing immortality. On the Virginia seal, the phoenix represents effective government.


title: Flag and seal of Virginia

text: The motto gracing the reverse with its trio of Libertas, Ceres, and Aeternitas is "Perseverando", or in English, "Persevering", a reminder to future generations of the need to persist in maintaining the blessings of liberty. The ornamental border on both sides of the seal consists of sprigs of "Parthenocissus quinquefolia", or commonly, Virginia Creeper. In 1930 another committee was charged with standardizing the seal's design because of all the variations that came into use over the years. The seals that now adorn the doors of the Southern Portico of the Capitol in Richmond were designed by Charles Keck. What the committee approved was basically adopting the 1776 seal as the standard. In 1949, another standard was implemented, when Virginia's Art Commission defined the official color scheme for the seal.


title: Flag and seal of Virginia

text: The Great Seal and the lesser seal are the same except for size. The lesser seal is used on commissions of commonwealth officials and notaries, and on other papers which remain within the boundaries of, or relate only to, Virginia.


title: Flag and seal of Virginia

text: Under Virginian state law, the Secretary of the Commonwealth is the Keeper of the Seals of the Commonwealth.


title: Shecky Greene

text: Shecky Greene (born Fred Sheldon Greenfield; April 8, 1926) is an American comedian. He is known for his nightclub performances in Las Vegas, Nevada, where he became a headliner in the 1950s and '60s. He has appeared in several films, including "Tony Rome"; "History of the World, Part I"; and "Splash". In television, he has guest-starred on such television shows as "Love, American Style" and "Combat!", and later "Laverne & Shirley" and "Mad About You".


title: Shecky Greene

text: Greene was born to Jewish parents, Carl and Bessie Greenfield, and raised on the North Side of Chicago, Illinois.


title: Shecky Greene

text: He enjoyed performing as a youth as a singer and drama club he formed while attending Sullivan High School. He emulated his older brother, who liked to speak in accents.


title: Shecky Greene

text: He served in the United States Navy during World War II for three years and was discharged in 1944. He was briefly—but more than once—enrolled at Wright Junior College.


title: Shecky Greene

text: Greene had planned to become a gym teacher. But after regularly performing stand-up in Chicago at mob-run nightclubs and various venues in the upper Midwest, he instead started his comedy career at the Prevue Lounge in New Orleans, Louisiana, where he worked for six years. From there, he went on to showrooms in Miami, Chicago, and Reno/Lake Tahoe before an agent persuaded him to move to Las Vegas and open in 1954 for Dorothy Shay, "the Park Avenue Hillbillie", at the Last Frontier. His act was held over for 18 weeks, a first for that venue. He began performing at The Tropicana Hotel in 1957, remaining there for five years as one of their headliners.


title: Shecky Greene

text: Greene played Carnegie Hall and appeared on TV variety show "The Ed Sullivan Show", which he says he hated because "They'd rush you on and off". He played Pvt. Braddock for a year on "Combat!" and guested on "The Joey Bishop Show", "The Love Boat", and played Lou Carnesco in two episodes of "The Fall Guy". He appeared in "Members Only", a fourth-season, 1985 episode of the action TV show "The A-Team". Greene was widely respected by his peers, including Johnny Carson who was a longtime fan. Greene made 40 appearances on "The Tonight Show" on which he also served as a guest host. He appeared on "The Merv Griffin Show" and also served as a guest host. He notes that he gave Arnold Schwarzenegger and Luciano Pavarotti their first national television exposure. He also appeared on "Match Game" and "Tattletales" (with his first wife Nalani Kele) in the 1970s.


title: Shecky Greene

text: When the MGM Grand Hotel opened in 1975 with Dean Martin as headliner, the second headline act was Shecky Greene whose salary at one point climbed to $150,000 a week and quipped that $125,000 went to "my bookmaker".


title: Shecky Greene

text: Greene claims Jay Leno once told him that his all-time favorite joke is one Greene recounted about Frank Sinatra (with whom Greene had a contentious relationship) "saving his life". Offended by a remark made by Greene, Sinatra sent five men to assault him; after some time, he heard Sinatra say, "OK, he's had enough."


title: Shecky Greene

text: Beginning in 2003, and lasting for six years, Greene suffered from panic attacks and stage fright that rendered him unable to perform. In 2009, in Las Vegas, Greene returned to performing.


title: Shecky Greene

text: Offstage, Greene's main passion was Thoroughbred racing. A horse named Shecky Greene (1970–1984) was the 1973 American Champion Sprint Horse and the front-runner for nearly seven furlongs in the 1973 Kentucky Derby until Secretariat ran off with the race. As of 2016, Arlington Park in Arlington Heights, Illinois, outside Chicago still holds a Shecky Greene Handicap race.


