title: Churrasco

text: In Guatemala, "churrasco" is regarded as a typical dish, often eaten in familiar gatherings and festive occasions. It is usually served topped with "chirmol", a red sauce containing chopped tomatoes and onions, and accompanied by corn, guacamole, grilled potatoes, stewed black beans, rice, and tortillas.


title: Churrasco

text: In Chile, "churrasco" refers to a thin cut of steak which varies depending on the desired quality of the sandwich. The slices are grilled and served in a -sometimes warmed- local bun (called "marraqueta", or "pan batido" in Valparaíso), usually accompanied with tomato, avocado, and mayonnaise, in the case of a "churrasco italiano". Another popular dish, "churrasco a lo pobre" ("poor man's churrasco"), consists of a "churrasco" served with French fries, fried egg, and caramelized onions.


title: Churrasco

text: In Portugal, "frango de churrasco" with "piri piri" (a kind of salty roasted chicken cooked on the "churrasqueira", spiced with hot red chili sauce, garlic, and paprika) is very popular. Portuguese "churrasco" and chicken dishes are very popular in countries with Portuguese communities, such as Canada, Australia, the United States, Venezuela and South Africa. The term "churrasco" is also used in former Portuguese colonies; a "churrasco moçambicano" is a grilled meat dish from Mozambique, for instance.


title: Churrasco

text: In Galicia, "churrasco" refers almost exclusively to grilled pork or beef spare ribs. Galicians who emigrated to America in the 20th century took with them the recipe for "churrasco". Nowadays, many Galicians of all social classes prepare a "churrascada".


title: Churrasco

text: In the mainland United States, "churrasco"-style restaurants have grown in popularity since the 1990s,<ref name="Tonon, 10/15/2019"></ref> fueled by the success of various chains, including Rodizio Grill, Texas de Brazil, Fogo de Chão, and Tucanos, as well as stand-alone Brazilian barbecue restaurants.<ref name="Tonon, 10/6/2016"></ref>


title: Churrasco

text: In the mainland United States, "Churrasco" is a registered trademark for rotisserie/grills manufactured by Hickory Industries, Inc. of Fort Lee, New Jersey.


title: Charm quark

text: The charm quark, charmed quark or c quark (from its symbol, c) is the third-most massive of all quarks, a type of elementary particle. Charm quarks are found in hadrons, which are subatomic particles made of quarks. Examples of hadrons containing charm quarks include the J/ψ meson (), D mesons (), charmed Sigma baryons (), and other charmed particles.


title: Charm quark

text: It, along with the strange quark, is part of the second generation of matter, and has an electric charge of + "e" and a bare mass of . Like all quarks, the charm quark is an elementary fermion with spin , and experiences all four fundamental interactions: gravitation, electromagnetism, weak interactions, and strong interactions. The antiparticle of the charm quark is the charm antiquark (sometimes called "anticharm quark" or simply "anticharm"), which differs from it only in that some of its properties have equal magnitude but opposite sign.


title: Charm quark

text: The existence of a fourth quark had been speculated by a number of authors around 1964 (for instance by James Bjorken and Sheldon Glashow), but its prediction is usually credited to Sheldon Glashow, John Iliopoulos and Luciano Maiani in 1970 (see GIM mechanism). Glashow is quoted as saying, "We called our construct the 'charmed quark', for we were fascinated and pleased by the symmetry it brought to the subnuclear world." The first charmed particle (a particle containing a charm quark) to be discovered was the J/ψ meson. It was discovered in 1974 by a team at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center (SLAC), led by Burton Richter, and one at the Brookhaven National Laboratory (BNL), led by Samuel Ting.


title: Charm quark

text: The 1974 discovery of the (and thus the charm quark) ushered in a series of breakthroughs which are collectively known as the "November Revolution".


title: Gjirokastër

text: Gjirokastër (, ) is a city in the Republic of Albania and the seat of Gjirokastër County and Gjirokastër Municipality. It is located in a valley between the Gjerë mountains and the Drino, at 300 metres above sea level. Its old town is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, described as "a rare example of a well-preserved Ottoman town, built by farmers of large estate". The city is overlooked by Gjirokastër Fortress, where the Gjirokastër National Folklore Festival is held every five years. It is the birthplace of former Albanian communist leader Enver Hoxha, and author Ismail Kadare.


title: Gjirokastër

text: The city appears in the historical record dating back in 1336 by its Greek name, , as part of the Byzantine Empire. It became part of the Orthodox Christian diocese of "Dryinoupolis and Argyrokastro" after the destruction of nearby Adrianoupolis. Gjirokastër later was contested between the Despotate of Epirus and the Albanian clan of John Zenevisi before falling under Ottoman rule for the next five centuries (1417–1913). Throughout Ottoman occupation, Gjirokastër was officially known in Ottoman Turkish as "Ergiri" and also "Ergiri Kasrı". During the Ottoman period conversions to Islam and an influx of Muslim converts from the surrounding countryside made Gjirokastër go from being an overwhelmingly Christian city in the 16th century into one with a large Muslim population by the early 19th century. Gjirokastër also became a major religious centre for Bektashi Sufism. Taken by the Hellenic Army during the Balkan Wars of 1912–13 on account of its large Greek population, it was eventually incorporated into the newly independent state of Albania in 1913. This proved highly unpopular with the local Greek population, who rebelled; after several months of guerrilla warfare, the short-lived Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus was established in 1914 with Gjirokastër as its capital. It was definitively awarded to Albania in 1921. In more recent years, the city witnessed anti-government protests that led to the Albanian civil war of 1997.


