title: Mount Panorama Circuit

text: The inaugural race held at the Mount Panorama Circuit was the 1938 Junior Tourist Trophy for motorcycles. Mount Panorama hosted the Australian motorcycle Grand Prix nine times in the era before the event became part of the world championship.


title: Mount Panorama Circuit

text: The Australian Grand Prix was held at the circuit in 1938, 1947, 1952 and 1958. The 1938 race was the first major event held at the circuit after opening. The circuit also hosted the first post-World War II Australian Grand Prix in 1947, with the event then rotating between Australian states before returning in 1952 and 1958.


title: Mount Panorama Circuit

text: The circuit has been home to one of the world's classic endurance events, the Bathurst 1000, since 1963. This was the continuation of the event which began in 1960 at the Phillip Island Grand Prix Circuit in Victoria. The race was 500 miles between its start at Phillip Island in 1960, and from 1963 to 1972 at Bathurst, before being changed to its current 1000 km format in 1973. Since 1999, the Bathurst 1000 has also become a round of the V8 Supercars (formerly Australian Touring Car Championship) calendar.


title: Mount Panorama Circuit

text: In addition to the Bathurst 1000, the circuit has hosted seven sprint rounds of the ATCC; in 1966, 1969, 1970, 1972, 1995, 1996, and 2021. The 1972 round has been considered one of the greatest races in championship history due to the close battle between Ian Geoghegan's Ford XY Falcon GTHO Phase III and Allan Moffat's Ford Boss 302 Mustang.


title: Mount Panorama Circuit

text: In more recent years, the circuit has also hosted longer endurance races including the Bathurst 24 Hour (2003–04) and the Bathurst 12 Hour (1991–94, 2007–2020, 2022-) Since 2011, the Bathurst 12 Hour has become a FIA GT3 race, and became a part of the inaugural Intercontinental GT Challenge in 2016. The other major event currently held at the circuit is the Bathurst Motor Festival at Easter, which includes the newly launched Bathurst 6 Hour as of 2016.


title: Mount Panorama Circuit

text: The first motorsport event was a speed hillclimb held from Mountain Straight up to Reid Park. This event is still held today as a round of the New South Wales Hillclimb Championship.


title: Mount Panorama Circuit

text: In 2008, the circuit hosted the IGSA Gravity Sports World Championships: skateboard downhill and street luge downhill. The race began at Skyline and ended at Conrod Straight.


title: Mount Panorama Circuit

text: Sixteen competitors have died during racing associated with Mount Panorama, including 1967 World Drivers' Champion Denny Hulme who died after suffering a fatal heart attack while at the wheel of his car. Two spectators were also killed in 1955 after being struck by a crashing car.


title: Ra Mi-ran

text: Before making her film debut in "Lady Vengeance" (2005), Ra Mi-ran spent years acting in theatre. Afterwards, she appeared in more than 40 films but did not receive acclaim or public recognition until she starred in "Dancing Queen" (2012), with one review calling her "the standout" as the protagonist's best friend and hairdresser.


title: Ra Mi-ran

text: She is most prolific as a supporting actress, notably in Lee Joon-ik's "Hope" (2013), for which her portrayal of a young boy's mother won Best Supporting Actress at the 34th Blue Dragon Film Awards; as well as "The Himalayas" (2015), for which she won Best Supporting Actress at the 52nd Baeksang Arts Awards. She was also noted as a scene stealer in the hit cable drama "Reply 1988" (2015).


title: Ra Mi-ran

text: Ra was also praised in her leading role as a North Korean defector in Jeon Kyu-hwan's indie 'Dance Town' (2011), with Variety calling it "riveting" and "a landmark performance."


title: Ra Mi-ran

text: Though the reality show 'Sister's Slam Dunk", she, along with cast members: Min Hyo Rin, Kim Sook, Hong Jin Kyung, Jessi, and Tiffany. They debuted as a girl group with the oldest average age in kpop history, under the name 'Unnies'.


The Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act, 2013 is a legislative act in India that seeks to protect women from sexual harassment at their place of work. It was passed by the Lok Sabha (the lower house of the Indian Parliament) on 3 September 2012. It was passed by the Rajya Sabha (the upper house of the Indian Parliament) on 26 February 2013. The Bill got the assent of the President on 23 April 2013. The Act came into force from 9 December 2013. This statute superseded the Vishaka Guidelines for Prevention Of Sexual Harassment (POSH) introduced by the Supreme Court (SC) of India. It was reported by the International Labour Organization that very few Indian employers were compliant to this statute. Most Indian employers have not implemented the law despite the legal requirement that any workplace with more than 10 employees need to implement it. According to a FICCI-EY November 2015 report, 36% of Indian companies and 25% among MNCs are not compliant with the Sexual Harassment Act, 2013. The government has threatened to take stern action against employers who fail to comply with this law.


title: Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act, 2013

text: "An Act to provide protection against sexual harassment of women at workplace and for the prevention and redressal of complaints of sexual harassment and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto.WHEREAS sexual harassment results in violation of the fundamental rights of a woman to equality under articles 14 and 15 of the Constitution of India and her right to life and to live with dignity under article 21 of the Constitution and right to practice any profession or to carry on any occupation, trade or business which includes a right to a safe environment free from sexual harassment;AND WHEREAS the protection against sexual harassment and the right to work with dignity are universally recognised human rights by international conventions and instruments such as Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women, which has been ratified on the 25th June, 1993 by the Government of India;AND WHEREAS it is expedient to make provisions for giving effect to the said Convention for protection of women against sexual harassment at workplace."


text: The Act will ensure that women are protected against sexual harassment at all the work places, be it in public or private. This will contribute to realisation of their right to gender equality, life and liberty and equality in working conditions everywhere. The sense of security at the workplace will improve women's participation in work, resulting in their economic empowerment and inclusive growth.


text: This Act was essentially derived from the Vishaka Guidelines. The Vishaka Guidelines were certain procedures to be followed in cases of workplace sexual abuse. These guidelines were formulated after the landmark case "Vishaka and others v. State of Rajasthan." This case was brought to the Supreme Court because of the sheer inability of the High Court of Rajasthan to provide justice to Bhanwari Devi who was part of Women's Development Program of the Rajasthan Government. She was brutally gang raped for stopping a child marriage being conducted in a town. This was a part of her duties as a member of the Development Program to stop any illegal activity conducted against children and women. Moreover, this Act uses the definition of sexual harassment laid down by the Supreme Court in "Vishakha and others v State of Rajasthan."


text: Article 19 (1) g of the Indian Constitution affirms the right of all citizens to be employed in any profession of their choosing or to practice their own trade or business. This case established that actions resulting in a violation of one's rights to ‘Gender Equality’ and ‘Life and Liberty’ are in fact a violation of the victim's fundamental right under Article 19 (1) g. The case ruling established that sexual harassment violates a woman's rights in the workplace and is thus not just a matter of personal injury. This case ruling had issued Vishaka guidelines under Article 32 of the Constitution of India. The Supreme Court had made it mandatory that these had to be followed by all origination until a legislative framework on the subject has been drawn-up and enacted. However, the legislative void continued and the Supreme Court in Apparel Export Promotion Council v. A.K Chopra ((1999) 1 SCC 759) reiterated the law laid down in the Vishakha Judgment. Dr. Medha Kotwal of Aalochana (an NGO) highlighted a number of individual cases of sexual harassment stating that the Vishakha Guidelines were not being effectively implemented. Converting the letter into a writ petition, the Supreme Court took cognizance and undertook monitoring of implementation of the Vishakha Guidelines across the country. The Supreme Court asserted that in case of a non-compliance or non-adherence of the Vishakha Guidelines, it would be open to the aggrieved persons to approach the respective High Courts.


text: The legislative progress of the Act was a long process where the Bill was first introduced by women and child development minister Krishna Tirath in 2007 and approved by the Union Cabinet in January 2010. It was tabled in the Lok Sabha in December 2010 and referred to the Parliamentary Standing Committee on Human Resources Development. The committee's report was published on 30 November 2011. In May 2012, the Union Cabinet approved an amendment to include domestic workers. The amended Bill was finally passed by the Lok Sabha on 3 September 2012. The Bill was passed by the Rajya Sabha (the upper house of the Indian Parliament) on 26 February 2013. It received the assent of the President of India and was published in the Gazette of India, Extraordinary, Part-II, Section-1, dated 23 April 2013 as Act No. 14 of 2013.


text: Through the Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2013, Section 354 A was added to the Indian Penal Code that stipulates what consists of a sexual harassment offence and what the penalties shall be for a man committing such an offence. Penalties range from one to three years imprisonment and/or a fine. Additionally, with sexual harassment being a crime, employers are obligated to report offences.


text: Brinda Karat, serving in the Rajya Sabha as a Communist Party of India (Marxist) member for West Bengal, initially complained that the Bill does not cover women in the armed forces and excludes women agricultural workers, "a gross injustice to agricultural workers who are the single largest female component of work force in the country." However, the final bill includes the clause "No woman shall be subjected to sexual harassment at any workplace" (clause 3.1), and is considered to have addressed those concerns. In the May 2012 draft Bill, the burden of proof is on the women who complain of harassment. If found guilty of making a false complaint or giving false evidence, she could be prosecuted, which has raised concerns about women being even more afraid of reporting offences. Before seeing the final version of the bill, lawyer and activist Vrinda Grover said, "I hope the Bill does not have provisions for penalizing the complainant for false complaints. This is the most under-reported crime. Such provision will deter a woman to come forward and complain." Zakia Soman, a women's rights campaigner at ActionAid India said that "it helps to have a law and we welcome it, but the crux will lie in its implementation once it is enacted."


text: Manoj Mitta of The Times of India complained that Bill does not protect men, saying it "is based on the premise that only female employees needed to be safeguarded." Nishith Desai Associates, a law group, wrote a detailed analysis that included concerns about the role of the employer in sexual harassment cases. They called out the fact that there is no stipulated liability for employers in cases of employee-to-employee harassment, something upheld in many other countries. They also viewed the provision that employers are obligated to address grievances in a timely manner at the workplace as problematic because of potentially uncooperative employees. Furthermore, the law requires a third-party non-governmental organisation to be involved, which could make employers less comfortable in reporting grievances, due to confidentiality concerns.


