title: Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah

text: Al-'Azīzah is considered to be the mother of Sitt al-Mulk, one of the most famous women in Islamic history, who had a stormy relationship with her half-brother al-Ḥākim and may have had him murdered. Some, such as the Crusader chronicler William of Tyre, claimed that "al-'Azīzah" was also the mother of Caliph al-Ḥākim, though most historians dismiss this. William of Tyre went so far as to claim that al-Ḥākim's destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in 1009 was due to his eagerness to disprove taunts that he was a Christian born of a Christian woman. By contrast, the chronicler al-Musabbihi recounts that in 981, al-Ḥākim's Muslim mother sought the aid of an imprisoned Islamic sage named ibn al-Washa and asked him to pray for her son who had fallen ill. The sage wrote the entire Qur'an in the inner surface of a bowl and bade her wash her son out of it. When al-Ḥākim recovered, she demanded the release of the sage in gratitude. Her request was granted and the sage and his associates were freed from prison.


title: Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah

text: Druze sources claim that al-Ḥākim's mother was the daughter of 'Abdu l-Lāh, one of al-Mu'īzz li Dīn al-Lāh's sons and therefore al-'Azīz's niece. Historians such as Delia Cortese are critical of this claim:


title: Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah

text: In 996, al-Ḥākim's father Caliph al-'Azīz began a trip to visit Syria (which was held by the Fatimids only by force of arms and was under pressure from the Byzantines). The Caliph fell ill at the beginning of the trip at Bilbeis and lay in sickbed for several days. He suffered from "stone with pains in the bowels." When he felt that his end was nearing he charged Qadi Muhammad ibn an-Nu'man and General Abū Muhammad al-Hasan ibn 'Ammar to take care of al-Ḥākim, who was then only eleven. He then spoke to his son. Al-Ḥākim later recalled the event:


title: Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah

text: Because it had been unclear whether he would inherit his father's position, this successful transfer of power was a demonstration of the stability of the Fatimid dynasty.


title: Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah

text: Nevertheless, the Kutama Berbers seized the chance to recover their dominant position in the state, which had eroded under al-Aziz due to the influx of Turkish and Daylamite mercenaries from the Islamic East (the "Mashāriqa", "Easterners"). They compelled the underage al-Hakim to dismiss the Christian vizier 'Īsa ibn Nestorius (who was executed shortly after) and appoint their leader Ibn Ammar to head the government, with the title of "wāsiṭa" ("intermediary") rather than full vizier. Ibn Ammar's rule quickly descended into a Berber tyranny: he immediately began staffing the government with Berbers, who engaged in a virtual pillaging of the state coffers. The Berbers' attempts to exclude the other interest groups from power—not only the Turks and the other ethnic contingents of the army, but also the civilian bureaucracy, whose salary was cut—alienated not only the "Mashāriqa", but alarmed Barjawan as well. Barjawan contacted the Fatimid governor of Damascus, the Turk Manjutakin, and invited him to march onto Egypt and depose Ibn Ammar. Manjutakin accepted, but was defeated by Ibn Ammar's troops under Sulayman ibn Ja'far ibn Falah at Ascalon and taken prisoner. Barjawan however soon found a new ally, in the person of the Kutama leader Jaysh ibn Samsam, governor of Tripoli, whom Ibn Falah dismissed and replaced with his own brother. Jaysh and Barjawan gathered a following of other dissatisfied Berber leaders, and launched an uprising in Cairo in October 997. Ibn Ammar was forced to flee, and Barjawan replaced him as "wāsiṭa".


title: Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah

text: During his predominance, Barjawan managed to balance the two factions, fulfilling the demands of the "Mashāriqa" while taking care of the Kutama as well. In this vein, he pardoned Ibn Ammar and restored him his monthly salary of 500 gold dinars. After Bajarwan's murder on 26 March 1000, however, Caliph al-Hakim assumed the reins of government and launched a purge of the Fatimid elites, during which Ibn Ammar and many of the other Kutama leaders were executed. To ensure his own power, Hakim limited the authority and terms of office of his wasitas and viziers, of whom there were more than 15 during the remaining 20 years of his caliphate.


title: Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah

text: Al-Ḥākim's father had intended the eunuch Barjawan to act as regent until Al-Ḥākim was old enough to rule by himself. Ibn 'Ammar and Qadi Muhammad ibn Nu'man were to assist in the guardianship of the new caliph. Instead, al-Hasan ibn 'Ammar (the leader of the Kutama) immediately seized the office of "wasīta" "chief minister" from 'Īsa ibn Nestorius. At the time the office of "sifāra" "secretary of state" was also combined within that office. Ibn 'Ammar then took the title of "Amīn ad-Dawla" "the one trusted in the empire". This was the first time that the term "empire" was associated with the Fatimid state.


title: Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah

text: Al-Ḥākim's most rigorous and consistent opponent was the Abbāsid Caliphate in Baghdad, which sought to halt the influence of Ismailism. This competition led to the Baghdad Manifesto of 1011, in which the Abbāsids claimed that the line al-Ḥākim represented did not legitimately descend from 'Alī.


title: Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah

text: Al-Ḥākim also struggled with the Qarmatiyya rulers of Bahrain, an island in the Persian Gulf as well as territory in Eastern Arabia. His diplomatic and missionary vehicle was the Ismā'īlī "da'wah" "Mission", with its organizational power center in Cairo.


title: Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah

text: Al-Ḥākim's reign was characterized by a general unrest. The Fatimid army was troubled by a rivalry between two opposing factions, the Turks and the Berbers. Tension grew between the Caliph and his viziers (called "wasīta"s), and near the end of his reign, the Druze movement, a religious sect that deified al-Ḥākim as God manifest, began to form. Members of that sect were reported to address prayers to al-Ḥākim, whom they regarded as "a manifestation of God in His unity."


title: Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah

text: Alarmed by the expansion of the Fatimid dominion, the 'Abbasid caliph Al-Qadir of Baghdad adopted retaliatory measures to halt the spread of Ismailism within the very seat of his realm. In particular, in 1011 he assembled a number of Sunni and Twelver Shiite scholars at his court and commanded them to declare in a written document that Hakim and his predecessors lacked genuine descent from Ali and Fatima. This so-called Baghdad Manifesto was read out in Friday mosques throughout the 'Abbasid domains accusing the Fatimids of Jewish ancestry. In addition, because of Al-Hakim's alleged Christian mother, he was accused of being over-sympathetic to non-Muslims, giving them more privileges than they should have been given under Islamic rule. Such accusations were manifested through poetry criticizing the Fatimids. Qadir also commissioned several refutations of Ismaili doctrines, including those written by the Mu'tazili 'Ali b. Sa'id al-Istakri (1013).


title: Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah

text: Hakim confronted numerous difficulties and uprisings during his relatively long reign. While he did not lose any important territories in North Africa, the Ismaili communities there were attacked by Sunni fighters led by their influential Maliki jurists. Relations between the Fatimids and the Qarmatians of Bahrain also remained hostile. On the other hand, Hakim's Syrian policy was successful as he managed to extend Fatimid hegemony to the emirate of Aleppo. Above all, the persistent rivalries between the various factions of the Fatimid armies, especially the Berbers and the Turks, overshadowed the other problems of Hakim's caliphate.


title: Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah

text: Al-Ḥākim upheld diplomatic relations between the Fatimid Empire and many different countries. Skillful diplomacy was needed in establishing friendly, or at least neutral relations with the Byzantine Empire, which had expansionary goals in the early 11th century.


title: Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah

text: The geographically farthest-reaching diplomatic mission of al-Ḥākim was to Song Dynasty-era China. The Fatimid Egyptian sea captain known as Domiyat traveled to a Buddhist pilgrimage site in Shandong in AD 1008. It was on this mission that he sought to present to the Chinese emperor Zhenzong of Song gifts from his ruling Caliph, al-Ḥākim. This reestablished diplomatic relations between Egypt and China that had been lost during the collapse of the Tang Dynasty in 907.


title: Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah

text: In the final years of his reign, Hakim displayed a growing inclination toward asceticism and withdrew for meditation regularly. On the night of 12/13 February 1021 at the age of 35, Hakim left for one of his regular nocturnal meditation journeys to the Mokattam hills outside of Cairo but failed to return. A search only found his donkey and bloodstained garments. For believers, his disappearance has remained a mystery.


title: Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah

text: His sister Sitt al-Mulk led moves to declare her nephew Al-Zahir li-i'zaz Din Allah as his father's successor as imam-caliph. The heir Al-Hakim had designated was removed from court and al-Mulk was appointed regent for her 16-year-old nephew. After Al-Zahir came of age, Al-Mulk assumed positions within his administration until her death in 1023. Modern historians have assessed whether Al-Mulk may have had a hand in her brother's disappearance, but no historic evidence has emerged that would implicate her.


title: Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah

text: In Western literature he has been referred to as the "Mad Caliph". This title is largely due to his erratic and oppressive behavior concerning religious minorities under his command, as historian Hunt Janin relates: al-Hakim "was known as the 'Mad Caliph' because of his many cruelties and eccentricities". Historian Michael Bonner points out that the term is also used due to the dramatic difference between al-Hakim and his predecessors and his successors while also pointing out such persecution is an extreme rarity in Islam during this era. "In his capital of Cairo, this unbalanced (and, in the view of most, mad) caliph raged against the Christians in particular... On the whole such episodes remained exceptional, like the episodes of forced conversion to Islam." Historian Michael Foss also notes this contrast: "For more than three hundred and fifty years, from the time when the Caliph Omar made a treaty with the Patriarch Sophronius until 1009, when mad al-Hakim began attacks on Christians and Jews, the city of Jerusalem and the Holy Land were open to the West, with an easy welcome and the way there was no more dangerous than a journey from Paris to Rome... Soon [after al-Hakim] the panic was over. In 1037 al-Mustansir came to an amicable agreement with Emperor Michael IV."


title: Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah

text: As one prominent journal has noted, al-Ḥākim has attracted the interest of modern historians more than any other member of the Fatimid dynasty because:


title: Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah

text: The claim that al-Hakim was mad and the version of events around him is disputed as mere propaganda by some scholars, such as Willi Frischaue, who states: "His enemies called him the 'Mad Caliph' but he enhanced Cairo's reputation as a centre of civilization." The writing of historian Heinz Halm attempts to dispel "those distorted and hostile accounts, stating that the anti-Fatimid tradition tried to make a real monster of this caliph", while P.J. Vatikiotis writes that, "[al-Hakim's] persecution of Christians and Jews and the legislation enacted for that purpose between 1004 and 1020 seem to have been a policy with a justifiable purpose."