title: Shecky Greene

text: Greene has been married three times. He was married to Nalani Kele from 1972 to 1982. She had a hugely successful nightclub act, "Nalani Kele Polynesian Revue," from the 1960s to the early 1970s. Since 1985, he has been married to Marie Musso, daughter of Vido Musso, a Las Vegas musician who played saxophone with Benny Goodman. He has resided in Beverly Hills, California; Palm Springs, California; Las Vegas, Nevada.


title: Shecky Greene

text: Greene's career had obstacles due to depression and bipolar disorder, stage fright, gambling, panic attacks and drug abuse and alcoholism.


title: Shecky Greene

text: Greene led "humanitarian efforts" to create St. Judes Ranch, a shelter for indigent and neglected children in Boulder City, Nevada.


title: Boss Hogg

text: Jefferson Davis "J.D." Hogg, known as Boss Hogg, is a fictional character featured in the American television series "The Dukes of Hazzard". He was the commissioner of Hazzard County, and the county's political boss. Boss Hogg almost always wore an all-white suit with a white cowboy hat and regularly smoked cigars. His namesake is Jefferson Davis, the President of the Confederate States of America. The role of Boss Hogg was played by Sorrell Booke, who performed frequently on radio, stage, television, and film prior to his role in "The Dukes of Hazzard". The character was also played by Burt Reynolds in the 2005 film.


title: Boss Hogg

text: "Boss" Hogg was the sole commissioner of (fictional) Hazzard County, Georgia, and thus, held all executive and judicial powers therein. (In real life, Georgia is the only state which still allows this form of government, and in only eight of its 159 counties.) As the wealthiest man in the county, he would do "almost" anything to get his hands on more money, including executing many nefarious and criminal schemes. However, he does not tolerate anyone (even the Dukes, despite Hogg's constant rivalry with them) getting physically hurt in the process. He also refuses to have anything to do with illegal drugs, regardless of money. Boss Hogg is described in one analysis as "an ineffectual bad guy—hence amusing".


title: Boss Hogg

text: Hogg owned most of Hazzard's property and businesses, either directly or by holding the mortgages over the land. His lust for money often drove him to participate in criminal activities—usually by enlisting the aid of associates—mainly his right-hand man and partner in crime, Sheriff Rosco P. Coltrane. Together, the two schemed to frame the Duke family for crimes they did not commit. Rosco's deputies, Enos Strate and Cletus Hogg (Boss's cousin), have also aided Boss Hogg, though Enos (and to a lesser extent, Cletus) were more reluctant to do so. According to Waylon Jennings' narration, he had a "cradle to grave" earning plan; in that if you were a Hazzard County resident, you were born at the local hospital (owned by Hogg), you lived in a house that he owned the deed to, worked at one of his businesses, and when you died, his casket company would make your pine box.


title: Boss Hogg

text: Boss Hogg's greed only seemed to fuel his lust for more and more wealth. He was chauffeured around in the back of a Cadillac (though he drove himself around in later seasons), all-white in color to match his all-white suit. Other clothing (such as jogging suits, etc.) and other accessories, and much of his own mansion home, were also decked out in white.


title: Boss Hogg

text: Boss is forever angry at the Duke family, particularly Bo and Luke, for continually exposing and halting his various crooked schemes. Despite the Dukes coming to his rescue on occasion, Hogg forever seems to have an irrational dislike of the clan, particularly Bo and Luke, often accusing them of spying on him, robbing or planning to rob him, and other supposedly nefarious actions as he believes they are generally out to get him. Although this characteristic is present throughout the show's run, it is particularly evident in the earlier seasons. One episode has Uncle Jesse mentioning that he and Boss had known one another "since we were kids", and others mention that they had run moonshine together.


title: Boss Hogg

text: Just like the exact specifications of the Duke Boys' probation rules, the extent of just what was and wasn't within Boss's powers often seemed to vary from episode to episode. However, this can be countermanded slightly, as Boss would often bend the law and make up rules to suit himself.


title: Boss Hogg

text: Every morning, Boss Hogg would drink coffee and eat raw liver (as seen in the pilot episode, "One Armed Bandits" and several later episodes). Method actor Sorrell Booke actually ate the raw liver.


title: Boss Hogg

text: Sorrell Booke was only slightly overweight at best. He wore padding under his suit to give Boss his familiar 62 inch waist.


