text: On 2 February 1771 the office of Senior Naval Lord was renamed to First Naval Lord. The first post holder was Vice-Admiral Augustus Hervey; he first served under First Lord of the Admiralty John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich. In 1805, for the first time, specific functions were assigned to each of the 'Naval' Lords, who were described as 'Professional' Lords, leaving to the 'Civil' Lords the routine business of signing documents. On 2 May 1827 the Board of Admiralty once again ceased control of Naval Affairs and was replaced, until 1828, by a Lord High Admirals Council.


The title of the First Naval Lord was changed to First Sea Lord on the appointment of Sir Jackie Fisher in 1904. In 1917 the First Sea Lord was re-styled First Sea Lord and Chief of the Naval Staff. From 1923 onward, the First Sea Lord was a member of the Chiefs of Staff Committee, and from 1923 to 1959, in rotation with the representatives of the other services (the Chief of the Imperial General Staff and Chief of the Air Staff), he served as the chairman of that committee and head of all British armed forces. The title was retained when the Board of Admiralty was abolished in 1964 and the Board's functions were integrated into the Ministry of Defence.


title: First Sea Lord and Chief of the Naval Staff

text: Under the current organisation, the First Sea Lord sits on the Defence Council, the Admiralty Board and the Navy Board.


text: Since 2012, the flagship of the First Sea Lord has nominally been the ship of the line HMS "Victory", which used to be Lord Nelson's flagship.


text: The following table lists all those who have held the post of First Sea Lord or its preceding positions. Ranks and honours are as at the completion of their tenure:


text: In John Buchan's novel "The Thirty-Nine Steps" (1915), the First Sea Lord is named as Lord Alloa, an impostor whom Richard Hannay recognizes at a meeting as a spy and recent pursuer of his. Hannay describes Lord Alloa as recognizable from news pictures for his "beard cut like a spade, the firm fighting mouth, the blunt square nose, and the keen blue eyes...the man, they say, that made the New British Navy". The real First Sea Lord at the time the story is set (early summer 1914) was Prince Louis of Battenberg, coincidentally also bearded.


text: "H.M.S. Pinafore" (1878), the operetta by Gilbert and Sullivan, has Sir Joseph Porter KCB as First Sea Lord. The show written and first performed in the late 1870s might be referencing or lampooning as First Sea Lords Sir Alexander Milne (1872-76), Sir Hastings Yelverton (1876-77), or Sir George Wellesley (1877-79).


title: Goblin Market

text: Goblin Market (composed in April 1859 and published in 1862) is a narrative poem by Christina Rossetti. The poem tells the story of Laura and Lizzie who are tempted with fruit by goblin merchants. In a letter to her publisher, Rossetti claimed that the poem, which is interpreted frequently as having features of remarkably sexual imagery, was not meant for children. However, in public Rossetti often stated that the poem "was" intended for children, and went on to write many children's poems. When the poem appeared in her first volume of poetry, "Goblin Market and Other Poems", it was illustrated by her brother, the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood artist Dante Gabriel Rossetti.


title: Goblin Market

text: Although the sisters seem to be quite young, they live by themselves in a house, and draw water every evening from a stream. As the poem begins, the sisters hear the calls of the goblin merchants selling their fantastic fruits in the twilight. On this evening, Laura, intrigued by their strangeness, lingers at the stream after her sister goes home. (Rossetti hints that the "goblin men" resemble animals with faces like wombats or cats, and with tails.) Longing for the goblin fruits but having no money, the impulsive Laura offers to pay a lock of her hair and "a tear more rare than pearl."


title: Goblin Market

text: Laura gorges on the delicious fruit in a sort of bacchic frenzy. Once finished, she returns home in an ecstatic trance, carrying one of the seeds. At home, Laura tells her sister of the delights she indulged in, but Lizzie is "full of wise upbraidings," reminding Laura of Jeanie, another girl who partook of the goblin fruits, and then died at the beginning of winter after a long and pathetic decline. Strangely, no grass grows over Jeanie's grave. Laura dismisses her sister's worries, and plans to return the next night to get more fruits for herself and Lizzie. The sisters go to sleep in their shared bed.


title: Goblin Market

text: The next day, as Laura and Lizzie go about their housework, Laura dreamily longs for the coming meeting with the goblins. That evening, however, as she listens at the stream, Laura discovers to her horror that, although her sister still hears the goblins' chants and cries, she cannot.


title: Goblin Market

text: Unable to buy more of the forbidden fruit, Laura sickens and pines for it. As winter approaches, she withers and ages unnaturally, too weak to do her chores. One day she remembers the saved seed and plants it, but nothing grows.


title: Goblin Market

text: Months pass, and Lizzie realises that Laura is wasting to death. Lizzie resolves to buy some of the goblin fruit for Laura. Carrying a silver penny, Lizzie goes down to the brook and is greeted warmly by the goblins, who invite her to dine. But when the merchants realise that she has no intent to eat the fruit, and only intends to pay in silver, they attack, trying to feed her their fruits by force. Lizzie is drenched with the juice and pulp, but consumes none of it.


title: Goblin Market

text: Lizzie escapes and runs home, but when the dying Laura eats the pulp and juice from her body, the taste repulses rather than satisfies her, and she undergoes a terrifying paroxysm.


title: Goblin Market

text: By morning, however, Laura is fully restored to health. The last stanza attests that both Laura and Lizzie live to tell their children of the evils of the goblins' fruits, and the power of a bond between sisters.


title: Goblin Market

text: The poem has inspired disparate interpretations. James Antoniou wrote in his 2020 "Canberra Times" article that "while the sheer lusciousness of the goblins' 'sugar-baited words' undercuts the moral [of restraint and sisterly love], the strange contradictions of the story itself repel any easy allegorical readings."


title: Goblin Market

text: Critics in the late 1970s viewed the poem as an expression of Rossetti's feminist and homosexual politics. Some critics suggest the poem is about feminine sexuality and its relation to Victorian social mores. In addition to its clear allusions to Adam and Eve, forbidden fruit, and temptation, there is much in the poem that seems overtly sexual, such as when Lizzie, going to buy fruit from the goblins, considers her dead friend Jeanie, "Who should have been a bride; / But who for joys brides hope to have / Fell sick and died", and lines like, "She sucked their fruit globes fair or red"; and "Lizzie uttered not a word;/ Would not open lip from lip/ Lest they should cram a mouthful in;/ But laughed in heart to feel the drip/ Of juice that syruped all her face,/ And lodged in dimples of her chin,/ And streaked her neck which quaked like curd."


title: Goblin Market

text: The poem's attitude toward this temptation seems ambiguous, since the happy ending offers the possibility of redemption for Laura, while typical Victorian portrayals of the "fallen woman" ended in the fallen woman's death. Rossetti volunteered at Highgate Penitentiary for fallen women shortly after composing "Goblin Market" in the spring of 1859.


title: Goblin Market

text: Some critics believe that some feminist interpretations of the work leave out an anti-semitic nature within the poem. The critic Cynthia Scheinberg believes the Goblins to be "Hebraic", anti-semitic and anti-Judaic characters that the tested Christian sisters Laura and Lizzie must face in order to transition into wholesome and complete young women.


title: Goblin Market

text: Other critics focus not on gender but on the Victorian consciousness of a capitalist critique of the growing Victorian economic market, whether in relation to sisters' Lizzie and Laura's interaction with the market as gendered beings, the agricultural market, or in the rapid increase in advertising the "Market". When "Goblin Market" was released in April 1859, most Victorians weren't able to purchase fresh fruit, a historical note of importance when reading the poem for Victorian agriculture and tone.


title: Goblin Market

text: According to Antony Harrison of North Carolina State University, Jerome McGann reads the poem as a criticism of Victorian marriage markets and conveys "the need for an alternative social order". For Sandra Gilbert, the fruit represents Victorian women's exclusion from the world of art. Other scholars – most notably Herbert Tucker – view the poem as a critique on the rise of advertising in pre-capitalist England, with the goblins utilising clever marketing tactics to seduce Laura. J. Hartman, among others, has pointed out the parallels between Laura's experience and the experience of drug addiction. Another interpretation has observed an image of Jesus Christ in Lizzie when she says: "Eat me, drink me, love me." This is imagery used to identify Christ's sacrifice in communion services.


title: Goblin Market

text: The poem uses an irregular rhyme scheme, often using couplets or ABAB rhymes, but also repeating some rhymes many times in succession, or allowing long gaps between a word and its partner. The metre is also irregular, typically (though not always) keeping three or four stresses, in varying feet, per line. The lines below show the varied stress patterns, as well as an interior rhyme (grey/decay) picked up by the end-rhyme with "away". The initial line quoted here, "bright", rhymes with "night" a full seven lines earlier.


title: Hilbert curve

text: The Hilbert curve (also known as the Hilbert space-filling curve) is a continuous fractal space-filling curve first described by the German mathematician David Hilbert in 1891, as a variant of the space-filling Peano curves discovered by Giuseppe Peano in 1890.


title: Hilbert curve

text: Because it is space-filling, its Hausdorff dimension is 2 (precisely, its image is the unit square, whose dimension is 2 in any definition of dimension; its graph is a compact set homeomorphic to the closed unit interval, with Hausdorff dimension 2).


title: Hilbert curve

text: The Hilbert curve is constructed as a limit of piecewise linear curves. The length of the formula_1th curve is formula_2, i.e., the length grows exponentially with formula_1, even though each curve is contained in a square with area formula_4.


title: Hilbert curve

text: Both the true Hilbert curve and its discrete approximations are useful because they give a mapping between 1D and 2D space that preserves locality fairly well. This means that two data points which are close to each other in one-dimensional space are also close to each other after folding. The converse cannot always be true.


title: Hilbert curve

text: Because of this locality property, the Hilbert curve is widely used in computer science. For example, the range of IP addresses used by computers can be mapped into a picture using the Hilbert curve. Code to generate the image would map from 2D to 1D to find the color of each pixel, and the Hilbert curve is sometimes used because it keeps nearby IP addresses close to each other in the picture.