title: Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah

text: Hakim maintained a keen interest in the organization and operation of the Fatimid Ismaili da'wa (preaching) centred in Cairo. Under his reign it was systematically intensified outside the Fatimid dominions, especially in Iraq and Persia. In Iraq, the da'is now concentrated their efforts on a number of local amirs and influential tribal chiefs with whose support they aimed to uproot the Abbasids. Foremost among the Fatimid da'is of this period operating in the eastern provinces was Hamid al-Din Kirmani, the most accomplished Ismaili theologian-philosopher of the entire Fatimid period. The activities of Kirmani and other da'is soon led to concrete results in Iraq: in 1010 the ruler of Mosul, Kufa and other towns acknowledged the suzerainty of Hakim. The 16th Fatimid imam, caliph Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah (996–1021) ordered his da'i, Harun bin Mohammed in Yemen, to give decisions in light of Da'a'im al-Islam only.


title: Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah

text: In 1013 he completed the construction of al-Jāmiʻ al-Anwar begun by his father. Commonly known as "Hākim's Mosque", over time it fell into ruin. In the 1970s, the Dawoodi Bohras, an Ismaili Shia sect, under the leadership of Mohammed Burhanuddin, restored the then-dilapidated mosque, using new building methods and materials while maintaining as many of the architectural and artistic features as possible. Their attempts received strong criticism from some academics, conservators, and art historians who saw the effort as constructing "a new building" rather than restoration.


title: Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah

text: In the area of education and learning, one of Hakim's most important contributions was the founding in 1005 of the "Dār al-ʿIlm" (House of Knowledge). A wide range of subjects ranging from the Qur'an and hadith to philosophy and astronomy were taught at the Dār al-ʿIlm, which was equipped with a vast library. During his rule, the Fatimid Caliph al-Hakim also provided paper, ink, pens and inkstands free of charge to all those who studied at the famous Dār al-ʿIlm in Cairo. Access to education was made available to the public and many Fatimid da'is received at least part of their training in this major institution of learning which served the Ismaili da'wa (mission) until the downfall of the Fatimid dynasty.


title: Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah

text: For more than 100 years, Dār al-ʿIlm distinguished itself as a center of learning where astronomers, mathematicians, grammarians, logicians, physicians, philologists, jurists and others conducted research, gave lectures and collaborated. All were welcomed, and it remained unfettered by political pressures or partisan influences.


title: Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah

text: Hakim made the education of the Ismailis and the Fatimid da'is a priority; in his time various study sessions ("majalis") were established in Cairo. Hakim provided financial support and endowments for these educational activities. The private 'wisdom sessions' (majalis al-hikma) devoted to esoteric Ismaili doctrines and reserved exclusively for initiates, now became organized so as to be accessible to different categories of participants. Al Hakim himself often attended these sessions which were held at the Fatimid palace. The name (majalis al-hikma) is still used by the Druze, Nizari and Taiyabi Ismailis as the name of the building in which their religious assembly and worship is carried, often abbreviated as Majlis (session).


title: Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah

text: Al-Hakim is a central figure in the history of the Druze religious sect, whose eponymous founder ad-Darazi proclaimed him as the incarnation of God in 1018. Hamza ibn Ali ibn Ahmad is considered the founder of the Druze and the primary author of the Druze manuscripts, he proclaimed that God had become human and taken the form of man, al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah.


title: Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah

text: According to the religious scholar Nissim Dana, al-Ḥākim's relationship with other monotheistic religions can be divided into three separate stages.


title: Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah

text: From 996 to 1006 when most of the executive functions of the Khalif were performed by his advisors, the Shiite al-Ḥākim "behaved like the Shiite khalifs, who he succeeded, exhibiting a hostile attitude with respect to Sunni Muslims, whereas the attitude toward 'People of the Book' – Jews and Christians – was one of relative tolerance, in exchange for the jizya tax."


title: Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah

text: In 1005, al-Ḥākim ordered a public posting of curses against the first three Caliphs (Abu Bakr, Umar and Uthman) and against Aisha, wife of Muhammad, for denying the caliphate to Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law 'Alī, who according to Shia beliefs, was the rightful prophetic successor.


title: Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah

text: According to historian Nissîm Dānā, al-Ḥākim ordered that "curses were registered against the warrior Muawiyah I, founder of the Umayyad Caliphate, and against others in the inner circle of Muhammad from the Sahabah - the compatriots of Muhammad in the way of Islam." This was in accordance with Shia practice, as laid out by Muslim scholar Ayatollah Haydari: "the followers of Ahl al-Bayt [Shias] say 'O Allah curse all of the Banu Umayya'." The Shia maintain that out of hatred for 'Alī, Mu'awiyah ordered the Talbiyah not be said (as it was promoted by 'Alī) and ordered people to curse him (Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas refused to do so). The Shia hold that Mu'awiyah and all of the Umayyad caliphs (with the possible exception of Umar II) were Nasibi who "are the hypocrites for whom hatred of 'Alī is their religion...They don't just hate 'Alī, but they worship Allah and seek closeness to Him by hating 'Alī."


title: Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah

text: After only two years of posting the curses, al-Ḥākim ended the practice. During this era, al-Ḥākim ordered that the inclusion of the phrase "as-salāh khayr min an-nawm" "prayer is preferable to sleep", which followed fajr prayer, be stopped – he saw it as a Sunni addition. In its place he ordered that "ḥayyi 'alā khayr al-'amal" "come to the best of deeds" should be said after the summons was made. He further forbade the use of two prayers – "Salāt at-Tarāwih" and "Salāt ad-Duha" as they were believed to have been formulated by Sunni sages.


title: Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah

text: In 1004 al-Ḥākim decreed that the Christians could no longer celebrate Epiphany or Easter. He also outlawed the use of wine ("nabidh") and even other intoxicating drinks not made from grapes ("fuqa") to both Muslims and non-Muslims alike. This produced a hardship for both Christians (who used wine in their religious rites) and Jews (who used it in their religious festivals).


title: Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah

text: In 1005, al-Ḥākim ordered that Jews and Christians follow "ghiyār" "the law of differentiation" – in this case, the "mintaq" or "zunnar" "belt" (Greek ζωνάριον) and "'imāmah" "turban", both in black. In addition, Jews must wear a wooden calf necklace and Christians an iron cross. In the public baths, Jews must replace the calf with a bell. In addition, women of the People of the Book had to wear two different coloured shoes, one red and one black. These remained in place until 1014.


title: Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah

text: Following contemporary Shiite thinking, during this period al-Ḥākim also issued many other restrictive ordinances ("sijillat"). These "sijillat" included outlawing entrance to a public bath with uncovered loins, forbidding women from appearing in public with their faces uncovered, and closing many clubs and places of entertainment.


title: Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah

text: From 1007 to 1012 "there was a notably tolerant attitude toward the Sunnis and less zeal for Shiite Islam, while the attitude with regard to the 'People of the Book' was hostile." On 18 October 1009, al-Hakim ordered the destruction of the Holy Sepulchre and its associated buildings, apparently outraged by what he regarded as the fraud practiced by the monks in the "miraculous" Descent of the Holy Fire, celebrated annually at the church during the Easter Vigil. The chronicler Yahia noted that "only those things that were too difficult to demolish were spared." Processions were prohibited, and a few years later all of the convents and churches in Palestine were said to have been destroyed or confiscated. It was only in 1042 that the Byzantine Emperor Constantine IX undertook to reconstruct the Holy Sepulchre with the permission of Al-Hakim's successor.


title: Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah

text: Al-Ḥākim ultimately allowed the unwilling Christian and Jewish converts to Islam to return to their faith and rebuild their ruined houses of worship. Indeed, from 1012 to 1021 al-Ḥākim


title: Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah

text: While it is clear that Hamza ibn Ahmad was the Caliph's chief "dāʿī", there are claims that al-Ḥākim believed in his own divinity. Other scholars disagree with this assertion of direct divinity, particularly the Druze themselves, noting that its proponent was ad-Darazi, who (according to some resources) al-Ḥākim executed for "shirk". Letters show that ad-Darazi was trying to gain control of the "Muwahhidun" movement and this claim was an attempt to gain support from the Caliph, who instead found it heretical.


title: Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah

text: The mother of al-Ḥākim's heir 'Alī az-Zāhir was the "umm al-walad" Amīna Ruqayya, daughter to the late prince 'Abdu l-Lāh, son of al-Mu'īzz. Some see her as the same as the woman in the prediction reported by al-Hamidi which held "that in 390/1000 al-Ḥākim would choose an orphan girl of good stock brought up [by?] his father al-Aziz and that she would become the mother of his successor." While the chronicler al-Maqrizi claims that al-Ḥākim's stepsister Sitt al-Mulk was hostile to Amīna, other sources say she gave her and her child refuge when they were fleeing al-Ḥākim's persecution. Some sources say al-Ḥākim married the "jariya" (young female servant) known by the title as-Sayyidah but historians are unsure if this is just another name for Amīna.


title: Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah

text: Besides his son, al-Ḥākim had a daughter named Sitt Misr (d. 455/1063) who was said to be a generous patroness and of noble and good character.


title: Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah

text: The story of Hakim's life inspired (presumably through Antoine Isaac Silvestre de Sacy) the French author Gérard de Nerval (1808–1855) who recounted his version of it ("Histoire du Calife Hakem": "History of the Caliph Hakem") as an appendix to his "Voyage to the Orient" (1851). He is a major character in "The Prisoner of Al-Hakim" by American novelist Bradley Steffens, which recounts the ten-year imprisonment of Ibn al-Haytham under al-Hakim's rule. A fictional version of his death is presented in Robert E. Howard's posthumously published short story "Hawks over Egypt".


title: Anne Diamond

text: Anne Margaret Diamond (born 8 September 1954) is a British journalist and broadcaster. She presently hosts the weekend breakfast show on GB News with Stephen Dixon as her co-presenter. She hosted "Good Morning Britain" for TV-am and "Good Morning with Anne and Nick" for BBC One, both with Nick Owen as her co-presenter. She has also worked previously for "Loose Women", BBC London, and is a regular columnist for the "Daily Mail". Since 2003, she has made regular appearances on Channel 5's topical discussion show "The Wright Stuff" and now its successor, "Jeremy Vine".


title: Anne Diamond

text: In 1991, following the death of her third son Sebastian, Diamond successfully campaigned for research into cot death. The campaign, which she co-founded, is reported to have cut the incidence of cot death in the UK from 2,000 a year to around 300.


title: Anne Diamond

text: Diamond's parents were of Irish ancestry, although her father was brought up in Scotland. She was brought up in Malvern, Worcestershire, and she attended Worcester Grammar School for Girls.


title: Anne Diamond

text: Diamond worked at a Butlins holiday camp as a redcoat and chalet-maid. She then began her career as a journalist on the "Bridgwater Mercury" and "Bournemouth Evening Echo."


title: Anne Diamond

text: Diamond began her television career with BBC West in Bristol, before moving over to "ATV Today" as a reporter and newsreader in 1979. When ATV became Central Television in 1982, she was paired up with Nick Owen, to present the new East Midlands edition of "Central News". The launch of the Nottingham-based service was initially delayed for a month, but then extended indefinitely. With no end in sight to the dispute, Diamond left to join ITN before re-joining the BBC becoming a reporter on the nightly programme "Nationwide", along with being a presenter on BBC "News After Noon".


