title: Taleggio cheese

text: The production takes place every autumn and winter. First, acidified milk is mixed with rennet taken from milk calves. The cheese is set on wood shelves in chambers, sometimes in caves as per tradition, and matures within six to ten weeks. It is washed once a week with a seawater sponge to prevent mould growth and to form an orange or rose crust.


title: Taleggio cheese

text: Today, the cheese is made from both pasteurised milk and raw milk in factories. The factory-made cheeses are brighter and moderate in flavour.


title: Taleggio cheese

text: The cheese can be eaten grated with salads such as radicchio or rucola (rocket, arugula) and with spices and tomato on bruschetta. It melts well, and can be used in risotto or on polenta.


title: Torus mandibularis

text: Torus mandibularis is a bony growth in the mandible along the surface nearest to the tongue. Mandibular tori are usually present near the premolars and above the location of the mylohyoid muscle's attachment to the mandible. In 90% of cases, there is a torus on both the left and right sides.


title: Torus mandibularis

text: The prevalence of mandibular tori ranges from 5-40%. It is less common than bony growths occurring on the palate, known as torus palatinus. Mandibular tori are more common in Asian and Inuit populations, and slightly more common in males. In the United States, the prevalence is 7-10% of the population.


title: Torus mandibularis

text: It is believed that mandibular tori are caused by several factors. They are more common in early adulthood and are associated with bruxism. The size of the tori may fluctuate throughout life, and in some cases the tori can be large enough to touch each other in the midline of mouth. Consequently, it is believed that mandibular tori are the result of local stresses and not due solely to genetic influences.


title: Torus mandibularis

text: Mandibular tori are usually a clinical finding with no treatment necessary. It is possible for ulcers to form in the area of the tori due to trauma. The tori may also complicate the fabrication of dentures. If removal of the tori is needed, surgery can be done to reduce the amount of bone, but the tori may reform in cases where nearby teeth still receive local stresses.


title: Axel jump

text: The Axel jump, also called the Axel Paulsen jump for its creator, Norwegian figure skater Axel Paulsen, is an edge jump in the sport of figure skating. It is figure skating's oldest and most difficult jump. It is the only competition jump that begins with a forward takeoff, which makes it the easiest jump to identify. A double or triple Axel is required in both the short programs and free skating programs for junior and senior single skaters in all International Skating Union (ISU) competitions.


title: Axel jump

text: According to "The New York Times", the triple Axel "has become more common for male skaters" to perform. As of 2021, nineteen women have successfully completed the triple Axel in competition. The quadruple Axel was successfully completed in competition for the first time in 2022, but has not been accomplished by a female skater. The Axel has an extra half rotation, which, as figure skating expert Hannah Robbins states, makes a triple Axel "more a quadruple jump than a triple".


title: Axel jump

text: The Axel jump, also called the Axel Paulsen jump for its creator, Norwegian figure skater Axel Paulsen, is an edge jump in the sport of figure skating. Figure skating historian James Hines calls the Axel "figure skating's most difficult jump". It is the only competition jump that begins with a forward takeoff, which makes it the easiest jump to identify. Skaters will often perform a double or triple Axel, followed by a simpler jump, during combination jumps. A double or triple Axel is required in both the short programs and free skating programs for junior and senior single skaters in all International Skating Union (ISU) competitions. The Axel jump is the most studied jump in figure skating.


title: Axel jump

text: In competitions, points are awarded based on the number of rotations completed during the jump. The base value of a single Axel is 1.10, a double Axel 3.30, a triple Axel 8.00, and a quadruple Axel 12.50.


title: Axel jump

text: The first skater to accomplish an Axel was its creator, Axel Paulsen, in 1882 at the first international figure skating competition, which was held in Vienna. Hines, who called Paulsen "progressive" for inventing it, stated that he did it "as a special figure". By the mid-1920s, the Axel was the only jump that was not being doubled. Professional German skater Charlotte Oelschlägel, during the early 1900s, was the first woman to include an Axel in her programs; Hines reported that she would terminate the Axel with her "famous fade-away ending", the Charlotte spiral, a move she invented. In the early 1920s, Sonja Henie from Norway was the first female skater to perform an Axel in competition. Hines also reports that in the 1930s, Austrian skater Felix Kaspar, who was known for his athleticism, performed Axels that were four feet high and 20 feet from takeoff to landing; Hines stated that "there is little doubt in the minds of those who saw him that had the technique then been known, he probably could have easily performed triple or even quadruple jumps".


title: Axel jump

text: American Dick Button was the first skater to complete a double Axel in competition, at the 1948 Winter Olympic Games. American Carol Heiss was the first woman to perform a double Axel, in 1953.


title: Axel jump

text: The first triple Axel in competition was performed by Canadian Vern Taylor at the 1978 World Championships. The first male skater to complete a triple Axel during the Olympics was Canadian skater Brian Orser in 1984. The first female skater to perform a triple Axel in competition was Japanese skater Midori Ito at a regional competition in the Aichi Prefecture of Japan in 1988; she was then the first woman to land it in an international competition, at the 1988 NHK Trophy. Ito was also the first female skater to land it at the Olympics, in 1992. The first throw triple Axel was performed by American pair skaters Rena Inoue and John Baldwin, at the 2006 U.S. National Championships. They are also the first couple to perform a throw triple Axel at the Olympics and international competition, in 2006.


title: Axel jump

text: American skater Ilia Malinin was the first skater to successfully complete a quadruple Axel in competition at the 2022 CS U.S. Classic.


title: Axel jump

text: According to "The New York Times", the triple Axel "has become more common for male skaters" to perform. Since Japanese skater Midori Ito became the first female skater to land it in 1988, multiple other women have landed it in competition. Only five women have completed the triple Axel during an Olympic program: Ito in 1992 (FS), Japanese skater Mao Asada in 2010 (SP and FS) and 2014 (FS), American skater Mirai Nagasu in 2018 (team FS), Russian skater Kamila Valieva in 2022 (team SP) and Japanese skater Wakaba Higuchi in 2022 (SP and FS). As of October 2020, twelve women have successfully completed the triple Axel in international competition.


title: Axel jump

text: The Axel is an edge jump, which means that the skater must spring into the air from bent knees. It is the oldest but most difficult figure skating jump. A "lead-up" to the Axel is the waltz jump, a half-revolution jump and the first jump that skaters learn. The Axel has three phases: the entrance phase (which ends with the takeoff), the flight phase, when the skater rotates into the air, and the landing phase, which begins when the skater's blade hits the ice and ends when they are "safely skating backwards on the full outside edge with one leg behind in the air". According to researcher Anna Mazurkiewicz and her colleagues, the most important parts of the entrance phase is the transition phase (also called the pre-takeoff phase) and the takeoff itself. The jump has a forward takeoff, approached with a series of backward crossovers in either the opposite or the same direction to the jump's rotation, followed by a step forward onto the forward outside takeoff edge.


title: Axel jump

text: The skater must also approach the jump typically from the left forward outside edge of the skate, enabling them to step forward. The skater then kicks through with their free leg, helping them to jump into the air. The skater must land on the right back outside edge of the skate. The change in foot required to complete the Axel means that the skater's centre of gravity must be transferred from the left side to the right, while rotating in the air, to reach the correct position to land. As a result, the Axel has an extra half-rotation, which, as figure skating expert Hannah Robbins states, "makes a triple Axel more a quadruple jump than a triple": the single Axel consists of one-and-a-half revolutions, the double Axel consists of two-and-half revolutions, and the triple Axel consists of three-and-a-half revolutions.


title: Axel jump

text: Sports reporter Nora Princiotti states, about the triple Axel, "It takes incredible strength and body control for a skater to get enough height and to get into the jump fast enough to complete all the rotations before landing with a strong enough base to absorb the force generated". According to American skater Mirai Nagasu, "falling on the triple Axel is really brutal". It has been shown that the more skilled skaters have greater takeoff velocities and jump lengths. When skaters perform double Axels, they exhibit greater rotations during the flight phase, take off in more closed positions, and attain greater rotational velocities than when performing single Axels. They also increase their turns not by increasing the time in the air, but by increasing their rotational velocity when performing single, double, and triple Axels. According to researcher D.L. King, the key to executing a successful triple Axel is "achieving a high rotational velocity by generating angular momentum at take-off and minimising the moment of inertia about the spin axis".


title: Iflix

text: WeTV iflix, or simply iflix, is a Malaysian free and subscription video on demand (VOD) service focused on emerging markets. Its global headquarters are in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. The site serves as a digital hosting and distribution platform for Western, Asian regional and local TV shows and films obtained through partnerships with over 150 studios and content distributors globally.


title: Iflix

text: Iflix is currently available in four countries across Asia including Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines and Vietnam. As of April 2020, Iflix has more than 25 million active users on its service, with over 2.5 billion minutes viewed in a month.


title: Iflix

text: Iflix was founded by Patrick Grove, CEO of Catcha Group, Mark Britt and Evolution Media, a merchant bank focused on the media, sports, and entertainment industries. Iflix was created for the rapidly growing, emerging middle-class population and their increasing demand for entertainment content. The company set out to address a certain set of conditions, which tend to exist universally across emerging markets – prevalence of piracy, inconsistent infrastructure, inconsistent quality and distribution of internet connectivity, expensive and limited mobile data, low paid television penetration, low credit-card penetration and a lack of familiarity with online payment options – through technology and commercial partnerships.


title: Iflix

text: In April 2015, Iflix announced the completion of a $30 million round of funding, led by international investment firm Catcha Group and telecommunications company Philippine Long Distance Telephone Company (PLDT). The company launched its service in Malaysia and the Philippines one month later, where they also announced the formation of its advisory board, composed of Hollywood business and creative leaders. By July, Iflix recorded over 100,000 subscribers, becoming Southeast Asia's fastest growing Internet TV service. Within the 12-week trial phase of its official launch in Thailand in November, Iflix drew close to 200,000 subscribers.