text: Compliance to this statute has so far been left to the vagaries of the employers and government has not taken any significant step to enforce the law so far. For example, 6 months after the law came into effect, the state in UP remained dreadful as women could not participate in the workforce due to sexual harassment. Everyday women are being harassed but there are no records for many cases.


text: Some tribunals have commented on the constitutionality of some of the provisions of the statute, especially


title: Adam Silvera

text: Adam Silvera (born June 7, 1990) is an American author of young adult fiction novels, known for his bestselling novels "They Both Die at the End", "More Happy Than Not", and "History Is All You Left Me."


title: Adam Silvera

text: Adam Silvera was born and raised in the South Bronx in New York City. His mother, Persi Rosa, is Puerto Rican and a social worker. Silvera started writing when he was around 10 or 11, initially working on fan fiction.


title: Adam Silvera

text: Silvera has worked as a barista, bookseller, and reviewer for Shelf Awareness before becoming a published writer. Silvera is open about his struggles with depression and revealed he has been diagnosed with borderline personality disorder. He is gay.


title: Adam Silvera

text: Silvera's first novel, "More Happy Than Not", was published in published June 2, 2015 by Soho Teen. The book is a "New York Times" best seller and was shortlisted for the Lambda Literary Award for Children's and Young Adult Literature. As of 2020, HBO Max was developing "More Happy Than Not" as a one-hour series, with Drew Comins and Silvera serving as executive producers on the project.


title: Adam Silvera

text: His second novel, "History Is All You Left Me", was published January 17, 2017 by Soho Teen. The same year, "They Both Die at the End" was published by HarperTeen on September 5, 2017. Originally optioned by HBO in 2019 to be developed into a series written by Chris Kelly and executive produced by J.J. Abrams, Adam Silvera has since announced he will be serving as creator, screenwriter, and executive producer for a TV series adaptation of his novel "They Both Die at the End".


title: Adam Silvera

text: Silvera's fourth novel, "What If It's Us", was co-authored with Becky Albertalli and published in 2018 by HarperTeen. Movie rights to the book sold to Anonymous Content in 2018, with Brian Yorkey as the screenwriter.


title: Adam Silvera

text: In June 2020, in honor of the 50th anniversary of the first LGBTQ Pride parade, "Queerty" named Silvera among the fifty heroes "leading the nation toward equality, acceptance, and dignity for all people".


title: Barber paradox

text: The barber paradox is a puzzle derived from Russell's paradox. It was used by Bertrand Russell as an illustration of the paradox, though he attributes it to an unnamed person who suggested it to him. The puzzle shows that an apparently plausible scenario is logically impossible. Specifically, it describes a barber who is defined such that he both shaves himself and does not shave himself, which implies that no barber exists.


title: Barber paradox

text: The barber is the "one who shaves all those, and those only, who do not shave themselves". The question is, does the barber shave himself?


title: Barber paradox

text: Any answer to this question results in a contradiction: The barber cannot shave himself, as he only shaves those who do "not" shave themselves. Thus, if he shaves himself he ceases to be the barber specified. Conversely, if the barber does not shave himself, then he fits into the group of people who would be shaved by the specified barber, and thus, as that barber, he must shave himself.


title: Barber paradox

text: In its original form, this paradox has no solution, as no such barber can exist. The question is a loaded question in that it assumes the existence of a barber who could not exist, which is a vacuous proposition, and hence false. There are other non-paradoxical variations, but those are different.


title: Barber paradox

text: This paradox is often incorrectly attributed to Bertrand Russell (e.g., by Martin Gardner in "Aha!"). It was suggested to Russell as an alternative form of Russell's paradox, which Russell had devised to show that set theory as it was used by Georg Cantor and Gottlob Frege contained contradictions. However, Russell denied that the Barber's paradox was an instance of his own:


title: Barber paradox

text: This sentence says that a barber exists. Its truth value is false, as the existential clause is unsatisfiable (a contradiction) because of the universal quantifier formula_2. The universal quantifier will include every single element in the domain, including our infamous barber . So when the value is assigned to , the sentence in the universal quantifier can be rewritten to formula_3, which is an instance of the contradiction formula_4. Since the sentence is false for that particular value, the entire universal clause is false. Since the existential clause is a conjunction with one operand that is false, the entire sentence is false. Another way to show this is to negate the entire sentence and arrive at a tautology. Nobody is a barber, so there is no solution to the paradox.


title: Capitals of Brazil

text: The current capital of Brazil, since its construction in 1960, is Brasilia. Rio de Janeiro was the country's capital between 1763 and 1960. The city of Salvador served as the seat for the Portuguese colonial administration in Brazil for its first two centuries and is usually called the "first capital of Brazil."


title: Capitals of Brazil

text: Salvador was established in 1549 by the first Governor-General of Portuguese South America shortly after colonization began. The city became the seat of the first Catholic bishopric of Brazil in 1552 and is still the center of Brazilian Catholicism.


title: Capitals of Brazil

text: In the 17th century, Rio de Janeiro became a far more practical export port than Salvador, and the colonial administration was moved in 1763. In 1808 the Portuguese royal family and most of the aristocracy in the Portuguese capital Lisbon fled Portugal ahead of Napoleon's invasion. The Portuguese capital was temporarily transferred from Europe to Rio de Janeiro. The city remained the capital after the independence of Brazil in 1822 and after the abolition of the monarchy in 1889.


title: Capitals of Brazil

text: In the 1950s plans were considered for moving the federal capital from the east coast to the interior; the interior was sparsely populated and it was hoped that moving the capital to the region would help populate the area. The new capital, Brasília, was inaugurated as the federal capital on 21 April 1960 after being purpose built for $2 trillion U.S.


title: Arthur Laurents

text: Arthur Laurents (July 14, 1917 – May 5, 2011) was an American playwright, theatre director, film producer and screenwriter.


title: Arthur Laurents

text: After writing scripts for radio shows after college and then training films for the U.S. Army during World War II, Laurents turned to writing for Broadway, producing a body of work that includes "West Side Story" (1957), "" (1959), and "Hallelujah, Baby!" (1967), and directing some of his own shows and other Broadway productions.


title: Arthur Laurents

text: His film scripts include "Rope" (1948) for Alfred Hitchcock, followed by "Anastasia" (1956), "Bonjour Tristesse" (1958), "The Way We Were" (1973), and "The Turning Point" (1977).


title: Arthur Laurents

text: Born Arthur Levine, Laurents was the son of middle-class Jewish parents, his father a lawyer and his mother a schoolteacher, who gave up her career when she married. He was born and raised in the Flatbush section of Brooklyn, a borough of New York City, New York, the elder of two children, and attended Erasmus Hall High School. His sister Edith suffered from chorea as a child.


title: Arthur Laurents

text: His paternal grandparents were Orthodox Jews, and his mother's parents, although born Jewish, were atheists. His mother kept a kosher home for her husband's sake, but was lax about attending synagogue and observing the Jewish holidays. His Bar Mitzvah marked the end of Laurents's religious education and the beginning of his rejection of all fundamentalist religions, although he continued to identify himself as Jewish. However, late in life he admitted to having changed his last name from Levine to the less Jewish-sounding Laurents, "to get a job."


title: Arthur Laurents

text: After graduating from Cornell University, Laurents took an evening class in radio writing at New York University. William N. Robson, his instructor, a CBS Radio director/producer, submitted his script "Now Playing Tomorrow", a comedic fantasy about clairvoyance, to the network, and it was produced in the Columbia Workshop series on January 30, 1939, with Shirley Booth in the lead role. It was Laurents' first professional credit. The show's success led to him being hired to write scripts for various radio shows, among them "Lux Radio Theater". Laurents' career was interrupted when he was drafted into the U.S. Army in the middle of World War II. Through a series of clerical errors, he never saw battle, but instead was assigned to the U.S. Army Pictorial Service located in a film studio in Astoria, Queens, where he wrote training films and met, among others, George Cukor and William Holden. He later was reassigned to write plays for "Armed Service Force Presents", a radio show that dramatized the contributions of all branches of the armed forces.


title: Arthur Laurents

text: According to John Clum, "Laurents was always a mirror of his times. Through his best work, one sees a staged history of leftist, gender, and gay politics in the decades after World War II." After graduating from Cornell University in 1937, Laurents went to work as a writer for radio drama at CBS in New York. His military duties during World War II, which consisted of writing training films and radio scripts for "Armed Service Force Presents", brought him into contact with some of the best film directors—distinguished director George Cukor directed his first script. Laurents's work in radio and film during World War II was an excellent apprenticeship for a budding playwright and screenwriter. He also had the good fortune to be based in New York City. His first stage play, "Home of the Brave", was produced in 1945. The sale of the play to a film studio gave Laurents the entrée he needed to become a Hollywood screenwriter though he continued, with mixed success, to write plays. The most important of his early screenplays is his adaptation of "Rope" for Alfred Hitchcock.


title: Arthur Laurents

text: Soon after being discharged from the Army, Laurents met ballerina Nora Kaye, and the two became involved in an on-again, off-again romantic relationship. While Kaye was on tour with "Fancy Free", Laurents continued to write for the radio but was becoming discontented with the medium. At the urging of Martin Gabel, he spent nine consecutive nights writing a play In 1962, Laurents directed "I Can Get It for You Wholesale", which helped to turn then-unknown Barbra Streisand into a star. His next project was the stage musical "Anyone Can Whistle", which he directed and for which he wrote the book, but it proved to be an infamous flop. He later had success with the musicals "Hallelujah, Baby!" (written for Lena Horne but ultimately starring Leslie Uggams) and "La Cage Aux Folles" (1983), which he directed, however "Nick & Nora" was not successful.


title: Arthur Laurents

text: In 2008, Laurents directed a Broadway revival of "Gypsy" starring Patti LuPone, and in 2009, he tackled a bilingual revival of "West Side Story", with Spanish translations of some dialogue and lyrics by Lin-Manuel Miranda. While preparing "West Side Story", he noted, "The musical theatre and cultural conventions of 1957 made it next to impossible for the characters to have authenticity." Following the production's March 19 opening at the Palace Theatre, Ben Brantley of "The New York Times" called the translations "an only partly successful experiment" and added, "Mr. Laurents has exchanged insolence for innocence and, as with most such bargains, there are dividends and losses." The national tour (2011-2012) was directed by David Saint, who was Laurents' assistant director on the Broadway production. The Spanish lyrics and dialog were reduced from about 18% of the total to about 10%.