title: Anne Diamond

text: On Monday 6 June 1983, Diamond joined TV-am. Greg Dyke, the newly appointed programme director, spoke with Nick Owen about replacements for sacked presenters Anna Ford and Angela Rippon. Owen suggested Diamond, and later that evening they met in a pub. Six weeks later Diamond joined the station.


title: Anne Diamond

text: Diamond left TV-am in 1990, to work full-time on "TV Weekly", first produced by TVS and later by Topical Television, which she had presented since 1989. The programme looked behind the scenes of various television programmes and interviewed various personalities from in front and behind the camera. Diamond was rejoined with Nick Owen to present the BBC daytime show "Good Morning with Anne and Nick", which ran four years against ITV's "This Morning" from 1992 till 1996.


title: Anne Diamond

text: In 2002, Diamond took part in the second series of "Celebrity Big Brother", but became the second person to be evicted.


title: Anne Diamond

text: Since 2003, Diamond has been a regular panelist and stand in presenter on "The Wright Stuff" and from 2018 on its successor "Jeremy Vine".


title: Anne Diamond

text: During 2008, Diamond became involved in co-developing a jewellery range, which she marketed on shopping channel QVC under her own name brand. She joined ITV's lunchtime chat show "Loose Women" as a regular panelist on 14 October 2016 after impressing bosses when she previously appeared the week before as a guest. She departed the show in August 2018, in line with her new role as the sole stand-in presenter for Jeremy Vine. In 2018, she appeared in Channel 5's "Costa Del Celebrity".


title: Anne Diamond

text: In the late 1990s, she presented the breakfast show on the London radio station LBC, variously with Sir Nicholas Lloyd and Tommy Boyd. After a few months presenting her own lunchtime show in 1999, she left the station. She now presents 'Breakfast with Stephen & Anne' on GB News TV Fridays to Sundays, with Step[hen Dixon.


title: Anne Diamond

text: In 2001, she spent a week on "The Wright Stuff", and was welcomed back in 2003 after "Celebrity Big Brother" and has been there to the present day. In 2002, she also returned to television, appearing in "Celebrity Big Brother". In October 2004, she joined BBC Radio Oxford, presenting the weekday breakfast programme. In 2006, she left BBC Radio Oxford, presenting her last breakfast programme on 17 March 2006, her replacement being Sybil Ruscoe. Much had been made on the breakfast programme of "Diamond's Dieting Buddies", a scheme whereby Diamond and listeners to the station in 2006 who wanted to lose weight would give one another moral support.


title: Anne Diamond

text: Diamond used to present the mid-morning programme on BBC Radio Berkshire and kept a regular blog on the BBC website until 2015.


title: Anne Diamond

text: Diamond has appeared in pantomimes such as "Snow White" playing the Wicked Queen at Stoke-on-Trent in 2005, alongside Ken Morley and Sooty, having said that she "thoroughly enjoyed the experience".


title: Anne Diamond

text: Diamond became involved in raising awareness of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) – also known as "cot death" – after her son, Sebastian, died from the syndrome in 1991. She fronted "Back to Sleep", a campaign telling parents to ensure that babies slept on their backs. Since then, there has been a significant fall in incidents of SIDS in the United Kingdom, from more than 2,000 per year to around 300, which has been attributed to the campaign. Diamond was awarded the Gold Medal of the Royal College of Paediatrics and Child Health, the only time it has ever been awarded to a non-medic.


title: Anne Diamond

text: Diamond spoke out over the cot death and baby-swap storyline in the BBC One soap opera "EastEnders", featuring characters Kat Moon and Ronnie Branning. "I think it's crass what they've done," she told ITV's "Daybreak" breakfast programme, branding the plot "tacky sensationalism". The episode gathered numerous complaints following its New Year's Eve airing.


title: Anne Diamond

text: On 28 March 2008, in an article for the "Daily Mail" tabloid newspaper, Anne Diamond contributed to an article concerning violence in video games where she is quoted as saying that the game Resident Evil 4 "shouldn't be allowed to be sold, even to adults".


title: Anne Diamond

text: Diamond has been featured in numerous stories in the British tabloid press since the mid-1980s. On 28 November 2011, she gave evidence at the Leveson Inquiry into the culture, practice and ethics of the press. She gave detailed accounts of intrusion by journalists into her life and her dealings with tabloid newspapers.


title: Anne Diamond

text: Diamond began an affair with Mike Hollingsworth in the mid-1980s while he was married to his first wife. They married in 1989 following the birth of their second child, and went on to have three more children together. Their third child, Sebastian, died of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) when he was three months old. Diamond and Hollingsworth separated in 1998 after he had numerous affairs, and divorced in 1999.


title: Aleksei Kravchenko (actor)

text: Aleksei Yevgenyevich Kravchenko (; born 10 October 1969) is a Russian actor known for his role in the 1985 film "Come and See" as a young boy in the resistance army.


title: Aleksei Kravchenko (actor)

text: Kravchenko was born in Moscow, Russian SFSR, Soviet Union. In 1985, aged 16, he made his debut in the film "Come and See" directed by Elem Klimov. He was 14 when filming started. After graduating from vocational school, he served in the Navy.


title: Aleksei Kravchenko (actor)

text: He attended the Boris Shchukin Theatre Institute, starting in 1991 and graduating in 1995 (he was taught by renowned actress Alla Kazanskaya).


title: Aleksei Kravchenko (actor)

text: He did not act in anything for more than a decade, but since 1998, he has appeared in at least one film or TV show almost every year. He was awarded the Merited Artist of the Russian Federation in 2007.


title: Aleksei Kravchenko (actor)

text: In 2007, he was accepted into the troupe of the Moscow Art Theatre. He is the "Guarana" group founder and leader. The music in a "Guarana" performance was played in the series "Russian Special Forces".


title: Amphicar

text: The Amphicar Model 770 is an amphibious automobile which was launched at the 1961 New York Auto Show, manufactured in West Germany and marketed from 1961 to 1968. Production stopped in 1965.


title: Amphicar

text: Designed by Hans Trippel, the amphibious vehicle was manufactured by the Quandt Group at Lübeck and at Berlin-Borsigwalde, with a total of 3,878 manufactured in a single generation.


title: Amphicar

text: A descendant of the Volkswagen Schwimmwagen, the Amphicar offered only modest performance compared to most contemporary boats or cars, featured navigation lights and flag as mandated by the US Coast Guard — and, after operation in water, required greasing at 13 points, one of which required removal of the rear seat.


title: Amphicar

text: Front undersurface is slightly pointed and sharply cut away below. The wheels are set low, so that the vehicle stands well above ground level when on dry land. Front and rear bumpers are placed low on the body panels (but fairly high in relation to dry ground). The one-piece windshield is curved. The foldable top causes the body style to be classified as "cabriolet". Its water propulsion is provided by twin propellers mounted under the rear bumper. The Amphicar is made of mild steel.


title: Amphicar

text: The Amphicar's engine was mounted at the rear of the craft, driving the rear wheels through a 4-speed manual transmission. For use in the water, the same engine drove a pair of reversible propellers at the rear, with a second gear lever engaging forward or reverse drive. Once in the water, the main gear lever would normally be left in neutral. By engaging first gear as well as drive to the propellers when approaching a boat ramp, the Amphicar could drive itself out of the water.


title: Amphicar

text: The powerplant was the 1147 cc (69 in³) Standard SC engine from the British Triumph Herald 1200. Many engines were tried in prototypes, but the Triumph engine was "state of the art" in 1961 and it had the necessary combination of performance, weight, cool running, and reliability. Updated versions of this engine remained in production in the Triumph Spitfire until 1980. The Amphicar engine had a power output of 43 hp (32 kW) at 4750 rpm, slightly more than the Triumph Herald due to a shorter exhaust. Designated the "Model 770", the Amphicar could achieve speeds of 7 knots in the water and 70 mph (110 km/h) on land. Later versions of the engine displaced 1296 cc and 1493 cc and produced up to .


title: Amphicar

text: One owner was quoted "It's not a good car and it's not a good boat, but it does just fine" largely because of modest performance in and out of water.


title: Amphicar

text: Another added, "We like to think of it as the fastest car on the water and fastest boat on the road."


title: Amphicar

text: In water as well as on land, the Amphicar steered with the front wheels, making it less maneuverable than a conventional boat.


title: Amphicar

text: "Time"’s Dan Neil called it "a vehicle that promised to revolutionize drowning", explaining, "Its flotation was entirely dependent on whether the bilge pump could keep up with the leakage."


title: Amphicar

text: In reality, a well maintained Amphicar does not leak at all and can be left in water, parked at a dock side, for many hours.


title: Amphicar

text: An Amphicar was restored in season 11, episode seven of the television show "Wheeler Dealers". The car was purchased in the United States for $35,000 and shipped to the UK. Its lower bodywork proved to be in poor condition and required complete soda blasting back to clean metal before welding of replacement panel sections. After a test drive in the Thames at Windsor, the restored vehicle was sold for £35,200 at a profit of £4,600 (at that time's exchange rate).


title: Amphicar

text: Amphicars appear in the films "Rotten to the Core" (1965), "The Sandwich Man" (1966), "The President's Analyst" (1967), "Inspector Clouseau" (1968), "The Laughing Woman" (1969), "Savannah Smiles" (1982), and "Pontiac Moon" (1994), and in episode five of season four of "The Avengers" ("Castle De'ath", 1965). It also appears in the TV movie "All the Way" (2016).


title: Amphicar

text: US President Lyndon B. Johnson owned an Amphicar. Johnson, a known practical joker, was said to enjoy frightening visitors at his Johnson City, Texas, ranch by driving them downhill in his Amphicar, directly into his property's lake, all the while shouting that he had malfunctioning brakes.


title: Amphicar

text: In a fifth-season episode of "The Simpsons", an antique filmstrip touts Springfield's famous "aqua-car" factory, showing Amphicars rolling off an assembly line and into the water.


title: Amphicar

text: Production started in late 1960. By the end of 1963, complete production was stopped. From 1963 to 1965 cars were assembled from shells and parts inventory built up in anticipation of sales of 25,000 units, with the last new build units assembled in 1965. Cars were titled in the year they actually sold rather than when they were produced, e.g. an unsold Amphicar assembled in 1963 or 1965 could be titled as 1967 or 1968 if that was when it was first sold, though the inventory could not be sold in the U.S. in the 1968 model year or later due to new environmental and USDOT emissions and safety equipment standards, they were available in other countries into 1968. The remaining inventory of unused parts was eventually purchased by Hugh Gordon of Santa Fe Springs, California.


title: Amphicar

text: Most Amphicars were sold in the United States. Cars were sold in the United Kingdom from 1964. Total production was 3,878 vehicles, of which only 97 were right-hand drive. Some were used in the Berlin police department and others were fitted for rescue operations.