title: Iflix

text: In March 2016, Iflix attracted a $45-million investment from European pay-TV giant Sky plc, with Indonesian firm Elang Mahkota Teknologi (Emtek) through its subsidiary, Surya Citra Media (SCM) join the investment. In June, Iflix announced its official launch in Indonesia and in August 2016, Iflix announced its official launch in Sri Lanka. It announced its official launch in Brunei on September, and the Maldives in November.


title: Iflix

text: In February 2017, Iflix announced its official launch in Vietnam. That same month the company announced a joint venture with Zain, leading telecommunications group in the Middle East and Africa, establishing Iflix Arabia.


title: Iflix

text: In April 2017, Iflix went live in eight countries in the MENA region. and in October 2017, Iflix launched in Nepal.


title: Iflix

text: In June 2017, Iflix announced the establishment of Iflix Africa. Iflix Africa is headquartered in Cape Town, South Africa and trades commercially as 'Iflix', with launches in Nigeria, Kenya and Ghana, Sudan and Zimbabwe.


title: Iflix

text: Iflix launched in Bangladesh in November 2017. Robi and Airtel customers get one year free access upon signing up.


title: Iflix

text: Iflix launched its own creative production business for short-form video content Studio2:15 in March 2018, its first production was "Cupid Co." in April 2018.


title: Iflix

text: Iflix exited Sub-Saharan Africa in December 2018 and sold their stake in the joint-venture to Econet Media to focus on their Asian markets.


title: Iflix

text: In June 2020, Tencent (owner of Tencent Video/WeTV) acquired Iflix’s "content, technology, and resources" in order to grow its presence in the Southeast Asian market.


title: Iflix

text: Iflix was co-founded by Mark Britt, who served as executive director, and Patrick Grove, who served as chairman.


title: Iflix

text: In October 2016, Marc Barnett joined the Iflix Group as chief operating officer. In November 2019, Mark Britt stepped down as group CEO of the company and Marc Barnett was promoted to the role.


title: Iflix

text: In January 2017, former head of technology for all of Walt Disney's businesses outside of the United States, Emmanuel Frenehard, joined Iflix as chief technology officer of Iflix Group.


title: Iflix

text: In March 2017, former VP, Global Television at Netflix Sean Carey was appointed the new Chief Content Officer, in place of James Bridges.


title: Iflix

text: In September 2017, the company appointed Sky PLC executive, Anil Jhingan as Chief Financial and Commercial Officer.


title: Iflix

text: In March 2018, Iflix appointed digital media trailblazer Craig Galvin to become the head of the company's creative production business for short-form video content, Studio2:15.


title: Iflix

text: On 9 April 2020, Iflix's Chairman Patrick Grove and Iflix's co-founder Luke Elliott resigned from the company board.


title: Iflix

text: Similar to Grab in the transport front in terms of focus market and content, Iflix's content strategy focuses on first-run local movies and original programming. Iflix has greenlit a number of projects which underpin this strategy and support home-grown talent. The emphasis on localisation includes dubbing and sub-titling content, as well as engaging local content creators to produce compelling local stories through their work.


title: Iflix

text: The company says it is an alternative that is better, safer and more convenient than piracy, and that it further respects local cultural and religious standards and preferences in each market with a strategy to build and support the industry ecosystem, to generate jobs in the creative field.


title: Iflix

text: After the acquisition in 2020, iflix and WeTV of Tencent have shared licensed and original content across two streaming platforms. The collaborations get referred to as "WeTV iflix". Both of the platforms still operate autonomously with shared strategies.


title: Iflix

text: Iflix works with selected studios and telecommunications companies both regionally and worldwide, having partnerships with PLDT Group for commercial distribution and the landmark content partnerships with a number of Hollywood's studios; including The Walt Disney Company, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM), Paramount Pictures, Warner Bros, Fox, and Starz. It also announced together with Vimond Media Solutions, which plans to establish a jointly operated development centre in Kuala Lumpur.


title: Iflix

text: In August 2015, Iflix announced that MGM, had become an investor in the business. MGM's chairman and chief executive officer Gary Barber sits on iflix's advisory board and the companies' extensive multi-year content licensing partnership.


title: Iflix

text: In September 2015, Iflix entered into an agreement with Malaysian telecommunications giant, Digi Telecommunication Sdn Bhd (Digi) to provide Iflix's service to Digi customers in Malaysia.


title: Iflix

text: In December 2015, Iflix announced partnerships in Malaysia and the Philippines with leading telecommunications providers, Smart Communications (Smart) and Philippine Long Distance Telephone Company (PLDT) in the Philippines and Telekom Malaysia (TM) in Malaysia. Iflix will provide its service to over 70 million Smart and PLDT HOME customers in the Philippines for free. In conjunction with Telekom Malaysia (TM), all TM Unifi and select Streamyx customers are offered a free 12-month iflix subscriptions.


title: Iflix

text: In April 2016, Iflix announced partnership with leading telecommunications services company in Indonesia, Telkom Indonesia, and Indonesian network provider Indosat Ooredoo. On 18 November, iflix launched its services in the Maldives in collaboration with the flagship telecommunication services provider in the country, Dhiraagu. In September 2017, iflix entered Bangladeshi market through the partnership with the third leading telecommunication service provider of the country, Robi.


title: Iflix

text: In February 2017, Iflix announced a joint venture with Zain, leading telecommunications group in the Middle East and Africa, establishing Iflix Arabia.


title: Iflix

text: In January 2018, Iflix announced a joint venture with Football Malaysia LLP to develop and produce new content formats, competitions and live stream matches, including Liga Super, Piala Malaysia, marquee Piala FA and selected Liga Premier matches on a dedicated "Football Malaysia on Iflix" channel.


title: Iflix

text: In March 2021, Iflix announced a joint venture with ABS-CBN Entertainment, to give global viewers a taste of Philippine entertainment first before it gets broadcast on free TV.


title: Iflix

text: Several notable celebrities have invested in Iflix. In July 2015, Malaysian actress Maya Karin and TV host Sazzy Falak joined Iflix as ambassadors and shareholders.


title: Iflix

text: In November of the same year, Iflix welcomed Philippine celebrities Iza Calzado, Jasmine Curtis-Smith, Ruffa Gutierrez, Raymond Gutierrez, Richard Gutierrez, JM Rodriguez and Karylle Tatlonghari-Yuzon as partners in the business.


title: Iflix

text: Thai celebrities; including actresses 'Jieb' Sopidnapa Chumpanee and 'Aom' Phiyada Akkraseranee, 'Jeab' Lalana Kongtoranin, Note Panayanggool and 'Paule' Ponphan Sittinawawit also joined the company as both investors and advisors in the curation of new content for online viewers.


title: Iflix

text: In January 2018, Myanmar Academy Award-winning actress, Phway Phway, joined Iflix as a celebrity partner.


title: Iflix

text: In May 2017, Iflix streams Indonesia's Liga 1 and the Floyd Mayweather Jr. vs. Conor McGregor fight in Indonesia, and the 2017 T10 Cricket League in Bangladesh.


title: Iflix

text: A year later, Iflix launched the “Football Malaysia on Iflix” channel to live stream Malaysia Super League, Malaysia Cup, Malaysia Charity Cup, and marquee Malaysia FA Cup matches in Malaysia.


title: Iflix

text: In November 2018, Iflix shows all Indonesian Basketball League games live in Indonesia, via both iflix LIVE channels : tvOne (one game per series only) and Usee Prime.


title: Iflix

text: On 18 March 2019, iflix has launched a free-to-air sports linear channel, ZSports, across Malaysia, Brunei, Indonesia, Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, and Myanmar, via iflix LIVE.


title: Iflix

text: The ZSports launch coincides with the NCAA Division I Basketball Championships, also known as March Madness, where 68 American collegiate teams will compete in a single-elimination tournament over three weeks to become national champion. ZSports will feature live coverage of most games including the Final Four games, from 20 March as well as repeat broadcasts of select games.


title: Iflix

text: Additionally, ZSports provided viewers with over 1,000 hours of live sporting events a year, including NCAA basketball and football games, remaining National Hockey League’s regular season games, including playoffs and Stanley Cup, X Games and motorsports, as well as local and regional sporting events catering to both hardcore and casual fans. As of 2022, this channel is no longer available.


title: Iflix

text: In August 2017, Iflix launched Channels to showcase entertainment studios and brands, along with user'sʼ favourite content genres.


title: Iflix

text: The feature includes personalised onboarding, and recommendations based on user's preferences and viewing history.


title: Iflix

text: In August 2016, Iflix launched its 'Playlists' feature, consisting of curated playlists of film productions from over 150 celebrities in the Southeast Asia, as well as 'Collections' based on moods and popular themes. Notable celebrities on 'Playlists' include Afdlin Shauki, Amber Chia, Ashraf Sinclair, Michelle Ziudith and 'Ploy' Ployphan Taveerat.


title: Iflix

text: The service also offers the option of offline viewing to its members through its 'Download and Watch Offline' feature, where subscribers can download content with a Wi-Fi connection or with mobile data to their Android and IOS devices to watch when there is no connection. Content can be downloaded in either "low", "medium" or "high" quality formats.


title: Iflix

text: In March 2017, Iflix rolled out its service in HD, with all new shows published on the platform available in HD.


title: Iflix

text: In April 2018, Iflix CEO Mark Britt announced that they shift from its traditional subscription-only model into two tiers as part of its revamp, they named IflixFREE, IflixVIP and Iflix LIVE. The free tier is an ad-supported free service which features a curated Movie of the Day, premium short-form content, promotional episodes and pilots from premium TV series and movies, premium international and local TV series for free viewing and original programming. The VIP tier is a subscription-only service which includes premium access to hundreds of movies and TV shows from local and international countries. The company also announced that they will launching Iflix LIVE, a live hub which features live streaming of linear local over-the-air and Pay TV channels across both tiers.