title: Hilbert curve

text: In an algorithm called Riemersma dithering, grayscale photograph can be converted to a dithered black-and-white image using thresholding, with the leftover amount from each pixel added to the next pixel along the Hilbert curve. Code to do this would map from 1D to 2D, and the Hilbert curve is sometimes used because it does not create the distracting patterns that would be visible to the eye if the order were simply left to right across each row of pixels. Hilbert curves in higher dimensions are an instance of a generalization of Gray codes, and are sometimes used for similar purposes, for similar reasons. For multidimensional databases, Hilbert order has been proposed to be used instead of Z order because it has better locality-preserving behavior. For example, Hilbert curves have been used to compress and accelerate R-tree indexes (see Hilbert R-tree). They have also been used to help compress data warehouses.


title: Hilbert curve

text: Given the variety of applications, it is useful to have algorithms to map in both directions. In many languages, these are better if implemented with iteration rather than recursion. The following C code performs the mappings in both directions, using iteration and bit operations rather than recursion. It assumes a square divided into "n" by "n" cells, for "n" a power of 2, with integer coordinates, with (0,0) in the lower left corner, ("n" − 1, "n" − 1) in the upper right corner, and a distance "d" that starts at 0 in the lower left corner and goes to formula_5 in the lower-right corner. This is different from the animation shown above where the curve starts from upper left corner and terminates at upper right corner.


title: Hilbert curve

text: These use the C conventions: the & symbol is a bitwise AND, the ^ symbol is a bitwise XOR, += is the addition/assignment operator (x += y is equivalent to x = x + y), and /= is the division/assignment operator. The handling of booleans in C means that in xy2d, the variable "rx" is set to 0 or 1 to match bit "s" of "x", and similarly for "ry".


title: Hilbert curve

text: The xy2d function works top down, starting with the most significant bits of "x" and "y", and building up the most significant bits of "d" first. The d2xy function works in the opposite order, starting with the least significant bits of "d", and building up "x" and "y" starting with the least significant bits. Both functions use the rotation function to rotate and flip the ("x","y") coordinate system appropriately.


title: Hilbert curve

text: The two mapping algorithms work in similar ways. The entire square is viewed as composed of 4 regions, arranged 2 by 2. Each region is composed of 4 smaller regions, and so on, for a number of levels. At level "s", each region is "s" by "s" cells. There is a single FOR loop that iterates through levels. On each iteration, an amount is added to "d" or to "x" and "y", determined by which of the 4 regions it is in at the current level. The current region out of the 4 is ("rx","ry"), where "rx" and "ry" are each 0 or 1. So it consumes 2 input bits, (either 2 from "d" or 1 each from "x" and "y"), and generates two output bits. It also calls the rotation function so that ("x","y") will be appropriate for the next level, on the next iteration. For xy2d, it starts at the top level of the entire square, and works its way down to the lowest level of individual cells. For d2xy, it starts at the bottom with cells, and works up to include the entire square.


title: Hilbert curve

text: It is possible to implement Hilbert curves efficiently even when the data space does not form a square. Moreover, there are several possible generalizations of Hilbert curves to higher dimensions.


title: Hilbert curve

text: Here, "F" means "draw forward", "+" means "turn left 90°", "-" means "turn right 90°" (see turtle graphics), and "A" and "B" are ignored during drawing.


title: Hilbert curve

text: The Hilbert Curve is commonly used among rendering images or videos. Common programs such as Blender and Cinema 4D use the Hilbert Curve to trace the objects, and render the scene.


title: Hamadryas baboon

text: The hamadryas baboon (Papio hamadryas ) is a species of baboon within the Old World monkey family. It is the northernmost of all the baboons, being native to the Horn of Africa and the southwestern region of the Arabian Peninsula. These regions provide habitats with the advantage for this species of fewer natural predators than central or southern Africa where other baboons reside. The hamadryas baboon was a sacred animal to the ancient Egyptians and appears in various roles in ancient Egyptian religion, hence its alternative name of 'sacred baboon'.


title: Hamadryas baboon

text: Apart from the striking sexual dimorphism (males are nearly twice as large as females, which is common to most baboons) this species also shows differences in coloration among adults. Adult males have a pronounced cape (mane and mantle), silver-white in color, which they develop around the age of ten, while the females are capeless and brown all over. Their faces range in color from reddish to tan to a dark brown.


title: Hamadryas baboon

text: Males may have a body measurement of up to and weigh ; females weigh and have a body length of . The tail adds a further to the length, and ends in a small tuft. Infants are very dark brown or black in coloration and lighten after about one year. Hamadryas baboons reach sexual maturity at about 4 years for females and between 5 to 7 years for males.


title: Hamadryas baboon

text: The Hamadryas baboon's range extends from the Red Sea in Eritrea to Ethiopia, Djibouti and Somalia. It is also native to the Sarawat Mountains of southwestern Arabia, in both Yemen and Saudi Arabia. It is locally extinct in Egypt. The hamadryas baboon lives in arid areas, savannas, and rocky areas, requiring cliffs for sleeping and finding water. Like all baboons, the hamadryas baboon is omnivorous and is adapted to its relatively dry habitat. During the wet seasons, the baboon feeds on a variety of foods, including blossoms, seeds, grasses, wild roots, bark and leaves from acacia trees. During the dry season, the baboons eat leaves of the "Dobera glabra" and sisal leaves. Hamadryas baboons also eat insects, spiders, worms, scorpions, reptiles, birds, and small mammals, including antelope.


title: Hamadryas baboon

text: The baboon's drinking activities also depend on the season. During the wet seasons, the baboon do not have to go far to find pools of water. During the dry seasons, they frequent up to three permanent waterholes. Baboons rest at the waterholes during midafternoon and also dig drinking holes only a short distance from natural waterholes.


title: Hamadryas baboon

text: The Hamadryas baboon has an unusual four-level social system called a multilevel society. Most social interaction occurs within small groups called one-male units or harems containing one male and up to 10 females, which the males lead and guard. A harem often includes a younger "follower" male that may be related to the leader. Two or more harems unite repeatedly to form clans. Within clans, males are close relatives of one another and have an age-related dominance hierarchy. Bands are the next level. Two to four clans form bands of up to 400 individuals which usually travel and sleep as a group. Males rarely leave their bands, and females are occasionally transferred or traded between bands by males. Bands may fight with one another over food or territory, and the adult male leaders of the units are the usual combatants. Bands also contain solitary males that are not harem leaders or followers and move freely within the band. Several bands may come together to form a troop, usually at sleeping cliffs.


title: Hamadryas baboon

text: The hamadryas baboon is unusual among baboon and macaque species in that its society is strictly patriarchal. The males limit the movements of the females, herding them with visual threats and grabbing or biting any that wander too far away. Males sometimes raid harems for females, resulting in aggressive fights. Many males succeed in taking a female from another's harem, called a "takeover". Visual threats are usually accompanied by these aggressive fights. This would include a quick flashing of the eyelids accompanied by a yawn to show off the teeth. As in many species, infant baboons are taken by the males as hostages during fights. However, males within the same clan tend to be related and respect the social bonds of their kin. In addition, females demonstrate definite preferences for certain males, and rival males heed these preferences. The less a female favors her harem males, the more likely she will be successfully taken by a rival. Young males, often "follower" males, may start their own harems by maneuvering immature females into following them. The male may also abduct a young female by force. Either way, the male will mate with the female when she matures. Aging males often lose their females to followers and soon lose weight and their hair color changes to brown like a female. While males in most other baboon species are transferred away from their male relatives and into different troops, male hamadryas baboons remain in their natal clans or bands and have associations with their male kin.


title: Hamadryas baboon

text: Hamadryas baboons have traditionally been thought of having a female transfer society with females being moved away from their relatives of the same sex. However, later studies show female baboons retain close associations with at least some female kin. Females can spend about as much time with other females as they do with the harem males, and some females will even interact with each other outside of their harems. In addition, it is not uncommon for females of the same natal group to end up in the same harem. Females can still associate and help their extended families despite their interactions being controlled by the harem males.


title: Hamadryas baboon

text: Females within a harem do not display any dominance relationships as seen in many other baboon and macaque species. The harem males suppress aggression between the females and prevent any dominance hierarchies from arising. Despite this, some social differences between the females occur. Some females are more socially active and have a stronger social bond with the harem male. These females, known as the "central females", stay in closer proximity to the harem male than the other females. Females that spend most of their time farther from the harem male are called "peripheral females".


title: Hamadryas baboon

text: Like other baboons, the hamadryas baboon breeds aseasonally. The dominant male of a one-male unit does most of the mating, though other males may occasionally sneak in copulations, as well. Females do most of the parenting. They nurse and groom the infant and one female in a unit may groom an infant that is not hers. Like all baboons, hamadryas baboons are intrigued by infants and give much attention to them. Dominant male baboons prevent other males from coming into close contact with their infants. They also protect the young from predators. The dominant male tolerates the young and will carry and play with them. When a new male takes over a female, she develops sexual swellings which may be an adaptation that functions to prevent the new male from killing the offspring of the previous male. When males reach puberty, they show a playful interest in young infants. They will kidnap the infants by luring them away from their harems and inviting them to ride on their backs. This is more often done by "follower" males. This kidnapping can lead to dehydration or starvation for the infant. The harem leader would retrieve the infants from their kidnappers, which is mostly an act to protect their offspring.


title: Hamadryas baboon

text: Because bipedalism is thought to help reduce thermoregulatory stress, research has investigated how baboons deal with water restriction and thermal loads as quadrupeds. Using implanted data loggers and simulated desert conditions, researchers found baboon internal temperatures increased significantly with water deprivation. When water was given to baboons, their internal temperatures dropped quickly. Therefore, it seems that access to water helps baboons maintain homeothermy and that water restrictions are a major threat to this species. However, baboons can maintain their plasma volume during water deprivation due to an increase in blood colloid osmotic pressure (COP). Hamadryas baboons do this by increasing albumin synthesis. This helps baboons retain fluids when their bodies are experiencing dehydration.


title: Hamadryas baboon

text: Hamadryas baboons often appear in ancient Egyptian art, as they were considered sacred to Thoth, a major and powerful deity with many roles that included being the scribe of the gods. Astennu, attendant to Thoth, is represented as a hamadryas in his roles as recorder of the result of the Weighing of the Heart and as one of the four hamadryas baboons guarding the lake of fire in Duat, the ancient Egyptian underworld. A predynastic precursor to Astennu was Babi, or "Bull of the Baboons", a bloodthirsty god said to eat the entrails of the unrighteous dead. Babi was also said to give the righteous dead continued virility, and to use his penis as the mast of a boat to convey them to the Egyptian paradise.