title: Amphicar

text: Amphicar owners regularly convene during the spring, summer, and fall at various locations nationwide for "swim-ins", the largest of which is held at Grand Lake St. Marys State Park, Ohio.


title: Amphicar

text: In 2015, the Boathouse at Walt Disney World's Disney Springs in Orlando, Florida, began offering public Amphicar rides to visitors, charging $125 per ride for groups of up to three. Disney heavily re-engineered and enhanced the eight Amphicars of various original colors in its fleet for safety, reliability, and comfort.


title: Daniel Powter

text: Daniel Richard Powter (; born February 25, 1971) is a Canadian musician. He is best known for his self-penned hit song "Bad Day" (2005), which was top of the "Billboard" Hot 100 for five weeks.


title: Daniel Powter

text: Powter grew up in Vernon, in the Okanagan-Shuswap region of British Columbia, alongside 2 brothers and a sister. As a child, Powter played the violin at the age of 4. He changed to piano at 16 years old after a group of children bullied him in the schoolyard, trashed and destroyed his violin. Due to dyslexia, Powter had trouble in university reading music, and dropped out at the age of 20 in order to pursue his own musical career, learning all songs by ear and recording new melodies that he created. He started writing songs when he was 13 years old.


title: Daniel Powter

text: Powter moved to Vancouver at the age of 22 and met producer Jeff Dawson in 1997 and released his debut studio album, "I'm Your Betty", on June 21, 2000. The album, limited to a very small print, contains ten songs, two of which—"More Than I" and "Negative Fashion"—were both featured on the television show "Higher Ground" in the episode "Wherefore Art Thou".


title: Daniel Powter

text: Powter's first single, "Bad Day", was first released in Europe in mid-2005, in advance of his second album, "Daniel Powter". Warner Bros. Records submitted the single for commercials, and it was subsequently chosen by Coca-Cola as the theme song for an ad campaign in Europe. The song achieved heavy airplay in most European countries, peaking at number three on the overall European airplay chart. It reached number one on national airplay in Germany, number one on the singles charts in the Republic of Ireland and Italy, number two in the United Kingdom—where it stayed in the top ten for thirteen weeks—and number three in Australia.


title: Daniel Powter

text: In the United States, "Bad Day" was used extensively on the television series "American Idol" in its fifth season. Powter sang the song live at the end of the final show of that season on May 23, 2006. The song reached number one on the "Billboard" Hot 100, Adult Top 40 and Adult Contemporary charts, making Powter the first solo Canadian male artist to top the Hot 100 since Bryan Adams in 1995 (with "Have You Ever Really Loved a Woman?"). The song also reached number one in Powter's homeland, Canada.


title: Daniel Powter

text: On July 2, 2005, Powter performed at the Berlin installment of Live 8, a simultaneous group of concerts in nine countries intended to raise awareness of poverty in Africa and put pressure on world leaders for aid.


title: Daniel Powter

text: "Bad Day" came in fifth in the British Record of the Year 2005. In 2006, Powter won in the New Artist of the Year category at the Canadian Juno Awards, and was nominated for Best International Breakthrough Act at the BRIT Awards. "Bad Day" was nominated at the 2006 "Billboard" Music Awards for Hot 100 Single of the Year, and was named "Billboard" magazine's song of the year in 2006. At the 2007 Grammy Awards, Powter received a Best Male Pop Vocal Performance nomination for the song.


title: Daniel Powter

text: The subsequent singles from "Daniel Powter" – "Jimmy Gets High", "Free Loop", and "Lie to Me" – were released in different parts of the world, each failing to match the success of "Bad Day". "Free Loop" was deemed chart ineligible in the UK (as the release included a version of "Bad Day" as a B-side whilst "Bad Day" was still in the chart, hence breaking chart rules) and failed to chart in the U.S., though it reached the top forty on the Adult Contemporary chart. Following the release of "Lie to Me", "Jimmy Gets High" was to be the fourth single from the album in the UK, but its release was cancelled. A new track called "Love You Lately" was released as the next U.S. single, preceding a re-release of the album "Daniel Powter" that was also cancelled. Powter was never able to have another major hit after "Bad Day" and never cracked the U.S. Hot 100 again.


title: Daniel Powter

text: In March 2008, a song by Japanese singer Haru featuring Powter, "Find My Way", was released. In September, Powter released his third album, "Under the Radar". This was the same year in which he embarked on the Wolfbaggin' Tour, joining the likes of Alphabeat and Lil Chris.


title: Daniel Powter

text: Powter also performed piano on tracks for what was scheduled to be Marcy Playground frontman John Wozniak's solo album, "Leaving Wonderland... in a Fit of Rage", but the album was released under the band's name. Powter was still given credit for his contributions to the song "Gin and Money".


title: Daniel Powter

text: On March 16, 2009, Powter performed at the Montreux Jazz Festival then in December 2009, Powter was named as the decade's top One-Hit Wonder by "Billboard". The magazine describes one-hit wonders as acts whose second hit did not reach the top 25; they only included acts from 2000 to 2007. In Powter's case, "Bad Day" is his only Hot 100 hit.


title: Daniel Powter

text: On January 1, 2010, he performed "O Canada" at the NHL Winter Classic. In that same year, he released his greatest hits album, "Best of Me", and with it, recorded three new songs and a new version of the title track to go along with 'Bad Day', 'Jimmy Gets High', 'Next Plane Home' and his other singles. Only one was released as a single: 'Lose To Win', on November 10, 2010.


title: Daniel Powter

text: On December 1, 2010, Powter made a tribute to English singer and songwriter John Lennon with his cover version of Happy Xmas (War Is Over). This single was released in Europe, the UK and Japan.


title: Daniel Powter

text: On April 10, 2012, Powter's new single "Cupid" was released to US and Canadian iTunes stores. Powter's latest album, "Turn on the Lights", was released in July 2012.


title: Daniel Powter

text: On June 13, 2012, Powter also made a tribute to L'Arc-en-Ciel with his variation of the song "Stay Away".


title: Daniel Powter

text: On December 5, 2012, Powter was featured in a song with Japanese singer May J. titled "Back To Your Heart". On the 18 he released the single "Christmas Cupid", which is a Christmas version of his song "Cupid".


title: Daniel Powter

text: On June 5, 2013, Powter announced on Twitter that he was working on a new album with Jeff Dawson, who co-produced most of his songs in the past, and John Fields, who was a co-writer on "Crazy All My Life". He also said:I'm writing like I did during the first record. I'm not focusing on singles. Otherwise I would try too hard and end up with garbage sort of like Bad Day. I never thought in my wildest dreams that it was a single. I think that's what writing from your heart is. Just like anything else. When you try too hard, it really isn't worthy of anything... So I stay open and just let the songs write themselves.


title: Daniel Powter

text: On July 15, 2013, Powter performed at the National Association of Drug Court Professionals performing "Bad Day" and "Whole World Around." Matthew Perry also attended the event.


title: Daniel Powter

text: On September 5, 2013, Powter later released 4 new songs as bonus tracks for his album "Turn on the Lights" called Ur My Radio, Doesn't Matter, Cheers To Us and Goodbye.


title: Daniel Powter

text: On January 6, 2017, Powter released a new single called "Delicious" featuring Australian singer Vanessa Amorosi. The music video was uploaded to his official YouTube channel on March 14, 2017.


title: Daniel Powter

text: On December 10, 2017, Powter performed at the President's Star Charity event in Singapore singing Bad Day and joined Sandra Riley Tang in a duet performing her band's song "Save Myself."


title: Daniel Powter

text: On April 6, 2018, Powter released a new single called "Perfect For Me." On April 13, he released his fourth extended play known as "Daniel Powter". There are 4 songs in this album: a remastered remix of Bad Day, Tell Them Who You Are in an acoustic version, his 2017 single "Delicious" and his 2018 single "Perfect For Me."


title: Daniel Powter

text: On September 21, 2018, Powter released a single known as "Do You Wanna Get Lucky" It was followed by another called "Survivor" released on October 26 and Perfect for Me was later re-recorded and released on November 23 for the Asia market.


title: Daniel Powter

text: He released an album called "Giants" on December 14 where songs in the album include the re-recording of "Perfect For Me", "Survivor", "Delicious", re-recordings of "Bad Day", "Free Loop" and "Tell Them Who You Are" (from the EP). A remixed version of "Do You Wanna Get Lucky" is also included known as the Holiday version.


title: Daniel Powter

text: Powter went on to feature with The Untamed Boys, a Chinese pop group, in January 2020, where they released the song "The Beauty of Following Our Hearts." and performed it alongside "Bad Day" while touring in Bangkok, Thailand. Powter also collaborated with other artists in the MOSHIMO Project in May 2020.


title: Daniel Powter

text: On February 3, 2021, Powter was featured in a song called "Save Your Life" with Japanese pop singer Ayaka Hirahara.


title: Daniel Powter

text: Powter performed at TriNet Peopleforce on September 16, 2021, with the new song "Brave" which became downloadable on October 7. Bad Day was later released as a new single on October 30, 2021.


title: Daniel Powter

text: On November 19, 2021, he released his third compilation album known as "The Essential Collection" consisting of 32 songs all from his previous albums: Daniel Powter, B-Sides, Under the Radar and Best of Me.


title: Daniel Powter

text: Powter then collaborated with Patricia Kelly with "Brave" in a duet. This version was released as part of her album "Unbreakable" on December 30, 2021. The music video of the song was later released and added to her YouTube channel on February 19, 2022.


title: Daniel Powter

text: Powter lived in Los Angeles, California for 20 years until 2021, while he currently lives in Oregon. He has three children: two daughters and one son. He is divorced.


title: Daniel Powter

text: Powter disclosed in July 2013 that he was sexually abused by a female babysitter for three years starting from age 7 and turned to drugs and alcohol to get over his guilt and shame. He said in an interviewI thought that (addiction) was my problem. But it wasn’t. That was my solution. It wasn't until I started digging in, taking a look at myself, saying I gotta work on some stuff (that) I don’t want to look at (that I figured it out). My parents didn't know and I was too scared to tell them.


title: Daniel Powter

text: When Powter is not making music he enjoys spending time with his children and his hobbies include fly fishing, yoga, surfing and reading Raymond Carver short stories.


title: Daniel Powter

text: Powter is a fan of the NHL. As a kid he was a fan of the Edmonton Oilers and is now a Los Angeles Kings fan, with season tickets.


title: Daniel Powter

text: Powter spoken of his musical influences growing up:My favourite is Nick Drake. I absolutely adore his music. You know it's still old band music inspired by Elton John's old stuff, you know The Beatles and Fleetwood Mac and David Bowie and the things that my parents gave me when I was a kid. I still listen to those records, because I think for me, what it is that I relate to, is how the structure of the songs are for them, you know, like verses, and choruses, and bridges. And so sometimes the modern music that I hear these days doesn't really have that and I don't relate to it. So I still listen to the old stuff.