title: Basis point

text: A basis point (often abbreviated as bp, often pronounced as "bip" or "beep") is one hundredth of 1 percentage point. The related term "permyriad" means one hundredth of 1 percent. Changes of interest rates are often stated in basis points. If an interest rate of 10% increased by 1 bp, it changed to 10.01%.


title: Basis point

text: Basis points are used as a convenient unit of measurement in contexts where percentage differences of less than 1% are discussed. The most common example is interest rates, where differences in interest rates of less than 1% per year are usually meaningful to talk about. For example, a difference of 0.10 percentage points is equivalent to a change of 10 basis points (e.g., a 4.67% rate increases by 10 basis points to 4.77%). In other words, an increase of 100 basis points means a rise by 1 percentage point.


title: Basis point

text: Like percentage points, basis points avoid the ambiguity between relative and absolute discussions about interest rates by dealing only with the absolute change in numeric value of a rate. For example, if a report says there has been a "1% increase" from a 10% interest rate, this could refer to an increase either from 10% to 10.1% (relative, 1% of 10%), or from 10% to 11% (absolute, 1% plus 10%). However, if the report says there has been a "100 basis point increase" from a 10% interest rate, then the interest rate of 10% has increased by 1.00% (the absolute change) to an 11% rate.


title: Basis point

text: It is common practice in the financial industry to use basis points to denote a rate change in a financial instrument, or the difference (spread) between two interest rates, including the yields of fixed-income securities.


title: Basis point

text: Since certain loans and bonds may commonly be quoted in relation to some index or underlying security, they will often be quoted as a spread over (or under) the index. For example, a loan that bears interest of 0.50% per annum above the London Interbank Offered Rate (LIBOR) is said to be 50 basis points over LIBOR, which is commonly expressed as "L+50bps" or simply "L+50".


title: Basis point

text: The term "basis point" has its origins in trading the "basis" or the spread between two interest rates. Since the basis is usually small, these are quoted multiplied up by 10,000, and hence a "full point" movement in the "basis" is a basis point. Contrast with pips in FX forward markets.


title: Basis point

text: A related concept is one part per ten thousand, . The same unit is also (rarely) called a permyriad, literally meaning "for (every) myriad (ten thousand)". If used interchangeably with basis point, the permyriad is potentially confusing because an increase of one basis point to a 10 basis point value is generally understood to mean an increase to 11 basis points; not an increase of one part in ten thousand, meaning an increase to 10.001 basis points. This is akin to the difference between percentage and percentage point.


title: Basis point

text: A permyriad is written with which looks like a percent sign with three zeroes to the right of the slash. (It can be regarded as a stylized form of the four zeros in the denominator of "", although it originates as a natural extension of the percent and permille signs.)


title: 2017–18 Golden State Warriors season

text: The 2017–18 Golden State Warriors season was the 72nd season of the franchise in the National Basketball Association (NBA), and its 56th in the San Francisco Bay Area. The Warriors entered the season as the defending NBA champions and repeated, beating the Cleveland Cavaliers 4–0 in the Finals. It was the first time in NBA history and in North America's four major professional sports leagues that two teams had met to compete for a Championship for a fourth consecutive year. It was the Warriors' third championship in four years, and sixth overall. Golden State won the Pacific Division title and Western Conference Championship for the fourth consecutive season. In the playoffs, the Warriors defeated the San Antonio Spurs in the First Round 4–1 and the New Orleans Pelicans 4–1 in the Semi-finals. They beat the top-seeded Houston Rockets 4–3 in the Western Conference Finals.


title: 2017–18 Golden State Warriors season

text: The Warriors finished second in the Western Conference with a record of , their fifth most wins in franchise history. Golden State set the NBA record of 16 consecutive home wins in the playoffs, surpassing the 1990–91 Chicago Bulls. Stephen Curry set the NBA record for three-pointers made in an NBA Finals game with nine. Stephen Curry, Kevin Durant, Draymond Green, and Klay Thompson were all named to the All-Star Game, the first time in NBA history that a team has had four All-Stars in consecutive seasons, and just the ninth time in NBA history a single team has had four players in the game. Curry was named captain, being the leading vote getter from the Western Conference. The Warriors ended the regular season with a slew of injuries to all four of their All-Stars, including an MCL sprain for Curry that kept him out for six weeks, and lost ten of their last seventeen games. For the first time since the 2013–14 season, they did not clinch first place for home-court advantage for the playoffs and failed to win 60 games for the first time under Steve Kerr. This season marked David West's final season in the NBA. He retired on August 30, 2018, having won two NBA championships with the Warriors.


title: 2017–18 Golden State Warriors season

text: The 2017 NBA draft was held on June 22, 2017, at the Barclays Center in Brooklyn. The Warriors didn't have a pick, but acquired the Chicago Bulls 38th pick in the second round for cash. They chose power forward Jordan Bell out of Oregon. After the draft, the team signed Bell's former Oregon teammate, Chris Boucher, to a two-way contract.


title: 2017–18 Golden State Warriors season

text: On July 1, 2017, Stephen Curry agreed to re-sign with Golden State on a super-max five-year/$201m deal. The Warriors also resigned Kevin Durant, and their veteran core of Shaun Livingston, David West, Andre Iguodala, Zaza Pachulia and JaVale McGee. Golden State also added Nick Young and Omri Casspi on one-year deals.


title: Bobby Fuller

text: Robert Gaston Fuller (October 22, 1942 – July 18, 1966) was an American rock singer, songwriter, and guitarist best known for "Let Her Dance" and his cover of the Crickets' "I Fought the Law" , recorded with his group The Bobby Fuller Four.


title: Bobby Fuller

text: Born in Baytown, Texas, Fuller was born in the middle of three boys, having a maternal older half-brother, Jack, and a younger brother, Randy. Fuller moved as a small child to Salt Lake City, Utah, where he remained until 1956, when he and his family moved to El Paso, Texas. His father got a job at El Paso Natural Gas at that time. It was the same year that Elvis Presley became popular, and Bobby Fuller became mesmerized by the new rock and roll star. Fuller soon adopted the style of fellow Texan Buddy Holly, fronting a four-man combo and often using original material.


title: Bobby Fuller

text: During the early 1960s, he played in clubs and bars in El Paso, and he recorded on independent record labels in Texas with a constantly changing line-up. The only constant band members were Fuller and his younger brother, Randy Fuller (born on January 29, 1944, in Hobbs, New Mexico) on bass. These independent releases (except two songs recorded at the studio of Norman Petty in Clovis), and an excursion to Yucca Records, also in New Mexico, were recorded in the Fullers' own home studio, with Fuller acting as the producer. He even built a primitive echo chamber in the back yard. The quality of the recordings, using a couple of microphones and a mixing board purchased from a local radio station, was so impressive that he offered the use of his "studio" to local acts for free so he could hone his production skills.


title: Bobby Fuller

text: Fuller moved to Los Angeles in 1964 with his band The Bobby Fuller Four and was signed to Mustang Records by producer Bob Keane, who was noted for discovering Ritchie Valens and producing many surf music groups. By this time, the group consisted of Fuller and his brother Randy on vocals/guitar and bass respectively, Jim Reese on guitar and DeWayne Quirico on drums. This lineup recorded "I Fought The Law". (There are actually two versions of "I Fought The Law" by Fuller, the original hit that was released as a 45-rpm single and the re-recording that was issued on an album. The arrangements are identical, but the vocals by Fuller are slightly different.)


title: Bobby Fuller

text: At a time when the British Invasion and folk rock were the dominant genres in rock, Fuller stuck to Buddy Holly's style of classic rock and roll with Tex Mex flourishes. His recordings, both covers and originals, also reveal the influences of Eddie Cochran, The Beatles, Elvis Presley, Little Richard, and The Everly Brothers, as well as surf guitar. Less well known was Fuller's ability to emulate the reverb-laden surf guitar of Dick Dale and The Ventures. His first Top 40 hit was the self-penned "Let Her Dance". His second hit, "I Fought the Law", peaked at No. 9 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 on March 12–19, 1966. The song was originally written and recorded by Sonny Curtis, who became a member of Buddy Holly's former group The Crickets after Holly's death. The group's third Top 40 single was a cover of Holly's "Love's Made a Fool of You".


title: Bobby Fuller

text: Within months of "I Fought the Law" becoming a top 10 hit, Fuller was found dead in an automobile parked outside his Hollywood apartment. The Los Angeles deputy medical examiner, Jerry Nelson, performed the autopsy. According to Dean Kuipers: "The report states that Bobby's face, chest, and side were covered in 'petechial hemorrhages,' probably caused by gasoline vapors and the summer heat. He found no bruises, no broken bones, no cuts. No evidence of beating." Kuipers further explains that boxes for "accident" and "suicide" were checked, but next to the boxes were question marks. Despite the official cause of death, some commentators believe Fuller was murdered.


title: Bobby Fuller

text: Erik Greene, a relative of Sam Cooke, has cited similarities in the deaths of Cooke and Fuller. Fuller's bandmate Jim Reese suspected that Charles Manson played a role in Fuller's death, but never provided credible evidence; Manson was in prison from 1961 to 1967. A sensationalist crime website has speculated that the Los Angeles Police Department may have been involved because of Fuller's connection to a Mafia-related woman.


title: Bobby Fuller

text: Fuller was buried at Forest Lawn Memorial Park in the Hollywood Hills of Los Angeles. His death was profiled in a segment of "Unsolved Mysteries".


title: Bobby Fuller

text: His death was also explored in the May 11, 2015 episode of the NPR program "All Things Considered." The program references the book "I Fought the Law: The Life and Strange Death of Bobby Fuller", by Miriam Linna, with contributions by Randy Fuller. Sometime after the "Unsolved Mysteries" segment in question initially aired, the cause of Fuller's death was officially changed from "suicide" to "accident".