title: Boss Hogg

text: Initially, the character was created as a nemesis for the Duke family to battle, but as the series evolved over its first and subsequent seasons, Hogg developed more into a comical money-grabbing villain, with more intent on performing various get-rich-quick schemes and shady plots, than ever knowingly causing anyone serious harm. With this evolution of the character, for which the foundations were set over the course of the first half-season, came the closer pairing of Hogg and Sheriff Rosco P. Coltrane (James Best), and as the pair's comical ability together became apparent and a popular element of the series, Booke and Best were often given permission to ad-lib and improvise their scenes together.


title: Boss Hogg

text: By the time of the 1997 reunion movie, Booke had died, so rather than replace him with a new actor or similar character, Hogg's death was written into the script. He willed his empire to Rosco P. Coltrane, who continued to pursue zany schemes, many of which Boss came up with before his death.


title: Boss Hogg

text: In a typical episode of "The Dukes of Hazzard", Boss hires others to carry out his crimes, then diverts the blame onto the Dukes, usually the cousins Bo and Luke. Some of Hogg's favorite schemes include bank and armored car robbery, counterfeiting, fraud, and moonshine running. He especially enjoyed trying to trick Bo and Luke into violating their probation (for illegal transportation of moonshine) by running moonshine, or crossing the county line.


title: Boss Hogg

text: Boss reasons that by framing Bo and Luke, he will more easily acquire the Duke farm—the property he most covets, and for which he held the mortgage—for little to no cost. Usually, this is so he can develop the land (for profit, of course) in various ways. When the Dukes are not targeted, it is generally a friend of the Dukes—auto mechanic Cooter Davenport, postmistress Miz Emma Tisdale, county worker Emery Potter, general store owner Mr. Rhuebottom, and others—who find themselves on the wrong side of Hogg's schemes.


title: Boss Hogg

text: It is usually up to Bo and Luke to foil Boss's schemes, defeat his associates, and make things right. Though Boss's crimes should land him in prison, he usually winds up with little more than a slap on the wrist, such as donating his ill-gotten proceeds to charity, or having to personally re-sow by hand a crop that he had destroyed. He often worms his way out of trouble by foisting the blame for his schemes onto associates. This has left him with a reputation for untrustworthiness and double-crossing in the criminal world, and had made him many enemies who come back for revenge.


title: Boss Hogg

text: Boss lusts for "simoleons", but has his limits; he refuses to risk anyone's life or safety for the sake of his schemes. More than once, he has sacrificed his potential earnings to save lives that would otherwise be imperiled by his greed (this is especially true in later seasons). His conscience has landed him into trouble with his former partners in the past. He stands by his word, but only if he "spits and shakes" on it. On several occasions, when Boss's disgruntled or devious associates attempted to exact revenge for Boss's betrayal, Bo and Luke almost always came to his rescue.


title: Boss Hogg

text: Boss held various positions in the community, including County Commissioner, Police Commissioner, Chief of the Volunteer Fire Department, Justice of the Peace, and Bank President. All of these organizations seemed to suffer from his greed. It seems in some episodes that his position of County Commissioner is elected; Hogg was even once defeated for this office (by one vote, cast at the last minute), but Boss was back in charge in the following episode.


title: Boss Hogg

text: Boss constantly looks for new, usually dishonest methods to bring revenue into the county (and thereby, into his pocketbook). Some of the more memorable schemes involve Rosco setting up fake fire hydrants next to parked cars, using hair dryers as radar guns (to ticket people for speeding), and placing hidden stop signs or speed limit signs that mysteriously spring into view after an unsuspecting motorist drives by.


title: Boss Hogg

text: Boss's traffic schemes have also resulted in country music and other performers "working off" their fines, by performing at "The Boar's Nest". Famous singer victims include: Roy Orbison, Buck Owens, Mel Tillis, Dottie West, Tammy Wynette, Hoyt Axton, Johnny Paycheck and The Oak Ridge Boys twice, Loretta Lynn, and Mickey Gilley, whose performance he also tried to pirate.


title: Boss Hogg

text: Despite Boss Hogg's unending desire to have Bo and Luke imprisoned for crimes they did not commit, his principal rival always remained their uncle, Jesse Duke. Jesse and J.D. had a feud dating back to their ridge-running days in the 1930s, which continued to simmer after Bo and Luke were indicted for moonshine-running, and Jesse began protecting them from J.D.


title: Boss Hogg

text: Though they rarely got along, Jesse and J.D. held a grudging respect for one another and enjoyed a "friendship" of sorts (Jesse once claimed he and Hogg were "friends and enemies"), as both would help each other when circumstances warranted. However, Jesse Duke was well aware of J.D.'s greedy nature, and the wizened Duke patriarch frequently warned his nephews and niece about Hogg's antics. When Uncle Jesse needed a favor of Boss Hogg, he would often say "I've never asked you for anything", and the question appeared new to the portly Hogg each time. Furthermore, whenever Jesse and J.D. do formally agree to something, it is always with a "spit and shake" of hands; in one episode, J.D. insists that without "spit and shake", any promises made by him are not binding. In one episode, when Hogg becomes involved with some very serious criminals who threaten Jesse's life, he intervenes and desperately insists that they don't hurt him.