title: Hamadryas baboon

text: Sometimes, Thoth himself appears in the form of a hamadryas (often shown carrying the moon on his head), as an alternative to his more common representation as an ibis-headed figure. Hapi, one of the Four Sons of Horus that guarded the organs of the deceased in ancient Egyptian religion, is also represented as hamadryas-headed; Hapi protected the lungs, hence the common sculpting of a stone or clay hamadryas head as the lid of the canopic jar that held the lungs and/or represented the protection of the lungs. Hamadryas baboons were revered because certain behaviors that they perform were seen as worshiping the sun.


title: Hamadryas baboon

text: Transformation of field and pastureland represents the main threat to the hamadryas baboon; its only natural predators are the striped hyena, spotted hyena, and a diminishing number of African leopards that can still be found in the same area of distribution. The IUCN Red List listed this species as "least concern" in 2008. No major range-wide threats exist at present, although locally it may be at risk through loss of habitat due to major agricultural expansion and irrigation projects. The species occurs in the proposed Yangudi Rassa National Park, the Harar Wildlife Sanctuary, and a number of wildlife reserves in the lower Awash valley and in northern Eritrea.


title: Special Agent Oso

text: Special Agent Oso () is an American computer-animated children's television series. The series was created by Ford Riley. It premiered on April 4, 2009 with 2 episodes airing that day as part of Disney Channel's Playhouse Disney block, and aired two seasons of 60 episodes through May 17, 2012. After the original broadcast of the series finale on May 17, 2012, reruns continued to air until December 25, 2016. The series was made available on Disney+ on May 14, 2021.


title: Special Agent Oso

text: Each episode begins with Special Agent Oso in the midst of a training exercise, which he usually fails on his first try, causing him to say "It's all part of the plan more or less." Paw Pilot, his computerized assistant, alerts him by saying "Special Alert, Special Alert." Invariably, during the exercise, at least one child is confronted with a simple task which they have trouble completing, an event which a Shutterbug drone notices. Oso is always assigned to the case, and Paw Pilot, along with the seen unseen Mr. Dos, illustrates his client's plight and assigns him a mission to help the child complete the task. To do so, Paw Pilot provides Oso with "three special steps," a simplified step-by-step guide to completing the task. Oso is transported to the child's location and attempts to follow the steps as the steps, in and of themselves, are usually too vague to complete the task properly. Paw Pilot also gives further elaborations, including at least one helpful trick. On the third and final step, Paw Pilot senses the time limit on the task between 3 and 19 seconds and begins counting down when the time limit is near. Oso and the child usually complete the task, just as the time runs out.


title: Special Agent Oso

text: Returning from the assignment, the helpful trick given during the assignment always turns out to be the same trick Oso needed to complete the interrupted training exercise, which he likewise completes and passes, getting a "digi-medal," a digital award, for both the training exercise and the special assignment.


title: Special Agent Oso

text: The show has 60 episodes; 24 in the first season and 36 in the second. The episode names are usually references to the names of the "James Bond" films from Eon Productions, such as "The World Is Not Enough" and "The Man with the Golden Gun" but not a parody of them. Across its run, "Special Agent Oso" had at least one episode title that referenced each of the then-22 Bond films ("Skyfall" was still in development at the time the show concluded). Some episode titles also reference the Carly Simon song Nobody Does it Better, theme song to "The Spy Who Loved Me." One episode references the non-Eon film "Never Say Never Again". One episode also spoofs Another Way to Die, which is the theme song to "Quantum of Solace".


title: Special Agent Oso

text: "Special Agent Oso: Three Healthy Steps" is a short series that airs in the United States during the Disney Junior programming block. It encourages children to use "three healthy steps" regarding eating, being healthy and exercising.


title: Special Agent Oso

text: This series combined both animated characters and real life actors. The animated characters that are featured in the short series are Special Agent Oso, Paw Pilot, Special Agent Wolfie, Special Agent Dotty, and Professor Buffo.


title: Special Agent Oso

text: In episode 32 of season 2, Oso meets Handy Manny and they work together to help a kid named David fix his bicycle.


title: Special Agent Oso

text: The first season of "Special Agent Oso" premiered in the United States and United Kingdom on April 4, 2009, and aired through April 17, 2010; the second and final season premiered on July 10, 2010 and the series finale aired May 17, 2012. In season 2, new characters were introduced, Professor Buffo and Special Agent Musa. The show has a crossover with Handy Manny called "The Manny with the Golden Bear".


title: Religious views of Isaac Newton

text: Isaac Newton (4 January 1643 – 31 March 1727) was considered an insightful and erudite theologian by his Protestant contemporaries. He wrote many works that would now be classified as occult studies, and he wrote religious tracts that dealt with the literal interpretation of the Bible.


title: Religious views of Isaac Newton

text: Newton's conception of the physical world provided a model of the natural world that would reinforce stability and harmony in the civic world. Newton saw a monotheistic God as the masterful creator whose existence could not be denied in the face of the grandeur of all creation. Although born into an Anglican family, and a devout but unorthodox Christian, by his thirties Newton held a Christian faith that, had it been made public, would not have been considered orthodox by mainstream Christians. Scholars now consider him a Nontrinitarian Arian.


title: Religious views of Isaac Newton

text: Newton was born into an Anglican family three months after the death of his father, a prosperous farmer also named Isaac Newton. When Newton was three, his mother married the rector of the neighbouring parish of North Witham and went to live with her new husband, the Reverend Barnabus Smith, leaving her son in the care of his maternal grandmother, Margery Ayscough. Isaac apparently hated his step-father, and had nothing to do with Smith during his childhood. His maternal uncle, the rector serving the parish of Burton Coggles, was involved to some extent in the care of Isaac.


title: Religious views of Isaac Newton

text: In 1667, Newton became a Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, making necessary his commitment to taking Holy Orders within seven years of completing his MA, which he did the following year. He was also required to take a vow of celibacy and recognize the Thirty-Nine Articles of the Church of England. Newton considered ceasing his studies prior to completion to avoid the ordination made necessary by law of King Charles II. He was eventually successful in avoiding the statute, assisted in this by the efforts of Isaac Barrow, as in 1676 the then Secretary of State for the Northern Department, Joseph Williamson, changed the relevant statute of Trinity College to provide dispensation from this duty. Newton then embarked on an investigative study of the early history of the Church, which developed, during the 1680s, into inquiries about the origins of religion. At around the same time, he developed a scientific view on motion and matter. Of "Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica" he stated:


title: Religious views of Isaac Newton

text: According to most scholars, Newton was Arian, not holding to Trinitarianism. Scholars have generally concluded that Newton's heretical beliefs were self-taught, but he may have been influenced by then-current heretical writings; controversies over unitarianism were raging at the time.


title: Religious views of Isaac Newton

text: As well as rejecting the Trinity, Newton's studies led him to reject belief in the immortal soul, a personal devil, literal demons (spirits of the dead), and infant baptism. Although he was not a Socinian, he shared many similar beliefs with them. They were a unitarian Reformation movement in Poland. A manuscript he sent to John Locke in which he disputed the existence of the Trinity was never published. In 2019, John Rogers stated, "Heretics both, John Milton and Isaac Newton were, as most scholars now agree, Arians."


title: Religious views of Isaac Newton

text: After his death, Deists sometimes claimed him as one of their own, as have Trinitarians. In fact, he was a fundamentalist Christian who opposed both orthodox teachings and religious skepticism.


title: Religious views of Isaac Newton

text: Newton saw God as the masterful creator whose existence could not be denied in the face of the grandeur of all creation. Nevertheless, he rejected Leibniz's thesis that God would necessarily make a perfect world which requires no intervention from the creator. In Query 31 of the "Opticks", Newton simultaneously made an argument from design and for the necessity of intervention:


title: Religious views of Isaac Newton

text: Leibniz's letter initiated the Leibniz-Clarke correspondence, ostensibly with Newton's friend and disciple Samuel Clarke, although as Caroline wrote, Clarke's letters "are not written without the advice of the Chev. Newton".


title: Religious views of Isaac Newton

text: Clarke complained that Leibniz's concept of God as a "supra-mundane intelligence" who set up a "pre-established harmony" was but a step from atheism: "And as those men, who pretend that in an earthly government things may go on perfectly well without the king himself ordering or disposing of any thing, may reasonably be suspected that they would like very well to set the king aside: so, whosoever contends, that the beings of the world can go on without the continual direction of God...his doctrine does in effect tend to exclude God out of the world".


title: Religious views of Isaac Newton

text: In addition to stepping in to re-form the Solar System, Newton invoked God's active intervention to prevent the stars falling in on each other, and perhaps in preventing the amount of motion in the universe from decaying due to viscosity and friction. In private correspondence, Newton sometimes hinted that the force of gravity was due to an immaterial influence:


title: Religious views of Isaac Newton

text: Leibniz said that such an immaterial influence would be a continual miracle; this was another strand of his debate with Clarke.


title: Religious views of Isaac Newton

text: Newton's view has been considered to be close to deism, and several biographers and scholars labelled him as a deist who is strongly influenced by Christianity. However, he differed from strict adherents of deism in that he invoked God as a special physical cause to keep the planets in orbits. He warned against using the law of gravity to view the universe as a mere machine, like a great clock, saying:


title: Religious views of Isaac Newton

text: On the other hand, latitudinarian and Newtonian ideas taken too far resulted in the millenarians, a religious faction dedicated to the concept of a mechanical universe, but finding in it the same enthusiasm and mysticism that the Enlightenment had fought so hard to extinguish. Newton may have had some interest in millenarianism, as he wrote about both the Book of Daniel and the Book of Revelation in his Observations Upon the Prophecies.


title: Religious views of Isaac Newton

text: Newton's concept of the physical world provided a model of the natural world that would reinforce stability and harmony in the civic world.


title: Religious views of Isaac Newton

text: Newton spent a great deal of time trying to discover hidden messages within the Bible. After 1690, Newton wrote a number of religious tracts dealing with the literal interpretation of the Bible. In a manuscript Newton wrote in 1704, he describes his attempts to extract scientific information from the Bible. He estimated that the world would end no earlier than 2060. In predicting this, he said, "This I mention not to assert when the time of the end shall be, but to put a stop to the rash conjectures of fanciful men who are frequently predicting the time of the end, and by doing so bring the sacred prophesies into discredit as often as their predictions fail."