title: Bobby Fuller

text: New York City Celtic rock band Black 47 released a song titled "Who Killed Bobby Fuller" on their second album, "Home of the Brave", in 1994, and Atlanta indie rock band The Rock*A*Teens released an identically titled song on their 1996 self-titled debut album. Lou Reed referenced both Bobby Fuller by name and "I Fought the Law" on the track "Dirt" from his 1978 album "Street Hassle", as did indie rock band Metric on their 2006 single "Monster Hospital". In 2013, producer and artist Terry Manning released a tribute album to his friend and mentor Bobby Fuller entitled "West Texas Skyline". In 2017, Chuck Prophet released an album titled "Bobby Fuller Died for Your Sins".


title: Paro Taktsang

text: Paro Taktsang (, also known as the Taktsang Palphug Monastery and the Tiger's Nest), is a sacred Vajrayana Himalayan Buddhist site located in the cliffside of the upper Paro valley in Bhutan. It is one of thirteen Tiger's Nest caves in historical Tibet in which Padmasambhava practiced and taught Vajrayana.


title: Paro Taktsang

text: A later monastery complex was built in 1692, around the "Taktsang Senge Samdup" cave, where Guru Padmasambhava meditated and practiced with students including Yeshe Tsogyal before departing the kingdom of Tibet in the early 9th century. Padmasambhava is credited with introducing Vajrayana Buddhism to Bhutan, which was then part of Tibet, and is the tutelary deity of the country. Today, Paro Taktsang is the best known of the thirteen "taktsang" or "tiger lair" caves in which he and his students meditated.


title: Paro Taktsang

text: The shrine dedicated to Padmasambhava, also known as "Gu-ru mTshan-brgyad Lhakhang" or "the Shrine of the Guru with Eight Names", refers to Padmasambhava's Eight Manifestations and is an elegant structure built around the cave in 1692 by Gyalse Tenzin Rabgye. It has become the cultural icon of Bhutan. A popular festival, known as the Tsechu, held in honor of Padmasambhava, is celebrated in the Paro valley sometime during March or April.


title: Paro Taktsang

text: According to the Namthar of the Lhakhang (related to this Taktsang or Tak-Tsang(which in Tibetan language which literally means "Tiger’s lair", it is believed that Padmasambhava (Guru Rinpoche) flew to this location from Singye Dzong on the back of a tigress. This place was consecrated to tame the Tiger demon.


title: Paro Taktsang

text: An alternative legend holds that a former wife of an emperor, willingly became a disciple of Guru Rinpoche (Padmasambahva) in Tibet. She transformed herself into a tigress and carried the Guru on her back from Tibet to the present location of the Taktsang in Bhutan. In one of the caves here, the Guru then performed meditation and emerged in eight incarnated forms (manifestations) and the place became holy. Subsequently, the place came to be known as the “Tiger's Nest”.


title: Paro Taktsang

text: The popular legend of the Taktsang monastery is further embellished with the story of Tenzin Rabgye, who built the temple here in 1692. It has been mentioned by authors that the 8th century guru Padmasmabhava had reincarnated again in the form of Tenzin Rabgye. The corroborative proofs mooted are: that Tenzin Rabgye was seen (by his friends) concurrently inside and outside his cave; even a small quantity of food was adequate to feed all visitors; no one was injured during worship (in spite of the approach track to the monastery being dangerous and slippery); and the people of the Paro valley saw in the sky various animal forms and religious symbols including a shower of flowers that appeared and also vanished in the air without touching the earth.


title: Paro Taktsang

text: As noted before, the monastery was built around the Taktsang Senge Samdup ("stag tshang seng ge bsam grub") cave, where custom holds that the Indian Guru Padmasambhava meditated in the 8th century. He flew to this place from Tibet on the back of Yeshe Tsogyal, whom he transformed into a flying tigress for the purpose and landed at the cliff, which he "anointed" as the place for building a monastery. He established Buddhism and the Nyingmapa school of Mahayana Buddhism in Bhutan, and has been considered the “protector saint of Bhutan”. Later, Padmasambhava visited Bumthang district to subdue a powerful deity offended by a local king. Padmasambhava's body imprint is stated to be imprinted on the wall of a cave near Kurje Lhakhang temple. In 853, Langchen Pelkyi Singye came to the cave to meditate and gave his name of Pelphug to the cave, "Pelkyi's cave". After he died later in Nepal, his body was said to have been miraculously returned to the monastery by the grace of the deity Dorje Legpa; it is now said to be sealed in a chorten in a room to the left at the top of the entrance stairway. The chorten was restored in 1982-83 and again in 2004.


title: Paro Taktsang

text: From the 11th century, many Tibetan saints and eminent figures came to Taktsang to meditate, including Milarepa (1040–1123), Pha Dampa Sangye (died 1117), the Tibetan yogini Machig Labdrön (1055–1145) and Thangton Gyelpo (1385–1464). In the latter part of the 12th century, the Lapa School was established in Paro. Between 12th and 17th centuries, many Lamas who came from Tibet established their monasteries in Bhutan.


title: Paro Taktsang

text: The first sanctuary to be built in the area dates to the 14th century when Sonam Gyeltshen, a Nyingmapa lama of the Kathogpa branch came from Tibet. The paintings he brought can still be faintly discerned on a rock above the principal building although there is no trace of the original one. The Taktsang Ugyen Tsemo complex, which was rebuilt after a fire in 1958 is said to date back to 1408. Taktsang remained under the authority of the Kathogpa lamas for centuries until the mid 17th century.


title: Paro Taktsang

text: In the 17th century the well-known Tertön Pema Lingpa of Bumthang, who founded many monasteries in various parts of Bhutan, was also instrumental in creating religious and secular dance forms from his conception of the 'Zandog Pelri' (the Copper Colored mountain), which was the abode of the Guru Padmasambahva (which is the same place as the Paro Taktsang or Tiger's nest). This dance is performed in Paro as the Tsche festival. But it was during the time of Ngawang Namgyal of the Drukpa subsect, who fled Tibet to escape persecution by the opposing sect of the Gelugpa order (which dominated Tibet under the Dalai Lamas), that an administrative mechanism was established in Bhutan.


title: Paro Taktsang

text: In due time, he established himself in Bhutan as a 'model of rulership' and was known as the "Shabdrung" with full authority. He wanted to establish an edifice at the Taktsang Pel Phuk site. It was during a Tibetan invasion of Bhutan in 1644-46 that Shabdrung and his Tibetan Nyingmapa teacher "gTer-ston Rig-’dzin sNying-po" had invoked Padmasambhava and the protective deities at Taktsang to give them success over the invaders. He performed the "bka’ brgyad dgongs ’dus" rituals associated with the celebrations of Tshechu. Bhutan won the war against Tibet However, Shabdrung was not able to build a temple at Takstsang to celebrate the event, even though he very much wanted to do so.


title: Paro Taktsang

text: The wish of Shabdrung to build a temple here, however, was fulfilled during the 4th Druk Desi Tenzin Rabgye (1638–96), the first, and only successor of Shabdrung Ngawang Namgyel ("Zhabs-drung Ngag-dbang rNam-rgyal"), "a distant cousin from a collateral line descending from the 15th century ‘crazy saint’ Drukpa Kunley". During his visit to the sacred cave of Taktsang Pel Phuk during the Tshechu season of 1692 he laid the foundation for building the temple dedicated to Guru Rinpoche called the ‘Temple of the Guru with Eight Names’ (’gu ru mtshan brgyad lha-khang). It was a decision taken by Tenzin Rabgye while standing at the cave overlooking the Paro valley. At this time, he was leading the Tshechu festival of religious dances. At that time the only temples reported to be in existence, at higher elevations, were the Zangdo Pelri ("Zongs mdog dPalri") and Ugyen Tsemo ("Urgyan rTse-mo").


title: Paro Taktsang

text: On April 19, 1998, a fire broke out in the main building of the monastery complex, which contained valuable paintings, artifacts and statues. The fire is believed to have been caused by electrical short-circuiting or flickering butter lamps lighting the hanging tapestries. A monk also died during the fire. The restoration works were undertaken at an estimated cost of 135 million ngultrum. The Government of Bhutan and the then King of Bhutan, Jigme Singye Wangchuck, oversaw the restoration of the damaged monastery and its contents in 2005.


title: Paro Taktsang

text: The monastery is located to the north of Paro and hangs on a precarious cliff at , about above the Paro valley, on the right side of the Paro Chu (‘chu’ Bhutanese means ”river or water”. The rock slopes are very steep (almost vertical) and the monastery buildings are built into the rock face. Though it looks formidable, the monastery complex has access from several directions, such as the northwest path through the forest, from the south along the path used by devotees, and from the north (access over the rocky plateau, which is called the “Hundred Thousand Fairies” known as Bumda (hBum-brag). A mule track leading to it passes through pine forest that is colorfully festooned with moss and prayer flags. On many days, clouds shroud the monastery and give an eerie feeling of remoteness.


title: Paro Taktsang

text: Near the beginning of the trail is a water-powered prayer wheel, set in motion by a flowing stream. The water that is touched by the wheel is said to become blessed and carries its purifying power into all life forms in the oceans and lakes that it feeds into. On the approach path to the monastery, there is a Lakhang (village level monastery) and a temple of Urgyan Tsemo ("U-rgyan rTse-mo") which, like the main monastery, is located on a rocky plateau with a precipitous projection of several hundred feet over the valley. From this location, the monastery's buildings are on the opposite ravine, which is known by the name “Copper-Colored Mountain Paradise of Padmasambhava”. This is the view point for visitors and there is a cafeteria to provide refreshments. The trek beyond this point is very scenic with the sound of the water fall breaking the silence. Along the trek route blue pine trees, prayer flags and kiosks selling paraphernalia for worship (such as prayer wheels, temple bells and skulls) are seen. The route is scattered with number of temples. On this path, a large water fall, which drops by into a sacred pool, is forded over by a bridge. The track terminates at the main monastery where colorful paintings are displayed. Guru Rinpoche's cave where he meditated is also seen. This cave is opened for public viewing only once a year.