title: Arthur Laurents

text: Laurents' first Hollywood experience proved to be a frustrating disappointment. Director Anatole Litvak, unhappy with the script submitted by Frank Partos and Millen Brand for "The Snake Pit" (1948), hired Laurents to rewrite it. Partos and Brand later insisted the bulk of the shooting script was theirs, and produced carbon copies of many of the pages Laurents actually had written to bolster their claim. Having destroyed the original script and all his notes and rewritten pages after completing the project, Laurents had no way to prove most of the work was his, and the Writers Guild of America denied him screen credit. Brand later confessed he and Partos had copied scenes written by Laurents and apologized for his role in the deception. Four decades later, Laurents learned he was ineligible for WGA health benefits because he had failed to accumulate enough credits to qualify. He was short by one, the one he failed to get for "The Snake Pit".


title: Arthur Laurents

text: Upon hearing 20th Century Fox executives were pleased with Laurents' work on "The Snake Pit", Alfred Hitchcock hired him for his next project, the film "Rope" starring James Stewart. Hitchcock wanted Laurents to Americanize the British play "Rope" (1929) by Patrick Hamilton for the screen. With his then-lover Farley Granger set to star, Laurents was happy to accept the assignment. His dilemma was how to make the audience aware of the fact the three main characters were homosexual without blatantly saying so. The Hays Office kept close tabs on his work, and the final script was so discreet that Laurents was unsure whether co-star James Stewart ever realized that his character was gay. In later years, Hitchcock asked him to script both "Torn Curtain" (1966) and "Topaz" (1969), However, Laurents, in both cases unenthused by the material, declined the offers.


title: Arthur Laurents

text: Laurents also scripted "Anastasia" (1956) and "Bonjour Tristesse" (1958). "The Way We Were" (1973), in which he incorporated many of his own experiences, particularly those with the HUAC, reunited him with Barbra Streisand, and "The Turning Point" (1977), inspired in part by his love for Nora Kaye, was directed by her husband Herbert Ross. The Fox animated feature film "Anastasia" (1997) was based in part on his screenplay of the live-action 1956 film of the same title.


title: Arthur Laurents

text: Because of a casual remark made by Russel Crouse, Laurents was called to Washington, D.C., to account for his political views. He explained himself to the House Un-American Activities Committee, and his appearance had no obvious impact on his career, which at the time was primarily in the theatre. When the McCarran Internal Security Act, which prohibited individuals suspected of engaging in subversive activities from obtaining a passport, was passed in 1950, Laurents and Granger immediately applied for and received passports and departed for Paris with Harold Clurman and his wife Stella Adler. Laurents and Granger remained abroad, traveling throughout Europe and northern Africa, for about 18 months.


title: Arthur Laurents

text: Years earlier, Laurents and Jerome Robbins had developed "Look Ma, I'm Dancin'!" (1948), a stage musical about the world of ballet that ran for 188 performances on Broadway, and starred Nancy Walker and Harold Lang. Laurents left the project, however, and the musical was ultimately produced with a book by Jerome Lawrence and Robert E. Lee. When Robbins approached Paramount Pictures about directing a screen version, the studio agreed as long as Laurents was not part of the package.


title: Arthur Laurents

text: It was only then that Laurents learned he officially had been blacklisted, primarily because a review of "Home of the Brave" had been published in the "Daily Worker". He decided to return to Paris, but the State Department refused to renew his passport. Laurents spent three months trying to clear his name, and after submitting a lengthy letter explaining his political beliefs in detail, it was determined they were so idiosyncratic he could not have been a member of any subversive groups. Within a week his passport was renewed, and the following day he sailed for Europe on the "Ile de France". While on board, he received a cable from Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer offering him a screenwriting assignment. The blacklisting had ended.


title: Arthur Laurents

text: Laurents wrote "Original Story By Arthur Laurents: A Memoir of Broadway and Hollywood", published in 2000. In it, he discusses his lengthy career and his many gay affairs and long-term relationships, including those with Farley Granger and Tom Hatcher (August 24, 1929 - October 26, 2006). Hatcher was an aspiring actor whom Gore Vidal suggested Laurents seek out at the Beverly Hills men's clothing store Hatcher was managing at the time. The couple remained together for 52 years until Hatcher's death on October 26, 2006.


title: Arthur Laurents

text: Laurents wrote "Mainly on Directing: Gypsy, West Side Story and Other Musicals", published in 2009, in which he discussed musicals he directed and the work of other directors he admired.


title: Arthur Laurents

text: Laurents died from complications of pneumonia at his home in Manhattan on May 5, 2011, aged 93. Following a long tradition, Broadway theatre lights were dimmed at 8 p.m. on May 6, 2011, for one minute in his memory. His ashes were buried alongside those of Tom Hatcher in a memorial bench in Quogue, Long Island, New York.


title: Arthur Laurents

text: A new award was established in 2010, The Laurents/Hatcher Foundation Award. This is awarded annually "for an un-produced, full-length play of social relevance by an emerging American playwright." The Laurents/Hatcher Foundation will give $50,000 to the writer with a grant of $100,000 towards production costs at a nonprofit theatre. The first award will be given in 2011.


title: Sambar (dish)

text: Sambar (, romanized: Sāmbār) is a lentil-based vegetable stew, cooked with pigeon pea and tamarind broth. It is popular in South Indian and Sri Lankan cuisines. The stew has been adapted into Burmese cuisine as a popular accompaniment to Burmese curries.


title: Sambar (dish)

text: According to food historian K. T. Achaya, the earliest extant mention of sambar in literature can be dated to the 17th century in Tamilakam.


title: Sambar (dish)

text: A Tamil inscription of 1530 CE, shows the use of the word champāram in the sense of meaning a dish of rice accompanying other rice dishes or spice ingredients with which a dish of vegetable rice is cooked:


title: Sambar (dish)

text: Sambar is variously called "thizone chinyay hin" (သီးစုံချဉ်ရည်ဟင်း; ), "thizone pe kala hin" (သီးစုံပဲကလားဟင်း, ), or derivatives like "thizone hin" or "pe kala hin" in the Burmese language. The Burmese version incorporates dried salted fish and a variety of vegetables including eggplants, okra, moringa, gourd, green beans, and potatoes in a soup base of pureed chickpeas, which is seasoned with ripe tamarind, curry leaf, "pyindawthein" leaf, masala, cumin, chilies, onions and garlic.


title: Bhojpuri cinema

text: Bhojpuri cinema is an Indian film industry of Bhojpuri-language motion pictures. It is based in western Bihar and eastern Uttar Pradesh with major production centres in Lucknow and Patna.


title: Bhojpuri cinema

text: Bhojpuri cinema is a major part of Bihari cinema. The first Bhojpuri talkie film, "Ganga Maiyya Tohe Piyari Chadhaibo", was released in 1963 by Vishwanath Shahabadi. The 1980s saw the release of many notable as well as run-of-the-mill Bhojpuri films like "Bitia Bhail Sayan", "Chandwa ke take Chakor", "Hamar Bhauji", "Ganga Kinare Mora Gaon" and "Sampoorna Tirth Yatra".


title: Bhojpuri cinema

text: Bhojpuri cinema has grown in recent years. The Bhojpuri film industry is now a 2000 crore industry. Bhojpuri cinema also caters to second and third generation emigrants who still speak the language, in Guyana, Trinidad and Tobago, Suriname, Fiji, Mauritius, and South Africa.


title: Bhojpuri cinema

text: Bhojpuri originates in Western Bihar and Eastern Uttar Pradesh in East India. Speakers of it and its creoles are found in many parts of the world, including the United States, the United Kingdom, Fiji, Guyana, Mauritius, South Africa, Suriname, and Trinidad and Tobago, and The Netherlands. During the late 1800s and early 1900s, many colonizers faced labor shortages due to the abolition of slavery; thus, they imported many Indians, many from Bhojpuri-speaking regions, as indentured servants to labor on plantations. Today, some 200 million people in the Caribbean, Oceania, and North America who speak Bhojpuri as a native or second language.


title: Bhojpuri cinema

text: In the 1960s, the first president of India, Rajendra Prasad, who hailed from Bihar, met Bollywood actor Nazir Hussain and asked him to make a movie in Bhojpuri, which eventually led to the release of the first Bhojpuri film in 1963. Bhojpuri cinema's history begins with the well-received film "Ganga Maiyya Tohe Piyari Chadhaibo" ("Mother Ganges, I will offer you a yellow sari"), which was produced by Biswanath Prasad Shahabadi under the banner of Nirmal Pictures and directed by Kundan Kumar. Throughout the following decades, films were produced in fits and starts. "Bidesiya" ("Foreigner", 1963, directed by S. N. Tripathi) and "Ganga" ("Ganges", 1965, directed by Kundan Kumar) were profitable and popular, but in general Bhojpuri films were not commonly produced in the 1960s and 1970s.


title: Bhojpuri cinema

text: In the 1980s, enough Bhojpuri films were produced to tentatively make up an industry. Films such as "Mai" ("Mom", 1989, directed by Rajkumar Sharma) and "Hamar Bhauji" ("My Elder Brother's Wife", 1983, directed by Kalpataru) continued to have at least sporadic success at the box office. "Nadiya Ke Paar" is a 1982 Hindi-Bhojpuri blockbuster directed by Govind Moonis and starring Sachin, Sadhana Singh, Inder Thakur, Mitali, Savita Bajaj, Sheela David, Leela Mishra and Soni Rathod. However, this trend faded out by the end of the decade. By 1990, the nascent industry seemed to be completely finished.


title: Bhojpuri cinema

text: The industry took off again in 2001 with the Silver Jubilee hit "Saiyyan Hamar" ("My Sweetheart", directed by Mohan Prasad), which shot its hero, Ravi Kissan, to superstardom. This was quickly followed by several other remarkably successful films, including "Panditji Batai Na Biyah Kab Hoi" ("Priest, tell me when I will marry", 2005, directed by Mohan Prasad) and "Sasura Bada Paisa Wala" ("My father-in-law, the rich guy", 2005). In a measure of the Bhojpuri film industry's rise, both of these did much better business in the states of Bihar and Jharkhand than mainstream Bollywood hits at the time. Both films, made on extremely tight budgets, earned back more than ten times their production costs. "Sasura Bada Paisa Wala" introduced Manoj Tiwari, formerly a well-loved folk singer, to the wider audiences of Bhojpuri cinema. In 2008, he and Ravi Kissan were the leading actors of Bhojpuri films, and their fees increase with their fame. The extremely rapid success of their films has led to dramatic increases in Bhojpuri cinema's visibility, and the industry now supports an awards show and a trade magazine, "Bhojpuri City", which chronicles the production and release of what are now over 100 films per year.