title: Gjirokastër

text: Along with Muslim and Orthodox Albanians, the city is also home to a substantial Greek minority along with a considerable Aromanian community. Together with Sarandë, the city is considered one of the centers of the Greek minority in Albania, and there is a consulate of Greece.


title: Gjirokastër

text: The city appeared for the first time in historical records under its medieval name of "Argyrókastron" (), as mentioned by John VI Kantakouzenos in 1336. The name comes from "argyrón" (), and "kástron" (), derived from Latin "", meaning "castle" or "fortress"; thus "silver castle". Byzantine chronicles also used the similar name "Argyropolýchni" (). The theory that the city took the name of the Princess Argjiro, a legendary figure about whom 19th-century author Kostas Krystallis wrote a short novel and Ismail Kadare wrote a poem in the 1960s, is considered folk etymology, since the princess is said to have lived later, in the 15th century.


title: Gjirokastër

text: The definite Albanian form of the name of city is "Gjirokastra", while in the Gheg Albanian dialect it is known as "Gjinokastër", both of which derive from the Greek name. Alternative spellings found in Western sources include "Girokaster" and "Girokastra". In Aromanian, the city is known as , or ; while in modern Greek, it is known as "Argyrókastro" (). During the Ottoman era, the town was known in Turkish as "Ergiri".


title: Gjirokastër

text: During the Middle Helladic period (2100-1550 BC), a double tumulus was dug out in Vodhinë, with strong similarities to the grave circles at Mycenae, showing a common ancestral link with the Myceneans of southern Greece. The Phrygian period of the region spanned from around 1150 BCE to around 850 BCE. Hammond argues that the region was checkered with a mosaic of small Phrygian principalities, with the principality of Gjirokastër and the surrounding region having its center at Vodhinë. In the later part of the period, it appears there was a change of dynasty at Vodhine.


title: Gjirokastër

text: Archaeological evidence demonstrates that during the Bronze Age, the region was inhabited by populations who likely spoke a northwestern Greek dialect. Archaeologists have found pottery artifacts dating to the early Iron Age, crafted in a style that first appeared in the late Bronze Age in Pazhok, Elbasan County, and is found throughout Albania. The earliest recorded inhabitants of the area around Gjirokastër were the Greek-speaking tribe of the Chaonians, which belonged to the Epirote group. In antiquity the local urban centre was located in Antigonia, c. from modern Gjirokastër on the opposite bank of river Drino.


title: Gjirokastër

text: The city's walls date from the third century. The high stone walls of the Citadel were built from the sixth to the twelfth century. During this period, Gjirokastër developed into a major commercial center known as "Argyropolis" (, meaning "Silver City") or "Argyrokastron" (, meaning "Silver Castle").


title: Gjirokastër

text: The city was part of the Despotate of Epirus and was first mentioned by the name "Argyrokastro" by John VI Kantakouzenos in 1336. That year Argyrokastro was among the cities that remained loyal to the Byzantine Emperor during a local Epirote rebellion in favour to Nikephoros Orsini-Doukas. The first mention of Albanian nomadic groups occurred in the early 14th century, where they were searching for new pasture lands and ravaging settlements in the region. These Albanians had entered the region and took advantage of the situation after the Black death had decimated the local Epirote population. During 1386–1417 it was contested between the Despotate of Epirus and the Albanian clan of John Zenevisi. In 1399 the Greek inhabitants of the city joined the Despot of Epirus, Esau, in his campaign against various Albanian and Aromanian tribesmen. In 1417 it became part of the Ottoman Empire and in 1419 it became the county town of the Sanjak of Albania. During the Albanian Revolt of 1432–36 it was besieged by forces under Thopia Zenevisi, but the rebels were defeated by Ottoman troops led by Turahan Bey. In 1570s local nobles Manthos Papagiannis and Panos Kestolikos, discussed "as Greek representative of enslaved Greece and Albania" with the head of the Holy League, John of Austria and various other European rulers, the possibility of an anti-Ottoman armed struggle, but this initiative was fruitless.


title: Gjirokastër

text: According to Turkish traveller Evliya Çelebi, who visited the city in 1670, at that time there were 200 houses within the castle, 200 in the Christian eastern neighborhood of "Kyçyk Varosh" (meaning small neighborhood outside the castle), 150 houses in the "Byjyk Varosh" (meaning big neighborhood outside the castle), and six additional neighborhoods: Palorto, Vutosh, Dunavat, Manalat, Haxhi Bey, and Memi Bey, extending on eight hills around the castle. According to the traveller, the city had at that time around 2000 houses, eight mosques, three churches, 280 shops, five fountains, and five inns. From the 16th century until the early 19th century Gjirokastër went from being a predominantly Christian city to one with a Muslim majority due to much of the urban population converting to Islam alongside an influx of Muslim converts from the surrounding countryside.