title: Religious views of Isaac Newton

text: The Library of Trinity College, Cambridge, holds in its collections Newton's personal copy of the King James Version, which exhibits numerous marginal notes in his hand as well as about 500 reader's marks pointing to passages of particular interest to him. A note is attached to the Bible, indicating that it "was given by Sir Isaac Newton in his last illness to the woman who nursed him". The book was eventually bequeathed to the Library in 1878. The places Newton marked or annotated in his Bible bear witness to his investigations into theology, chronology, alchemy, and natural philosophy; and some of these relate to passages of the "General Scholium" to the second edition of the "Principia". Some other passages he marked offer glimpses of his devotional practices and reveal distinct tensions in his personality. Newton's Bible appears to have been first and foremost a customized reference tool in the hands of a biblical scholar and critic.


title: Religious views of Isaac Newton

text: Newton's work of New Testament textual criticism, "An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture", was sent in a letter to John Locke on 14 November 1690. In it, he reviews evidence that the earliest Christians did not believe in the Trinity.


title: Religious views of Isaac Newton

text: Newton relied upon the existing Scripture for prophecy, believing his interpretations would set the record straight in the face of what he considered to be, "so little understood". Though he would never write a cohesive body of work on prophecy, Newton's beliefs would lead him to write several treatises on the subject, including an unpublished guide for prophetic interpretation titled "Rules for interpreting the words & language in Scripture". In this manuscript, he details the requirements for what he considered to be the proper interpretation of the Bible.


title: Religious views of Isaac Newton

text: In his posthumously-published "", Newton expressed his belief that Bible prophecy would not be understood "until the time of the end", and that even then "none of the wicked shall understand". Referring to that as a future time ("the last age, the age of opening these things, be now approaching"), Newton also anticipated "the general preaching of the Gospel be approaching" and "the Gospel must first be preached in all nations before the great tribulation, and end of the world".


title: Religious views of Isaac Newton

text: Over the years, a large amount of media attention and public interest has circulated regarding largely unknown and unpublished documents, evidently written by Isaac Newton, that indicate he believed the world could end in 2060. While Newton also had many other possible dates (e.g. 2034), he did not believe that the end of the world would take place specifically in 2060.


title: Religious views of Isaac Newton

text: Like most Protestant theologians of his time, Newton believed that the Papal Office and not any one particular Pope was the fulfillment of the Biblical predictions about Antichrist, whose rule was predicted to last for 1,260 years. They applied the day-year principle (in which a day represents a year in prophecy) to certain key verses in the books of Daniel and Revelation (also known as the Apocalypse), and looked for significant dates in the Papacy's rise to power to begin this timeline. Newton's calculation ending in 2060 is based on the 1,260-year timeline commencing in 800 AD when Charlemagne became the first Holy Roman Emperor and reconfirmed the earlier (756 AD) Donation of Pepin to the Papacy.


title: Religious views of Isaac Newton

text: Between the time he wrote his 2060 prediction (about 1704) until his death in 1727, Newton conversed, both first-hand and by correspondence, with other theologians of his time. Those contemporaries who knew him during the remaining 23 years of his life appear to be in agreement that Newton, and the "best interpreters" including Jonathan Edwards, Robert Fleming, Moses Lowman, Phillip Doddridge, and Bishop Thomas Newton, were eventually "pretty well agreed" that the 1,260-year timeline should be calculated from the year 756 AD.


title: Religious views of Isaac Newton

text: Thomas Williams stated that this timeline had become the predominant view among the leading Protestant theologians of his time:


title: Religious views of Isaac Newton

text: In April of 756 AD, Pepin, King of France, accompanied by Pope Stephen II entered northern Italy, forcing the Lombard King Aistulf to lift his siege of Rome and return to Pavia. Following Aistulf's capitulation, Pepin gave the newly conquered territories to the Papacy through the Donation of Pepin, thereby elevating the Pope from being a subject of the Byzantine Empire to the head of state, with temporal power over the newly constituted Papal States.


title: Religious views of Isaac Newton

text: The end of the timeline is based on Daniel 8:25, which reads "he shall be broken without hand" and is understood to mean that the end of the Papacy will not be caused by any human action. Volcanic activity is described as the means by which Rome will be overthrown.


title: Religious views of Isaac Newton

text: In 1870, the newly formed Kingdom of Italy annexed the remaining Papal States, depriving the Popes of any temporal rule for the next 59 years. Unaware that Papal rule would be restored (albeit on a greatly diminished scale) in 1929 as head of the Vatican City state, the historicist view that the Papacy is the Antichrist and the associated timelines delineating his rule rapidly declined in popularity as one of the defining characteristics of the Antichrist (i.e. that he would also be a political temporal power at the time of the return of Jesus) were no longer met.


title: Religious views of Isaac Newton

text: Eventually, the prediction was largely forgotten and no major Protestant denomination currently subscribes to this timeline.


title: Religious views of Isaac Newton

text: Despite the dramatic nature of a prediction of the end of the world, Newton may not have been referring to the 2060 date as a destructive act resulting in the annihilation of the earth and its inhabitants, but rather one in which he believed the world was to be replaced with a new one based upon a transition to an era of divinely inspired peace. In Christian theology, this concept is often referred to as The Second Coming of Jesus Christ and the establishment of Paradise by The Kingdom of God on Earth.


title: Religious views of Isaac Newton

text: Henry More's belief in the universe and rejection of Cartesian dualism may have influenced Newton's religious ideas. Later works—"The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms Amended" (1728) and "Observations Upon the Prophecies of Daniel and the Apocalypse of St. John" (1733)—were published after his death.


title: Religious views of Isaac Newton

text: Newton and Boyle's mechanical philosophy was promoted by rationalist pamphleteers as a viable alternative to the pantheists and enthusiasts, and was accepted hesitantly by orthodox clergy as well as dissident preachers like the latitudinarians. The clarity and simplicity of science was seen as a way in which to combat the emotional and mystical superlatives of superstitious enthusiasm, as well as the threat of atheism.


title: Religious views of Isaac Newton

text: The attacks made against pre-Enlightenment magical thinking, and the mystical elements of Christianity, were given their foundation with Boyle's mechanical conception of the universe. Newton gave Boyle's ideas their completion through mathematical proofs, and more importantly was very successful in popularizing them. Newton refashioned the world governed by an interventionist God into a world crafted by a God that designs along rational and universal principles. These principles were available for all people to discover, allowed man to pursue his own aims fruitfully in this life, not the next, and to perfect himself with his own rational powers.


title: Religious views of Isaac Newton

text: His first writing on the subject of religion was "Introductio. Continens Apocalypseos rationem generalem" ("Introduction. Containing an explanation of the Apocalypse"), which has an unnumbered leaf between folios 1 and 2 with the subheading "De prophetia prima", written in Latin some time prior to 1670. Written subsequently in English was "Notes on early Church history and the moral superiority of the 'barbarians' to the Romans". His last writing, published in 1737 with the miscellaneous works of John Greaves, was entitled "A Dissertation upon the Sacred Cubit of the Jews and the Cubits of the several Nations".


title: Religious views of Isaac Newton

text: Newton did not publish any of his works of biblical study during his lifetime. All of Newton's writings on corruption in biblical scripture and the church took place after the late 1670s and prior to the middle of 1690.


title: Jockey

text: A jockey is someone who rides horses in horse racing or steeplechase racing, primarily as a profession. The word also applies to camel riders in camel racing. The word "jockey" originated from England and was used to describe the individual who rode horses in racing. They must be light, typically around a weight of 100-120 lb., and physically fit. They are typically self-employed and are paid a small fee from the horse trainer and a percentage of the horse's winnings.


title: Jockey

text: Jockeys are mainly male, though there are some well-known female jockeys too. The job has a very high risk of debilitating or life-threatening injuries.


title: Jockey

text: The word is by origin a diminutive of "jock", the Northern English or Scots colloquial equivalent of the first name "John", which is also used generically for "boy" or "fellow" (compare "Jack", "Dick"), at least since 1529. A familiar instance of the use of the word as a name is in "Jockey of Norfolk" in Shakespeare's "Richard III". v. 3, 304.


title: Jockey

text: In the 16th and 17th centuries the word was applied to horse-dealers, postilions, itinerant minstrels and vagabonds, and thus frequently bore the meaning of a cunning trickster, a "sharp", whence the verb "to jockey", "to outwit", or "to do" a person out of something. The current meaning of a person who rides a horse in races was first seen in 1670.


title: Jockey

text: Another possible origin is the Gaelic word "eachaidhe", a "horseman", (pronounced "YACH-ee-yuh" in late medieval times, with the "ch" pronounced as in German).


title: Jockey

text: The Irish name "Eochaid" (YO-ked) is related to "each" (yek) "horse" and is usually translated as "horse rider". This is phonetically very similar to "jockey".


title: Jockey

text: Jockeys must be light to ride at the weights which are assigned to their mounts. There are horse carrying weight limits that are set by racing authorities. The Kentucky Derby, for example, has a weight limit of including the jockey's equipment. The weight of a jockey racing on the flat usually ranges from . Despite their light weight, they must be able to control a horse that is moving at and weighs . Though there is no height limit for jockeys, they are usually fairly short due to the weight limits.


title: Jockey

text: Jockeys racing on the flat typically stand around to . Jump jockeys are often taller, with multiple examples over . Lester Piggott, considered one of the greatest steeplechase jockeys, was nicknamed "Longfellow" because of his height, and Jack Andrews, who is , can ride at a weight of . Bruce Hobbs was at the tallest jockey ever to win the Grand National.


title: Jockey

text: Jockeys are normally self employed, nominated by horse trainers to ride their horses in races, for a fee (which is paid regardless of the prize money the horse earns for a race) and a percentage of the purse winnings. In Australia, employment of apprentice jockeys is in terms of indenture to a master (a trainer); and there is a clear employee-employer relationship. When an apprentice jockey finishes their apprenticeship and becomes a "fully fledged jockey", the nature of their employment and insurance requirements change because they are regarded as "freelance", like contractors. Jockeys often cease their riding careers to take up other employment in racing, usually as trainers. In this way the apprenticeship system serves to induct young people into racing employment.