title: Paro Taktsang

text: The monastery buildings consist of four main temples and residential shelters ideally designed by adapting to the rock (granite) ledges, the caves and the rocky terrain. Out of the eight caves, four are comparatively easy to access. The cave where Padmasmabhava first entered, riding the Tiger, is known as 'Tholu Phuk' and the original cave where he resided and did meditation is known as the 'Pel Phuk'. He directed the spiritually enlightened monks to build the monastery here. The monastery is so precariously perched that it is said: "it clings to the side of the mountain like a gecko". The main cave is entered through a narrow passage. The dark cave houses a dozen images of Bodhisattvas and butter lamps flicker in front of these idols. An elegant image of Chenrezig (Avalokitesvara) is also deified here. In an adjoining small cell, the sacred scripture is placed; the importance of this scripture is that it has been scripted with gold dust and the crushed bone powder of a divine Lama. It is also said that the monks who practice Vajrayana Buddhism (the formal State Religion of Bhutan) at this cave monastery live here for three years and seldom go down to the Paro valley.


title: Paro Taktsang

text: All the buildings are interconnected through steps and stairways made in rocks. There are a few rickety wooden bridges along the paths and stairways also to cross over. The temple at the highest level has a frieze of Buddha. Each building has a balcony, which provides lovely views of the scenic Paro valley down below. The Monasteries have ancient history of occupation by monks, as hermitages.


title: Paro Taktsang

text: Taktshang Zangdo Pari is the place where Padmasmbahava's wife, known as the “Fairy of Wisdom”, Yeshe Tshogyal (Ye-shes mtsho-rgyal), the founder of the Mon, a convent, by the same name as Taktshang and also two other convents. The present caretaker of the place is said to be an old nun supported by a young trainee.


title: Paro Taktsang

text: Another important place near the shrine is the Urgyan Tsemo, the “Peak of Urgyan” which has a small Mani Lakhang. The prayer wheel, turned by an old monk, resounds with chimes that are heard every day at 4 am. Above the Urgyan is the holy cave temple known as 'Phaphug Lakhang' ("dPal-phug IHa-khang"), which is the main shrine of the Taktshang. It is also the residence of the Head Lama, Karma Thupden Chokyi Nyenci.


title: Paro Taktsang

text: The “Copper-Coloured Mountain Paradise of Padmasambahva” (Zangdopari) is vividly displayed in a heart shape on every thangkha and also painted on the walls of the monastery as a constant reminder of the legend. The paintings are set on a pedestal that represents the realm of the King of Nagas amidst Dakinis (mKha-hgro-ma), and the pinnacle in the painting denotes the domain of Brahma. The paintings also depict Klu (Naga) demigods with a human head and the body of a serpent, which are said to reside in lakes (said to denote that they are guarding the hidden treasures). Allegorically, they mean to represent the spiritual holy writings. The paintings also show what is termed as “Walkers in the Sky” (mKha-hgro-ma).


title: Paro Taktsang

text: The holy hill is drawn in the backdrop with four faces painted with different colors – the east face is in crystal white color, the south face is yellow, the west is in red color and the north has green color. The palace has four sides and eight corners with its lower and upper tiers adorned with jewels. The courtyard with four enclosures is said to represent four kinds of conduct. The walls are built with bricks, balconies have been bejewelled with religious symbols. The ambience is shown in the form of wishing trees, fountains of the water of life, rain bows in five colors with cloud formations and light emanating from lotus flowers. The palace is also shown with a throne with eight corners fully and curiously bejewelled. Padmasmbahva is shown sitting on a pure stalk of lotus emitting divine energy appearing “divine, charitable, powerful, or fierce”.


title: Paro Taktsang

text: Further detailing depicted on the four faces and eight corners, are five kinds of Buddhas suppressing the vicious demons (performing four pious deeds) and placed on thrones that are mounted over the stooping demons. The demons and Khadoms are depicted adorned and seated on four petalled and four faced thrones “adorned with necromantic attributes” enjoying a good time; the Khadoms are seen on the four-sided courtyard of the palace and also on all side walls.


title: Paro Taktsang

text: The scene is further embellished around the Guru Rinpoche (Padmashambahava) image and also in the palace, with gods and goddesses in the heavens, with gate keepers at the four gates with an army of messengers and servants; all trying to crush the demons to dust. The supporting staff shown are said to represent the Himalayan tribes of pre-Buddhist periods.


title: Paro Taktsang

text: After the revision of visa policy of Bhutan in July 2022, it was decided that an entrance fee of 2,000 Nu will be levied for all adult visitors to Taktshang from September 23, 2022. Under the same revision, there will be special dates on the Bhutanese lunar calendar whereby only Bhutanese will be allowed to visit Taktshang.


title: Open educational resources

text: Open educational resources (OER) are teaching, learning, and research materials intentionally created and licensed to be free for the end user to own, share, and in most cases, modify. The term "OER" describes publicly accessible materials and resources for any user to use, re-mix, improve, and redistribute under some licenses. These are designed to reduce accessibility barriers by implementing best practices in teaching and to be adapted for local unique contexts.


title: Open educational resources

text: The development and promotion of open educational resources is often motivated by a desire to provide an alternative or enhanced educational paradigm.


title: Open educational resources

text: Open educational resources (OER) are part of a "range of processes" employed by researchers and educators to broaden access to scholarly and creative conversations. Although working definitions of the term OER may vary somewhat based on the context of their use, the 2019 definition provided by UNESCO provides shared language useful for shaping an understanding of the characteristics of OER. The 2019 UNESCO definition describes OER as "teaching, learning and research materials that make use of appropriate tools, such as open licensing, to permit their free reuse, continuous improvement and repurposing by others for educational purposes."


title: Open educational resources

text: While collaboration, sharing, and openness have "been an ongoing feature of educational" and research practices "past and present", the term "OER" was first coined to describe associated resources at UNESCO's 2002 Forum on Open Courseware, which determined that "Open Educational Resources (OER) are learning, teaching and research materials in any format and medium that reside in the public domain or are under copyright that have been released under an open license, that permit no-cost access, re-use, re-purpose, adaptation and redistribution by others."


title: Open educational resources

text: Often cited is the 2007 report to the William and Flora Hewlett Foundation which defined OER as "teaching, learning, and research resources that reside in the public domain or have been released under an intellectual property license that permits their free use or re-purposing by others. Open educational resources include full courses, course materials, modules, textbooks, streaming videos, tests, software, and any other tools, materials, or techniques used to support access to knowledge." The Foundation later updated its definition to describe OER as "teaching, learning and research materials in any medium digital or otherwise that reside in the public domain or have been released under an open license that permits no-cost access, use, adaptation and redistribution by others with no or limited restrictions." Of note in that definition is the explicit statement that OER can include both digital and non-digital resources, as well as the inclusion of several types of use that OER permit, inspired by 5R activities of OER. In a 2022 overview of the William and Flora Hewlett Foundation's activities supporting open education since 2002, the Foundation describes OER as "freely licensed, remixable learning resources", further including the Creative Commons definition of OER as "teaching, learning, and research materials that are either (a) in the public domain or (b) licensed in a manner that provides everyone with free and perpetual permission to engage in the 5R activities retaining, remixing, revising, reusing and redistributing the resources."


title: Open educational resources

text: The 5R activities/permissions mentioned in the definitions above were proposed by David Wiley, and include:


title: Open educational resources

text: Authors, creators, and communities may apply a range of licenses or descriptions such as those facilitated by Creative Commons or Local Contexts | TK Labels to their work to communicate to what extent they intend for downstream users to engage in the 5R activities or other collaborative research, creative and scholarly practices.


title: Open educational resources

text: The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) defines OER as: "digitised materials offered freely and openly for educators, students, and self-learners to use and reuse for teaching, learning, and research. OER includes learning content, software tools to develop, use, and distribute content, and implementation resources such as open licences". (This is the definition cited by Wikipedia's sister project, Wikiversity.) By way of comparison, the Commonwealth of Learning "has adopted the widest definition of Open Educational Resources (OER) as 'materials offered freely and openly to use and adapt for teaching, learning, development and research. The WikiEducator project suggests that OER refers "to educational resources (lesson plans, quizzes, syllabi, instructional modules, simulations, etc.) that are freely available for use, reuse, adaptation, and sharing'. Institutions emphasizing recognition of work with open educational resources in faculty promotion and tenure emphasize their use in research, scholarly and creative works as well.


title: Open educational resources

text: Given the diversity of users, creators and sponsors of open educational resources, it is not surprising to find a variety of use cases and requirements. For this reason, it may be as helpful to consider the differences between descriptions of open educational resources as it is to consider the descriptions themselves. One of several tensions in reaching a consensus description of OER (as found in the above definitions) is whether there should be explicit emphasis placed on specific technologies. For example, a video can be openly licensed and freely used without being a "streaming" video. A book can be openly licensed and freely used without being an "electronic" document. This technologically driven tension is deeply bound up with the discourse of open-source licensing. For more, see Licensing and Types of OER later in this article.


title: Open educational resources

text: There is also a tension between entities which find value in quantifying usage of OER and those which see such metrics as themselves being irrelevant to free and open resources. Those requiring metrics associated with OER are often those with economic investment in the technologies needed to access or provide electronic OER, those with economic interests potentially threatened by OER, or those requiring justification for the costs of implementing and maintaining the infrastructure or access to the freely available OER. While a semantic distinction can be made delineating the technologies used to access and host learning content from the content itself, these technologies are generally accepted as part of the collective of open educational resources.


title: Open educational resources

text: Since OER are intended to be available for a variety of educational purposes, some organizations using OER neither award degrees nor provide academic or administrative support to students seeking college credits towards a diploma from a degree granting accredited institution. However, many degree granting institutions have intentionally embraced the use of OER for research, teaching and learning, seeing their use and creation as in aligning with academic or institutional mission statements. In open education, there is an emerging effort by some accredited institutions to offer free certifications, or achievement badges, to document and acknowledge the accomplishments of participants.