title: Boss Hogg

text: Despite the fact that they constantly thwarted his plots, and while he often derided them even when they were helping him, Hogg was willing to swallow his pride when the Dukes offered him aid; while the Dukes have no love for Hogg, it is clear they are aware that Boss has never willingly put lives at risk. Hogg and the Dukes appear to almost enjoy their rivalry on some level, as Hogg could easily have foreclosed on the mortgage he holds on the Dukes' land long ago, yet never has; either Boss is honest enough to accept the Dukes' payments to keep their land in their possession, or he merely wants the satisfaction of removing them via one of his schemes. Whether Hogg genuinely wants the Dukes out of the way, or is simply harassing them for fun, is never made clear. The Dukes, for their part, thoroughly enjoy their clashes with Hogg when thwarting him despite the issues he causes. Despite this, they have never made any serious attempt to have him removed from his position, via any of their friends who can cross the Hazzard county line and report on his corrupt actions, indicating that they are unwilling to see Hogg truly placed in legal trouble, despite all the issues he causes for them. Whether this is out of respect for Hogg's strange friendship with their uncle Jesse or not was never revealed.


title: Boss Hogg

text: Boss is married to Rosco's "fat sister", Lulu Coltrane Hogg, making Boss and Rosco brothers-in-law. In the first episode, "One Armed Bandits", and referenced again in some later episodes, Boss mentions that she had him give Rosco the role of Sheriff so that he would have a safe job. It is this "debt" that, in the earliest episodes at least, seems to have Rosco continually working for Boss in repayment.


title: Boss Hogg

text: As with several of the other characters, the version of Lulu seen in the early episodes is slightly different to the version portrayed later. In her lone first season appearance ("Repo Men"), she is played as spoiled (she is seen to be demanding that Boss buy her a Rolls Royce for her birthday). Her single second season appearances (in "The Rustlers") also shows her in a similar light. As the character progressed and appeared on a more regular basis in the series, the character softened, becoming a kind and more level-headed woman, who became involved with several local charities and projects. Although in some earlier instances, although she didn't seem keen on the Dukes, she was more hospitable towards them. By the later seasons, Lulu was often seen to be on friendly terms with the family - particularly Jesse, with whom she would occasionally consort if she thought Boss was getting himself too deep into trouble. She and Daisy also seemed to hold a friendship, as she hired Daisy into the Hazzard Equal Rights Society and in a later episode they were seen to be returning together from an out-of-town shopping trip.


title: Boss Hogg

text: Although Boss frequently takes his wife for granted, Lulu has no patience for Boss's shady antics, and is clearly the dominant personality in the relationship, even acting as her husband's Achilles' heel in his latest crooked scheme (and succeeding on occasion). At one point, she threatens to leave Boss and take half of his holdings; he quickly backs down. While apprehensive to trust her, and scheming behind her back at all times, Boss seems to genuinely love Lulu, frequently calling her such pet names, as "Angel Food Cake", "Marshmallow", and "Sugarplum Puddin'."


title: Boss Hogg

text: Boss also has an antithetical identical twin brother, Abraham Lincoln Hogg, who appeared in one episode of the show (the third season's "Baa, Baa White Sheep"). Also played by Booke, A.L Hogg was the opposite of J.D.—he was kind, honest, law-abiding, dressed in black, and drove a black Cadillac—and was friendly with the Dukes, particularly Uncle Jesse.


title: Boss Hogg

text: Boss and Lulu are childless, but have at least two nephews: Hughie Hogg and Jamie Lee Hogg (Jonathan Frakes). Like their uncle, both Hughie and Jamie Lee are often up to no good: Hughie (who, like his uncle, wore an all-white three-piece suit, though he drove a Volkswagen Beetle, in stark contrast to Boss's Cadillac) is often more crooked than Boss Hogg, and is seen in some episodes blackmailing and using wise tactics, while Jamie Lee is seen in only one episode (see below).


title: Boss Hogg

text: Jolene Hunnicutt, who is a character on the sitcom "Alice", is a distant relative of Hogg. Like "The Dukes of Hazzard", Alice was produced by Warner Bros. Television.


title: Boss Hogg

text: In the third-season episode "The Late J.D. Hogg", Boss is wrongly diagnosed with a fatal illness, and adopts a nice, kind persona, only to revert to his usual crooked, mean self when he learns that he is not really about to die.