title: Jockey

text: Jockeys usually start out when they are young, riding work in the morning for trainers, and entering the riding profession as apprentice jockeys. It is normally necessary for an apprentice jockey to ride a minimum of about 20 barrier trials successfully before being permitted to ride in races. An apprentice jockey is known as a "bug boy" because the asterisk that follows the name in the program looks like a bug. All jockeys must be licensed and usually are not permitted to bet on a race. An apprentice jockey has a master, who is a horse trainer, and the apprentice is also allowed to "claim" weight off the horse's back: in handicapped races, more experienced riders will have their horses given an extra amount of weight to carry, whereas a jockey in their apprenticeship will have less weight on their horse, giving trainers an incentive to hire these less-experienced jockeys. This weight allowance is adjusted according to the number of winners that the apprentice has ridden. After a four-year indentured apprenticeship, the apprentice becomes a senior jockey and usually develops relationships with trainers and individual horses. Sometimes senior jockeys are paid a retainer by an owner which gives the owner the right to insist the jockey ride their horses in races.


title: Jockey

text: The colors worn by jockeys in races are the registered "colors" of the owner or trainer who employs them. The practice of riders wearing colors probably stems from medieval times when jousts were held between knights. However, the origins of racing colors of various patterns may have been influenced by racing held in Italian city communities since medieval times. Purple, gold and or yellow/nude, Such traditional events are still held on town streets and are known for furious riding and the colorful spectacle they offer.


title: Jockey

text: While the term "silks" is used in the United States to refer to racing colors, technically "silks" are the white breeches and bib, stock or cravat. Obtaining them is a rite of passage when a jockey is first able to don silken pants and colors in their first race ride. At one time silks were invariably made of silk chosen for being a lightweight fabric, though now synthetics are used instead. Silks and their colors are important symbols of loyalty and festivity.


title: Jockey

text: Many of the silks bear chequered patterns, polka dots, stripes or icons such as quatrefoils. The wearing of silks originated in the United Kingdom. They were first mentioned in 1515, and the current system was formally established in the 1700s. Horses are identified as they race by the colourful, traditional silk shirts and helmets their jockeys wear, these representing the horses’ owners. The colours need to be significantly different to serve this purpose and are registered by each Australian state's Principal Racing Authority (PRA).


title: Jockey

text: The silks of famous jockeys, horses and owners can fetch high prices at auction, suggesting the esteem in which history and tradition are held in horse racing. Although Racing Australia requires that all jockeys wear approved helmets and safety vests, racegoers are unaware of this latter safety equipment as it is worn beneath the silks. Jockeys also wear a ‘skivvy’ under the silks. On race days the skivvy chosen is a lightweight mesh or microfibre bodysuit, sleeved or sleeveless, whereas, for track work, a more heavy-duty version may be worn. Summarising, during an Australian race day, jockeys must wear the following: the helmet (or skullcap), goggles, silks, vest, breeches, gloves, boots, saddle and girth and stirrups.


title: Jockey

text: Various awards are given annually by organizations affiliated with the sport of thoroughbred racing in countries throughout the world. They include:


title: Jockey

text: Horse racing is a sport where jockeys may incur permanent, debilitating, and even life-threatening injuries. Chief among them include concussion, bone fractures, arthritis, trampling, and paralysis. Jockey insurance premiums remain among the highest of all professional sports. Between 1993 and 1996, 6,545 injuries occurred during official races for an injury rate of 606 per 1,000 jockey years. In Australia race riding is regarded as being the second most deadly job, after offshore fishing. From 2002 to 2006 five deaths and 861 serious injuries were recorded.


title: Jockey

text: Eating disorders (such as anorexia) are also very common among jockeys, as they face extreme pressure to maintain unusually low (and specific) weights for men, sometimes within a five-pound (2.3 kg) margin. The bestselling biography, "" chronicled the eating disorders of jockeys living in the first half of the twentieth century. As in the cases of champion jockey Kieren Fallon and Robert Winston, the pressure to stay light has been blamed in part for jockeys suffering agonies of thirst from dehydration while racing. Sports Dietitians Australia warns: "Dehydration and energy depletion may compromise concentration and coordination." Indeed, recent research carried out in association with the Irish Turf Club measured the effects of rapid weight loss to make weight in professional and apprentice jockeys and found significant levels of dehydration; however, cognitive function was maintained, suggesting jockeys had become accustomed to performing in a dehydrated state and had potentially developed a preventative mechanism to enable them to perform under these conditions.


title: Jockey

text: In January 2016 it was announced that the International Concussion and Head Injury Research Foundation (ICHIRF) will run a new study. Named 'Concussion in Sport' it will be the first study to take a detailed look at the effects of concussion on sports people, including around 200 retired jockeys.


title: Jockey

text: Based on American statistics, women comprise only 14 percent of working jockeys and ride only 10 percent of all race starts.


title: Jockey

text: During the 1850s women-only horse-racing events were held in Victoria, Australia, women were not permitted to ride as professional jockeys or on professional tracks with men.


title: Jockey

text: Although women jockeys were barred from riding at registered race meetings, in the mid-1900s Wilhemena Smith rode as Bill Smith at north Queensland racecourses. She was nicknamed Bill "Girlie" Smith because she arrived on course with her riding gear on under her clothes and did not shower on course. It was only at the time of her death in 1975 that the racing world was officially told that Bill was really Wilhemena. Subsequent inquiries proved that William Smith was actually a woman who had been born Wilhemena Smith in a Sydney hospital in 1886. In an era when women were clearly denied equality, she had become known as a successful jockey in Queensland country districts as 'Bill Smith'. Elizabeth Williams Berry rode in Melbourne and internationally, disguised as a boy and using the name, Jack Williams.


title: Jockey

text: During the late 1960s restrictions against female trainers were lifted in Australia, but female jockeys were still confined to "ladies only" events, which were held on non-professional tracks. The Victoria Racing Club in 1974 permitted women jockeys to be registered for professional "ladies only" events. In 1978 racing rules in New Zealand were amended to permit women jockeys.


title: Jockey

text: In the late 1970s, pioneers such as Pam O'Neill in Australia and Linda Jones from New Zealand forced jockey club officials to grant women the right to compete on an equal footing in registered races against men. They were unquestionably the first women jockeys to be licensed to ride in the metropolitan areas of Australia. Previously women had been riding against men in Australia at the unregistered "all-height" meetings. Pam created a world record for any jockey, male or female, when she rode a treble at Southport on her first day's riding.


title: Jockey

text: Australia's top woman jockey, Bev Buckingham, became the first woman in the Southern Hemisphere to win 1,000 races. In 1998, in a fall at the Elwick Racecourse (Hobart), she broke her neck. She used a wheelchair for some time afterward, but regained her strength and mobility and was able to walk again without assistance.


title: Jockey

text: In 2004-05 Clare Lindop won the Adelaide jockeys' premiership and became the first woman to win a metropolitan jockeys' premiership in mainland Australia. In 2005, Andrea Leek became the first woman to ride the winner of the Grand National Hurdle (4,300 m) at Flemington when she won aboard Team Heritage.


title: Jockey

text: Women today account for 17% of jockeys in Victoria. But, they receive only 10% of the rides, and are often overlooked in favour of male jockeys, especially in the cities. In some regions of Australia about half of the apprentice jockey intakes are women.


title: Jockey

text: Women were initially banned from racing under Jockey Club rules in Britain, though records indicate that women rode, disguised as men, as early as 1804. In the Victorian era, Elizabeth Williams Berry of Australia, noted above, came to England and rode disguised as a man, continuing to use the name Jack Williams. To help her disguise, she smoked cigars and wore a bowler derby. In the 20th century, after many years of debate, a series of a dozen races was approved for female jockeys in 1972. Meriel Patricia Tufnell overcame childhood disability to ride the novice Scorched Earth to victory in the first race, the Goya Stakes at Kempton Park on 6 May 1972.


title: Jockey

text: The first decade of the 21st century saw the profile of women jockeys rise considerably in British Flat racing. In 2005 Hayley Turner became Champion Apprentice rider, before becoming the first woman to ride 100 winners in a British season in 2008. Also in 2008, Kirsty Milczarek became the first woman to ride three winners at a single British race meeting, at Kempton in February. Milczarek rode 71 winners that year. This period saw the total number of female jockeys in British Flat racing rise significantly. Two further female jockeys have won the apprentice championship since Turner - Amy Ryan in 2012 and Josephine Gordon in 2016. This change has not applied in National Hunt racing, though amateur riders Nina Carberry and Katie Walsh (sister of Ruby Walsh) have gained success in Ireland and ridden winners at the Cheltenham Festival. In the 2010 National Hunt Chase at the Cheltenham Festival the winner and runner-up were both ridden by female jockeys. Katie Walsh was on board Poker de Sivola finishing ahead of Becauseicouldntsee which was ridden by Nina Carberry.


title: Jockey

text: On Boxing Day 2015 Lizzie Kelly became the first female jockey to win a grade one race in Britain, on Tea For Two in the Kauto Star Novices' Chase at Kempton Park. Lizzie Kelly won another grade 1 in 2017. It was the Betway Bowl at the Grand National Festival, on Tea For Two. In the 2016/17 season Rachael Blackmore became the first female jockey to win the Irish Conditional Jockeys title. In 2018 Lizzie Kelly became the first female professional jockey to ride a winner at the Cheltenham Festival. She rode Coo Star Sivola in the Ultima handicap chase. In 2019 Bryony Frost became the first female jockey to ride a grade 1 winner at the Cheltenham Festival. She rode Frodon in the Ryanair Chase. In 2021, Rachael Blackmore became the first female jockey to win the Grand National, the most valuable jump race in Europe.


title: Jockey

text: In 2005 and 2006 Lisa Cropp won the New Zealand jockeys' premierships.In recent years the New Zealand jockeys premiership has been won by Lisa Allpress (2012, 2016, 2019 and 2020), Samantha Collett (2018) and Danielle Johnson (2021).


title: Jockey

text: Eliza Carpenter (1851 – 1924) was an early African-American race horse owner. In Ponca City, Oklahoma, she trained horses for racing, becoming one of the few African-American stable owners in the West. When dissatisfied with the way a race was going, she sometimes would ride her own horses as a jockey, winning some races. Recorded names of her horses include "Irish Maid", "Blue Bird", "Jimmy Rain", "Sam Carpenter", and "Little Brown Jug", the last of which she reportedly raced at Tijuana, Baja California.