title: Open educational resources

text: In order for educational resources to be OER, they must have an open license or otherwise communicate willingness for iterative reuse and/or modification. Many educational resources made available on the Internet are geared to allowing online access to digitised educational content, but the materials themselves are restrictively licensed. These restrictions may complicate the reuse and modification considered characteristic of OER. Often, this is not intentional, as educators and researchers may lack familiarity with copyright law in their own jurisdictions, never mind internationally. International law and national laws of nearly all nations, and certainly of those who have signed onto the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), restrict all content under strict copyright (unless the copyright owner specifically releases it under an open license). The Creative Commons license is a widely used licensing framework internationally used for OER.


title: Open educational resources

text: The term "learning object" was coined in 1994 by Wayne Hodgins and quickly gained currency among educators and instructional designers, popularizing the idea that digital materials can be designed to allow easy reuse in a wide range of teaching and learning situations.


title: Open educational resources

text: The OER movement originated from developments in open and distance learning (ODL) and in the wider context of a culture of open knowledge, open source, free sharing and peer collaboration, which emerged in the late 20th century. OER and Free/Libre Open Source Software (FLOSS), for instance, have many aspects in common, a connection first established in 1998 by David Wiley who coined the term "open content" and introduced the concept by analogy with open source. Richard Baraniuk made the same connection independently in 1999 with the founding of the first global OER initiative, Connexions (now called OpenStax CNX).


title: Open educational resources

text: The MIT OpenCourseWare project is credited for having sparked a global Open Educational Resources Movement after announcing in 2001 that it was going to put MIT's entire course catalog online and launching this project in 2002.


title: Open educational resources

text: Other contemporaneous OER projects include Connexions, which was launched by Richard Baraniuk in 1999 and showcased with MIT OpenCourseWare at the launch of the Creative Commons open licenses in 2002, and the NROC Project, launched by Gary W. Lopez in 2003 that developed the HippoCampus OER site and EdReady personalized learning platform.


title: Open educational resources

text: In a first manifestation of this movement, MIT entered a partnership with Utah State University, where assistant professor of instructional technology David Wiley set up a distributed peer support network for the OCW's content through voluntary, self-organizing communities of interest.


title: Open educational resources

text: The community college system was also an early participant in the movement. In 2004, the Sofia project was launched by the Foothill-De Anza Community College District with funding support from The William and Flora Hewlett Foundation. Content for eight community-college level courses was provided online for free, in what was termed an "open content initiative."


title: Open educational resources

text: The term "open educational resources" was first adopted at UNESCO's 2002 Forum on the Impact of Open Courseware for Higher Education in Developing Countries.


title: Open educational resources

text: In 2005 OECD's Centre for Educational Research and Innovation (CERI) launched a 20-month study to analyse and map the scale and scope of initiatives regarding "open educational resources" in terms of their purpose, content, and funding. The report "Giving Knowledge for Free: The Emergence of Open Educational Resources", published in May 2007, is the main output of the project, which involved a number of expert meetings in 2006.


title: Open educational resources

text: In September 2007, the Open Society Institute and the Shuttleworth Foundation convened a meeting in Cape Town to which thirty leading proponents of open education were invited to collaborate on the text of a manifesto. The Cape Town Open Education Declaration was released on 22 January 2008, urging governments and publishers to make publicly funded educational materials available at no charge via the internet.


title: Open educational resources

text: The global movement for OER culminated at the 1st World OER Congress convened in Paris on 20–22 June 2012 by UNESCO, COL and other partners. The resulting Paris OER Declaration (2012) reaffirmed the shared commitment of international organizations, governments, and institutions to promoting the open licensing and free sharing of publicly funded content, the development of national policies and strategies on OER, capacity-building, and open research. In 2018, the 2nd World OER Congress in Ljubljana, Slovenia, was co-organized by UNESCO and the Government of Slovenia. The 500 experts and national delegates from 111 countries adopted the Ljubljana OER Action Plan. It recommends 41 actions to mainstream open-licensed resources to achieve the 2030 Sustainable Development Goal 4 on "quality and lifelong education".


title: Open educational resources

text: An historical antecedent to consider is the pedagogy of artist Joseph Beuys and the founding of the Free International University for Creativity and Interdisciplinary Research in 1973. After co-creating with his students, in 1967, the German Student Party, Beuys was dismissed from his teaching post in 1972 at the Staatliche Kunstakademie Düsseldorf. The institution did not approve of the fact that he permitted 50 students who had been rejected from admission to study with him. The Free University became increasingly involved in political and radical actions calling for a revitalization and restructuring of educational systems.


title: Open educational resources

text: Open educational resources often involve issues relating to intellectual property rights. Traditional commercial educational materials, such as textbooks, are protected under conventional copyright terms. However, alternative and more flexible licensing options have become available as a result of the work of Creative Commons, a non-profit organization that provides ready-made licensing agreements that are less restrictive than the "all rights reserved" terms of standard international copyright. These new options have become a "critical infrastructure service for the OER movement." Another license, typically used by developers of OER software, is the GNU General Public License from the free and open-source software (FOSS) community. Open licensing allows uses of the materials that would not be easily permitted under copyright alone.


title: Open educational resources

text: Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) are free online courses available to anyone who wants to enroll. MOOCs offer a wide range of courses in many different subjects to allow people to learn in an affordable and easy manner.


title: Open educational resources

text: Types of open educational resources include full courses, course materials, modules, learning objects, open textbooks, openly licensed (often streamed) videos, tests, software, and other tools, materials, or techniques used to support access to knowledge. OER may be freely and openly available static resources, dynamic resources which change over time in the course of having knowledge seekers interacting with and updating them (such as this Wikipedia article), or a course or module with a combination of these resources.


title: Open educational resources

text: OER policies (also sometimes known as laws, regulations, strategies, guidelines, principles or tenets) are adopted by governments, institutions or organisations in support of the creation and use of open content, specifically open educational resources, and related open educational practices.


title: Open educational resources

text: The growing movement of OER has also fostered research activities on OER across the world, becoming "a mission-driven trend within the scientific literature". Mishra et al. (2022) found topics of research into OER included "open textbook, open online course, open courseware, open-source software related to open education, and open social learning." The Open Education Group suggests sorting research into four categories, called COUP Framework, based on the focus of research. Members of the Global OER Graduate Network (GO-GN) have enacted research responding to critiques of open education research as "under-theorized" and exploring the role of OER as well as open practices and processes in "embracing and foregrounding diversity, inclusion and equity."


title: Open educational resources

text: As part of the Open Education Group, Hilton (2016, 2019) reviewed studies on OER with the focus on Cost, Outcomes, and Perceptions, finding that most of the studies (e.g. Fischer, Hilton, Robinson, & Wiley, 2015; Lovett, Meyer, & Thille, 2008; Petrides, Jimes, Middleton-Detzner, Walling, & Wiess, 2011) had found that OER improve student learning while significantly reducing the cost of their educational resources (e.g. textbooks). He also found that perceptions of OER by faculty and students are generally positive (e.g. Allen & Seaman, 2014; Bliss, Hilton, Wiley, & Thanos, 2013).


title: Open educational resources

text: The approaches proposed in the COUP framework have also been used internationally (e.g. Pandra & Santosh, 2017; Afolabi, 2017), although contexts and OER use types vary across countries. The COUP Framework explores:


title: Open educational resources

text: Studies continue to emerge which investigate the usage of OER which contribute to understanding of how faculty and student use of OER (enabled by the permission given by an open license) contribute to student learning. For example, research from the Czech Republic has proved most students said they use OER as often as or more often than classical materials. Wikipedia is the most used resource. Availability, amount of information and easy orientation are the most value benefits of OER usage. (Petiška, 2018)


title: Open educational resources

text: A 2018 Charles University study presents that Wikipedia is the most used OER for students of environmental studies (used by 95% of students) and argues educational institutions should focus their attention on it (e.g. by hosting and supporting a Wikipedian in residence).


title: Open educational resources

text: To encourage more researchers to join in the field of OER, the Open Education Group has created an "OER Research Fellowship" program, which selects 15–30 doctoral students and early career researchers in North America (US and Canada).<ref name="https://openedgroup.org/fellowship"></ref> To date, more than 50 researchers have joined the program and conducted research on OER. The Open University in UK has run another program aimed at supporting doctoral students researching OER from any country in the world through their GO-GN network (Global OER Graduate Network). GO-GN provides its members with funding and networking opportunities as well as research support. Currently, more than 60 students are listed as its members.


title: Open educational resources

text: At every Institute and Universities level, each and everyone Student and Research scholar should aware of open educational resources and how to Implement the license should be educated and make all them to do hands on session


title: Open educational resources

text: OER have been used in educational contexts in a variety of ways, and researchers and practitioners have proposed different names for such practices. According to Wiley & Hilton (2018), the two popular terms used are "open pedagogy" and "open educational practices". What these two terms refer to is closely related to each other, often indistinguishable. For example, Weller (2013) defines open pedagogy as follows: "Open pedagogy makes use of this abundant, open content (such as open educational resources, videos, podcasts), but also places an emphasis on the network and the learner's connections within this". Open educational practices are defined as, for example, "a set of activities around instructional design and implementation of events and processes intended to support learning. They also include the creation, use and repurposing of Open Educational Resources (OER) and their adaptation to the contextual setting (the Open Educational Quality Initiative). Wiley & Hilton (2018) proposed a new term called "OER-enabled pedagogy", which is defined as "the set of teaching and learning practices that are only possible or practical in the context of the 5R permissions which are characteristic of OER", emphasizing the 5R permissions enabled by the use of open licenses.


title: Open educational resources

text: One of the most frequently cited benefits of OER is their potential to reduce costs. While OER seem well placed to bring down total expenditures, they are not cost-free. New OER can be assembled or simply reused or repurposed from existing open resources. This is a primary strength of OER and, as such, can produce major cost savings. OER need not be created from scratch. On the other hand, there are some costs in the assembly and adaptation process. And some OER must be created and produced originally at some time. While OER must be hosted and disseminated, and some require funding, OER development can take different routes, such as creation, adoption, adaptation and curation.