title: Bhojpuri cinema

text: Many of the major stars of mainstream Bollywood cinema, including Amitabh Bachchan, have recently worked in Bhojpuri films. Mithun Chakraborty's Bhojpuri debut "Bhole Shankar", released in 2008, is considered the biggest Bhojpuri hit of all time. Also in 2008, a 21-minute diploma Bhojpuri film by Siddharth Sinha, "Udedh Bun" (Unravel) was selected for world premiere at the Berlin International Film Festival. Later it won the National Film Award for Best Short fiction Film.


title: Bhojpuri cinema

text: Bhojpuri poet Manoj Bhawuk has written a history of Bhojpuri cinema. Bhawuk is widely known as "Encyclopedia of Bhojpuri Cinema".


title: Bhojpuri cinema

text: In February 2011, a three-day film and cultural festival in Patna marking 50 years of Bhojpuri cinema, opened "Ganga Maiyya Tohe Piyari Chadhaibo" the first Bhojpuri film. The first Bhojpuri Reality Film "Dhokha" is under production under banner Om Kaushik Films is about to be nominated and screened in different International Film Festivals under direction Of Rashmi Raj Kaushik Vicky and Renu Chaudhary.


title: Deaflympics

text: The Deaflympics also known as Deaflympiad (previously called World Games for the Deaf, and International Games for the Deaf) are a periodic series of multi-sport events sanctioned by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) at which Deaf athletes compete at an elite level. Unlike the athletes in other IOC-sanctioned events (the Olympics, the Paralympics, and the Special Olympics), athletes cannot be guided by sounds (such as starting pistols, bullhorn commands or referee whistles). The games have been organized by the "Comité International des Sports des Sourds" (CISS, "The International Committee of Sports for the Deaf") since the first event in 1924.


title: Deaflympics

text: The Deaflympics are held every four years, and are the longest running multi-sport event in history after the Olympics. The first games, held in Paris in 1924, were the first ever international sporting event for athletes with a disability. The event has been held every four years since, apart from a break for World War II, and an additional event, the Deaflympic Winter Games, was added in 1949. The games began as a small gathering of 148 athletes from nine European nations competing in the International Silent Games in Paris, France, in 1924; now, they have grown into a global movement.


title: Deaflympics

text: Officially, the games were originally called the "International Games for the Deaf" from 1924 to 1965, but were sometimes also referred to as the "International Silent Games". From 1966 to 1999 they were called the "World Games for the Deaf", and occasionally referred to as the "World Silent Games". From 2001, the games have been known by their current name Deaflympics (often mistakenly called the Deaf Olympics).


title: Deaflympics

text: To qualify for the games, athletes must have a hearing loss of at least 55 dB in their "better ear". Hearing aids, cochlear implants and the like are not allowed to be used in competition, to place all athletes on the same level. Other examples of ways the games vary from hearing competitions are the manner in which they are officiated. To address the issue of Deaflympians not being able to be guided by sounds, certain sports use alternative methods of commencing the game. For example, the football referees wave a flag instead of blowing a whistle; on the track, races are started by using a light, instead of a starter pistol. It is also customary for spectators not to cheer or clap, but rather to wave – usually with both hands.


title: Deaflympics

text: After the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, the International Committee of Sports for the Deaf (ICSD) banned athletes from Russia and Belarus from that year's Deaflympics in Caxias do Sul, Brazil.


title: Deaflympics

text: To date, the Summer Deaflympic Games have been hosted by 22 cities in 18 countries, but by cities outside Europe on only six occasions (Washington, D.C. 1965, Los Angeles 1985, Christchurch 1989, Melbourne 2005, Taipei 2009 and Caxias do Sul in 2022). The last summer games were held in Samsun, Turkey in 2017. The Winter Deaflympic Games have been hosted by 16 cities in 11 countries. The last winter games were held in Sondrio Province, Italy in 2019. The next summer games are scheduled to be in Caxias do Sul, Brazil between 1 May to 15 May 2022 and in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia between 20 and 30 October 2022.


title: Deaflympics

text: The 2011 Winter Games scheduled to be held in Vysoké Tatry, Slovakia were cancelled due to the lack of readiness by the organizing committee to host the games. The International Committee of Deaf Sports filed a criminal complaint against the Slovak Deaflympics Organizing Committee and its president, Mr. Jaromír Ruda. The criminal complaint demands reimbursement of the funds that were transferred to the Slovak Deaflympics Organizing Committee from national deaf sports federations, to cover hotel accommodations and other Deaflympics-related expenses. According to the Slovak newspaper, "SME", "Jaromír Ruda, head of the Slovak Organising Committee, [is] a champion of promises and someone who is accused of a 1.6 million Euro Deaflympics-related fraud". In a letter to the United States Deaflympians, International Committee of Sports for the Deaf ICSD President Craig Crowley expressed "his deep apologies for the cancellation of the 17th Winter Deaflympics". Currently, the Slovak Deaflympic Committee and the Slovakia Association of Deaf Sportsmen Unions have been suspended. In 2013 the Special Criminal Court in Banská Bystrica sentenced Ruda to a prison term of years for defrauding €1.6 million that should have been used for Winter Deaflympics.


title: Deaflympics

text: The host cities and National Deaf Sports Associations for all past and scheduled games are as follows:


title: Deaflympics

text: An all-time Summer Deaflympics from 1924 Summer Deaflympics to 2021 Summer Deaflympics, is tabulated below. The table is simply the consequence of the sum of the medal tables of the various editions of the Summer Deaflympics.


title: Deaflympics

text: An all-time Winter Deaflympics from 1949 Winter Deaflympics to 2019 Winter Deaflympics, is tabulated below. The table is simply the consequence of the sum of the medal tables of the various editions of the Winter Deaflympics.


title: QBasic

text: QBasic is an integrated development environment (IDE) and interpreter for a variety of dialects of BASIC which are based on QuickBASIC. Code entered into the IDE is compiled to an intermediate representation (IR), and this IR is immediately executed on demand within the IDE.


title: QBasic

text: Like QuickBASIC, but unlike earlier versions of Microsoft BASIC, QBasic is a structured programming language, supporting constructs such as subroutines. Line numbers, a concept often associated with BASIC, are supported for compatibility, but are not considered good form, having been replaced by descriptive line labels. QBasic has limited support for user-defined data types (structures), and several primitive types used to contain strings of text or numeric data. It supports various inbuilt functions.


title: QBasic

text: For its time, QBasic provided a state-of-the-art IDE, including a debugger with features such as on-the-fly expression evaluation and code modification.


title: QBasic

text: QBasic was intended as a replacement for GW-BASIC. It was based on the earlier QuickBASIC 4.5 compiler but without QuickBASIC's compiler and linker elements. Version 1.0 was shipped together with MS-DOS 5.0 and higher, as well as Windows 95, Windows NT 3.x, and Windows NT 4.0. IBM recompiled QBasic and included it in PC DOS 5.x, as well as OS/2 2.0 onwards. eComStation and ArcaOS, descended from OS/2 code, include QBasic 1.0. QBasic 1.1 is included with MS-DOS 6.x, and, without codice_1, in Windows 95, Windows 98 and Windows Me. Starting with Windows 2000, Microsoft no longer includes QBasic with their operating systems, but still makes it available for use on newer versions of Windows.


title: QBasic

text: QBasic (as well as the built-in MS-DOS Editor) is backwards-compatible with DOS releases prior to 5.0 (down to at least DOS 3.20). However, if used on any 8088/8086 computers, or on some 80286 computers, the QBasic program may run very slowly, or perhaps not at all, due to DOS memory size limits. Until MS-DOS 7, MS-DOS Editor and Help required QBasic: the codice_2 and codice_3 programs simply started QBasic in editor and help mode only, and these can also be entered by running codice_4 with the codice_5 and codice_6 switches (i.e., command lines codice_7 and codice_8).


title: QBasic

text: QBasic came complete with four pre-written example programs. These were "Nibbles", a variant of the Snake game; "Gorillas", an artillery game; "MONEY MANAGER", a personal finance manager; and "RemLine", a Q-BASIC code line-number-removing program.


title: QBasic

text: QBasic has an Easter egg accessed by pressing and holding simultaneously after running QBasic at the DOS prompt but before the title screen loads: this lists "The Team" of programmers.


title: Steel mill

text: A steel mill or steelworks is an industrial plant for the manufacture of steel. It may be an integrated steel works carrying out all steps of steelmaking from smelting iron ore to rolled product, but may also be a plant where steel semi-finished casting products are made from molten pig iron or from scrap.


title: Steel mill

text: Since the invention of the Bessemer process, steel mills have replaced ironworks, based on puddling or fining methods. New ways to produce steel appeared later: from scrap melted in an electric arc furnace and, more recently, from direct reduced iron processes.


title: Steel mill

text: In the late 19th and early 20th centuries the world's largest steel mill was the Barrow Hematite Steel Company steelworks located in Barrow-in-Furness, United Kingdom. Today, the world's largest steel mill is in Gwangyang, South Korea.


title: Steel mill

text: The principal raw materials for an integrated mill are iron ore, limestone, and coal (or coke). These materials are charged in batches into a blast furnace where the iron compounds in the ore give up excess oxygen and become liquid iron. At intervals of a few hours, the accumulated liquid iron is tapped from the blast furnace and either cast into pig iron or directed to other vessels for further steel making operations. Historically the Bessemer process was a major advancement in the production of economical steel, but it has now been entirely replaced by other processes such as the basic oxygen furnace.


title: Steel mill

text: Molten steel is cast into large blocks called "blooms". During the casting process various methods are used, such as addition of aluminum, so that impurities in the steel float to the surface where they can be cut off the finished bloom.


title: Steel mill

text: Because of the energy cost and structural stress associated with heating and cooling a blast furnace, typically these primary steel making vessels will operate on a continuous production campaign of several years duration. Even during periods of low steel demand, it may not be feasible to let the blast furnace grow cold, though some adjustment of the production rate is possible.