title: Gjirokastër

text: In 1811, Gjirokastër became part of the Pashalik of Yanina, then led by the Albanian-born Ali Pasha of Ioannina and was transformed into a semi-autonomous fiefdom in the southwestern Balkans until his death in 1822. In 1833 Albanian rebels took over the town causing the Ottoman government to comply with rebel terms. After the fall of the pashalik in 1868, the city was the capital of the sanjak of Ergiri. On 23 July 1880, southern Albanian committees of the League of Prizren held a congress in the city, in which was decided that if Albanian-populated areas of the Ottoman Empire were ceded to neighbouring countries, they would revolt. During the Albanian National Awakening (1831–1912), the city was a major centre of the movement, and some groups in the city were reported to carry portraits of Skanderbeg, the national hero of the Albanians during this period. Gjirokastër from the middle of the nineteenth century also prominently contributed to the wider Ottoman Empire through individuals that served as "Kadı"s (civil servants) and was an important centre of Islamic culture.


title: Gjirokastër

text: In early March 1908, the binbashi of Gjirokastër was assassinated by Çerçiz Topulli and his followers.


title: Gjirokastër

text: The pro-Albanianists of the city during 1909–1912 were split between two groups: the urban liberals who wanted to cooperate with the Greeks and Albanian nationalists who formed guerilla bands operating in the countryside. During the 19th and early 20th century, Albanian speaking Muslims were the majority population of Gjirokastër, while only a few Greek-speaking families lived there.


title: Gjirokastër

text: Given its large Greek population, the city was claimed and taken by Greece during the First Balkan War of 1912–1913, following the retreat of the Ottomans from the region. However, it was awarded to Albania under the terms of the Treaty of London of 1913 and the Protocol of Florence of 17 December 1913.


title: Gjirokastër

text: This turn of events proved highly unpopular with the local Greek population, and their representatives under Georgios Christakis-Zografos formed the Panepirotic Assembly in Gjirokastër in protest. The Assembly, short of incorporation with Greece, demanded either local autonomy or an international occupation by forces of the Great Powers for the districts of Gjirokastër, Sarandë, and Korçë.


title: Gjirokastër

text: In April 1939, Gjirokastër was occupied by Italy following the Italian invasion of Albania. On December 8, 1940, during the Greco-Italian War, the Hellenic Army entered the city and stayed for a five-month period before capitulating to Nazi Germany in April 1941 and returning the city to Italian command. After the capitulation of Italy in the Armistice of Cassibile in September 1943, the city was taken by German forces and eventually returned to Albanian control in 1944.


title: Gjirokastër

text: The postwar communist regime developed the city as an industrial and commercial centre. It was elevated to the status of a museum town, as it was the birthplace of the leader of the People's Socialist Republic of Albania, Enver Hoxha, who had been born there in 1908. His house was converted into a museum.


title: Gjirokastër

text: The demolition of the monumental statue of the authoritarian leader Enver Hohxa in Gjirokastër by members of the local Greek community in August 1991 marked the end of the one-party state. Gjirokastër suffered severe economic problems following the end of communist rule in 1991. In the spring of 1993, the region of Gjirokastër became a center of open conflict between Greek minority members and the Albanian police. The city was particularly affected by the 1997 collapse of a massive pyramid scheme which destabilised the entire Albanian economy. The city became the focus of a rebellion against the government of Sali Berisha; violent anti-government protests took place which eventually forced Berisha's resignation. On 16 December 1997, Hoxha's house was damaged by unknown attackers, but subsequently restored.


title: Gjirokastër

text: The present municipality was formed at the 2015 local government reform by the merger of the former municipalities of Antigonë, Cepo, Gjirokastër, Lazarat, Lunxhëri, Odrie and Picar, that became municipal units. The seat of the municipality is the town Gjirokastër. The total population is 28,673 (2011 census), in a total area of . The population of the former municipality at the 2011 census was 19,836.


title: Gjirokastër

text: Gjirokastër is situated between the lowlands of western Albania and the highlands of the interior, and has thus a hot-summer Mediterranean climate, though, (as is normal for Albania), much heavier rainfall than usual for this climate type.


title: Gjirokastër

text: Gjirokastër is principally a commercial center with some industries, notably the production of foodstuffs, leather, and textiles. Recently a regional agricultural market that trades locally produced groceries has been built in the city. Given the potential of southern Albania to supply organically grown products, and its relationship with Greek counterparts of the nearby city of Ioannina, it is likely that the market will dedicate itself to organic farming in the future. However, trademarking and marketing of such products are currently far from European standards. The Chamber of Commerce of the city, created in 1988, promotes trade with the Greek border areas. As part of the financial support from Greece to Albania, the Hellenic Armed Forces built a hospital in the city.