title: Boss Hogg

text: In "No More Mr. Nice Guy" (Episode: #7.5 – original airdate: 19 October 1984), Boss Hogg suffered amnesia as a result of being hit on the head. When he awakened, he was a kind, caring, honest, and fair man, who intended to "clean up Hazzard County of all corruption". He did not like being referred to as "Boss" or even as "J.D.", instead identifying himself as "Jefferson Davis Hogg with two G's", or just "Jefferson" for short. Jefferson actually liked and appreciated the Dukes for the help they bring to Hazzard, and helped them whenever he could—until he received another bump on the head (many times, via Rosco) and turned back into the ruthless, corrupt Boss Hogg.


title: Boss Hogg

text: Boss Hogg's car was a triple white 1970 Cadillac DeVille (1976 Cadillac Eldorado in the 2005 film) convertible, with large bull horns for a hood ornament, and in the movies sported pistol shaped door handles. He had a chauffeur named Alex, who drove the car in the first few seasons; in later years, Hogg became the car's principal driver and frequently challenged others by invoking his driving expertise from his days as a ridge-runner. Unlike other vehicles in the series, Boss Hogg's Cadillac is typically handled carefully, and he was always blaming Cooter if even the smallest thing happened to it.


title: Boss Hogg

text: In "Moonrunners"—the precursor film to the "Dukes of Hazzard"—the character that would go on to be developed into Boss Hogg, was named Jake Rainey (played by George Ellis). Like Boss Hogg, Jake was an old friend of Uncle Jesse, who had risen from running moonshine with Jesse in the old days, to boss of the county. Jake also had the loyalty of Sheriff Rosco Coltrane, although this bond wasn't as close as it was in the TV series.


title: Boss Hogg

text: Burt Reynolds played Boss Hogg in "The Dukes of Hazzard" (2005), the big-screen remake of the TV series. This version of Boss was far more serious and wily than his TV counterpart. Although it was indicated that this Boss Hogg enjoyed fine cuisine and had a slightly enlarged belly, he was not the overweight glutton of the television series.


title: Boss Hogg

text: Chris McDonald played Boss Hogg in "" (2007). Much like Reynolds' portrayal, Hogg was not overweight as his TV series version was, although he was decidedly taller (McDonald is 6'3", nine inches taller than Booke was).


title: Boss Hogg

text: Boss, voiced by Sorrell Booke, appeared in "The Dukes". This cartoon lasted for two seasons, both in 1983, for a total of 20 episodes.


title: Boss Hogg

text: A drunken hallucination Boss Hogg appears to Dee Reynolds in "It’s Always Sunny in Philadelphia" Season 10, Episode 1, "The Gang Beats Boggs". He was played by American actor Jerry Hauck.


title: Boss Hogg

text: He has been described as a "stereotypical corrupt public figure". Writing in 2017, Lexye L. Schockley saw in Boss Hogg, although fictional and "exaggerated on all fronts", the image of a flawed local leader who abuses his unchecked power, who have been and still are not uncommon in small-town politics. S. Robert Lichter "et al." characterized Boss Hogg as the "blustery county commissioner and machine-style political boss" of his rural area, and saw in the figure a typical example of a "trend was toward casting foolish or bumbling politicians in humorous roles" in American television in the 1980s. Boss Hogg has also been described as a stereotypical "Southerner", but in contrast to the "sly Duke boys", focusing on the negative traits of bigotry and stupidity.


title: Gatekeeping (communication)

text: Gatekeeping is the process through which information is filtered for dissemination, whether for publication, broadcasting, the internet, or some other mode of communication. The academic theory of gatekeeping may be found in multiple fields of study, including communication studies, journalism, political science, and sociology. Gatekeeping originally focused on the mass media with its few-to-many dynamic. Currently, the gatekeeping theory also addresses face-to-face communication and the many-to-many dynamic inherent on the Internet. Social psychologist Kurt Lewin first instituted Gatekeeping theory in 1943. Gatekeeping occurs at all levels of the media structure—from a reporter deciding which sources are presented in a headline story to editors choosing which stories are printed or covered. Including, but not limited to, media outlet owners and advertisers.


title: Gatekeeping (communication)

text: Gatekeeping is a process by which information is filtered to the public by the media. According to Pamela Shoemaker and Tim Vos, gatekeeping is the "process of culling and crafting countless bits of information into the limited number of messages that reach people every day, and it is the center of the media's role in modern public life. [...] This process determines not only which information is selected, but also what the content and nature of the messages, such as news, will be."