title: Steel mill

text: Integrated mills are large facilities that are typically only economical to build in 2,000,000-ton per year annual capacity and up. Final products made by an integrated plant are usually large structural sections, heavy plate, strip, wire rod, railway rails, and occasionally long products such as bars and pipe.


title: Steel mill

text: A major environmental hazard associated with integrated steel mills is the pollution produced in the manufacture of coke, which is an essential intermediate product in the reduction of iron ore in a blast furnace.


title: Steel mill

text: Integrated mills may also adopt some of the processes used in mini-mills, such as arc furnaces and direct casting, to reduce production costs.


title: Steel mill

text: A minimill is traditionally a secondary steel producer; however, Nucor (one of the world's largest steel producers) and Commercial Metals Company (CMC) use minimills exclusively. Usually it obtains most of its iron from scrap steel, recycled from used automobiles and equipment or byproducts of manufacturing. Direct reduced iron (DRI) is sometimes used with scrap, to help maintain desired chemistry of the steel, though usually DRI is too expensive to use as the primary raw steelmaking material. A typical mini-mill will have an electric arc furnace for scrap melting, a ladle furnace or vacuum furnace for precision control of chemistry, a strip or billet continuous caster for converting molten steel to solid form, a reheat furnace and a rolling mill.


title: Steel mill

text: Originally the mini mill was adapted to production of bar products only, such as concrete reinforcing bar, flats, angles, channels, pipe, and light rails. Since the late 1980s, successful introduction of the direct strip casting process has made mini mill production of strip feasible. Often a mini mill will be constructed in an area with no other steel production, to take advantage of local markets, resources, or lower-cost labour. Mini mill plants may specialize, for example, in making coils of rod for wire-drawing use, or pipe, or in special sections for transportation and agriculture.


title: Steel mill

text: Capacities of mini mills vary: some plants may make as much as 3,000,000 tons per year, a typical size is in the range 200,000 to 400,000 tons per year, and some old or specialty plants may make as little as 50,000 tons per year of finished product. Nucor Corporation, for example, annually produces around 9,100,000 tons of sheet steel from its four sheet mills, 6,700,000 tons of bar steel from its 10 bar mills and 2,100,000 tons of plate steel from its two plate mills.


title: Steel mill

text: Since the electric arc furnace can be easily started and stopped on a regular basis, mini mills can follow the market demand for their products easily, operating on 24-hour schedules when demand is high and cutting back production when sales are lower.


title: Leeroy Thornhill

text: Leeroy Thornhill (born 8 October 1968) is a British electronic music artist and formerly a rave dancer and occasionally keyboardist for the British electronic group the Prodigy. Thornhill's live performances throughout the 1990s included his unique style of shuffling.


title: Leeroy Thornhill

text: Thornhill was born in Barking but raised in Rayne near Braintree in Essex, and grew up as a football and James Brown fan.


title: Leeroy Thornhill

text: He joined the Prodigy along with Keith Flint and Maxim Reality after they met Liam Howlett at a local rave club The Barn. Both were dancers for the band's live show. Thornhill's height is 6 feet 7 inches, compared to Flint who was 5 feet 7 inches (170 cm).


title: Leeroy Thornhill

text: In 2000, Thornhill left the band and went on to record various solo EPs under the names "Longman" and "Flightcrank"; however, these projects never saw any substantial success.


title: Leeroy Thornhill

text: He now DJs at large venues and is still in touch with the Prodigy. During the Prodigy's "Their Law" tour Thornhill was the DJ support act at several venues. He also works as a regular DJ. He also remixed tracks for other artists, such as the Italian Subsonica's "Nuvole Rapide".


title: Leeroy Thornhill

text: Thornhill had worked with Hyper, appearing on their live shows. He appeared at the V Festival in 2007 in Chelmsford, Essex.


title: Leeroy Thornhill

text: His latest project is the creation of nu skool breaks record label Electric Tastebuds. He has recently signed breakbeat group The Wrongstar Society to the label.


title: Leeroy Thornhill

text: In October 2008, a music video was created for "Everything U Need", a track by Thornhill's Smash Hi-Fi project. The video was directed by Philip Carrer and Bleeding Apple.


title: Dogra dynasty

text: The Dogra dynasty of Dogra Rajputs from the Shiwalik Himalayas created Jammu and Kashmir when all dynastic kingdoms in India were being absorbed by the East India Company. Events led the Sikh Empire to recognise Jammu as a vassal state in 1820, and later the British added Kashmir to Jammu by the Treaty of Amritsar in 1846. The founder of the dynasty, Gulab Singh, was an influential noble in the court of the Sikh emperor Maharaja Ranjit Singh, while his brother Dhian Singh served as the prime minister of the Sikh Empire. Appointed by Ranjit Singh as the hereditary Raja of the Jammu principality, Gulab Singh established his supremacy over all the hill states surrounding the Kashmir Valley. After the First Anglo-Sikh War in 1846, under the terms of the Treaty of Lahore, 1846, the British Indian government acquired Kashmir from the Sikh Empire and transferred it to Gulab Singh, recognising him as an independent Maharaja. Thus, Jammu and Kashmir was established as one of the largest princely states in British India, receiving a 21-gun salute for its Maharaja in 1921. It was ruled by Gulab Singh and his descendants till 1947.


title: Dogra dynasty

text: The last ruling Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir was Hari Singh, who contributed troops to the British war effort in World War II and served on Churchill's Imperial War Cabinet. Following the Partition of India in 1947, Hari Singh faced a rebellion in the western districts of the state and a Pakistan-supported tribal invasion, leading him to accede to the Union of India and receive military assistance. Pakistan contested the accession, giving rise to the enduring Kashmir conflict.


title: Dogra dynasty

text: With India's support, the popular leader of Jammu and Kashmir, Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah, forced the Maharaja to abdicate in favour of his son, "Yuvraj" (Crown Prince) Karan Singh, who subsequently accepted the position of a constitutional head of state ("Sadr-i-Riyasat") and voluntarily gave up the title of "Maharaja".


title: Dogra dynasty

text: The term Dogra is thought to derive from "Durgara", the name of a kingdom mentioned in an eleventh century copper-plate inscription in Chamba. In medieval times the term became "Dugar", which later turned into Dogra. Kalhana's "Rajatarangini" makes no mention of a kingdom by this name, but it could have been referred to by its capital (ether "Vallapura", modern Balor, or "Babbapura", modern Babor). In modern times, the term Dogra turned into an ethnic identity, claimed by all those people that speak the Dogri language.


title: Dogra dynasty

text: The family of Raja Gulab Singh is referred to as Jamwal (or "Jamuwal"). According to some accounts, Raja Kapur Dev, who ruled the area of Jammu around 1560 AD had two sons named Jag Dev and Samail Dev. The two sons ruled from the Bahu and Jammu on the opposite banks of the Tawi River and their descendants came to be called "Bahuwals" and "Jamuwals" respectively. The members of the family however claim descent from a legendary Suryavanshi (solar) dynasty ruler Jambu Lochan, who is believed to have founded the city of Jammu in antiquity.


title: Dogra dynasty

text: His son Raja Ranjit Dev (1728–1780), introduced social reforms such as a ban on sati (immolation of the wife on the pyre of the husband) and female infanticide.


title: Dogra dynasty

text: Raja Ranjit Dev was succeeded by Raja Braj Dev who killed his brother and nephew to become king. Braj Dev was killed during the Sikh invasion of Jammu in 1787. His infant son Raja Sampuran Singh (1787–1797) succeeded with Jammu becoming an autonomous tributary under the Sikh Confederacy Misls. Sampuran Singh with no issue, was succeeded by his uncle Raja Jit Singh.


title: Dogra dynasty

text: Jit Singh was involved in another conflict with the Sikh empire, which he lost and was exiled into British territory. With Jammu fully annexed by the Sikhs around 1808, Ranjit Singh first allotted it to his son Kharak Singh. However, Kharak Singh's agents were unable to maintain law and order, with locals led by Mian Dedo rebelling against the Sikh "jagirdar" (governor). In 1820, Ranjit Singh then bestowed the territory as a hereditary fiefdom to Gulab Singh's father Kishore Singh, a distant kinsman of Raja Jit Singh. On his father's death in 1822, Jammu passed to Gulab Singh.


title: Dogra dynasty

text: Around 1808, Jammu became part of the Sikh Empire, under Maharaja Ranjit Singh. Ranjit Singh in 1820, bestowed the place as a jagir on Gulab Singh's father Kishore Singh, who belonged to the Jamwal Rajput clan that ruled Jammu. As a "jagirdar" (governor) for the Sikhs, Gulab Singh extended the boundaries of the Sikh Empire to western Tibet with the help of his fine General Zorawar Singh. The Sikh rule was then extended beyond the Jammu Region and the Kashmir Valley to include the Tibetan Buddhist Kingdom of Ladakh and the Emirates of Hunza, Gilgit and Nagar.


title: Dogra dynasty

text: In the turmoil for succession of the Sikh empire that followed Maharaja Ranjit Singh's death in 1839, two of Gulab Singh's sons Udham Singh, and Sohan Singh were killed in the feuding between the Sikh heirs. His youngest brother Suchet Singh, was killed by his own nephew Hira Singh, the "Vizir" (prime minister) of the Sikh empire. Hira Singh, was a great favourite of Maharaja Ranjit Singh and Gulab Singh once even aspired to have him installed as the Sikh emperor. Hira Singh had become prime minister aged 24, after his father and Gulab Singh's brother "Vizir" Dhian Singh was assassinated in his blotched September 1843 coup d'état against Sikh emperor Sher Singh in Lahore. During the regency of Maharani Jind Kaur, Hira Singh was killed by the Sikh army in December 1844.


title: Dogra dynasty

text: Gulab Singh, came into possession of the Koh-i-noor diamond, after Maharaja Kharak Singh's mysterious death in prison in 1840, and had previously presented the famous stone to Maharaja Sher Singh to win his favour.


title: Dogra dynasty

text: After the First Anglo-Sikh War in 1846, Sir Henry Lawrence was appointed British Resident and "Vizir" Lal Singh on behalf of infant emperor Duleep Singh was asked to surrender Kashmir. "Vizir" Lal Singh was also a Dogra, and along with Gulab Singh colluded with the British to deliberately break the Sikh army and facilitate the British victory.