title: Gjirokastër

text: In recent years, many traditional houses are being reconstructed and owners lured to come back, thus revitalizing tourism as a potential revenue source for the local economy. However, some houses continue to degrade from lack of investment, abandonment or inappropriate renovations as local craftsmen are not part of these projects.


title: Gjirokastër

text: In 2010, following the Greek economic crisis, the city was one of the first areas in Albania to suffer, since many Albanian emigrants in Greece are becoming unemployed and thus are returning home.


title: Gjirokastër

text: Gjirokastër is served by the SH4 Highway, which connects it to Tepelenë in the north and the Dropull region and Greek border to the south.


title: Gjirokastër

text: The first school in the city, a Greek language school, was erected in the city in 1663. It was sponsored by local merchants and functioned under the supervision of the local bishop. In 1821, when the Greek War of Independence broke out, it was destroyed, but it was reopened in 1830. In 1727 a madrasa started to function in the city, and it worked uninterruptedly for 240 years until 1967, when it was closed due to the Cultural Revolution applied in communist Albania. In 1861–1862 a Greek language school for girls was founded, financially supported by the local Greek benefactor Christakis Zografos. The first Albanian school in Gjirokastër was opened in 1886. Today Gjirokastër has seven grammar schools, two general high schools (of which one is the Gjirokastër Gymnasium), and two professional ones. In addition two Greek language high schools are operating in the city.


title: Gjirokastër

text: The city is home to the Eqrem Çabej University, which opened its doors in 1968. The university has recently been experiencing low enrollments, and as a result the departments of Physics, Mathematics, Biochemistry, and Kindergarten Education did not function during the 2008–2009 academic year. In 2006, the establishment of a second university in Gjirokastër, a Greek-language one, was agreed upon after discussions between the Albanian and Greek governments. The program had an attendance of 35 students , but was abruptly suspended when the University of Ioannina in Greece refused to provide teachers for the 2010 school year and the Greek government and the Latsis foundation withdrew funding.


title: Gjirokastër

text: Gjirokastër by the population is the largest municipality in the Gjirokastër County. According to INSTAT, based on the 2011 Census, Gjirokastër Municipality was estimated to have 28,673 residents (a density of 53.91 persons/km2) living in 6,919 housing units, while the county as a whole has a total of 72,176 inhabitants. The population of the municipality includes the urban and rural population in its Administrative Units such as: Antigonë; Cepo; Lazarat; Lunxhëri; Odrie and Picar. The city of Gjirokastër itself has a resident population of 19,836 inhabitants which are a predominantly urban population.


title: Gjirokastër

text: In the municipality, the population was spread out, with 16.76% from the age 0 to 14, 69.24% from 15 to 64, and 13.98% who were 65 years of age or older. As far as the city itself is concerned, the population was spread out, with 16.93% from the age 0 to 14, 70.27% from 15 to 64, and 12.78% who were 65 years of age or older.


title: Gjirokastër

text: The town has 43,000 inhabitants. Gjirokastër is home to an ethnic Greek community that according to Human Rights Watch numbered about 4,000 out of 30,000 in 1989, although Greek spokesmen have claimed that up to 34% of the town is Greek. Gjirokastër is considered the center of the Greek community in Albania. Given the large Greek population in the town and surrounding area, there is a Greek consulate in the town. Other minorities are smaller numbers of Aromanians and Roma.


title: Gjirokastër

text: The region was part of the Eastern Orthodox diocese of Dryinoupolis, part of the metropolitan bishopric of Ioannina. It was first mentioned in a notitia of the 10th–11th century. With the destruction of nearby Adrianupolis its see was transferred to Gjirokastër and assumed the name "Doecese of Dryinopoulis and Argyrokastron" (). In 1835 it was promoted to metropolitan bishopric under the direct jurisdiction of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople. Today, the city is home to a diocese part of the Orthodox Autocephalous Church of Albania. The two existing churches of the city were re-built at the end of the 18th century, after approval by the local Ottoman authorities who received large bribes by the Orthodox community. The Orthodox Cathedral of the "Transfiguration of the Saviour" was rebuilt at 1773 on the site of an older church and is located at the castle quarters.


title: Gjirokastër

text: During the Ottoman period Gjirokastër was a significant centre for the Muslim Sufi Bektashi Order, especially in relation to its spread and literary activity. In the early 19th century during the rule of Ali Pasha, British diplomat William Martin Leake during his journey from Vlorë to Gjirokastra and later to present-day Greece, in his diary describes his arrival on December 26, 1804, in the region of "Derópoli", or Dropull as it was known from the local Albanians. According to him, its chief city Gjirokastër numbered about 2000 Muslim families and about 100 Christian families. While Libohovë, also then part of the same region, numbered half of that number with about 1000 Muslim families and 100 Christian families.


title: Gjirokastër

text: In 1925, Albania became the world center of the Bektashi Order, a Muslim sect. The sect was headquartered in Tirana, and Gjirokastër was one of six districts of the Bektashi Order in Albania, with its center at the tekke of Baba Rexheb. The city retains a large Bektashi and Sunni population. Historically there were 15 and tekkes and mosques, of which 13 were functional in 1945. Only Gjirokastër Mosque has survived; the remaining 12 were destroyed or closed during the Cultural Revolution of the communist government in 1967.