title: Gatekeeping (communication)

text: Gatekeeping as a news process was identified in the literature as early as 1922, though not yet given a formal theoretical name. In his book 'The Immigrant Press', Park explains the process, "out of all of the events that happen and are recorded every day by correspondents, reporters, and the news agencies, the editor chooses certain items for publication which he regards as more important or more interesting than others. The remainder he condemns to oblivion and the wastebasket. There is an enormous amount of news 'killed' every day" (p. 328).


title: Gatekeeping (communication)

text: Formally, gatekeeping was identified in Kurt Lewin's (1943) publication "Forces Behind Food Habits and Methods of Change". Working during World War II, Lewin conducted field research initially among Midwestern housewives to determine how to effectively change their families' food consumption during this time of war. Lewin recognized that for food to go from a store or a garden to the dining table, there were various decision-making processes it had to pass on the way there. At a time when men were thought to control all household decisions, Lewin found that "food does not move by its own impetus. Entering or not entering a channel and moving from one section of a channel to another is affected by a 'gatekeeper'" (p. 37). The gatekeeper, in this case, was typically the housewife, or sometimes a maid in more affluent households. Lewin's research demonstrated that not all members of a family have equal weight in making household food decisions and that the wife, who typically shops for and prepares the food controls the gates, based on a variety of considerations. Lewin's study published in 1943 became the impetus for another article in 1947 in which he introduces the idea of feedback in group decision making, which complicates the role of the gatekeeper. Feedback acknowledges that the set of considerations a gatekeeper uses in making decisions may vary depending on considerations of the group.


title: Gatekeeping (communication)

text: In 1950, David Manning White, a journalism professor at Boston University, looked at the factors an editor takes into consideration when deciding which news will make the paper and which news will not; intending to examine how a "gate keeper" examines his "gate" within a channel of mass communication. White contacted an editor, a man in his mid-40s with 25 years of experience, whom he calls "Mr. Gates." Mr. Gates was the wire editor of a morning newspaper in a mid-west city of 100,000 that had a circulation of 30,000. During the case study, Mr. Gates retained all copy that he rejected from the paper for a week. At the end of his shift, he made notes on why that story was rejected, assuming he could still remember the reason.


title: Gatekeeping (communication)

text: At the end of the week that the study took place, White found that nine-tenths of the wire copy got rejected and the process is made by highly subjective decisions based on the editor's own set of experiences, attitudes and expectations. White found that in this particular study, the majority of the rejections could be classified in two ways: 1) not worthy of being reported or 2) there was another story on the same event. Pertaining to the first reason, many of the explanations Mr. Gates gives for rejection are "highly-subjective value judgments." Examples of this are seen when Mr. Gates writes "too Red" or "don't care for suicides" (386). Pertaining to the second reason of rejection, given for the majority of the rejections, Mr. Gates made no "personal" rejections to the copy, but there was simply no space available for it in the paper. The later the story came to Mr. Gates, the less of a chance it had to take up any valuable space remaining.


title: Gatekeeping (communication)

text: White examined Mr. Gates' performance for a specific day and put the data in tables which show the amount and type of news which appeared on the front pages and the total number of dispatches used. Mr. Gates admitted to preferring political news to other types of news and explained that he tries to avoid sensationalism and consistently leans more towards being "conservative" both in political views and in writing style. Observed patterns throughout the week also show that Mr. Gates leans away from stories filled with figures and statistics and prefers stories that contain more of a narrative. His notes and reasons for rejection can also show Mr. Gates' writing standard, using "too vague," "not interesting," and "dull writing" on a number of occasions. A question that White poses and says should be considered in this case study is, "Does the category really enter into the choice?"


title: Gatekeeping (communication)

text: He concludes that as Mr. Gates is representing "gate keepers" and wire editors as a whole, there doesn't seem to be a particular choice of news by categories. During the week the case study took place, however, there was a strong emphasis on Human Interest stories because there was a large appeal to a story regarding a Cardinal of the Catholic Church. Mr. Gates also concludes that the gate keeper's standards and taste should refer back to the audience and that they are the ones being served and pleased. His concluding remarks provide a great summary of the purpose and findings of the study. "Through studying his overt reasons for rejecting news stories from the press associations we see how highly subjective, how based on the "gate keeper's" own set of experiences, attitudes and expectations the communication of "news" really is" (390).


title: Gatekeeping (communication)

text: More than fifty years after White's "Mr. Gates" study, in 2001, Pamela Shoemaker, Martin Eichholz, Eunyi Kim, and Brenda Wrigley studied the forces in news gatekeeping in relation to coverage of Congressional bills. More specifically, they were interested in two hypotheses: 1) the routine gatekeeping force of assessing a bill's newsworthiness will be related to how prominently a bill is covered, and 2) the individual journalistic forces (education, political ideology, work experience, ethnicity, gender, voting behavior) will be related to how prominently a bill is covered. They also predicted that the newsworthiness of a bill would be more important than journalists' personal characteristics. Surveying both journalists (for their personal characteristics) and editors (for evaluating newsworthiness), Shoemaker and her colleagues found that only newsworthiness had a significant effect on the amount of coverage given to a bill, thus their first hypothesis was supported as well as the idea that newsworthiness would be more important than personal characteristics.