title: Dogra dynasty

text: Under the terms of the Treaty of Amritsar that followed in March 1846, the British government sold Kashmir for a sum of 7.5 million Nanakshahee rupees to Gulab Singh, hereafter bestowed with the title of Maharaja. Thus the Princely State of Jammu and Kashmir came into being under Gulab Singh, as per the treaty of Lahore, signed between the British and the Sikhs.


title: Dogra dynasty

text: Maharaja Partab Singh (enthroned in 1885) saw the construction of Banihal Cart Road (B.C. Road) mainly to facilitate telegraph services. During WWI he provided one Mountain Battery and three Infantry Battalions to fight for the British in East Africa, Palestine and Mesopotamia. For the services of his troops the state was awarded a hereditary 21-guns salute.


title: Dogra dynasty

text: One of the main residences of the maharajas was the Sher Garhi Palace in their summer capital Srinagar.


title: Dogra dynasty

text: The last ruler of Jammu and Kashmir was Maharaja Hari Singh, who ascended the throne in 1925. He made primary education compulsory in the State, introduced laws prohibiting child marriage and allowed low castes to go to places of worship. Hari Singh was as a member of Churchill's British War Cabinet in WWII, and supplied troops for the Allies.


title: Dogra dynasty

text: Singh's reign saw the accession of Jammu and Kashmir to the newly independent Indian Union in 1947. He originally manoeuvered to maintain his independence by playing off India and Pakistan against each other. There was an armed movement against the Maharaja's rule especially in the Poonch district of Jammu, when his troops were unable to control these fighters and his troops retreated to Jammu, in October 1947, Singh appealed to India for its help. He acceded to India, though there is considerable controversy over exactly at what point, and whether or not his accession included the sovereignty of the state.


title: Dogra dynasty

text: In June 1952, Singh's rule was terminated by the state government of Indian-administered Kashmir. His son Yuvraj (Crown Prince) Karan Singh too abdicated and was elected "Sadr-e-Riyasat" ('President of the Province') and Governor of the State in 1964.


title: Dogra dynasty

text: "Yuvraj" (Crown Prince) Karan Singh after serving as the President of Jammu and Kashmir from 1952 to 1964 would go on to become the youngest cabinet minister as a leading member the Indian Congress Party in 1967. He was also the Indian Ambassador to the US in 1989. His elder son Vikramaditya Singh was a member of the Peoples Democratic Party. Currently in Congress party Karan Singh's younger son Ajatshatru Singh was a member of the National Conference (NC) headed by Omar Abdullah, grandson of Sheikh Abdullah who had abolished the monarchy in 1952. Ajatshatru Singh had served with the NC as a minister in the Jammu and Kashmir Government from 1996 to 2002. In 2014 he quit the NC to join the BJP, stating that he had done so to satisfy the "people’s desire to have a corruption and dynasty-free government".


title: Dogra dynasty

text: Ankit Love, son of Bhim Singh the founder of Jammu and Kashmir National Panthers Party, claimed to be the "Emperor (Maharaja) of the Sovereign State of Jammu and Kashmir" when he was candidate in the 2016 London Mayoral Election, and again in the 2016 Richmond Park by-election for the United Kingdom parliament.


title: Causes of the Great Depression

text: The causes of the Great Depression in the early 20th century in the United States have been extensively discussed by economists and remain a matter of active debate. They are part of the larger debate about economic crises and recessions. The specific economic events that took place during the Great Depression are well established.


title: Causes of the Great Depression

text: There was an initial stock market crash that triggered a "panic sell-off" of assets. This was followed by a deflation in asset and commodity prices, dramatic drops in demand and the total quantity of money in the economy, and disruption of trade, ultimately resulting in widespread unemployment (over 13 million people were unemployed by 1932) and impoverishment. However, economists and historians have not reached a consensus on the causal relationships between various events and government economic policies in causing or ameliorating the Depression.


title: Causes of the Great Depression

text: Current mainstream theories may be broadly classified into two main points of view. The first are the demand-driven theories, from Keynesian and institutional economists who argue that the depression was caused by a widespread loss of confidence that led to drastically lower investment and persistent underconsumption. The demand-driven theories argue that the financial crisis following the 1929 crash led to a sudden and persistent reduction in consumption and investment spending, causing the depression that followed. Once panic and deflation set in, many people believed they could avoid further losses by keeping clear of the markets. Holding money therefore became profitable as prices dropped lower and a given amount of money bought ever more goods, exacerbating the drop in demand.


title: Causes of the Great Depression

text: Second, there are the monetarists, who believe that the Great Depression started as an ordinary recession, but that significant policy mistakes by monetary authorities (especially the Federal Reserve) caused a shrinking of the money supply which greatly exacerbated the economic situation, causing a recession to descend into the Great Depression. Related to this explanation are those who point to debt deflation causing those who borrow to owe ever more in real terms.


title: Causes of the Great Depression

text: There are also several various heterodox theories that reject the explanations of the Keynesians and monetarists. Some new classical macroeconomists have argued that various labor market policies imposed at the start caused the length and severity of the Great Depression.


title: Causes of the Great Depression

text: The two classical competing theories of the Great Depression are the Keynesian (demand-driven) and the monetarist explanation. There are also various heterodox theories that downplay or reject the explanations of the Keynesians and monetarists.


title: Causes of the Great Depression

text: Economists and economic historians are almost evenly split as to whether the traditional monetary explanation that monetary forces were the primary cause of the Great Depression is right, or the traditional Keynesian explanation that a fall in autonomous spending, particularly investment, is the primary explanation for the onset of the Great Depression. Today the controversy is of lesser importance since there is mainstream support for the debt deflation theory and the expectations hypothesis that building on the monetary explanation of Milton Friedman and Anna Schwartz add non-monetary explanations.


title: Causes of the Great Depression

text: There is consensus that the Federal Reserve System should have cut short the process of monetary deflation and banking collapse. If the Federal Reserve System had done that, the economic downturn would have been far less severe and much shorter.


title: Causes of the Great Depression

text: In his book "The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money" (1936), British economist John Maynard Keynes introduced concepts that were intended to help explain the Great Depression. He argued that there are reasons that the self-correcting mechanisms that many economists claimed should work during a downturn might not work.


title: Causes of the Great Depression

text: One argument for a non-interventionist policy during a recession was that if consumption fell due to savings, the savings would cause the rate of interest to fall. According to the classical economists, lower interest rates would lead to increased investment spending and demand would remain constant. However, Keynes argues that there are good reasons that investment does not necessarily increase in response to a fall in the interest rate. Businesses make investments based on expectations of profit. Therefore, if a fall in consumption appears to be long-term, businesses analyzing trends will lower expectations of future sales. Therefore, the last thing they are interested in doing is investing in increasing future production, even if lower interest rates make capital inexpensive. In that case, the economy can be thrown into a general slump due to a decline in consumption. According to Keynes, this self-reinforcing dynamic is what occurred to an extreme degree during the Depression, where bankruptcies were common and investment, which requires a degree of optimism, was very unlikely to occur. This view is often characterized by economists as being in opposition to Say's Law.


title: Causes of the Great Depression

text: The idea that reduced capital investment was a cause of the depression is a central theme in secular stagnation theory.


title: Causes of the Great Depression

text: Keynes argued that if the national government spent more money to help the economy to recover the money normally spent by consumers and business firms, then unemployment rates would fall. The solution was for the Federal Reserve System to "create new money for the national government to borrow and spend" and to cut taxes rather than raising them, in order for consumers to spend more, and other beneficial factors. Hoover chose to do the opposite of what Keynes thought to be the solution and allowed the federal government to raise taxes exceedingly to reduce the budget shortage brought upon by the depression. Keynes proclaimed that more workers could be employed by decreasing interest rates, encouraging firms to borrow more money and make more products. Employment would prevent the government from having to spend any more money by increasing the amount at which consumers would spend. Keynes' theory was then confirmed by the length of the Great Depression within the United States and the constant unemployment rate. Employment rates began to rise in preparation for World War II by increasing government spending. "In light of these developments, the Keynesian explanation of the Great Depression was increasingly accepted by economists, historians, and politicians".


title: Causes of the Great Depression

text: In their 1963 book "A Monetary History of the United States, 1867–1960", Milton Friedman and Anna Schwartz laid out their case for a different explanation of the Great Depression. Essentially, the Great Depression, in their view, was caused by the fall of the money supply. Friedman and Schwartz write: "From the cyclical peak in August 1929 to a cyclical trough in March 1933, the stock of money fell by over a third." The result was what Friedman and Schwartz called "The Great Contraction" — a period of falling income, prices, and employment caused by the choking effects of a restricted money supply. Friedman and Schwartz argue that people wanted to hold more money than the Federal Reserve was supplying. As a result, people hoarded money by consuming less. This caused a contraction in employment and production since prices were not flexible enough to immediately fall. The Fed's failure was in not realizing what was happening and not taking corrective action. In a speech honoring Friedman and Schwartz, Ben Bernanke stated:


title: Causes of the Great Depression

text: "Let me end my talk by abusing slightly my status as an official representative of the Federal Reserve. I would like to say to Milton and Anna: Regarding the Great Depression, you're right. We did it. We're very sorry. But thanks to you, we won't do it again."<br>


title: Causes of the Great Depression

text: After the Depression, the primary explanations of it tended to ignore the importance of the money supply. However, in the monetarist view, the Depression was "in fact a tragic testimonial to the importance of monetary forces". In their view, the failure of the Federal Reserve to deal with the Depression was not a sign that monetary policy was impotent, but that the Federal Reserve implemented the wrong policies. They did not claim the Fed "caused" the depression, only that it failed to use policies that might have stopped a recession from turning into a depression.


title: Causes of the Great Depression

text: the Great Depression, the U.S. economy had already experienced a number of depressions. These depressions were often set off by banking crisis, the most significant occurring in 1873, 1893, 1901, and 1907. Before the 1913 establishment of the Federal Reserve, the banking system had dealt with these crises in the U.S. (such as in the Panic of 1907) by suspending the convertibility of deposits into currency. Starting in 1893, there were growing efforts by financial institutions and business men to intervene during these crises, providing liquidity to banks that were suffering runs. During the banking panic of 1907, an ad hoc coalition assembled by J. P. Morgan successfully intervened in this way, thereby cutting off the panic, which was likely the reason why the depression that would normally have followed a banking panic did not happen this time. A call by some for a government version of this solution resulted in the establishment of the Federal Reserve.