title: Akın Akınözü

text: Süreyya Akın Akınözü (born 22 September 1990) is a Turkish actor known for playing Miran Aslanbey in the Turkish TV series "Hercai". He is the son of the actress Özlem Akınözü.


title: Akın Akınözü

text: Akın Akınözü was born on 22 September 1990, in Ankara, Turkey and is the only child of actress Özlem Akınözü and restaurant owner Tamer Akınözü. His maternal grandfather, Süreyya Arın was one of the first TV presenters on TRT (Turkish Radio and Television). His great-uncle Süha Arın is known as "The Father of Turkish Documentaries". Akınözü attended Ankara TED High School and subsequently studied mathematics at the University of California, Berkeley, where he lived for around 6 years before deciding to become an actor.


title: Akın Akınözü

text: Akınözü's performance as Miran in "Hercai" has earned him awards such as: "Best Actor in a Dramatic Series" (24th Golden Lens Awards of the Magazine Journalists Association 2019), and "Best Couple in a TV series", which he shares with "Hercai" co-star Ebru Şahin (Ayaklı Newspaper Awards 2020). He was also awarded the Spanish television station Nova Atresmedia's Premio Nova Mas's Best Male Actor in 2019 and Mister Nova 2019. As of 2021, he shares the lead roles with Öykü Karayel and Sarp Apak in the Star TV drama 'Kaderimin Oyunu'.


title: Genealogy of the Rothschild family

text: The Rothschild family is a European family of German Jewish origin that established European banking and finance houses from the late eighteenth century.


title: Genealogy of the Rothschild family

text: The Rothschild family was founded by Mayer Amschel Rothschild, the "founding father of international finance". Wanting his sons to succeed on their own and to expand the family business across Europe, he had his eldest son remain in Frankfurt, while his four other sons were sent to different European cities with the mission of establishing a financial institution to invest in business and provide banking services. Endogamy within the family was an essential part of the Rothschild strategy in order to ensure control of their wealth remained in family hands. Through their collaborative efforts, the Rothschilds rose to prominence in a variety of banking endeavours including loans, government bonds and trading in bullion. Their financing afforded investment opportunities and during the 19th century they became major stakeholders in large-scale mining and rail transport ventures that were fundamental to the rapidly expanding industrial economies of Europe.


title: Genealogy of the Rothschild family

text: Five lines of the Austrian branch of the family were elevated into the Austrian nobility, being given hereditary baronies of the Habsburg Empire by Emperor Francis II in 1816. The British branch of the family was elevated into the British nobility by Queen Victoria in 1855. Queen Victoria had been disliked the proposal by Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone to raise Lionel de Rothschild to the peerage. However, in 1855, Victoria raised Lionel's son, Nathan Rothschild, 1st Baron Rothschild, to the peerage; he became the first Jewish member of the House of Lords.


title: Genealogy of the Rothschild family

text: Mayer Amschel Rothschild was born in 1744 in the ghetto in Frankfurt. At the age of 13, he went to Hanover to serve an apprenticeship with the bank of Simon Wolf Oppenheimer. At the age of 19, he returned to Frankfurt. There he joined his brother Calmann's money-changing business. He became a dealer in rare coins and won the patronage of Wilhelm IX of Hesse, gaining the title of "court factor". Rothschild's coin business expanded through the provision of banking services to Wilhelm IX. His bank became one of the biggest in Frankfurt.


title: Genealogy of the Rothschild family

text: Salomon Mayer von Rothschild, the second son, went to Austria and established "S M von Rothschild" in Vienna. He married Caroline Stern, with whom he had two children (a daughter and a son).


title: Genealogy of the Rothschild family

text: Nathan Mayer Rothschild, the third son, went to England and settled in Manchester but then moved to London. He first established a textile jobbing business in Manchester and from there went on to establish "N M Rothschild & Sons" in London. He married Hannah Barent Cohen in 1806, with whom he had seven children (three daughters and four sons).


title: Genealogy of the Rothschild family

text: Carl Mayer von Rothschild, the fourth son, went to Naples and established "C M de Rothschild & Figli". He married Adelheid Herz in 1818. With her, he had five children (a daughter and four sons), all of whom married within the family.


title: Genealogy of the Rothschild family

text: James Mayer de Rothschild, the fifth son, went to France and established "de Rothschild Frères" in Paris. He married Betty Salomon de Rothschild, his own niece in 1824. With her, he had five children (a daughter and four sons), four of whom married within the family.


title: Fist bump

text: A fist bump (also known as a bro fist or power five) is a gesture similar in meaning to a handshake or high five. A fist bump can also be a symbol of giving respect or approval, as well as companionship between two people. It can be followed by various other hand and body gestures (such as immediately opening the palm and spreading the fingers for “knucks with explosions”) and may be part of a dap greeting. It is commonly used in sports as a form of celebration with teammates and with opposition players at the beginning or end of a game. Fist bumps are often given as a form of friendly congratulation.


title: Fist bump

text: A fist bump is a gesture in which two people bump their fists together (as in greeting or celebration).


title: Fist bump

text: The gesture is performed when two participants each form a closed fist with one hand and then lightly tap the front of their fists together. A participant's fists may be either vertically oriented (perpendicular to the ground) or horizontally oriented. Unlike the standard handshake, which is typically performed only with each participant's right hand, a fist bump may be performed with participants using either hand.


title: Fist bump

text: The "fist bump" or "pound" in European history can be traced to boxers instructed to touch gloves at the start of a contest. Likewise, dart players bump fists that are clutching pointed mini-arrows. The modern gesture may have arisen spontaneously on city basketball courts, and was popularized by basketball player Fred Carter in the 1970s.


title: Fist bump

text: Others trace the gesture to the Wonder Twins, minor characters in the 1970s Hanna-Barbera superhero cartoon "Super Friends", who touched knuckles and cried "Wonder Twin powers, activate!"


title: Fist bump

text: Baseball Hall of Famer Stan Musial used the fist bump during the 1950–60s as an alternative to shaking hands. Musial was convinced that he was catching too many colds by picking up germs while shaking thousands of hands each year, so he adopted the fist bump as a friendly alternative.


title: Fist bump

text: Smithsonian researcher LaMont Hamilton suggests that the dap originated during the Vietnam War as a modified form of the Black Power salute, which was prohibited by the US military.


title: Fist bump

text: Pat Benatar is seen giving another dancer a fist bump at the end of her 1983 video for the song "Love Is a Battlefield."


title: Fist bump

text: The fist bump was seen in Australia in September 1990 at the Wetherill Park Indoor Cricket Centre between two opening batsmen, Mick Tyler and Bob Minney. At the completion of the first successful batting over for the pair, they met mid-pitch and fist bumped with their batting gloves. They continued to fist bump for the remainder of the game and it continued into the future. Now this act can be seen on various sporting fields/arenas around Australia, and it is now commonly practiced at an international level; many international cricketers fist bump in between overs or as congratulations after a six has been hit.


title: Fist bump

text: In light of the 2009 H1N1 pandemic, the Dean of Medicine at the University of Calgary, Tom Feasby, suggested that the fist bump may be a "nice replacement of the handshake" in an effort to prevent transmission of the virus. Similarly, a medical study has found that fist bumps and high fives spread fewer germs than handshakes.


title: Fist bump

text: Fist bumping behavior has also been observed in chimpanzees, according to a book written by Margaret Power in 1991.


title: Fist bump

text: The COVID-19 pandemic has made the fist bump a common greeting, as shaking hands was discouraged to slow the spread of the virus.


title: Fist bump

text: Because reduced skin contact results in reduced bacterial transfer, a 2014 study has recommended that the fist bump and high five be adopted as a more hygienic alternative to the handshake.


title: Denis Suárez

text: Denis Suárez Fernández (; born 6 January 1994) is a Spanish professional footballer who plays as a midfielder for Celta Vigo.


title: Denis Suárez

text: Born in Salceda de Caselas, Pontevedra, Galicia, Suárez played youth football in his home country for Porriño Industrial and Celta Vigo.


title: Denis Suárez

text: Suárez signed for Manchester City on 23 May 2011. Manchester City beat off interest from Barcelona, Chelsea and rivals Manchester United signing him for an initial fee of £900,000.


title: Denis Suárez

text: Suárez played in the 2011–12 pre-season friendly match against Los Angeles Galaxy, replacing Edin Džeko in 88th minute. He also converted a penalty in the penalty shootout in the same game. He was an unused substitute in the League Cup game against Birmingham City. In the next round of the League Cup, he made his competitive debut for the club when he replaced Samir Nasri in the 67th minute in the 5–2 win against Wolverhampton Wanderers. On 17 May 2012, Suárez starred for Manchester City reserves against Manchester United reserves in Manchester Senior Cup, although Manchester City lost 0–2. In 2012, he was awarded Manchester City's Young Player of the Year as voted for by the fans.


title: Denis Suárez

text: On 22 August 2013, Suárez completed a transfer to Barcelona for an undisclosed fee, signing a four-year contract. During the 2013–14 season he played mostly for Barcelona B in the Spanish Segunda División to continue his development.


title: Denis Suárez

text: In July 2014, Suárez was loaned to Sevilla for two seasons as part of the deal which saw Ivan Rakitić move to Barcelona. He made his competitive debut on 12 August in the 2014 UEFA Super Cup at Cardiff City Stadium, playing 78 minutes before being substituted for José Antonio Reyes in the 0–2 defeat to Real Madrid. On 11 December, he scored the only goal of Sevilla's final Europa League group match against HNK Rijeka, sending the club through at the expense of their Croatian opponents.


title: Denis Suárez

text: On 29 August 2015, Suárez completed a transfer to Villarreal for an undisclosed fee, signing a four-year contract which includes a buy back clause.


title: Denis Suárez

text: On 4 July 2016, Barcelona announced the return of Suárez after exercising the buy back clause. Barcelona paid €3.5 million and Suárez signed a four-year contract, with an option of a further year depending on the number of appearances. In his first season, Suárez managed only 12 La Liga starts.


title: Denis Suárez

text: Suárez has been capped by Spain U17 and has scored two goals for the team, against Moldova and Northern Ireland. He was also a member of the Spain U19 which won the 2012 Under-19 European Championship. Suárez was a 71st-minute substitute in the final against Greece and made six appearances at the Championships, scoring twice and playing 284 minutes.


title: Denis Suárez

text: On 29 May 2016, he made his senior debut coming on as second-half substitute for David Silva in a friendly match against Bosnia and Herzegovina. A week earlier on 20 May, he had represented Galicia in the region's first match for eight years, a 1–1 draw with Venezuela.


title: Law Roach

text: Roach's styling debut was in a Deliciously Vintage boutique, when Kanye West walked into the store in 2009.


title: Law Roach

text: For the 2021 Met Gala, Roach had the opportunity to style 10 celebrities, some include Alton Mason, Kehlani, and Hunter Schafer.


title: Law Roach

text: He currently stars as a permanent judge on the HBO Max show "Legendary" alongside Keke Palmer, Leiomy Maldonado, and Jameela Jamil.