title: Gatekeeping (communication)

text: While Shoemaker et al.'s study focused on traditional news rooms, Singer has been interested in how gatekeeping translates to how traditional newspapers use online tools. In both the 2000 and 2004 Presidential elections, she studied how the Internet was changing the process for newspapers, contending that, "the power of gatekeepers seems to diminish in a modern information society. The Internet defies the whole notion of a 'gate' and challenges the idea that journalists (or anyone else) can or should limit what passes through it" (p. 265). In the study of the 2004 coverage, Singer posed the following research questions: 1) What did editors of Web sites affiliated with major newspapers see as their goals and their most noteworthy achievements in covering the 2004 political campaign and election? 2) To what extent did these editors relinquish their gatekeeping role by providing opportunities for users to provide or personalize content? And more broadly, 3) In what ways have the views of editors of Web sites affiliated with major newspapers changed since 2000?


title: Gatekeeping (communication)

text: Singer found that the content which appears in online editions of newspapers mostly comes from content that appears in the print versions. However, editors were also very proud of the interactive tools on their websites that could not be in the paper. The goal of most editors was after all to inform the public. Further, journalists were beginning to take a step back from their traditional gatekeeping role such that many websites had sections in which journalists provided baseline information and users could manipulate according to their needs and interests like interactive maps, Electoral College scenarios, and ballot building tools based on zip codes. In 2000, editors were likely to boast about how quickly they could publish returns on election night. In 2004, this was no longer the case, as it was standard practice by then. Further, their stated goal for the 2008 election cycle was to let the audience guide the coverage.


title: Gatekeeping (communication)

text: Karine Barzilai-Nahon has written a number of contemporary pieces on gatekeeping theories between disciplines. In 2008, she proposed a new way of looking at gatekeeping, merging the disciplines' of communication, information science, and management perspectives into a refined theory of gatekeeping. Traditional mass communication gatekeeping theory has focused on how we get news, however Barzilai-Nahon's approach applies to all information.


title: Gatekeeping (communication)

text: This updated look at gatekeeping also poses a number of classifications including the bases for gatekeeping, mechanisms used in network gatekeeping, and types of authority of network gatekeepers.


title: Gatekeeping (communication)

text: Additionally, Barzilai-Nahon introduces a typology for the gated. According to her approach, the gated can have four key attributes at different levels that determine how they can interact with the gate. These are (p. 1501):


title: Gatekeeping (communication)

text: A typology of combinations of these characteristics then allows for evaluation of potential interactions between the gatekeeper and the gated based on the number and type of attributes an individual has. Her discussion about "the gated" resonates with audience gatekeeping in that both empowers the message recipients in the process of gatekeeping.


title: Gatekeeping (communication)

text: The process of gatekeeping has extended from the traditional act of deciding what news is the best news but information in general. According to Marcelo Thomas, there are actors called intermediaries that are involved with the architecture of information we come in contact with. They are making decisions about the structure as well as the content of our information. These decisions make these intermediaries technological gatekeepers. This provision of information for an organization's member as well as those outside that organization is less about Agenda Setting media outcomes but a practical approach to usability. An example of this role would be a content manager for a company's knowledge database. All of the articles and reference materials are curated and updated by these managers. While they may work in teams with oversight, the fact remains that decision are made about the content that will exist on the site and how it is displayed.


title: Gatekeeping (communication)

text: Along with Web 2.0 environment, users have begun playing a greater role in producing and (re)distributing online news items via online social networks such as Twitter and Facebook. Shoemaker and Vos (2011) theorized such practice as "audience gatekeeping". According to them (2011), audience gatekeeping is the process in which users "pass along already available news items and comment on them" based on the user's own set of criteria about the newsworthiness" (p. 113). Kwon et al. (2013) adapted the theory of audience gatekeeping to explore what channels are mainly adopted for Twitter audiences to filter and share news contents. The notion of audience gatekeeping consists with Goode's (2009) discussion on metajournalism, whereby users' role in reprocessing and rebroadcasting the existing online contents are as equally emphasized as users' original creation in nurturing citizen journalism as reshaping the existing hierarchy of the journalism system. Kwon et al. (2013) also found that re-processed news items by user-generated content websites, or social media, are more frequently adopted by Twitter users than the direct news times from traditional mass media organizations, confirming the empowering role of ordinary online users in retelling and redistributing news agendas to networked publics.