title: Gjirokastër

text: According to the 2011 census, which has been widely disputed due to irregularities in the procedure and its data affected by boycott, the percentages of the local population per religious group are: Islam 42,3%, Bektashis 5,3%, Eastern Orthodox 14,6%, Roman Catholics 2,8%, while a 35,2 had not declared any religion or is non-religious. According to the Gjirokastër county census data (which includes other municipalities besides Gjirokastër), it had the highest percentage of atheists compared to all other counties in Albania, with Vlora being the second (6.3% compared to 6.01%).


title: Gjirokastër

text: 17th-century Ottoman traveller Evliya Çelebi, who visited the city in 1670, described the city in detail. One Sunday, Çelebi heard the sound of a vajtim, the traditional Albanian lament for the dead, performed by a professional mourner. The traveller found the city so noisy that he dubbed Gjirokastër the "city of wailing".


title: Gjirokastër

text: The novel "Chronicle in Stone" by Albanian writer Ismail Kadare tells the history of this city during the Italian and Greek occupation in World War I and II. It expounds on the customs of the people of Gjirokastër.


title: Gjirokastër

text: At the age of twenty-four, Albanian writer Musine Kokalari wrote an 80-page collection of ten youthful prose tales in her native Gjirokastrian dialect: "As my old mother tells me" (), Tirana, 1941. The book tells the day-by-day struggles of women of Gjirokastër, and describes the prevailing mores of the region.


title: Gjirokastër

text: Gjirokastër, home to both Albanian and Greek polyphonic singing, is also home to the National Folklore Festival () that is held every five years. The festival started in 1968 and was most recently held in 2009, its ninth season. The festival takes place on the premises of Gjirokastër Fortress. Gjirokastër is also where the Greek language newspaper "Laiko Vima" is published. Founded in 1945, it was the only Greek-language printed media allowed during the People's Socialist Republic of Albania.


title: Gjirokastër

text: The city is built on the slope surrounding the citadel, located on a dominating plateau. Although the city's walls were built in the third century and the city itself was first mentioned in the 12th century, the majority of the existing buildings date from 17th and 18th centuries. Typical houses consist of a tall stone block structure which can be up to five stories high. There are external and internal staircases that surround the house. It is thought that such design stems from fortified country houses typical in southern Albania. The lower storey of the building contains a cistern and the stable. The upper storey is composed of a guest room and a family room containing a fireplace. Further upper stories are to accommodate extended families and are connected by internal stairs. Since Gjirokastër's membership to UNESCO, a number of houses have been restored, though others continue to degrade.


title: Gjirokastër

text: Many houses in Gjirokastër have a distinctive local style that has earned the city the nickname "City of Stone", because most of the old houses have roofs covered with flat dressed stones. A very similar style can be seen in the Pelion district of Greece. The city, along with Berat, was among the few Albanian cities preserved in the 1960s and 1970s from modernizing building programs. Both cities gained the status of "museum town" and are UNESCO World Heritage sites.


title: Gjirokastër

text: Gjirokastër Fortress dominates the town and overlooks the strategically important route along the river valley. It is open to visitors and contains a military museum featuring captured artillery and memorabilia of the Communist resistance against German occupation, as well as a captured United States Air Force plane, to commemorate the Communist regime's struggle against the imperialist powers. Additions were built during the 19th and 20th centuries by Ali Pasha of Ioannina and the government of King Zog I of Albania. Today it possesses five towers and houses a clock tower, a church, water fountains, horse stables, and many more amenities. The northern part of the castle was turned into a prison by Zog's government and housed political prisoners during the communist regime.


title: Gjirokastër

text: Gjirokastër features an old Ottoman bazaar which was originally built in the 17th century; it was rebuilt in the 19th century after a fire. There are more than 500 homes preserved as "cultural monuments" in Gjirokastër today. The Gjirokastër Mosque, built in 1757, dominates the bazaar.


title: Gjirokastër

text: When the town was first proposed for inclusion on the World Heritage list in 1988, International Council on Monuments and Sites experts were nonplussed by a number of modern constructions which detracted from the old town's appearance. The historic core of Gjirokastër was finally inscribed in 2005, 15 years after its original nomination.


title: Gjirokastër

text: Football (soccer) is popular in Gjirokastër: the city hosts "Luftëtari Gjirokastër", a club founded in 1929. The club has competed in international tournaments and currently plays in the Albanian Superliga until 2006–2007 and again from 2016. The soccer matches are played in Gjirokastër Stadium, which can hold up to 8,400 spectators.


title: Balkenkreuz

text: is a straight-armed cross that was first introduced in 1916–1918 and later became the emblem of the "Wehrmacht" (German Armed Forces) and its branches from 1935 until the end of World War II. It was used by the "Wehrmacht Heer" (Army), "Luftwaffe" (Air Force), and "Kriegsmarine" (Navy).