title: Law Roach

text: As a stylist, some of his most well known clients are Celine Dion, Zendaya, Tom Holland, and Ariana Grande. In 2016, Roach was announced as one of the judges for cycle 23 of America’s Next Top Model, alongside Ashley Graham , Rita Ora and Drew Elliott. The following year, he then partnered with Celine Dion to style her for Couture Week in Paris and became the first African American stylist to cover the annual "The Hollywood Reporter’"s Stylist & Stars issue. Dion and Zendaya joined Roach for the cover.


title: Law Roach

text: He will receive the inaugural stylist award for American Fashion at the 2022 CFDA Awards in New York.


title: Law Roach

text: Through a series of Instagram stories in 2021, Roach revealed the death of his three-year old nephew. According to the Chicago Police Department Office of Communications, Law's nephew died on Tuesday, Nov. 23, 2021, about 10:40 p.m. local time, after falling out of a window on the 17th story of a Chicago building with the screen drawn inward.


title: Camp Justice (Iraq)

text: Camp Justice (also known as Camp Al-Adala) was a joint Iraqi-U.S. military base in the Kadhimiya district of Baghdad, Iraq.


title: Camp Justice (Iraq)

text: The location was renamed from "Camp Banzai" in mid-September 2004 as part of an effort to give Army facilities around Baghdad friendlier names.


title: Camp Justice (Iraq)

text: Camp Justice was the location of the 2006 execution of Saddam Hussein; the 2007 hanging of Barzan Ibrahim al-Tikriti, Awad Hamed al-Bandar, and Taha Yassin Ramadan; and the 2010 hanging of Saddam's cousin Ali Hassan al-Majid, a.k.a. Chemical Ali.


title: Camp Justice (Iraq)

text: The former president of Iraq, Saddam Hussein was executed at approximately 03:00 UTC on December 30, 2006. Two weeks later on January 15, 2007, Barzan Ibrahim al-Tikriti, former head of the Iraqi Intelligence Service, and Awad Hamed al-Bandar, former head of the Iraqi Revolutionary Court, were also executed by hanging at this site.


title: Camp Justice (Iraq)

text: Saddam's former deputy and former vice-president, Taha Yassin Ramadan (who was originally sentenced to life in prison on November 5, 2006, but had it changed to a death sentence three months and a week later), was likewise hanged here on March 20, 2007, two months and five days after Barzan's and al-Bandar's execution. Likewise Saddam's cousin Ali Hassan al-Majid (Chemical Ali) was hanged on January 25, 2010 (three years and about a month after his cousin's execution), after receiving four death sentences.


title: Camp Justice (Iraq)

text: Women on Iraq's death row are held at the Shaaba Khamsa death row facility at Camp Justice. As of 2014 the adult women's death row had 36 women as well as children even though the facility was only intended to hold 25 women.


title: Indian National Congress (Organisation)

text: The Indian National Congress (Organisation) also known as Congress (O) or Syndicate/Old Congress was a political party in India formed when the Congress party split following the expulsion of Indira Gandhi.


title: Indian National Congress (Organisation)

text: On 12 November 1969, the Prime Minister of India Indira Gandhi was expelled from the Congress party for violating the party discipline. The party finally split with Indira Gandhi setting up a rival organization "Indian National Congress (Requisitionists)", which came to be known as "Congress (R)" or "Indicate"/"New Congress". In the All India Congress Committee, 446 of its 705 members walked over to Indira's side. K Kamaraj and later Morarji Desai were the leaders of the INC(O).


title: Indian National Congress (Organisation)

text: INC(O) led governments in Bihar under Bhola Paswan Shastri, Karnataka under Veerendra Patil, and in Gujarat under Hitendra K Desai. It was also a part of the Janata Morcha that ruled Gujarat under Babubhai J. Patel from 1975–1976 during the emergency era.


title: Indian National Congress (Organisation)

text: The split can in some ways be seen as a left-wing/right-wing division. Indira wanted to use a populist agenda in order to mobilize popular support for the party. The regional party elites, who formed the INC(O), stood for a more right-wing agenda, and distrusted Soviet help.


title: Indian National Congress (Organisation)

text: In the 1971 general election, the INC(O) won about 10% of the vote and 16 Lok Sabha seats, against 44% of the vote and 352 seats for Indira's Congress. In March 1977, the party fought the post-Emergency election under the banner of Janata Party.


title: Indian National Congress (Organisation)

text: The Janata Party alliance inflicted crushing defeat to Indira's Congress Party. Nevertheless, the total vote share of Congress (O) in 1977 was almost halved from 1971 and they lost three seats.. Later the same year, INC(O) formally merged with the Bharatiya Lok Dal, Bharatiya Jan Sangh, Socialist Party of India, Swatantra Party and others to form the Janata Party. Congress (O)'s leader Morarji Desai served as the fourth Prime Minister of India from 1977 to 1979 which was India's first non-Congress government.


title: Fascism in Europe

text: Fascism in Europe was the set of various fascist ideologies which were practised by governments and political organisations in Europe during the 20th century. Fascism was born in Italy following World War I, and other fascist movements, influenced by Italian Fascism, subsequently emerged across Europe. Among the political doctrines which are identified as ideological origins of fascism in Europe are the combining of a traditional national unity and revolutionary anti-democratic rhetoric which was espoused by the integral nationalist Charles Maurras and revolutionary syndicalist Georges Sorel in France.


title: Fascism in Europe

text: The earliest foundations of fascism in practice can be seen in the Italian Regency of Carnaro, led by the Italian nationalist Gabriele D'Annunzio, many of whose politics and aesthetics were subsequently used by Benito Mussolini and his Italian Fasces of Combat which Mussolini had founded as the "Fasces of Revolutionary Action" in 1914. Despite the fact that its members referred to themselves as "fascists", the ideology was based around national syndicalism. The ideology of fascism would not fully develop until 1921, when Mussolini transformed his movement into the National Fascist Party, which then in 1923 incorporated the Italian Nationalist Association. The INA established fascist tropes such as colored shirt uniforms and also received the support of important proto-fascists like D'Annunzio and nationalist intellectual Enrico Corradini.


title: Fascism in Europe

text: The first declaration of the political stance of fascism was the Fascist Manifesto, written by national syndicalist Alceste De Ambris and futurist poet Filippo Tommaso Marinetti and published in 1919. Many of the policies advanced in the manifesto, such as centralization, abolition of the senate, formation of national councils loyal to the state, expanded military power, and support for militias (Blackshirts, for example) were adopted by Mussolini's regime, while other calls such as universal suffrage and a peaceful foreign policy were abandoned. De Ambris later became a prominent anti-fascist. In 1932, "The Doctrine of Fascism", an essay by Mussolini and Giovanni Gentile, provided an outline of fascism that better represented Mussolini's regime.


title: Fascism in Europe

text: Some scholars assert that the term "fascism" should only be used to mean the ideology of the National Fascist Party under Benito Mussolini in Italy, which ruled from 1922 to 1943. However, other European regimes that showed strong similarities to Mussolini's government are also popularly described as fascist. European parties often described as fascist or being strongly influenced by fascism include:


title: Fascism in Europe

text: These regimes listed did not fully abide by the doctrine of fascism as stated by Mussolini and Gentile. However, all regimes listed presented fascist influence through authoritarianism, use of organised paramilitaries/youth movements loyal to the state, propaganda and rhetoric that opposed liberalism, individualism, democracy, communism, etc., and built their economies around corporatism. These are all elements of governing popularised by Mussolini. The use of the Roman Salute and coloured shirt uniforms used by most of these regimes also shows how the aesthetics established by the National Fascist Party became adopted throughout Europe.


title: Fascism in Europe

text: There were multiple regimes in Romania that were influenced by fascism. These include the National Christian Party under Octavian Goga (1938), Party of the Nation under Ion Gigurtu (1940) and the National Legionary State which was led by the Iron Guard under Horia Sima in conjunction with the Romanian military dictatorship under Ion Antonescu (1940–1941). The first two of these regimes were not completely fascist however used fascism to appeal to the growing far-right sympathies amongst the populace. The military dictatorship of Ion Antonescu (1941–1944) is also often considered fascist.


title: Fascism in Europe

text: Prior to and during the Second World War, Nazi Germany imposed numerous fascist/fascist related regimes across occupied Europe, these may not fully espouse the form of fascism established by Mussolini however they were authoritarian, nationalist, anti-communist and staunchly pro-Axis powers:


title: Fascism in Europe

text: There were also a number of political movements active in Europe that were influenced in part by some features of Mussolini's regime. These include: Le Faisceau, British Fascists, British Union of Fascists, Imperial Fascist League, Blueshirts, French National-Collectivist Party, Breton National Party, Falange Española, Black Front, National Syndicalist Movement, Verdinaso, Nationale Front, Greek National Socialist Party, Vlajka, National Fascist Community, ONR-Falanga, Patriotic People's Movement, Pērkonkrusts, Union of Bulgarian National Legions, Ratniks and the Russian Fascist Party (based in Manchuria).


title: Fascism in Europe

text: Prominent figures associated with European fascism outside of the Axis include Oswald Mosley, Rotha Lintorn-Orman, José Antonio Primo de Rivera, Joris Van Severen, Corneliu Zelea Codreanu, Francisco Rolão Preto, Hristo Lukov, Aleksandar Tsankov, Bolesław Piasecki, Radola Gajda, Eoin O'Duffy, Sven Olov Lindholm, Vihtori Kosola and Konstantin Rodzaevsky.


title: Fascism in Europe

text: Other right-wing/far-right political parties such as the German National People's Party, CEDA, Party of Hungarian Life, Union of Mladorossi and the Fatherland League lacked the ideology of fascism but adopted some fascist characteristics. Far-right politicians like Alfred Hugenberg, José María Gil-Robles and Gyula Gömbös represent fascism's influence on the right with these leaders adopting an ultra-nationalist and authoritarian rhetoric influenced by Mussolini and later Hitler's successes.


title: Fascism in Europe

text: The nationalism espoused by these groups contrasted the internationalist focus of communism; there was little coordination between fascist movements prior to the Second World War however there was an attempt at unifying European fascists. The 1934 Montreux Fascist conference was a meeting held by members of a number of European fascist parties and movements and was organised by the Comitati d'Azione per l'Universalità di Roma which received support from Mussolini. The first conference was open to many perspectives and failed to develop any unity amidst the many ideological conflicts among the delegates. The second conference was equally ineffective and more meetings were attempted.


title: Fascism in Europe

text: After the Second World War, most fascist regimes or regimes influenced by fascism were dismantled by the victors, with only those in Spain and Portugal surviving, both of which remained neutral during the war. Parties, movements or politicians who carried the label "fascist" quickly became political pariahs with many nations across Europe banning any organisations or references relating to fascism and Nazism. With this came the rise of Neo-Fascism, movements like the Italian Social Movement, Socialist Reich Party and Union Movement attempted to continue fascism's legacy but failed to become mass movements.