title: Jockey

text: Anna Lee Aldred (1921 – 2006) was given a license at age 18 in 1939 at Agua Caliente Racetrack in Tijuana, Mexico when officials were unable to find a rule that would bar women jockeys and she finished second by a nose in her first professional race. Hollywood stuntwoman Alice Van-Springsteen (1918 - 2008) also rode as a jockey and was one of the first women ever to receive a trainer's license for Thoroughbred horses.


title: Jockey

text: Wantha Davis (1918 – 2012) was known to have won over 1,000 races in the 1930s, 40s and 50s, including a famous 1949, six furlong match-race against Johnny Longden at Agua Caliente. She rode at some state-sanctioned pari-mutuel tracks, but without a license, most events were of the dusty county fair and half-mile variety of the western circuit. Even though she was always in demand as a training jockey, her applications for a license were turned down in state after state.


title: Jockey

text: Twelve years after Davis retired, the "modern era of female jockeys" began when Olympic equestrian and show jumping competitor Kathy Kusner, who had also ridden as a jockey, successfully sued the Maryland Racing Commission for a jockey's license in 1967 under the Civil Rights Act. She won her case in 1968 and became one of the earliest women to be licensed in the United States, though an injury prevented her from racing at the time. In late 1968, Penny Ann Early was the first woman to earn a mount as a licensed Thoroughbred jockey in the U.S., when she entered three races at Churchill Downs in November, but the male jockeys announced a boycott of those races, and so she could not ride. On 7 February 1969, Diane Crump was the first licensed woman rider to ride in a parimutuel Thoroughbred race in the United States at the Hialeah Park Race Track in Florida. She required a police escort to get to the paddock. Two weeks later, on 22 February at Charles Town in West Virginia, Barbara Jo Rubin became the first woman to win a race, and went on to win 11 of her first 22. Others soon followed suit and over the years American women jockeys have proven their ability. Julie Krone's 3,704 victories is the most by an American woman and , at least nineteen others have each ridden more than 1,000 winners.


title: Jockey

text: For the most part Canada has generally followed the lead of the U.S. in opportunities for women riders. Canada has far fewer tracks than the U.S. and to date Canada has only two female jockeys with 1,000 wins. However, in both actual and relative numbers as well as overall success rate, Canada has surpassed its southern neighbor in opportunities for women at the highest level; their respective Triple Crown series: Starting with Joan Phipps in the 1973 Breeders' Stakes, 10 different women have competed in 30 Canadian Triple Crown races, with a combined 2 wins, 3 places, 4 shows. Moreover, while no US Triple Crown race has ever featured more than one female rider, that feat has occurred on 10 occasions in Canada, and 3 different women—Francine Villeneuve, Chantal Sutherland and Emma-Jayne Wilson—have raced in all three Canadian races. Sutherland has done it twice over and Wilson thrice over.


title: Jockey

text: By comparison, since Diane Crump rode in the 1970 Kentucky Derby, six different women have competed in U.S. Triple Crown events, some multiple times: 10 times in the Derby, four times in the Preakness and nine times in the Belmont. with a combined record of one win, one place, one show. Julie Krone is the only woman to have won a US Triple Crown race, on Colonial Affair in the 1993 Belmont. With appearances in the 2011 Kentucky Derby, the 2012 Belmont Stakes and the 2013 Preakness Stakes, Rosie Napravnik became the first woman to ride in all three of the U.S. Triple Crown races. In 2013, Napravnik also became the first woman to ride in all three US Triple Crown races in the same year, and is the only woman to have won the Kentucky Oaks, which she has won twice.


title: Jockey

text: To replace child jockeys whose use had been deplored by human rights organizations, a camel race in Doha, Qatar for the first time featured robots at the reins. On 13 July 2005, workers fixed robotic jockeys on the backs of seven camels and raced the machine-mounted animals around a track. Operators controlled the jockeys remotely, signalling them to pull their reins and prod the camels with whips.


title: Aubrey de Grey

text: Aubrey David Nicholas Jasper de Grey (; born 20 April 1963) is an English author and biomedical gerontologist. He is the author of "The Mitochondrial Free Radical Theory of Aging" (1999) and co-author of "Ending Aging" (2007). He is known for his view that medical technology may enable human beings alive today not to die from age-related causes. As an amateur mathematician, he has contributed to the study of the Hadwiger–Nelson problem in geometric graph theory, making the first progress on the problem in over 60 years.


title: Aubrey de Grey

text: De Grey is an international adjunct professor of the Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, a fellow of the Gerontological Society of America, the American Aging Association, and the Institute for Ethics and Emerging Technologies. He has been interviewed in recent years in a number of news sources, including CBS "60 Minutes", the BBC, "The Guardian", "Fortune Magazine", "The Washington Post", "TED", "Popular Science", Playboy, "The Colbert Report", "Time", the "Skeptics' Guide to the Universe", and "The Joe Rogan Experience". He was the Chief Science Officer of the SENS Research Foundation, but was fired in August 2021 after allegedly interfering in a probe investigating sexual harassment allegations against him. In late 2022, de Grey co-founded LEV Foundation as President and Chief Science Officer.


title: Aubrey de Grey

text: De Grey was born and brought up in London, England. He told "The Observer" that he never knew his father, and that his mother Cordelia, an artist, encouraged him in the areas in which she herself was weakest: science and mathematics. De Grey was educated at Sussex House School and Harrow School. He attended university at Trinity Hall, Cambridge, graduating with a BA in computer science in 1985.


title: Aubrey de Grey

text: After graduation in 1985, de Grey joined Sinclair Research as an artificial intelligence researcher and software engineer. In 1986, he co-founded Man-Made Minions Ltd to pursue the development of an automated formal program verifier. At a graduate party in Cambridge, de Grey met fruit fly geneticist Adelaide Carpenter whom he would later marry. Through her he was introduced to the intersection of biology and programming when her boss needed someone who knew about computers and biology to take over the running of a database on fruit flies. He educated himself in biology by reading journals and textbooks, attending conferences, and being tutored by Professor Carpenter. From 1992 to 2006, he was in charge of software development at the university's Genetics Department for the FlyBase genetic database.


title: Aubrey de Grey

text: Cambridge awarded de Grey a Ph.D. by publication in biology on 9 December 2000. The degree was based on his 1999 book "The Mitochondrial Free Radical Theory of Aging", in which de Grey wrote that obviating damage to mitochondrial DNA might by itself extend lifespan significantly, though he said it was more likely that cumulative damage to mitochondria is a significant cause of senescence, but not the single dominant cause.


title: Aubrey de Grey

text: Xenocatabolism is a concept in medical bioremediation that relies upon introducing into the body microbial enzymes that break down pathogenic lysosomal, cytosolic and extracellular aggregates. The term, also called xenohydrolysis, was coined by de Grey, building upon the work of others. De Grey posited that there are microbes that feed on substances such as amyloid, cholesterol and other related substances in places that are full of human remains, such as graveyards. This was based on the microbial infallibility hypothesis. He states that "the biomedical approach would be to identify the genetic basis for that capacity, and to put one or two genes into ourselves, thereby enhancing our own ability to break things down, and to thereby get rid of things that we cannot naturally break down". In order to add credibility to the concept, de Grey created an experiment using soil from a graveyard and took the bacteria from it. He used lipofuscin, "one of the major things that accumulates indigestibly in the body" – which some of the bacteria broke down, lending credibility to the hypothesis. De Grey presented this theory on May 29, 2007, at the Googleplex Google TechTalks.


title: Aubrey de Grey

text: In 2005, de Grey argued that most of the fundamental knowledge needed to develop effective anti-aging medicine already existed, and that the science is ahead of the funding. He described his work as identifying and promoting specific technological approaches to the reversal of various aspects of aging, or, as de Grey put it, "... the set of accumulated side effects from Metabolism that eventually kills us."


title: Aubrey de Grey

text: , de Grey's work centered on a detailed plan called strategies for engineered negligible senescence (SENS), which is aimed at preventing age-related physical and cognitive decline. In March 2009, he co-founded the SENS Research Foundation (named SENS Foundation until early 2013), a non-profit organisation based in California, United States, where he served until 2021 as Chief Science Officer. The foundation "works to develop, promote and ensure widespread access to regenerative medicine solutions to the disabilities and diseases of aging," focusing on the strategies for engineered negligible senescence. Before March 2009, the SENS research program was mainly pursued by the Methuselah Foundation, co-founded by de Grey.


title: Aubrey de Grey

text: A major activity of the Methuselah Foundation is the Methuselah Mouse Prize, a prize designed to incentivize research into effective life extension interventions by awarding monetary prizes to researchers who stretch the lifespan of mice to unprecedented lengths. De Grey stated in March 2005 "if we are to bring about real regenerative therapies that will benefit not just future generations, but those of us who are alive today, we must encourage scientists to work on the problem of aging." The prize reached 4.2 USD million in February 2007.


title: Aubrey de Grey

text: In a 2008 broadcast on Franco-German TV network Arte, de Grey claimed that the first human to live 1,000 years was probably already alive, and might even be between 50 and 60 years old already.


title: Aubrey de Grey

text: In 2012, de Grey inherited a considerable fortune of more than , of which he donated to the SENS Research Foundation.


title: Aubrey de Grey

text: In 2022, de Grey started a new foundation and announced this at the Longevity Summit in Dublin. The board of directors include Greg Grinberg as Executive Chair, Daria Khaltourina, Martin O’Dea (also Events Director), Gennady Stolyarov and David Wood.


title: Aubrey de Grey

text: On 8 April 2018, de Grey posted a paper to arXiv explicitly constructing a unit-distance graph in the plane that cannot be colored with fewer than five colors, increasing the previously known lower bound by one. The previous lower bound of four was due to the problem's original proposal in 1950 by Hugo Hadwiger and Edward Nelson. De Grey's graph has 1581 vertices, but it has since been reduced to 510 vertices by independent researchers.


title: Aubrey de Grey

text: De Grey was formerly Vice President of New Technology Discovery at AgeX Therapeutics, a startup in the longevity space helmed by Michael D. West, PhD. De Grey was appointed to the position within the company in July 2017.


title: Aubrey de Grey

text: Aubrey de Grey coined the term Methuselarity, which he defines as the moment when medical therapies will rejuvenate people enough to continue living healthily until the next improved generation of rejuvenation biotechnology, and so on, indefinitely. According to de Grey, that is synonymous with the point where science achieves longevity escape velocity–the minimum rate at which those therapies need to be improved in order to allow people not to suffer from age-related ill-health at any age. In 2022, he stated that there is a 50% chance that this breakthrough was only 15 years away.