title: Open educational resources

text: Each of these models provides different cost structure and degree of cost-efficiency. Upfront costs in developing the OER infrastructure can be expensive, such as building the OER infrastructure. Butcher and Hoosen noted that "a key argument put forward by those who have written about the potential benefits of OER relates to its potential for saving cost or, at least, creating significant economic efficiencies. However, to date there has been limited presentation of concrete data to back up this assertion, which reduces the effectiveness of such arguments and opens the OER movement to justified academic criticism."


title: Open educational resources

text: A large part of the early work on open educational resources was funded by universities and foundations such as the William and Flora Hewlett Foundation, which was the main financial supporter of open educational resources in the early years and has spent more than $110 million in the 2002 to 2010 period, of which more than $14 million went to MIT. The Shuttleworth Foundation, which focuses on projects concerning collaborative content creation, has contributed as well. With the British government contributing £5.7m, institutional support has also been provided by the UK funding bodies JISC and HEFCE. The JISC/HEFCE UKOER Programme (Phase 3 from October 2011 – October 2012) was meant to build on sustainable procedure indicated in the first two phases eventually expanding in new directions that connect Open Educational Resources to other fields of work.


title: Open educational resources

text: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) is taking a leading role in "making countries aware of the potential of OER." The organisation has instigated debate on how to apply OERs in practice and chaired vivid discussions on this matter through its International Institute of Educational Planning (IIEP). Believing that OERs can widen access to quality education, particularly when shared by many countries and higher education institutions, UNESCO also champions OERs as a means of promoting access, equity and quality in the spirit of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. In 2012 the Paris OER Declaration was approved during the 2012 OER World Congress held at UNESCO's headquarters in Paris.


title: Open educational resources

text: As of 2022, many institutions of higher education provide a broad range of support for instructors and faculty incorporating open practices, including the adoption, modification and creation of OER. Support provided may include financial stipends, course release, instructional design assistance, research expertise and recognition in retention, promotion and tenure.


title: Open educational resources

text: SkillsCommons was developed in 2012 under the California State University Chancellor's Office and funded through the $2 billion U.S. Department of Labor's TAACCCT initiative. Led by Assistant Vice Chancellor, Gerard Hanley, and modeled after sister project, MERLOT, SkillsCommons open workforce development content was developed and vetted by 700 community colleges and other TAACCCT institutions across the United States. The SkillsCommons content exceeded two million downloads in September 2019 and at that time was considered to be the world's largest repository of open educational and workforce training materials.


title: Open educational resources

text: A parallel initiative, OpenStax CNX (formerly Connexions), came out of Rice University starting in 1999. In the beginning, the Connexions project focused on creating an open repository of user-generated content. In contrast to the OCW projects, content licenses are required to be open under a Creative Commons Attribution International 4.0 (CC BY) license. The hallmark of Connexions is the use of a custom XML format CNXML, designed to aid and enable mixing and reuse of the content.


title: Open educational resources

text: In 2012, OpenStax was created from the basis of the Connexions project. In contrast to user-generated content libraries, OpenStax hires subject matter experts to create college-level textbooks that are peer-reviewed, openly licensed, and available online for free. Like the content in OpenStax CNX, OpenStax books are available under Creative Commons CC BY licenses that allow users to reuse, remix, and redistribute content as long as they provide attribution. OpenStax's stated mission is to create professional grade textbooks for the highest-enrollment undergraduate college courses that are the same quality as traditional textbooks, but are adaptable and available free to students.


title: Open educational resources

text: Other initiatives derived from MIT OpenCourseWare are China Open Resources for Education and OpenCourseWare in Japan. The OpenCourseWare Consortium, founded in 2005 to extend the reach and impact of open course materials and foster new open course materials, counted more than 200 member institutions from around the world in 2009.


title: Open educational resources

text: OER Africa is an initiative established by the South African Institute for Distance Education (Saide) to play a leading role in driving the development and use of OER across all education sectors on the African continent. The OER4Schools project focusses on the use of Open Educational Resources in teacher education in sub-Saharan Africa.


title: Open educational resources

text: Wikiwijs (the Netherlands) was a program intended to promote the use of open educational resources (OER) in the Dutch education sector;


title: Open educational resources

text: The Open Educational Resources Programme (phases one and two) (United Kingdom) was funded by HEFCE, the UK Higher Education Academy and Joint Information Systems Committee (JISC), which has supported pilot projects and activities around the open release of learning resources, for free use and repurposing worldwide.


title: Open educational resources

text: In 2003, the ownership of Wikipedia and Wiktionary projects was transferred to the Wikimedia Foundation, a non-profit charitable organization whose goal is to collect and develop free educational content and to disseminate it effectively and globally. Wikipedia ranks in the top-ten most visited websites worldwide since 2007.


title: Open educational resources

text: OER Commons was spearheaded in 2007 by the Institute for the Study of Knowledge Management in Education (ISKME), a nonprofit education research institute dedicated to innovation in open education content and practices, as a way to aggregate, share, and promote open educational resources to educators, administrators, parents, and students. OER Commons also provides educators tools to align OER to the Common Core State Standards; to evaluate the quality of OER to OER Rubrics; and to contribute and share OERs with other teachers and learners worldwide. To further promote the sharing of these resources among educators, in 2008 ISKME launched the OER Commons Teacher Training Initiative, which focuses on advancing open educational practices and on building opportunities for systemic change in teaching and learning.


title: Open educational resources

text: One of the first OER resources for K-12 education is Curriki. A nonprofit organization, Curriki provides an Internet site for open-source curriculum (OSC) development, to provide universal access to free curricula and instructional materials for students up to the age of 18 (K-12). By applying the open source process to education, Curriki empowers educational professionals to become an active community in the creation of good curricula. Kim Jones serves as Curriki's Executive Director.


title: Open educational resources

text: In August 2006 WikiEducator was launched to provide a venue for planning education projects built on OER, creating and promoting open education resources (OERs), and networking towards funding proposals. Its Wikieducator's Learning4Content project builds skills in the use of MediaWiki and related free software technologies for mass collaboration in the authoring of free content and claims to be the world's largest wiki training project for education. By 30 June 2009 the project facilitated 86 workshops training 3,001 educators from 113 countries.


title: Open educational resources

text: Between 2006 and 2007, as a Transversal Action under the European eLearning Programme, the Open e-Learning Content Observatory Services (OLCOS) project carries out a set of activities that aim at fostering the creation, sharing and re-use of Open Educational Resources (OER) in Europe and beyond. The main result of OLCOS was a Roadmap, in order to provide decision makers with an overview


title: Open educational resources

text: Peer production has also been utilized in producing collaborative open education resources (OERs). Writing Commons, an international open textbook spearheaded by Joe Moxley at the University of South Florida, has evolved from a print textbook into a crowd-sourced resource for college writers around the world. Massive open online course (MOOC) platforms have also generated interest in building online eBooks. The Cultivating Change Community (CCMOOC) at the University of Minnesota is one such project founded entirely on a grassroots model to generate content. In 10 weeks, 150 authors contributed more than 50 chapters to the CCMOOC eBook and companion site.


title: Open educational resources

text: In 2011–12, academicians from the University of Mumbai, India, created an OER Portal with free resources on Micro Economics, Macro Economics, and Soft Skills available for global learners.


title: Open educational resources

text: Another project is the Free Education Initiative from the Saylor Foundation, which is currently more than 80% of the way towards its initial goal of providing 241 college-level courses across 13 subject areas. The Saylor Foundation makes use of university and college faculty members and subject experts to assist in this process, as well as to provide peer review of each course to ensure its quality. The foundation also supports the creation of new openly licensed materials where they are not already available as well as through its Open Textbook Challenge.


title: Open educational resources

text: In 2010 the University of Birmingham and the London School of Economics worked together on the HEA and JISC funded DELILA project, the main aim of the project was to release a small sample of open educational resources to support embedding digital and information literacy education into institutional teacher training courses accredited by the HEA including PGCerts and other CPD courses. One of the main barriers that the project found to sharing resources in information literacy was copyright that belonged to commercial database providers


title: Open educational resources

text: In 2006, the African Virtual University (AVU) released 73 modules of its Teacher Education Programs as open education resources to make the courses freely available for all. In 2010, the AVU developed the OER Repository which has contributed to increase the number of Africans that use, contextualize, share and disseminate the existing as well as future academic content. The online portal serves as a platform where the 219 modules of Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry, Biology, ICT in education, and teacher education professional courses are published. The modules are available in three different languages English, French, and Portuguese making the AVU the leading African institution in providing and using open education resources


title: Open educational resources

text: In August 2013, Tidewater Community College become the first college in the U.S. to create an Associate of Science degree based entirely on openly licensed content the "Z-Degree". The combined efforts of a 13-member faculty team, college staff and administration culminated when students enrolled in the first "z-courses" which are based solely on OER. The goals of this initiative were twofold: 1) to improve student success, and 2) to increase instructor effectiveness. Courses were stripped down to the Learning Outcomes and rebuilt using openly licensed content, reviewed and selected by the faculty developer based on its ability to facilitate student achievement of the objectives. The 21 z-courses that make up an associate of science degree in business administration were launched simultaneously across four campus locations. TCC is the 11th largest public two-year college in the nation, enrolling nearly 47,000 students annually.


title: Open educational resources

text: During this same period from 2013 to 2014, Northern Virginia Community College (NOVA) also created two zero-cost OER degree pathways: one an associate degree in General Studies, the other an associate degree in Social Science. One of the largest community colleges in the nation, NOVA serves around 75,000 students across six campuses. NOVA Online (formerly known as the Extended Learning Institute or ELI) is the centralized online learning hub for NOVA, and it was through ELI that NOVA launched their OER-Based General Education Project. Dr. Wm. Preston Davis, Director of Instructional Services at NOVA Online, led the ELI team of faculty, instructional designers and librarians on the project to create what NOVA calls "digital open" courses. During the planning phase, the team was careful to select core, high-enrollment courses that could impact as many students as possible, regardless of specific course of study. At the same time, the team looked beyond individual courses to create depth and quality around full pathways for students to earn an entire degree. From Fall 2013 to Fall 2016, more than 15,000 students had enrolled in NOVA OER courses yielding textbook cost savings of over 2 million dollars over the three-year period. Currently, NOVA is working to add a third OER degree pathway in Liberal Arts.