title: Balkenkreuz

text: Germany's "Luftstreitkräfte" (the army air service of the German Imperial Army) first officially adopted the "Balkenkreuz" in mid-April 1918 (about a week before the death of Manfred von Richthofen), and used it from that time until World War I ended in November 1918. The IdFlieg directive of 20 March 1918 to all manufacturers states in the first sentence (translated to English): "To improve the recognition of our aircraft, the following is ordered: [...]". In paragraph 2, the second sentence specifies: "This alteration is to be carried out by 15 April 1918." The closing sentence reads: "Order 41390 is to be speedily executed."


title: Balkenkreuz

text: Its use resumed, with new standardized dimensions, from the beginning of the Nazi Germany's air force (the Luftwaffe) in 1935, as part of the new Wehrmacht unified German military forces founded in mid-March 1935. German armored fighting vehicles (AFVs) during the invasion of Poland (September–October 1939) used a plain white cross, but before the onset of Operation Weserübung (April 1940), the black core cross with white "flanks" that the Luftwaffe used had become the basic German AFV national insignia, as used for the rest of the war (to 1945).


title: Balkenkreuz

text: Late in World War II it became increasingly common for the "Balkenkreuz" national insignia to be painted on without the black-color "core cross", using only the quartet of right-angled "flanks" for its form to reduce its visibility – this could be done in either white or black, and with both the narrow and wide-flank forms of the cross.


title: Balkenkreuz

text: The Iron Cross used by today's German "Bundeswehr" unified defense forces inherits the four white, or lighter-colored, carved "flanks" of the older "Balkenkreuz" that do not "cap" the ends of the cross in either case, but with the "flanks" following the flared arms of the earlier German Empire's cross pattée "(Eisernes Kreuz"/iron cross) instead, .


title: Destruction (band)

text: Destruction is a German thrash metal band formed in 1982. They are often credited as one of the "Big Four" of the German thrash metal scene, the others being Kreator, Sodom and Tankard. In addition to helping pioneer black metal by containing several elements of what was to become the genre, Destruction was part of the second wave of thrash metal in the mid-to-late 1980s, along with American bands like Testament, Sacred Reich, Death Angel and Dark Angel. For most of the 1990s, the band was not signed to a record label and was forced to self-produce their albums until they signed a contract with Nuclear Blast in the early 2000s.


title: Destruction (band)

text: The band was formed in Weil am Rhein as Knight of Demon in 1982, inspired by Iron Maiden, Mercyful Fate, Motörhead and Venom. The line-up featured Ulf Kühne on vocals, Mike Sifringer on guitar, Marcel "Schmier" Schirmer on bass and Tommy Sandmann on drums. Kühne was kicked out of the band due to conflict with Sifringer over a girl. Schmier took over vocal duties. They were then known as Destruction and released a demo titled "Bestial Invasion of Hell" on 10 August 1984. After this, the group signed with Steamhammer Records and released an EP titled "Sentence of Death" on 10 November.


title: Destruction (band)

text: The first full-length album "Infernal Overkill" was released in 1985, followed a year later by "Eternal Devastation" (1986). The trio was joined by a second guitarist, Harry Wilkens, and drummer Tommy Sandmann was replaced by Oliver Kaiser. Together they recorded the EP "Mad Butcher", the third studio album "Release from Agony", both released in 1987, and the first live album "Live Without Sense" (1989). During this time, Destruction had enjoyed considerable popularity worldwide, touring relentlessly in Europe and North America, and sharing the stage with Venom, Slayer, Kreator, Sodom, Celtic Frost, Motörhead, King Diamond, Voivod, Exodus, Testament, Overkill, Death Angel, Possessed, Sacred Reich, The Cro-Mags, Tankard, Flotsam and Jetsam, Artillery, Rage, Coroner, Assassin, Candlemass, Prong, Accu§er, Iron Angel, Wolfsbane and Girlschool.


title: Destruction (band)

text: In 1989, during the initial recording sessions of the fourth studio album "Cracked Brain", Schmier was fired from the band and was replaced by Poltergeist frontman André Grieder, the only album with him. The album was released in 1990. Guitarist Mike Sifringer remained and continued to release material under the moniker of "Neo-Destruction", featuring vocalist Thomas Rosenmerkel, second guitarist Michael Piranio, bassist Christian Engler and continuing drummer Oliver Kaiser. The first recording was the self-titled "Destruction" EP in 1994, followed by the "Them Not Me" EP in 1995 and the album "The Least Successful Human Cannonball" in 1998.


title: Destruction (band)

text: In 1999, the line-up was disassembled and Schmier rejoined with the addition of new drummer Sven Vormann, returning Destruction as a trio. They signed a record deal with Nuclear Blast and released three new albums; "All Hell Breaks Loose" in 2000, "The Antichrist" in 2001, and "Metal Discharge" in 2003, with Marc Reign replacing Vormann. The second live album "Alive Devastation" was released on 26 March 2003, followed by the release of a live DVD titled "Live Discharge: 20 Years of Total Destruction" on 4 March 2004. Reign was temporarily arrested on 24 May 2004 following the band's performance in Brescia due to the stage accessories, which was confiscated as a result. Destruction would then sign with AFM Records and release "Inventor of Evil" on 22 August 2005. That album was followed a compilation album titled "Thrash Anthems" on 19 January 2007, featuring re-recorded material, and the next studio album "D.E.V.O.L.U.T.I.O.N." on 29 August 2008. The third live album "" was released 25 September 2009, followed by the second DVD release "A Savage Symphony - The History of Annihilation" on 29 January 2010.