title: Aubrey de Grey

text: However, de Grey views the fatalistic attitude toward aging in society, as he sees it, as a hurdle in the rapid development of anti-aging medicine, which he calls "pro-aging trance".


title: Aubrey de Grey

text: In 2005, "MIT Technology Review", in cooperation with the Methuselah Foundation, announced a $20,000 prize for any molecular biologist who could demonstrate that SENS was "so wrong that it is unworthy of learned debate." The judges of the challenge were Rodney Brooks, Anita Goel, Vikram Sheel Kumar, Nathan Myhrvold, and Craig Venter. Five submissions were made, of which three met the terms of the challenge. De Grey wrote a rebuttal to each submission, and the challengers wrote responses to each rebuttal. The judges concluded that none of the challengers had disproved SENS, but the magazine opined that one of the submissions had been particularly eloquent and well written, and awarded the contestant $10,000. The judges also noted "the proponents of SENS have not made a compelling case for SENS", and wrote that many of its proposals could not be verified with the current level of scientific knowledge and technology, concluding that "SENS does not compel the assent of many knowledgeable scientists; but neither is it demonstrably wrong." The critics single out three proposed therapies for criticism: somatic telomerase deletion, somatic mitochondrial genome engineering, and the use of transgenic microbial hydrolase.


title: Aubrey de Grey

text: Later in 2005, he was the subject of an associated critical editorial article in the "MIT Technology Review", which viewed his theories as oversimplifying anti-aging as a scientific goal, and expressed concern at a lack of ethical and moral considerations towards anti-aging research.


title: Aubrey de Grey

text: A 2005 article about SENS published in the viewpoint section of "EMBO Reports" by 28 scientists concluded that none of de Grey's hypotheses "has ever been shown to extend the lifespan of any organism, let alone humans". The SENS Research Foundation, of which de Grey was a co-founder, acknowledged this, stating, "If you want to reverse the damage of aging right now I'm afraid the simple answer is, you can't." Moreover, de Grey argued that this reveals a serious gap in understanding between basic scientists and technologists and between biologists studying aging and those studying regenerative medicine.


title: Aubrey de Grey

text: The 31-member Research Advisory Board of de Grey's SENS Research Foundation have signed an endorsement of the plausibility of the SENS approach. In 2021, the National Institute on Aging (NIA), a division of the U.S. National Institutes of Health (NIH), showcased a SENS research project and provided a grant for the research.


title: Aubrey de Grey

text: According to de Grey, automation will take over most jobs in the future. He also believes that the introduction of a universal basic income is necessary to find "some new way to distribute wealth that doesn’t depend on being paid to do things we wouldn’t otherwise do".


title: Aubrey de Grey

text: In August 2021, following allegations of sexual harassment by two women, de Grey was put on administrative leave by SENS.


title: Aubrey de Grey

text: Both women describe situations in which de Grey, {...} explicitly spoke with them about sex. According to Halioua’s account, he even told her that it was her responsibility to sleep with SENS donors to encourage financial contributions. Deming was only 17 when, she alleges, de Grey told her he wanted to speak with her about his “adventurous love life.” Deming says that when she recently became aware that this was not a one-off incident, she was “angry to realize that Aubrey inappropriately propositioned more than one woman over whom he was in a position of power, many in the community knew about it, and no one did anything,” she writes.


title: Aubrey de Grey

text: Days later, the SENS board of directors decided to remove de Grey from his position as chief science officer, severing all ties with him following the report that he had allegedly attempted to interfere with the sexual harassment investigation.


title: Aubrey de Grey

text: The independent investigator determined that de Grey made sexually inappropriate remarks to both Deming and Halioua. The investigator also decided de Grey's attempt to communicate with Halioua via a third party constituted interference, although de Grey stated he believed that phase of the investigation had concluded. The investigator found that various other allegations against de Grey were not substantiated.


title: Aubrey de Grey

text: In March 2022, the SENS Research Foundation released a statement regarding de Grey's employment affirming that while his actions "did substantiate instances of poor judgment and boundary-crossing behaviors, Dr. de Grey is not a sexual predator."


title: Ha Jun

text: Ha Jun (born Song Joon-Chul on 3 April 1987), also known by his ex-stage name Song Ha-jun, is a South Korean actor.


title: Acute promyelocytic leukemia

text: Acute promyelocytic leukemia (APML, APL) is a subtype of acute myeloid leukemia (AML), a cancer of the white blood cells. In APL, there is an abnormal accumulation of immature granulocytes called promyelocytes. The disease is characterized by a chromosomal translocation involving the retinoic acid receptor alpha (RARA) gene and is distinguished from other forms of AML by its responsiveness to all-"trans" retinoic acid (ATRA; also known as tretinoin) therapy. Acute promyelocytic leukemia was first characterized in 1957 by French and Norwegian physicians as a hyperacute fatal illness, with a median survival time of less than a week. Today, prognoses have drastically improved; 10-year survival rates are estimated to be approximately 80-90% according to one study.


title: Acute promyelocytic leukemia

text: Acute promyelocytic leukemia is characterized by a chromosomal translocation involving the retinoic acid receptor alpha (RARA) gene on chromosome 17. In 95% of cases of APL, the RARA gene on chromosome 17 is involved in a reciprocal translocation with the promyelocytic leukemia gene (PML) on chromosome 15, a translocation denoted as t(15;17)(q24;q21). The RAR receptor is dependent on retinoic acid for regulation of transcription.


title: Acute promyelocytic leukemia

text: Eight other rare gene rearrangements have been described in APL fusing RARA to promyelocytic leukemia zinc finger (PLZF), nucleophosmin, nuclear matrix associated, signal transducer and activator of transcription 5b (STAT5B), protein kinase A regulatory subunit 1α (PRKAR1A), factor interacting with PAPOLA and CPSF1 (FIP1L1), BCL-6 corepressor or oligonucleotide/oligosaccharide-binding fold containing 2A (NABP1) genes. Some of these rearrangements are ATRA-sensitive or have unknown sensitivity to ATRA because they are so rare; STAT5B/RARA and PLZF/RARA are known to be resistant to ATRA.


title: Acute promyelocytic leukemia

text: The fusion of PML and RARA results in expression of a hybrid protein with altered functions. This fusion protein binds with enhanced affinity to sites on the cell's DNA, blocking transcription and differentiation of granulocytes. It does so by enhancing interaction of nuclear co-repressor (NCOR) molecule and histone deacetylase (HDAC). Although the chromosomal translocation involving RARA is believed to be the initiating event, additional mutations are required for the development of leukemia.


title: Acute promyelocytic leukemia

text: RARA/PLZF gene fusion produces a subtype of APL that is unresponsive to tretinoin therapy and less responsive to standard anthracycline chemotherapy hence leading to poorer long-term outcomes in this subset of patients.


title: Acute promyelocytic leukemia

text: Acute promyelocytic leukemia can be distinguished from other types of AML based on microscopic examination of the blood film or a bone marrow aspirate or biopsy as well as finding the characteristic rearrangement. The presence of promyelocytes containing multiple Auer rods (termed faggot cells) on the peripheral blood smear is highly suggestive of acute promyelocytic leukemia. Definitive diagnosis requires testing for the PML/RARA fusion gene. This may be done by polymerase chain reaction (PCR), fluorescence "in situ" hybridization, or conventional cytogenetics of peripheral blood or bone marrow. This mutation involves a translocation of the long arm of chromosomes 15 and 17. On rare occasions, a cryptic translocation may occur which cannot be detected by cytogenetic testing; on these occasions PCR testing is essential to confirm the diagnosis.


title: Acute promyelocytic leukemia

text: APL is unique among leukemias due to its sensitivity to all-"trans" retinoic acid (ATRA; tretinoin), the acid form of vitamin A. Treatment with ATRA dissociates the NCOR-HDACL complex from RAR and allows DNA transcription and differentiation of the immature leukemic promyelocytes into mature granulocytes by targeting the oncogenic transcription factor and its aberrant action. Unlike other chemotherapies, ATRA does not directly kill the malignant cells. ATRA induces the terminal differentiation of the leukemic promyelocytes, after which these differentiated malignant cells undergo spontaneous apoptosis on their own. ATRA alone is capable of inducing remission but it is short-lived in the absence of concurrent "traditional" chemotherapy. As of 2013 the standard of treatment for concurrent chemotherapy has become arsenic trioxide, which combined with ATRA is referred to ATRA-ATO; before 2013 the standard of treatment was anthracycline (e.g. daunorubicin, doxorubicin, idarubicin or mitoxantrone)-based chemotherapy. Both chemotherapies result in a clinical remission in approximately 90% of patients with arsenic trioxide having a more favorable side effect profile.


title: Acute promyelocytic leukemia

text: ATRA therapy is associated with the unique side effect of differentiation syndrome. This is associated with the development of dyspnea, fever, weight gain, peripheral edema and is treated with dexamethasone. The etiology of retinoic acid syndrome has been attributed to capillary leak syndrome from cytokine release from the differentiating promyelocytes.


title: Acute promyelocytic leukemia

text: The monoclonal antibody, gemtuzumab ozogamicin, has been used successfully as a treatment for APL, although it has been withdrawn from the US market due to concerns regarding potential toxicity of the drug and it is not currently marketed in Australia, Canada or the UK. Given in conjunction with ATRA, it produces a response in around 84% of patients with APL, which is comparable to the rate seen in patients treated with ATRA and anthracycline-based therapy. It produces less cardiotoxicity than anthracycline-based treatments and hence may be preferable in these patients.


title: Acute promyelocytic leukemia

text: After stable remission was induced, the standard of care previously was to undergo 2 years of maintenance chemotherapy with methotrexate, mercaptopurine and ATRA. A significant portion of patients relapsed without consolidation therapy. In the 2000 European APL study, the 2-year relapse rate for those that did not receive consolidation chemotherapy (ATRA not included) therapy was 27% compared to 11% in those that did receive consolidation therapy (p<0.01). Likewise in the 2000 US APL study, the survival rates in those receiving ATRA maintenance was 61% compared to just 36% without ATRA maintenance.