title: Fascism in Europe

text: European fascism influenced movements in the Americas. Both North America and South America would develop fascistic political groups rooted in the local European descended communities. These included the Chilean Nacistas, Brazilian Integralist Action, Argentine Civic Legion, Peruvian Revolutionary Union, National Synarchist Union, Revolutionary Mexicanist Action and the Silver Legion of America along with figures like Plínio Salgado, Gustavo Barroso, González von Marées, Salvador Abascal, Nicolás Carrasco, William Dudley Pelley and Adrien Arcand. Some historians also consider Argentine president Juan Perón and his ideology, Peronism as being influenced by European fascism, however, this has been disputed. Brazilian president, Getúlio Vargas, and his corporate regime known as the "New State" was also influenced by Mussolini's rule. European fascism was also influential in the European diaspora elsewhere in the world, in Australia Eric Campbell's Centre Party and the South African fascist movement, which included Oswald Pirow, being examples of this.


title: Fascism in Europe

text: The rise of fascist activities and violence across Europe prompted governments to enact regulations to limit disturbances caused by fascists and other extremists. In a 1937 study, Karl Loewenstein provides the following list of examples:


title: Fascism in Europe

text: In the interwar period many parties which in historiography are referred to as fascist, proto-fascist, para-fascist, quasi-fascist, fascist-like, fascistic, fascistoid or fascistized participated in general elections organized in their respective countries. Though in numerous cases the fascist denomination is doubted (e.g. in case of the Belgian Christus Rex or the Greek National Union), electoral results obtained demonstrate their scale of popular support among the population. The best-ever performance of such parties in specific countries is given in the below table.


title: Fascism in Europe

text: Outcome of theoretically multi-party elections which were clearly manipulated is ignored as unrepresentative for genuine support which the party enjoyed, e.g. the result of Partito Nazionale Fascista in Italy of 1924.


title: Fascism in Europe

text: In case of some countries the lifetime of a fascistoid party did not overlap with reasonably free general elections, though the party might have fared well in other elections, e.g. in local elections in Bulgaria of 1934 Народно социално движение gained 12% of the votes, in local elections of Estonia in 1934 Eesti Vabadussõjalaste Kesklii won absolute majority of seats in 3 largest cities, while in local elections of France in 1938–1939 Parti Social Français garnered some 15% of the votes. Some parties, like National Corporate Party in Ireland or Le Faisceau in France existed so briefly that they hardly managed to take part in any type of elections.


title: Fascism in Europe

text: In some countries fascist parties ignored electoral competition, like British Union of Fascists did in case of the UK elections of 1935. At times fascist parties abstained since elections were considered manipulated, like in case of Obóz Narodowo-Radykalny in Polish elections of 1935.


title: Fascism in Europe

text: Mussolini and Adolf Hitler were not always allies. While Mussolini wanted the expansion of fascist ideology throughout the world, he did not initially appreciate Hitler and the Nazi Party. Hitler was an early admirer of Mussolini and asked for Mussolini's guidance on how the Nazis could pull off their own March on Rome. Mussolini did not respond to Hitler's requests as he did not have much interest in Hitler's movement and regarded Hitler to be somewhat crazy. Mussolini did attempt to read "Mein Kampf" to find out what Hitler's Nazism was, but he was immediately disappointed, saying that "Mein Kampf" was "a boring tome that I have never been able to read" and claimed that Hitler's beliefs were "little more than commonplace clichés".


title: Fascism in Europe

text: Hitler and the Nazi Party in 1922 had praised the rise to power of Mussolini and sought a German-Italian alliance. Upon Mussolini's rise to power, the Nazis declared their admiration and emulation of the Italian Fascists, with Nazi member Hermann Esser in November 1922 saying that "what a group of brave men in Italy have done, we can also do in Bavaria. We’ve also got Italy's Mussolini: his name is Adolf Hitler".


title: Fascism in Europe

text: The second part of Hitler's "Mein Kampf" ("The National Socialist Movement", 1926) contains this passage:


title: Fascism in Europe

text: In a 1931 interview, Hitler spoke admirably about Mussolini, commending Mussolini's racial origins as being the same as that of Germans and claimed at the time that Mussolini was capable of building an Italian Empire that would outdo the Roman Empire and that he supported Mussolini's endeavors, saying:


title: Fascism in Europe

text: Mussolini had personal reasons to oppose antisemitism as his longtime mistress and Fascist propaganda director Margherita Sarfatti was Jewish. She had played an important role in the foundation of the fascist movement in Italy and promoting it to Italians and the world through supporting the arts. However, within the Italian fascist movement there were a minority who endorsed Hitler's antisemitism as Roberto Farinacci, who was part of the far-right wing of the party.


title: Fascism in Europe

text: There were also nationalist reasons why Germany and Italy were not immediate allies. Habsburg Austria (Hitler's birthplace) had an antagonistic relationship with Italy since it was formed, largely because Austria-Hungary had seized most of the territories once belonging to Italian states such as Venice. Italian irredentist claims sought the return of these lands to Italian rule ("Italia irredenta"). Although initially neutral, Italy entered World War I on the side of the Allies against Germany and Austria-Hungary when promised several territories (Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol, Trieste, Istria and Dalmatia). After the war had ended, Italy was rewarded with these territories under the terms of the 1919 Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye.


title: Fascism in Europe

text: In Germany and Austria, the annexation of Alto Adige/South Tyrol was controversial as the province was made up of a large majority of German speakers. While Hitler did not pursue this claim, many in the Nazi Party felt differently. In 1939, Mussolini and Hitler agreed on the South Tyrol Option Agreement. When Mussolini's government collapsed in 1943 and the Italian Social Republic was created, Alto Adige/South Tyrol was annexed to Nazi Greater Germany, but was restored to Italy after the war.


title: Fascism in Europe

text: The most striking difference is the racialist ideology which was the central priority of Nazism, but not a priority of the other ideologies. Fascism was founded on the principle of nationalist unity which opposed the divisionist class war ideologies of Marxist socialism and communism; therefore, the majority of the regimes viewed racialism as counterproductive to unity, with Mussolini asserting: that "National pride has no need of the delirium of race".


title: Fascism in Europe

text: Nazism differed from Italian fascism in that it had a stronger emphasis on race in terms of social and economic policies. Though both ideologies denied the significance of the individual, Italian fascism saw the individual as subservient to the state whereas Nazism saw the individual as well as the state as ultimately subservient to the race. However, subservience to the Nazi state was also a requirement on the population. Mussolini's fascism held that cultural factors existed to serve the state and that it was not necessarily in the state's interest to interfere in cultural aspects of society. The only purpose of government in Mussolini's fascism was to uphold the state as supreme above all else, a concept which can be described as statolatry.


title: Fascism in Europe

text: Unlike Hitler, Mussolini repeatedly changed his views on the issue of race according to the circumstances of the time. In 1921, Mussolini promoted the development of the Italian race such as when he said this:


title: Fascism in Europe

text: Like Hitler, Mussolini publicly declared his support of a eugenics policy to improve the status of Italians in 1926 to the people of Reggio Emilia:


title: Fascism in Europe

text: In a 1921 speech in Bologna, Mussolini stated the following: "Fascism was born [...] out of a profound, perennial need of this our Aryan and Mediterranean race". In this speech, Mussolini was referring to Italians as being the Mediterranean branch of the Aryan race, Aryan in the meaning of people of an Indo-European language and culture. However, Italian fascism initially strongly rejected the common Nordicist conception of the Aryan race that idealized "pure" Aryans as having certain physical traits that were defined as Nordic such as blond hair and blue eyes. The antipathy by Mussolini and other Italian fascists to Nordicism was over the existence of the Mediterranean inferiority complex that had been instilled into Mediterraneans by the propagation of such theories by German and Anglo-Saxon Nordicists who viewed Mediterranean peoples as racially degenerate and thus inferior. Mussolini refused to allow Italy to return again to this inferiority complex.


title: Fascism in Europe

text: In a private conversation with Emil Ludwig in 1932, Mussolini derided the concept of a biologically superior race and denounced racism as being a foolish concept. Mussolini did not believe that race alone was that significant. Mussolini viewed himself as a modern-day Roman Emperor, the Italians as a cultural elite and he also wished to "Italianise" the parts of the Italian Empire which he had desired to build. A cultural superiority of Italians, rather than a view of racialism. Mussolini believed that the development of a race was insignificant in comparison to the development of a culture, but he did believe that a race could be improved through moral development, though he did not say that this would make a superior race:


title: Fascism in Europe

text: Mussolini believed that a biologically superior race was not possible, but that a more developed culture's superiority over the less developed ones warranted the destruction of the latter, such as the culture of Ethiopia and the neighboring Slavic cultures, such as those in Slovenia and Croatia. He took advantage of the fact that no undertaking was made with regard to the rights of minorities (such as those that lived in Istria and Trieste's surroundings) in either the Treaty of Rapallo or the Treaty of Rome; and after 1924's Treaty of Rome these same treaties did not make any undertaking with regard to the rights of the minorities that lived in Rijeka. Croatian, Slovene, German and French toponyms were systematically Italianized.


title: Fascism in Europe

text: Against ethnic Slovenes, he imposed an especially violent fascist Italianization policy. To Italianize ethnic Slovene and Croatian children, Fascist Italy brought Italian teachers from Southern Italy to the ex Austro-Hungarian territories that had been given to Italy in exchange for its decision to join Great Britain in World War I such as Slovene Littoral and a big part of western Slovenia while Slovene and Croatian teachers, poets, writers, artists, and clergy were exiled to Sardinia and Southern Italy. Acts of fascist violence were not hampered by the authorities, such as the burning down of the Narodni dom (Community Hall of ethnic Slovenes in Trieste) in Trieste, which was carried out at night by fascists with the connivance of the police on 13 July 1920.


title: Fascism in Europe

text: After the complete destruction of all Slovene minority cultural, financial, and other organizations and the continuation of violent fascist Italianization policies of ethnic cleansing, one of the first anti-fascist organizations in Europe, TIGR, emerged in 1927, and it coordinated the Slovene resistance against Fascist Italy until it was dismantled by the fascist secret police in 1941, after which some ex-TIGR members joined the Slovene Partisans.


title: Fascism in Europe

text: For Mussolini, the inclusion of people in a fascist society depended upon their loyalty to the state. Meetings between Mussolini and Arab dignitaries from the colony of Libya convinced him that the Arab population was worthy enough to be given extensive civil rights and as a result, he allowed Muslims to join a Muslim section of the Fascist Party, namely the Muslim Association of the Lictor. However, under pressure from Nazi Germany, the fascist regime eventually embraced a racist ideology, such as promoting the belief that Italy was settling Africa in order to create a white civilization there and it imposed five-year prison sentences on any Italians who were caught having sexual or marital relationships with native Africans. Against those colonial peoples who were not loyal, vicious campaigns of repression were waged such as in Ethiopia, where native Ethiopian settlements were burned to the ground by the Italian armed forces in 1937. Under fascism, native Africans were allowed to join the Italian armed forces as colonial troops and they also appeared in fascist propaganda.