title: Gatekeeping (communication)

text: After a user decides to share news with its network, way-finding commences — a journey, or guided tour, from a user's arrival on the web, to their site and the information that the user is looking for. The metaphor is borrowed from architects and planners. They design systems for users to navigate from place to place. Along with directional cues, education and even delight are designed in to the plans. This is not dissimilar to what media planners are doing today. The user arrives online in a crowded city of information.  As they type onto a search engine they begin to navigate the online space. From a purely gatekeeping perspective, information and news was the destination.  Users went directly to the place they expected to find what they were looking for.  Today, a user inputs what they want to learn about.  The various sources are in competition for the user's attention.  Using marketing techniques, the source will hopefully grab the attention of the user and then lead them to the content they're searching for.


title: Gatekeeping (communication)

text: It has been established that journalists are attempting to meet the needs of their audience. They identify news and then report it. It's this identification process that we find traditional gatekeeping. In the discussion of media gatekeeping is a debate between traditional journalism the blogging community. Political bloggers have increased their audience as well as their scope of activities and ambition. Schiffer considers it an alternative form of journalism that can possess traditional journalism's sought-after qualities while omitting some of its drawbacks. The main criticism of traditional journalism is the lack of control by the user over the content they are presented with. Blogging utilizes the community to perform a type of collective editing. As consumers interact with the blog and each other on its behalf, the popular grows calling more consumers into the fold. While this will certainly allow the user to decide for itself what news needs to be out front, the blogging has its limitations as well. Because anyone can blog and can do so without editing from above with professional standards from the trade-craft, filtering the information down to its most essential components is often overlooked. Differences between traditional journalists and bloggers aside the main similarity is that both parties have to decide what is news-worthy and then report it.


title: Gatekeeping (communication)

text: Schiffer also found that user-created content creators utilize a type of gate-keeping as it concerns the comments on their publications. Some bloggers require approval by a moderator before comments can be added to a post. At times comments are disabled altogether. This means that bloggers are not only gatekeeping the content they output but the on-page discussion around that submission. Larger media organization with an online presence have the same capability as it is associated with the technology and not the host.


title: Gatekeeping (communication)

text: A rise in social media popularity has sparked reliance on media outlets to produce newsworthy content. As newspaper distribution rates drop, news outlets rely heavily on social media editors to promote news items. Kasper Welbers and Michaël Opgenhaffen take a deeper look at social media gatekeeping through an analysis of news outlets' influence on public social media. As news outlets transition into the digital age, journalists and 'specialized social media experts' have adapted to fill holes in traditional news distribution. What makes social media so formidable lies in the diffusion process of user engagement, primarily seen through likes, shares, comments, and reposts. Ease of access when sharing news links through social media plug-ins on websites and apps furthers the widespread availability of new distributions, causing an "increasingly complex relationships between news production and consumption" (pp. 4729). Welbers and Opgenhaffen build off of gatekeeping theory by defining two new channels that correlate to the influence news outlets have over the media. The "social media editor channel" (Barzilai-Nahon, 2008; Shoemaker and Vos, 2009 ) refers to the origin of news information on social media, referring to its original publication by specialized social media news experts. Likewise, the "alternative channel" refers to all other ways news items enter public mainstream circulation. Measurement of these channels dictates how news items enter social media through either newspapers or news outlets. Lewin's (1947) first task to uncovering gatekeepers is finding out who the original gatekeepers are. In this case, social media editors can be coined as influential gatekeepers. Origins of gatekeepers clash as either channel becomes blurred by intersections between social media editors and individual users, thus making it difficult to determine the definition of gatekeeping throughout social media.


title: Gatekeeping (communication)

text: Some fear that modern social media content has become increasingly monitored and gatekept, which in turn has allowed for agendas to be pushed, underming the role of the . This can prove to be quite dangerous, as an audience's selective exposure to certain news media can skew perceptions, lessen the diversity of ideals and reinforce prejudices.


title: Gatekeeping (communication)

text: Many modern political institutions follow a chain of command in which first-stage players (such as chief executives in presidential systems and/or prime ministers in parliamentary governments) have a procedural-right to hinder second-stage players from participating in collective choice; this is known as Political Gatekeeping. Gatekeeping practices include attaching riders (provisions) to bills and the House's ability to enforce rules that expedite consideration of otherwise blocked legislation, as in the case of combatting a filibuster. Political Gatekeeping also manifests in the form of selective candidacy, where established government officials hand-pick which running candidates to "promote", while restricting resources/support for "unwelcome" candidates.