title: Destruction (band)

text: Drummer Marc Reign would leave the band in 2010 and be replaced by Polish drummer Wawrzyniec "Vaaver" Dramowicz. On 18 February 2011, the twelfth album "Day of Reckoning" was released. The band's thirteenth studio album "Spiritual Genocide" was released on 23 November 2012. Their next album "Under Attack" was released on 13 May 2016. Through an exclusive PledgeMusic campaign, Destruction released the sequel album to "Thrash Anthems" titled "Thrash Anthems II" on 18 July 2017, featuring more re-recordings of classic songs.


title: Destruction (band)

text: On 23 January 2018, Vaaver left Destruction "for family reasons", according to Schmier. He took time off in 2015 to be with his family following the birth of his second child. Randy Black would temporarily replace him until the band finds a "worthy successor". He was later announced as the band's new drummer. On 28 February 2019, Swiss guitarist Damir Eskic joined the band. This new lineup recorded the fifteenth studio album "Born to Perish", which was released on 9 August 2019. It is rooted in their traditional style of thrash metal and received good reviews. The fifth live album "Born to Thrash" was released on 8 May 2020.


title: Destruction (band)

text: On 16 July 2021, Destruction performed at the Area 53 Festival in Leoben without rhythm guitarist Mike Sifringer. Schmier explained in a Facebook post that Sifringer had not answered his emails and questioned his status, and that there was a problem that led to the decision to continue without him and would release a statement planned for 19 August. Sifringer's departure was confirmed that day and was replaced by new guitarist Martin Furia, followed by the release of a new single titled "State of Apathy", featuring the band's first recording appearance with Furia. On 13 August, the sixth live album "Live Attack" was released. On 16 December, a music video of the title track from the sixteenth studio album "Diabolical" was released. The album was released on 8 April 2022 in celebration of the band's 40th anniversary.


title: Anthony James (actor)

text: Anthony James (born James Anthony; July 22, 1942 – May 26, 2020) was an American character actor who specialized in playing villains in films and television, many of them Westerns.


title: Anthony James (actor)

text: Anthony James was born James Anthony in Myrtle Beach, South Carolina, on July 22, 1942, as the only child of Greek immigrants George Anthony (1893–1951) and Marika Palla (1913–2008). He later reversed the order of his given name and surname for his acting career.


title: Anthony James (actor)

text: James made several guest appearances on the Western series "Gunsmoke" during the series' run, appearing in different roles, most often playing the character of Elbert Moses. Other shows he has guest-starred on include "Hawaii Five-O"; "The High Chaparral"; "Bonanza"; "The Rookies"; "Charlie's Angels"; "Starsky and Hutch;" "Buck Rogers in the 25th Century"; "Holmes & Yoyo";" The A-Team"; "Hunter (1984)"; "Quincy, M.E."; ""; and "Beauty and the Beast".


title: Anthony James (actor)

text: James also appeared in a number of major feature films. His first major role was as Ralph, the diner counterman in 1967's "In the Heat of the Night", which was awarded an Academy Award for Best Picture in 1968. This movie beat out the well-known movies "The Graduate", "Bonnie and Clyde", and "Guess Who's Coming to Dinner" for Best Picture.


title: Anthony James (actor)

text: His subsequent film appearances included "P.J." (1968) and "...tick...tick...tick..." (1970). He played one of the lynch mobsters in "High Plains Drifter" (1973), and also appeared as the evil chauffeur in the horror film "Burnt Offerings" (1976). He had roles in "Blue Thunder" (1983), " Nightmares" (1983), and "" (1991).


title: Anthony James (actor)

text: James also appeared in Poison's 1988 music video for their song "Fallen Angel." He retired from acting in the early 1990s, with his last film role in Clint Eastwood's 1992 "Unforgiven", the Academy Award-winning film for Best Picture of 1992. It is notable that Anthony James's first and last major film appearances were each in Academy Award-winning films for Best Picture.


title: Anthony James (actor)

text: After retirement to Arlington, Massachusetts, he concentrated on painting. In 1994, he published a book of art and poetry, "Language of the Heart". His autobiography, "Acting My Face", was published in 2014.


title: Michelle (song)

text: "Michelle" is a song by the English rock band the Beatles from their 1965 album "Rubber Soul". It was composed principally by Paul McCartney, with the middle eight co-written with John Lennon. The song is a love ballad with part of its lyrics sung in French.


title: Michelle (song)

text: Following its inclusion on "Rubber Soul", the song was released as a single in some European countries and in New Zealand, and on an EP in France, in early 1966. It was a number 1 hit for the Beatles in Belgium, France, Norway, the Netherlands and New Zealand. Concurrent recordings of the song by David and Jonathan and the Overlanders were similarly successful in North America and Britain, respectively. "Michelle" won the Grammy Award for Song of the Year in 1967 and has since become one of the most widely recorded of all Beatles songs.