title: Fascism in Europe

text: At least in its overt ideology, the Nazi movement believed that the existence of a class-based society was a threat to its survival, and as a result, it wanted to unify the racial element above the established classes, but the Italian fascist movement sought to preserve the class system and uphold it as the foundation of an established and desirable culture. Nevertheless, the Italian fascists did not reject the concept of social mobility and a central tenet of the fascist state was meritocracy, yet fascism also heavily based itself on corporatism, which was supposed to supersede class conflicts. Despite these differences, Kevin Passmore (2002 p. 62) observes: There are sufficient similarities between Fascism and Nazism to make it worthwhile by applying the concept of fascism to both. In Italy and Germany, a movement came to power that sought to create national unity through the repression of national enemies and the incorporation of all classes and both genders into a permanently mobilized nation.


title: Fascism in Europe

text: Nazi ideologues such as Alfred Rosenburg were highly skeptical of the Italian race and fascism, but he believed that the improvement of the Italian race was possible if major changes were made to convert it into an acceptable "Aryan" race and he also said that the Italian fascist movement would only succeed if it purified the Italian race into an Aryan one. Nazi theorists believed that the downfall of the Roman Empire was due to the interbreeding of different races which created a "polluted" Italian race that was inferior.


title: Fascism in Europe

text: Hitler believed this and he also believed that Mussolini represented an attempt to revive the pure elements of the former Roman civilization, such as the desire to create a strong and aggressive Italian people. However, Hitler was still audacious enough when meeting Mussolini for the first time in 1934 to tell him that all Mediterranean peoples were "tainted" by "Negro blood" and thus in his racist view they were degenerate.


title: Fascism in Europe

text: Relations between Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany were initially poor but they deteriorated even further after the assassination of Austria's fascist chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss by Austrian Nazis in 1934. Under Dollfuss Austria was a key ally of Mussolini and Mussolini was deeply angered by Hitler's attempt to take over Austria and he expressed it by angrily mocking Hitler's earlier remark on the impurity of the Italian race by declaring that a "Germanic" race did not exist and he also indicated that Hitler's repression of Germany's Jews proved that the Germans were not a pure race:


title: Fascism in Europe

text: Italian Fascism was expansionist in its desires, looking to create a New Roman Empire. Nazi Germany was even more aggressive in expanding its borders in violation of the 1919 Treaty of Versailles. The Nazis murdered the Austrofascist dictator Dollfuss, causing an uneasy relationship in Austria between fascism and Nazism at an early stage. Italian nationalist and pan-German claims clashed over the issue of Tyrol.


title: Fascism in Europe

text: In the 1920s, Hitler with only a small Nazi party at the time wanted to form an alliance with Mussolini's regime as he recognized that his pan-German nationalism was seen as a threat by Italy. In Hitler's unpublished sequel to "Mein Kampf", he attempts to address concerns among Italian fascists about Nazism. In the book, Hitler puts aside the issue of Germans in Tyrol by explaining that overall Germany and Italy have more in common than not and that the Tyrol Germans must accept that it is in Germany's interests to be allied with Italy. Hitler claims that Germany, like Italy, was subjected to oppression by its neighbours and he denounces the Austrian Empire as having oppressed Italy from completing national unification just as France oppressed Germany from completing its national unification. Hitler's denunciation of Austria in the book is important because Italian fascists were skeptical about him due to the fact that he was born in Austria which Italy had considered to be its primary enemy for centuries and Italy saw Germany as an ally of Austria. By declaring that the Nazi movement was not interested in the territorial legacy of the Austrian Empire, this is a way to assure the Italian fascists that Hitler, the Nazi movement and Germany were not enemies of Italy.


title: Fascism in Europe

text: Despite public attempts of goodwill by Hitler towards Mussolini, Germany and Italy came into conflict in 1934 when Engelbert Dollfuss, the Austrofascist leader of Italy's ally Austria, was assassinated by Austrian Nazis on Hitler's orders in preparation for a planned Anschluss (annexation of Austria). Mussolini ordered troops to the Austrian-Italian border in readiness for war against Germany. Hitler backed down and defer plans to annex Austria.


title: Fascism in Europe

text: When Hitler and Mussolini first met, Mussolini referred to Hitler as "a silly little monkey" before the Allies forced Mussolini into an agreement with Hitler. Mussolini also reportedly asked Pope Pius XII to excommunicate Hitler. From 1934 to 1936, Hitler continually attempted to win the support of Italy and the Nazi regime endorsed the Italian invasion of Ethiopia (leading to Ethiopia's annexation as Italian East Africa) while the League of Nations condemned Italian aggression. With other countries opposing Italy, the fascist regime had no choice but to draw closer to Nazi Germany. Germany joined Italy in supporting the Nationalists under Francisco Franco with forces and supplies in the Spanish Civil War.


title: Fascism in Europe

text: Later, Germany and Italy signed the Anti-Comintern Pact committing the two regimes to oppose the Comintern and Soviet communism. By 1938, Mussolini allowed Hitler to carry out Anschluss in exchange for official German renunciation of claims to Tyrol. Mussolini supported the annexation of the Sudetenland during the Munich Agreement talks later the same year.


title: Fascism in Europe

text: In 1939, the Pact of Steel was signed, officially creating an alliance of Germany and Italy. The Nazi official newspaper "Völkischer Beobachter" published articles extolling the mutually benefit of the alliance:


title: Fascism in Europe

text: Hitler and Mussolini recognized commonalities in their politics and the second part of Hitler's "Mein Kampf" ("The National Socialist Movement", 1926) contains this passage:


title: Fascism in Europe

text: Both regimes despised France (seen as an enemy which held territories claimed by both Germany and Italy) and Yugoslavia (seen by the Nazis as a racially degenerate Slavic state and holding lands such as Dalmatia claimed by the Italian fascists). Fascist territorial claims on Yugoslav territory meant that Mussolini saw the destruction of Yugoslavia as essential for Italian expansion. Hitler viewed Slavs as racially inferior, but he did not see importance in an immediate invasion of Yugoslavia, instead focusing on the threat from the Soviet Union.


title: Fascism in Europe

text: Mussolini favored using the extremist Croatian nationalist Ustaše as a useful tool to tear down the Serbian-ruled Yugoslavia. In 1941, the Italian military campaign in Greece (the Greco-Italian War, called the Battle of Greece for the period after the German intervention) was failing. Hitler reluctantly began the Balkan Campaign with the invasion of Yugoslavia. German, Italian, Bulgarian, Hungarian and Croatian insurgents (under the Axis puppet Independent State of Croatia) decisively defeated Yugoslavia.


title: Fascism in Europe

text: In the aftermath, with the exception of Serbia and Vardar Macedonia, most of Yugoslavia was reshaped based on Italian fascist foreign policy objectives. Mussolini demanded and received much of Dalmatia from the Croats in exchange for supporting the independence of Croatia. Mussolini's policy of creating an independent Croatia prevailed over Hitler's anti-Slavism and eventually, the Nazis and the Ustashe regime of Croatia would develop closer bonds due to the Ustashe's brutal effectiveness at suppressing Serb dissidents.


title: Fascism in Europe

text: The question of religion also poses considerable conflicting differences as some forms of fascism, particularly the Fatherland Front and National Union that were devoutly Catholic. The occultist and pagan elements of Nazi ideology were very hostile to the traditional Christianity found in the vast majority of fascist movements of the 20th century.


title: Phir Bhi Dil Hai Hindustani

text: Phir Bhi Dil Hai Hindustani () is a 2000 Indian Hindi-language satirical film released by Dreamz Unlimited (now Red Chillies Entertainment). The producers derived the title from lines of the song "Mera Joota Hai Japani" from "Shree 420" (1955). Aziz Mirza directed Shah Rukh Khan and Juhi Chawla, focusing on the TV media wars. Ajay Bakshi and Ria Banerjee are two television reporters for rival news channels who try to save the life of a man who has been fixed by politicians for the death of his brother, from a death sentence. The film marked the first attempted by Khan, Chawla, and Mirza under their new production company Dreamz Unlimited, now Red Chillies Entertainment. This film won the IIFA Award for Best Special Effects.


title: Phir Bhi Dil Hai Hindustani

text: Ajay Bakshi (Shah Rukh Khan) is a successful loudmouthed reporter, working for a reputed news channel. The rival news channel ropes in Ria Banerjee (Juhi Chawla) to bring him down. Ria is the antithesis of Ajay and uses her intelligence, charm and wits to get her work done.


title: Phir Bhi Dil Hai Hindustani

text: Pappu Junior alias Choti (Johnny Lever) is a don who is to be ousted from his own gang, owing to his inability to make it big in the crime world. Ajay approaches Choti with an offer: arrange a fake attack on minister Ramakant Dua's (Shakti Kapoor) brother-in-law Madanlal Gupta (Mahavir Shah), on national TV. Choti will earn respect & Ajay's channel will gain ratings. Little does Ajay know that the plan is going to turn too real.


title: Phir Bhi Dil Hai Hindustani

text: Ramakant Dua's brother-in-law is gunned down by an assailant named Mohan Joshi (Paresh Rawal). Minister Ramakant takes advantage of his brother-in-law's death to gain votes and sympathy; he also instigates a pogrom to ensure his position in the government. Ajay and Ria start getting along as they work together to cover the city riots. Mohan is arrested and to avoid public unrest, the Police Commissioner declares that Mohan is a foreign terrorist. Mohan escapes jail and hides in Ajay and Ria's car.


title: Phir Bhi Dil Hai Hindustani

text: When Mohan accosts them, Ajay accuses him of being a terrorist. Mohan yells that he is not and tells the two his story: Mohan had a happy family with a wife (Neena Kulkarni) and daughter. One day, his daughter went for an interview and Ramakant's brother-in-law raped and beat her. She died from the trauma and as no lawyer was willing to fight the case due to the perpetrator's political power, Mohan was left helpless, running from door to door for justice. Hence hopeless, he took the law into his own hands and killed the rapist.


title: Phir Bhi Dil Hai Hindustani

text: Ajay and Ria decide to help Mohan, who sees them as his own kids and helps them realize their love for each other. Ajay hands over the videotape of Mohan's confession to his boss and uncle Kaka (Satish Shah). Unfortunately, the minister has joined hands with rival minister Mushran (Govind Namdeo) as he fears that their secrets might come out if Mohan's truth is revealed. Ajay's boss forms an alliance with Ria's boss Chinoy (Dalip Tahil). The ministers and channel heads come together and trick Ajay and Ria into giving them the tape.


title: Phir Bhi Dil Hai Hindustani

text: When Mohan is arrested and sentenced to be publicly hanged, Ajay and Ria realize they were tricked. They work together with Choti to get the tape back. Ajay succeeds in broadcasting Mohan's confession just an hour before Mohan's execution and tearfully requests the nation to stop this injustice.