title: Open educational resources

text: Nordic OER is a Nordic network to promote open education and collaboration amongst stakeholders in all educational sectors. The network has members from all Nordic countries and facilitates discourse and dialogue on open education but also participates in projects and development programs. The network is supported by the Nordic OER project co-funded by Nordplus.


title: Open educational resources

text: In Norway the Norwegian Digital Learning Arena (NDLA) is a joint county enterprise offering open digital learning resources for upper secondary education. In addition to being a compilation of open educational resources, NDLA provides a range of other online tools for sharing and cooperation. At project startup in 2006, increased volume and diversity were seen as significant conditions for the introduction of free learning material in upper secondary education. The incentive was an amendment imposing the counties to provide free educational material, in print as well as digital, including digital hardware.


title: Open educational resources

text: In Sweden there is a growing interest in open publication and the sharing of educational resources but the pace of development is still slow. There are many questions to be dealt with in this area; for universities, academic management and teaching staff. Teachers in all educational sectors require support and guidance to be able to use OER pedagogically and with quality in focus. To realize the full potential of OER for students' learning it is not enough to make patchwork use of OER resources have to be put into context. Valuable teacher time should be used for contextual work and not simply for the creation of content. The aim of the project OER for learning OERSweden is to stimulate an open discussion about collaboration in infrastructural questions regarding open online knowledge sharing. A network of ten universities led by Karlstad University will arrange a series of open webinars during the project period focusing on the use and production of open educational resources. A virtual platform for Swedish OER initiatives and resources will also be developed. The project intends to focus in particular on how OER affects teacher trainers and decision makers. The objectives of the project are: To increase the level of national collaboration between universities and educational organisations in the use and production of OER, To find effective online methods to support teachers and students, in terms of quality, technology and retrievability of OER, To raise awareness for the potential of webinars as a tool for open online learning, To increase the level of collaboration between universities' support functions and foster national resource sharing, with a base in modern library and educational technology units, and To contribute to the creation of a national university structure for tagging, distribution and storage of OER.


title: Open educational resources

text: Founded in 2007, the CK-12 Foundation is a California-based non-profit organization whose stated mission is to reduce the cost of, and increase access to, K-12 education in the United States and worldwide. CK-12 provides free and fully customizable K-12 open educational resources aligned to state curriculum standards and tailored to meet student and teacher needs. The foundation's tools are used by 38,000 schools in the US, and additional international schools.


title: Open educational resources

text: LATIn Project brings a Collaborative Open Textbook Initiative for Higher Education tailored specifically for Latin America. This initiative encourages and supports local professors and authors to contribute with individual sections or chapters that could be assembled into customized books by the whole community. The created books are freely available to the students in an electronic format or could be legally printed at low cost because there is no license or fees to be paid for their distribution, since they are all released as OER with a Creative Commons CC-BY-SA license. This solution also contributes to the creation of customized textbooks where each professor could select the sections appropriate for their courses or could freely adapt existing sections to their needs. Also, the local professors will be the sink and source of the knowledge, contextualized to the Latin American Higher Education system.


title: Open educational resources

text: In 2014, the William and Flora Hewlett Foundation started funding the establishment of an OER World Map that documents OER initiatives around the world. Since 2015, the hbz and graphthinking GmbH develop the service with funding by the Hewlett Foundation. The first version of the website was launched in March 2015 and the website is continuously developing. The OER World Map invites people to enter a personal profile as well to add their organization, OER project or service to the database.


title: Open educational resources

text: In March 2015, Eliademy.com launched the crowdsourcing of OER courses under CC licence. The platform expects to collect 5000 courses during the first year that can be reused by teachers worldwide.


title: Open educational resources

text: In 2015, the University of Idaho Doceo Center launched open course content for K-12 schools, with the purpose of improving awareness of OER among K-12 educators. This was shortly followed by an Open Textbook Crash Course, which provides K-12 educators with basic knowledge about copyright, open licensing, and attribution. Results of these projects have been used to inform research into how to support K-12 educator OER adoption literacies and the diffusion of open practices.


title: Open educational resources

text: In 2015, the MGH Institute of Health Professions, with help from an Institute of Museum and Library Services Grant (#SP-02-14-0), launched the Open Access Course Reserves (OACR). With the idea that many college level courses rely on more than a single textbook to deliver information to students, the OACR is inspired by library courses reserves in that it supplies entire reading lists for typical courses. Faculty can find, create, and share reading lists of open access materials.


title: Open educational resources

text: Today, OER initiatives across the United States rely on individual college and university librarians to curate resources into lists on library content management systems called LibGuides.


title: Open educational resources

text: In response to COVID-19, the Principal Institute has partnered with Fieth Consulting, LLC, California State University's SkillsCommons and MERLOT to create a free online resource hub designed to help Administrators, Teachers, Students, and Families more effectively support teaching and learning online.


title: Open educational resources

text: Several universities of higher education, initiated OER : notable OER sites are Open Michigan, BCcampus Open Textbook collection, RMIT, Open access at Oxford University Press, Maryland Open Source Textbook (M.O.S.T.), OpenEd@UCL, OER initiative by the University of Edinburgh, etc. There were several initiatives taken by faculties of higher education, such as Affordability Counts by faculties across Florida state universities and colleges and Affordable Learning Georgia which is across public Georgian institutions. The North Dakota University System was appropriated funding from the North Dakota state legislature to train instructors to adopt OER and has a repository of OER.


title: Open educational resources

text: There were several initiatives taken by faculties of higher education, such as Affordability Counts by faculties across Florida state universities and colleges and also by individual faculties offering free textbooks affordable by initiating Green tea press


title: Open educational resources

text: High hopes have been voiced for OERs to alleviate the digital divide between the global North and the global South, and to make a contribution to the development of less advanced economies.


title: Open educational resources

text: With the advent of growing international awareness and implementation of open educational resources, a global OER logo was adopted for use in multiple languages by UNESCO. The design of the Global OER logo creates a common global visual idea, representing "subtle and explicit representations of the subjects and goals of OER". Its full explanation and recommendation of use is available from UNESCO.


title: Open educational resources

text: The OER movement has been accused of insularity and failure to connect globally: "OERs will not be able to help countries reach their educational goals unless awareness of their power and potential can rapidly be expanded beyond the communities of interest that they have already attracted."


title: Open educational resources

text: More fundamentally, doubts were cast on the altruistic motives typically claimed by OERs. The project itself was accused of imperialism because the economic, political, and cultural preferences of highly developed countries determine the creation and dissemination of knowledge that can be used by less-developed countries and may be a self-serving imposition.


title: Open educational resources

text: To counter the general dominance of OER from the developed countries, the Research on OER for development (ROER4D) research project, aims to study how OER can be produced in the global south (developing countries) which can meet the local needs of the institutions and people. It seeks to understand in what ways, and under what circumstances can the adoption of OER address the increasing demand for accessible, relevant, high-quality and affordable post-secondary education in the Global South.


title: Open educational resources

text: One of the sub-projects of Research on OER for development project aimed to work with teachers from government schools in Karnataka, to collaboratively create OER, including in the Kannada language spoken in the state. The aim was to create a model where teachers in public education systems (who number hundreds of thousands in most countries) can collaborate to create and publish OER.


title: Open educational resources

text: Within the open educational resources movement, the concept of OER is active. Consider, for example, the conceptions of gratis versus libre knowledge as found in the discourse about massive open online courses, which may offer free courses but charge for end-of-course awards or course verification certificates from commercial entities. A second example of essentially contested ideas in OER can be found in the usage of different OER logos which can be interpreted as indicating more or less allegiance to the notion of OER as a global movement.


title: Open educational resources

text: Stephen Downes has argued that, from a connectivist perspective, the production of OER is ironic because "in the final analysis, we cannot produce knowledge for people. Period. The people who are benefiting from these open education resource initiatives are the people who are producing these resources."


title: Smokey and the Bandit II

text: Smokey and the Bandit II is a 1980 American action comedy film directed by Hal Needham, and starring Burt Reynolds, Sally Field, Jerry Reed, Jackie Gleason and Dom DeLuise. The film is the sequel to the 1977 film "Smokey and the Bandit".


title: Smokey and the Bandit II

text: The film was originally released in the United Kingdom, New Zealand, Australia and several other, mainly Commonwealth, countries as Smokey and the Bandit Ride Again.


title: Smokey and the Bandit II

text: The plot centers on Bo "Bandit" Darville (Burt Reynolds) and Cledus "Snowman" Snow (Jerry Reed), transporting an elephant to the GOP National Convention, with Sheriff Buford T. Justice (Jackie Gleason) once again in hot pursuit.


title: Smokey and the Bandit II

text: Big Enos Burdette is in a literal mudslinging campaign against John Conn for Governor of Texas. After failing to get the outgoing governor's endorsement, Big Enos overhears him on the phone ordering a crate in Miami to be delivered in nine days to the Republican National Convention in Dallas. Burdette schemes to earn the governor's endorsement and have the crate delivered to the convention in his name and tracks down Cledus "Snowman" Snow and offers him and Bo "Bandit" Darville $200,000 to do the run. Cledus takes the Burdettes to Bandit to make the offer in person, but Bandit has become a heavy drinker since breaking up with Carrie ("Frog") and is drunk when the Burdettes arrive and double the payoff to $400,000. Cledus accepts on Bandit's behalf, but adds that Big Enos should give them half in advance, to which they agree. Cledus is ecstatic, but Bandit begins to miss Carrie.