title: Causes of the Great Depression

text: But in 1929–32, the Federal Reserve did not act to provide liquidity to banks suffering bank runs. In fact, its policy contributed to the banking crisis by permitting a sudden contraction of the money supply. During the Roaring Twenties, the central bank had set as its primary goal "price stability", in part because the governor of the New York Federal Reserve, Benjamin Strong, was a disciple of Irving Fisher, a tremendously popular economist who popularized stable prices as a monetary goal. It had kept the number of dollars at such an amount that prices of goods in society appeared stable. In 1928, Strong died, and with his death this policy ended, to be replaced with a real bills doctrine requiring that all currency or securities have material goods backing them. This policy permitted the U.S. money supply to fall by over a third from 1929 to 1933.


title: Causes of the Great Depression

text: When this money shortage caused runs on banks, the Fed maintained its true bills policy, refusing to lend money to the banks in the way that had cut short the 1907 panic, instead allowing each to suffer a catastrophic run and fail entirely. This policy resulted in a series of bank failures in which one-third of all banks vanished. According to Ben Bernanke, the subsequent credit crunches led to waves of bankruptcies. Friedman said that if a policy similar to 1907 had been followed during the banking panic at the end of 1930, perhaps this would have stopped the vicious circle of the forced liquidation of assets at depressed prices. Consequently, the banking panics of 1931, 1932, and 1933 might not have happened, just as suspension of convertibility in 1893 and 1907 had quickly ended the liquidity crises at the time."


title: Causes of the Great Depression

text: Monetarist explanations had been rejected in Samuelson's work "Economics", writing: "Today few economists regard Federal Reserve monetary policy as a panacea for controlling the business cycle. Purely monetary factors are considered to be as much symptoms as causes, albeit symptoms with aggravating effects that should not be completely neglected." According to Keynesian economist Paul Krugman, the work of Friedman and Schwartz became dominant among mainstream economists by the 1980s but should be reconsidered in light of Japan's Lost Decade of the 1990s. The role of monetary policy in financial crises is in active debate regarding the financial crisis of 2007–2008; see Causes of the Great Recession.


title: Causes of the Great Depression

text: The monetary explanation has two weaknesses. First, it is not able to explain why the demand for money was falling more rapidly than the supply during the initial downturn in 1930–31. Second, it is not able to explain why in March 1933 a recovery took place although short term interest rates remained close to zero and the money supply was still falling. These questions are addressed by modern explanations that build on the monetary explanation of Milton Friedman and Anna Schwartz but add non-monetary explanations.


title: Causes of the Great Depression

text: Total debt to GDP levels in the U.S. reached a high of just under 300 per cent by the time of the Depression. This level of debt was not exceeded again until near the end of the 20th century.


title: Causes of the Great Depression

text: Jerome (1934) gives an unattributed quote about finance conditions that allowed the great industrial expansion of the post-W.W.I period:


title: Causes of the Great Depression

text: Probably never before in this country had such a volume of funds been available at such low rates for such a long period.


title: Causes of the Great Depression

text: Furthermore, Jerome says that the volume of new capital issues increased at a 7.7% compounded annual rate from 1922 to 1929 at a time when the Standard Statistics Co.'s index of 60 high grade bonds yielded from 4.98% in 1923 to 4.47% in 1927.


title: Causes of the Great Depression

text: There was also a real estate and housing bubble in the 1920s, especially in Florida, which burst in 1925. Alvin Hansen stated that housing construction during the 1920s decade exceeded population growth by 25 per cent. See also: Florida land boom of the 1920s: Statistics kept by Cook County, Illinois show over 1 million vacant plots for homes in the Chicago area, despite only 950,000 plots being occupied, the result of Chicago's explosive population growth in combination with a real estate bubble.


title: Causes of the Great Depression

text: Irving Fisher argued the predominant factor leading to the Great Depression was over-indebtedness and deflation. Fisher tied loose credit to over-indebtedness, which fueled speculation and asset bubbles. He then outlined nine factors interacting with one another under conditions of debt and deflation to create the mechanics of boom to bust. The chain of events proceeded as follows:


title: Causes of the Great Depression

text: During the Wall Street Crash of 1929 preceding the Great Depression, margin requirements were only 10%. Brokerage firms, in other words, would lend $90 for every $10 an investor had deposited. When the market fell, brokers called in these loans, which could not be paid back. Banks began to fail as debtors defaulted on debt and depositors attempted to withdraw their deposits en masse, triggering multiple bank runs. Government guarantees and Federal Reserve banking regulations to prevent such panics were ineffective or not used. Bank failures led to the loss of billions of dollars in assets.


title: Causes of the Great Depression

text: Outstanding debts became heavier, because prices and incomes fell by 20–50% but the debts remained at the same dollar amount. After the panic of 1929, and during the first 10 months of 1930, 744 U.S. banks failed. (In all, 9,000 banks failed during the 1930s.) By April 1933, around $7 billion in deposits had been frozen in failed banks or those left unlicensed after the March Bank Holiday.


title: Causes of the Great Depression

text: Bank failures snowballed as desperate bankers called in loans, which the borrowers did not have time or money to repay. With future profits looking poor, capital investment and construction slowed or completely ceased. In the face of bad loans and worsening future prospects, the surviving banks became even more conservative in their lending. Banks built up their capital reserves and made fewer loans, which intensified deflationary pressures. A vicious cycle developed and the downward spiral accelerated.


title: Causes of the Great Depression

text: The liquidation of debt could not keep up with the fall of prices it caused. The mass effect of the stampede to liquidate increased the value of each dollar owed, relative to the value of declining asset holdings. The very effort of individuals to lessen their burden of debt effectively increased it. Paradoxically, the more the debtors paid, the more they owed. This self-aggravating process turned a 1930 recession into a 1933 depression.


title: Causes of the Great Depression

text: Fisher's debt-deflation theory initially lacked mainstream influence because of the counter-argument that debt-deflation represented no more than a redistribution from one group (debtors) to another (creditors). Pure re-distributions should have no significant macroeconomic effects.


title: Causes of the Great Depression

text: Building on both the monetary hypothesis of Milton Friedman and Anna Schwartz as well as the debt deflation hypothesis of Irving Fisher, Ben Bernanke developed an alternative way in which the financial crisis affected output. He builds on Fisher's argument that dramatic declines in the price level and nominal incomes lead to increasing real debt burdens which in turn leads to debtor insolvency and consequently leads to lowered aggregate demand, a further decline in the price level then results in a debt deflationary spiral. According to Bernanke, a small decline in the price level simply reallocates wealth from debtors to creditors without doing damage to the economy. But when the deflation is severe falling asset prices along with debtor bankruptcies lead to a decline in the nominal value of assets on bank balance sheets. Banks will react by tightening their credit conditions, that in turn leads to a credit crunch which does serious harm to the economy. A credit crunch lowers investment and consumption and results in declining aggregate demand which additionally contributes to the deflationary spiral.


title: Causes of the Great Depression

text: Economist Steve Keen revived the debt-reset theory after he accurately predicted the 2008 recession based on his analysis of the Great Depression, and recently advised Congress to engage in debt-forgiveness or direct payments to citizens in order to avoid future financial events. Some people support the debt-reset theory.


title: Causes of the Great Depression

text: Expectations have been a central element of macroeconomic models since the economic mainstream accepted the new neoclassical synthesis. While not rejecting that it was inadequate demand that sustained the depression, according to Peter Temin, Barry Wigmore, Gauti B. Eggertsson and Christina Romer the key to recovery and the end of the Great Depression was the successful management of public expectations. This thesis is based on the observation that after years of deflation and a very severe recession, important economic indicators turned positive in March 1933, just as Franklin D. Roosevelt took office. Consumer prices turned from deflation to a mild inflation, industrial production bottomed out in March 1933, investment doubled in 1933 with a turnaround in March 1933. There were no monetary forces to explain that turnaround. Money supply was still falling and short term interest rates remained close to zero. Before March 1933, people expected a further deflation and recession so that even interest rates at zero did not stimulate investment. But when Roosevelt announced major regime changes people began to expect inflation and an economic expansion. With those expectations, interest rates at zero began to stimulate investment as planned. Roosevelt's fiscal and monetary policy regime change helped to make his policy objectives credible. The expectation of higher future income and higher future inflation stimulated demand and investments. The analysis suggests that the elimination of the policy dogmas of the gold standard, a balanced budget in times of crises and small government led to a large shift in expectation that accounts for about 70–80 percent of the recovery of output and prices from 1933 to 1937. If the regime change had not happened and the Hoover policy had continued, the economy would have continued its free fall in 1933, and output would have been 30 percent lower in 1937 than in 1933.


title: Causes of the Great Depression

text: The recession of 1937–38, which slowed down economic recovery from the Great Depression, is explained by fears of the population that the moderate tightening of the monetary and fiscal policy in 1937 would be first steps to a restoration of the pre March 1933 policy regime.


title: Causes of the Great Depression

text: Austrian economists argue that the Great Depression was the inevitable outcome of the monetary policies of the Federal Reserve during the 1920s. The central bank's policy was an "easy credit policy" which led to an unsustainable credit-driven boom. The inflation of the money supply during this period led to an unsustainable boom in both asset prices (stocks and bonds) and capital goods. By the time the Federal Reserve belatedly tightened monetary policy in 1928, it was too late to avoid a significant economic contraction. Austrians argue that government intervention after the crash of 1929 delayed the market's adjustment and made the road to complete recovery more difficult.


title: Causes of the Great Depression

text: Acceptance of the Austrian explanation of what primarily caused the Great Depression is compatible with either acceptance or denial of the monetarist explanation. Austrian economist Murray Rothbard, who wrote "America's Great Depression" (1963), rejected the monetarist explanation. He criticized Milton Friedman's assertion that the central bank failed to sufficiently increase the supply of money, claiming instead that the Federal Reserve did pursue an inflationary policy when, in 1932, it purchased $1.1 billion of government securities, which raised its total holding to $1.8 billion. Rothbard says that despite the central bank's policies, "total bank reserves only rose by $212 million, while the total money supply fell by $3 billion". The reason for this, he argues, is that the American populace lost faith in the banking system and began hoarding more cash, a factor very much beyond the control of the Central Bank. The potential for a run on the banks caused local bankers to be more conservative in lending out their reserves, which, according to Rothbard's argument, was the cause of the Federal Reserve's inability to inflate.