title: Acute promyelocytic leukemia

text: However, recent research on consolidation therapy following ATRA-ATO, which became the standard treatment in 2013, has found that maintenance therapy in low-risk patients following this therapy may be unnecessary, although this is controversial.


title: Acute promyelocytic leukemia

text: Arsenic trioxide (AsO) is currently being evaluated for treatment of relapsed/refractory disease. Remission with arsenic trioxide has been reported.


title: Acute promyelocytic leukemia

text: Studies have shown arsenic reorganizes nuclear bodies and degrades the mutant PML-RAR fusion protein. Arsenic also increases caspase activity which then induces apoptosis. It does reduce the relapse rate for high risk patients. In Japan a synthetic retinoid, tamibarotene, is licensed for use as a treatment for ATRA-resistant APL.


title: Acute promyelocytic leukemia

text: Some evidence supports the potential therapeutic utility of histone deacetylase inhibitors such as valproic acid or vorinostat in treating APL. According to one study, a cinnamon extract has effect on the apoptotic process in acute myeloid leukemia HL-60 cells.


title: Acute promyelocytic leukemia

text: Prognosis is generally good relative to other leukemias. Because of the acuteness of onset compared to other leukemias, early death is comparatively more common. If untreated, it has median survival of less than a month. It has been transformed from a highly fatal disease to a highly curable one. The cause of early death is most commonly severe bleeding, often intracranial hemorrhage. Early death from hemorrhage occurs in 5–10% of patients in countries with adequate access to healthcare and 20–30% of patients in less developed countries. Risk factors for early death due to hemorrhage include delayed diagnosis, late treatment initiation, and high white blood cell count on admission. Despite advances in treatment, early death rates have remained relatively constant, as described by several groups including Scott McClellan, Bruno Medeiros, and Ash Alizadeh at Stanford University.


title: Acute promyelocytic leukemia

text: Relapse rates are extremely low. Most deaths following remission are from other causes, such as second malignancies, which in one study occurred in 8% of patients. In this study, second malignancies accounted for 41% of deaths, and heart disease, 29%. Survival rates were 88% at 6.3 years and 82% at 7.9 years.


title: Acute promyelocytic leukemia

text: Acute promyelocytic leukemia represents 10–12% of AML cases. The median age is approximately 30–40 years, which is considerably younger than the other subtypes of AML (70 years), however in elderly population APL has peculiar characteristics. Incidence is higher among individuals of Latin American or South European origin. It can also occur as a secondary malignancy in those that receive treatment with topoisomerase II inhibitors (such as the anthracyclines and etoposide) due to the carcinogenic effects of these agents, with patients with breast cancer representing the majority of such patients. Around 40% of patients with APL also have a chromosomal abnormality such as trisomy 8 or isochromosome 17 which do not appear to impact on long-term outcomes.


title: British princess

text: The use of the title of Princess of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is entirely at the will of the sovereign as expressed in letters patent. Individuals holding the title of princess are styled "Her Royal Highness" (HRH). On 18 April 1917, the newest granddaughter of Wilhelm II, German Emperor was styled a British princess from birth, even though Germany and Britain were fighting in WWI. Before the First World War, British Princesses also held additional German titles, such as Princesses of Hanover by virtue of being male line descendants of George III; or Princesses of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, Duchess of Saxony, by virtue of being male line descendants of Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. George V issued Letters Patent on 30 November 1917, to restrict the automatic assignment of the title "Princess" and the use of the style "Royal Highness" to the following persons:


title: British princess

text: On 31 December 2012, Queen Elizabeth II issued letters patent enabling all children of the eldest son of the Prince of Wales to enjoy the princely title and style of "Royal Highness", as opposed to only the eldest son.


title: British princess

text: Under the current practice, princesses of the royal blood are the legitimate daughters and the legitimate male line granddaughters of a British Sovereign. They are dynasts, that is potential successors to the throne. For these individuals, the title "Princess of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland" and the style "Her Royal Highness" is an entitlement for life. The title Princess and the style Royal Highness is prefixed to the Christian name, before another title of honour. From 1714 until 1917, the male-line great-granddaughters of the Sovereign were titled "Princess of Great Britain and Ireland" with the style "Highness". Since 1917, the male-line great-granddaughters of the Sovereign have held "the style and title enjoyed by the children of dukes". For example, the daughters of the current Duke of Gloucester, a male line grandson of George V, are styled The Lady Davina Windsor and The Lady Rose Gilman.


title: British princess

text: Princesses by marriage are the recognised wives of the Sovereign's sons and male-line grandsons. Generally, these women are entitled to the style "Royal Highness" by virtue of marriage, and retain the style if widowed. However, Elizabeth II issued Letters Patent dated 21 August 1996 stating that any woman divorced from a Prince of the United Kingdom would no longer be entitled to the style "Royal Highness". This has so far applied to Diana, Princess of Wales, and Sarah, Duchess of York.


title: British princess

text: Since the passage of the Royal Marriages Act 1772, there have been several instances in which princes of the blood contracted marriages in contravention of that act, to women deemed unsuitable to be a royal wife. This meant they were not legally married, and would allow the Sovereign to withhold the style "Her Royal Highness" from the bride, as well as any title in the peerage held by the groom. For example, Prince George, Duke of Cambridge, a male-line grandson of King George III, 'married' Sarah Louisa Fairbrother: the marriage was in contravention of the Royal Marriages Act, and therefore legally invalid. Accordingly, the duke's wife was never titled the Duchess of Cambridge or accorded the style "Her Royal Highness". Instead, she was known as "Mrs FitzGeorge". An exception to the rule was created for King Edward VIII following his 1936 abdication. King George VI issued Letters Patent dated 27 May 1937 that entitled The Duke of Windsor, as Edward was now entitled, "to hold and enjoy for himself only the title style or attribute of Royal Highness so however that his wife and descendants if any shall not hold the said title style or attribute".


title: British princess

text: The wife of a prince of the blood takes her husband's Christian name in her title as do all married royal women. For example, upon her marriage to Prince Michael of Kent in 1978, Baroness Marie-Christine von Reibnitz assumed the title and style of "Her Royal Highness Princess Michael of Kent". Similarly, upon her marriage to then Prince Richard of Gloucester, the former Birgitte van Deurs assumed the title and style of "Her Royal Highness Princess Richard of Gloucester". Upon marriage, the wife of the Prince of Wales becomes "Her Royal Highness The Princess of Wales". Upon marriage, the wife of a royal duke (or earl) becomes "Her Royal Highness The Duchess (or Countess) of X". When Prince Richard of Gloucester succeeded to his father's dukedom in 1974, his wife became "Her Royal Highness The Duchess of Gloucester".


title: British princess

text: There is also the case when a princess of blood royal marries a British prince. She also becomes a princess by marriage and will be addressed in the same way. An example of this situation was the late Princess Alexandra, Duchess of Fife, when she married her cousin Prince Arthur of Connaught and became "Princess Arthur of Connaught, Duchess of Fife."


title: British princess

text: Typically a princess by marriage should not be called Princess followed by her first name. Diana, Princess of Wales, was consistently referred to as "Princess Diana" by fans and the media, but the use of this title is completely erroneous, as she was not the child of a monarch nor the child of a son of a monarch. However, this tradition was broken once in the past century with Elizabeth II's aunt, Princess Alice, Duchess of Gloucester, being referred to—with permission from the sovereign—in official sources as such following the death of her husband.


title: British princess

text: The use of the titles prince and princess and the styles of Highness and Royal Highness for members of the Royal Family is of fairly recent usage in the British Isles. Before 1714, there was no settled practice regarding the use of the titles prince and princess other than the heir apparent and his wife. From 1301 onward, the eldest sons of the Kings of England (and later Great Britain and the United Kingdom) have generally been created Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester. Their wives were titled Princess of Wales.


title: British princess

text: The title Princess Royal came into being in 1642 when Queen Henrietta Maria, the French-born wife of King Charles I, wished to imitate the way the eldest daughter of the French King was styled ("Madame Royale"). However, there was no settled practice on the use of the title princess for the Sovereign's younger daughters or male-line granddaughters. For example, as late as the time of King Charles II, the daughters of his brother James, Duke of York, both of whom became Queens regnant, were called simply "The Lady Mary" and "The Lady Anne". The future Queen Anne was styled princess in her marriage treaty to Prince George of Denmark and then styled "Princess Anne of Denmark" once married. However, in exile at Saint-Germain-en-Laye the deposed James II & VII gave the title of Princess Royal to his last daughter, Louisa Maria (1692–1712).


title: British princess

text: After the accession of George Louis of Hanover as King George I, the princely titles were changed to follow the German practice. The children, grandchildren, and male line great-grandchildren of the British Sovereign were automatically titled "Prince or Princess of Great Britain and Ireland" and styled "Royal Highness" (in the case of children and grandchildren) or "Highness" (in the case of male line great-grandchildren). Queen Victoria confirmed this practice in Letters Patent dated 30 January 1864 (the first Act of the Prerogative dealing with the princely title in general terms).


title: British princess

text: On 31 December 2012, Elizabeth II issued letters patent enabling all children of the eldest son of the Prince of Wales to enjoy the princely title and style of "Royal Highness", as opposed to only the eldest son.


title: British princess

text: When a princess marries, she still takes on her husband's title. If the title is higher than (or equal to) the one she possesses, she will normally be styled using the female equivalent. If her husband has a lower title or style, her style as a princess remains in use, although it may then be combined with her style by marriage, e.g. "HRH The Princess Louise, Duchess of Argyll" or "HRH Princess Alice, Countess of Athlone" – if that princess had a territorial designation, she may cease its use. It has become customary, however, for a princess who has been granted the title of "HRH The Princess Royal" to not combine it with her style by marriage: Princess Anne remains "HRH The Princess Royal" rather than "HRH The Princess Royal, Lady Laurence".


title: British princess

text: A princess by marriage is addressed as "Princess Husband's name"; this is akin to a woman being referred to as "Mrs. John Smith". The only recent time this has broken tradition is with the sovereign's express consent. Namely, with Queen Elizabeth II's aunts Princess Alice, Duchess of Gloucester, and Princess Marina, Duchess of Kent. The former was not a princess by birth, while the latter was born a princess of Greece and Denmark. Both women asked the Queen to use their given names after their husbands' deaths.


title: British princess

text: There have been several exceptions in recent history to these rules, but all have come by order of the Sovereign, mostly through letters patent.