title: Causes of the Great Depression

text: Friedrich Hayek had criticised the Federal Reserve and the Bank of England in the 1930s for not taking a more contractionary stance. However, in 1975, Hayek admitted that he made a mistake in the 1930s in not opposing the Central Bank's deflationary policy and stated the reason why he had been ambivalent: "At that time I believed that a process of deflation of some short duration might break the rigidity of wages which I thought was incompatible with a functioning economy. In 1978, he made it clear that he agreed with the point of view of the monetarists, saying, "I agree with Milton Friedman that once the Crash had occurred, the Federal Reserve System pursued a silly deflationary policy", and that he was as opposed to deflation as he was to inflation. Concordantly, economist Lawrence White argues that the business cycle theory of Hayek is inconsistent with a monetary policy which permits a severe contraction of the money supply.


title: Causes of the Great Depression

text: Marxists generally argue that the Great Depression was the result of the inherent instability of the capitalist mode of production. According to Forbes, "The idea that capitalism caused the Great Depression was widely held among intellectuals and the general public for many decades."


title: Causes of the Great Depression

text: In addition to the debt deflation there was a component of productivity deflation that had been occurring since The Great Deflation of the last quarter of the 19th century. There may have also been a continuation of the correction to the sharp inflation caused by World War I.


title: Causes of the Great Depression

text: Oil prices reached their all-time low in the early 1930s as production began from the East Texas Oil Field, the largest field ever found in the lower 48 states. With the oil market oversupplied prices locally fell to below ten cents per barrel.


title: Causes of the Great Depression

text: In the first three decades of the 20th century productivity and economic output surged due in part to electrification, mass production and the increasing motorization of transportation and farm machinery. Electrification and mass production techniques such as Fordism permanently lowered the demand for labor relative to economic output. By the late 1920s the resultant rapid growth in productivity and investment in manufacturing meant there was a considerable excess production capacity.


title: Causes of the Great Depression

text: Sometime after the peak of the business cycle in 1923, more workers were displaced by productivity improvements than growth in the employment market could meet, causing unemployment to slowly rise after 1925. Also, the work week fell slightly in the decade prior to the depression. Wages did not keep up with productivity growth, which led to the problem of underconsumption.


title: Causes of the Great Depression

text: Henry Ford and Edward A. Filene were among prominent businessmen who were concerned with overproduction and underconsumption. Ford doubled wages of his workers in 1914. The over-production problem was also discussed in Congress, with Senator Reed Smoot proposing an import tariff, which became the Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act. The Smoot–Hawley Tariff was enacted in June 1930. The tariff was misguided because the U.S. had been running a trade account surplus during the 1920s.


title: Causes of the Great Depression

text: Another effect of rapid technological change was that after 1910 the rate of capital investment slowed, primarily due to reduced investment in business structures.


title: Causes of the Great Depression

text: It cannot be emphasized too strongly that the [productivity, output and employment] trends we are describing are long-time trends and were thoroughly evident prior to 1929. These trends are in nowise the result of the present depression, nor are they the result of the World War. On the contrary, the present depression is a collapse resulting from these long-term trends. — M. King Hubbert


title: Causes of the Great Depression

text: In the book "Mechanization in Industry", whose publication was sponsored by the National Bureau of Economic Research, Jerome (1934) noted that whether mechanization tends to increase output or displace labor depends on the elasticity of demand for the product. In addition, reduced costs of production were not always passed on to consumers. It was further noted that agriculture was adversely affected by the reduced need for animal feed as horses and mules were displaced by inanimate sources of power following World War I. As a related point, Jerome also notes that the term "technological unemployment" was being used to describe the labor situation during the depression.


title: Causes of the Great Depression

text: Some portion of the increased unemployment which characterized the post-War years in the United States may be attributed to the mechanization of industries producing commodities of inelastic demand. — Fredrick C. Wells, 1934


title: Causes of the Great Depression

text: The dramatic rise in productivity of major industries in the U. S. and the effects of productivity on output, wages and the work week are discussed by a Brookings Institution sponsored book.


title: Causes of the Great Depression

text: Corporations decided to lay off workers and reduced the amount of raw materials they purchased to manufacture their products. This decision was made to cut the production of goods because of the amount of products that were not being sold.


title: Causes of the Great Depression

text: Joseph Stiglitz and Bruce Greenwald suggested that it was a productivity-shock in agriculture, through fertilizers, mechanization and improved seed, that caused the drop in agricultural product prices. Farmers were forced off the land, further adding to the excess labor supply.


title: Causes of the Great Depression

text: The prices of agricultural products began to decline after W.W.I and eventually many farmers were forced out of business, causing the failure of hundreds of small rural banks. Agricultural productivity resulting from tractors, fertilizers, and hybrid corn was only part of the problem; the other problem was the change over from horses and mules to internal combustion transportation. The horse and mule population began declining after W.W.I, freeing up enormous quantities of land previously used for animal feed.


title: Causes of the Great Depression

text: The rise of the internal combustion engine and increasing numbers of motorcars and buses also halted the growth of electric street railways.


title: Causes of the Great Depression

text: The years 1929 to 1941 had the highest total factor productivity growth in the history of the U. S., largely due to the productivity increases in public utilities, transportation and trade.


title: Causes of the Great Depression

text: Economists such as Waddill Catchings, William Trufant Foster, Rexford Tugwell, Adolph Berle (and later John Kenneth Galbraith), popularized a theory that had some influence on Franklin D. Roosevelt. This theory held that the economy produced more goods than consumers could purchase, because the consumers did not have enough income. According to this view, in the 1920s wages had increased at a lower rate than productivity growth, which had been high. Most of the benefit of the increased productivity went into profits, which went into the stock market bubble rather than into consumer purchases. Thus workers did not have enough income to absorb the large amount of capacity that had been added.


title: Causes of the Great Depression

text: According to this view, the root cause of the Great Depression was a global overinvestment while the level of wages and earnings from independent businesses fell short of creating enough purchasing power. It was argued that government should intervene by an increased taxation of the rich to help make income more equal. With the increased revenue the government could create public works to increase employment and 'kick start' the economy. In the U.S.A. the economic policies had been quite the opposite until 1932. The Revenue Act of 1932 and public works programmes introduced in Hoover's last year as president and taken up by Roosevelt, created some redistribution of purchasing power.


title: Causes of the Great Depression

text: The stock market crash made it evident that banking systems Americans were relying on were not dependable. Americans looked towards insubstantial banking units for their own liquidity supply. As the economy began to fail, these banks were no longer able to support those who depended on their assets – they did not hold as much power as the larger banks. During the depression, "three waves of bank failures shook the economy." The first wave came just when the economy was heading in the direction of recovery at the end of 1930 and the beginning of 1931. The second wave of bank failures occurred "after the Federal Reserve System raised the rediscount rate to stanch an outflow of gold" around the end of 1931. The last wave, which began in the middle of 1932, was the worst and most devastating, continuing "almost to the point of a total breakdown of the banking system in the winter of 1932–1933". The reserve banks led the United States into an even deeper depression between 1931 and 1933, due to their failure to appreciate and put to use the powers they withheld – capable of creating money – as well as the "inappropriate monetary policies pursued by them during these years".


title: Causes of the Great Depression

text: According to the gold standard theory of the Depression, the Depression was largely caused by the decision of most western nations after World War I to return to the gold standard at the pre-war gold price. Monetary policy, according to this view, was thereby put into a deflationary setting that would over the next decade slowly grind away at the health of many European economies.


title: Causes of the Great Depression

text: This post-war policy was preceded by an inflationary policy during World War I, when many European nations abandoned the gold standard, forced by the enormous costs of the war. This resulted in inflation because the supply of new money that was created was spent on war, not on investments in productivity to increase aggregate supply that would have neutralized inflation. The view is that the quantity of new money introduced largely determines the inflation rate, and therefore, the cure to inflation is to reduce the amount of new currency created for purposes that are destructive or wasteful, and do not lead to economic growth.


title: Causes of the Great Depression

text: After the war, when America and the nations of Europe went back on the gold standard, most nations decided to return to the gold standard at the pre-war price. When the United Kingdom, for example, passed the Gold Standard Act of 1925, thereby returning Britain to the gold standard, the critical decision was made to set the new price of the Pound Sterling at parity with the pre-war price even though the pound was then trading on the foreign exchange market at a much lower price. At the time, this action was criticized by John Maynard Keynes and others, who argued that in so doing, they were forcing a revaluation of wages without any tendency to equilibrium. Keynes' criticism of Chancellor of the Exchequer Winston Churchill's form of the return to the gold standard implicitly compared it to the consequences of the Treaty of Versailles.


title: Causes of the Great Depression

text: One of the reasons for setting the currencies at parity with the pre-war price was the prevailing opinion at that time that deflation was not a danger, while inflation, particularly the inflation in the Weimar Republic, was an unbearable danger. Another reason was that those who had loaned in nominal amounts hoped to recover the same value in gold that they had lent. Because of the World War I reparations that Germany had to pay France, Germany began a credit-fueled period of growth in order to export and sell enough goods abroad to gain gold to pay the reparations. The U.S., as the world's gold sink, loaned money to Germany to industrialize, which was then the basis for Germany paying back France, and France paying back loans to the U.K. and the U.S. This arrangement was codified in the Dawes Plan.


title: Causes of the Great Depression

text: In some cases, deflation can be hard on sectors of the economy such as agriculture, if they are deeply in debt at high interest rates and are unable to refinance, or that are dependent upon loans to finance capital goods when low interest rates are not available. Deflation erodes the price of commodities while increasing the real liability of debt. Deflation is beneficial to those with assets in cash, and to those who wish to invest or purchase assets or loan money.


title: Causes of the Great Depression

text: More recent research, by economists such as Temin, Ben Bernanke, and Barry Eichengreen, has focused on the constraints policy makers were under at the time of the Depression. In this view, the constraints of the inter-war gold standard magnified the initial economic shock and were a significant obstacle to any actions that would ameliorate the growing Depression. According to them, the initial destabilizing shock may have originated with the Wall Street Crash of 1929 in the U.S., but it was the gold standard system that transmitted the problem to the rest of the world.