title: Michelle (song)

text: The instrumental music of "Michelle" originated separately from the lyrical concept. According to McCartney:


title: Michelle (song)

text: "Michelle" was a tune that I'd written in Chet Atkins' finger-picking style. There is a song he did called "Trambone" with a repetitive top line, and he played a bass line while playing a melody. This was an innovation for us; even though classical guitarists had played it, no rock 'n' roll guitarists had played it. The first person we knew to use finger-picking style was Chet Atkins ... I never learned it. But based on Atkins' "Trambone", I wanted to write something with a melody and a bass line in it, so I did. I just had it as an instrumental in C.


title: Michelle (song)

text: The words and style of "Michelle" have their origins in the popularity of Parisian Left Bank culture during McCartney's Liverpool days. In his description, "it was at the time of people like Juliette Greco, the French bohemian thing." McCartney had gone to a party of art students where a student with a goatee and a striped T-shirt was singing a French song. He soon wrote a farcical imitation to entertain his friends that involved French-sounding groaning instead of real words. The song remained a party piece until 1965, when John Lennon suggested he rework it into a proper song for inclusion on "Rubber Soul".


title: Michelle (song)

text: McCartney asked Jan Vaughan, a French teacher and the wife of his old friend Ivan Vaughan, to come up with a French name and a phrase that rhymed with it. McCartney said: "It was because I'd always thought that the song sounded French that I stuck with it. I can't speak French properly so that's why I needed help in sorting out the actual words."


title: Michelle (song)

text: Vaughan came up with "Michelle, ma belle", and a few days later McCartney asked for a translation of "these are words that go together well", rendered, for scansion, as "sont des mots qui vont très bien ensemble" ("are words that go very well together"). When McCartney played the song for Lennon, Lennon suggested the "I love you" bridge. Lennon was inspired by a song he heard the previous evening, Nina Simone's version of "I Put a Spell on You", which used the same phrase but with the emphasis on the last word, "I love "you"".


title: Michelle (song)

text: Each version of this song has a different length. The UK mono mix is 2:33 whereas the stereo version extends to 2:40 and the US mono is 2:43. The version available in "" has a running time of 2:50.


title: Michelle (song)

text: The song was initially composed in C, but was played in F on "Rubber Soul" (with a capo on the fifth fret). The verse opens with an F major chord ("Michelle" – melody note C) then the second chord (on "ma belle" – melody note D) is a B (on the original demo in C, the second chord is a F). McCartney called this second chord a "great ham-fisted jazz chord" that was taught to them by Jim Gretty who worked at Hessey's music shop in Whitechapel, central Liverpool and which George Harrison uses (as a G) (see Dominant seventh sharp ninth chord) as the penultimate chord of his solo on "Till There Was You". After the E (of "these are words") there follows an ascent involving different inversions of the D dim chord. These progress from Adim on "go" – melody note F, bass note D; to Bdim (Cdim) on "to" – melody note A, bass note D; to Ddim on "ge ..." – melody note B (C) bass note B; to Bdim on ... 'ther ..." – melody note A bass note B, till the dominant (V) chord (C major) is reached on "well" – melody note G bass note C.


title: Michelle (song)

text: George Martin, the Beatles' producer, recalled that he composed the melody of the guitar solo, which is heard midway through the song and again during the fadeout. He showed Harrison the notes during the recording session and then accompanied the guitarist (on piano, out of microphone range) when the solos were overdubbed. In terms of its complementary role to the main melody, musicologist Walter Everett likens this guitar part to two musical passages that Martin had arranged for singer Cilla Black the previous year: a bassoon–English horn combination on "Anyone Who Had a Heart" and the baritone electric guitar on "You're My World".


title: Michelle (song)

text: EMI's Parlophone label released "Rubber Soul" on 3 December 1965 in Britain, with "Michelle" sequenced as the final track on side one of the LP. The album was widely viewed as marking a significant progression within the Beatles' work and in the scope of pop music generally. Recalling the album's release for "Mojo" magazine in 2002, Richard Williams said "Michelle" represented "the biggest shock of all" to a contemporary pop audience, as McCartney conveyed "all his nostalgia for a safe childhood in the 1950s, itself a decade suffused with nostalgia for the inter-war security of the '20s and '30s, the era to which this song specifically refers."


title: Michelle (song)

text: Although no single from "Rubber Soul" was issued in Britain or America, "Michelle" was the most popular "Rubber Soul" track on US radio. The song was released as a commercial single in several other countries. It topped charts in Italy (for eight weeks), the Netherlands (seven weeks), Sweden (five weeks), Denmark (four weeks) and Hong Kong, Ireland, New Zealand and Singapore. In May 1966, "Billboard"s Hits of the World listed the song at number 1 in Argentina and Norway, among other countries. It was also number 1 in France (for five weeks) as the lead track on an EP release, since France continued to favour the extended-play format over singles.


title: Michelle (song)

text: At the 1967 Ivor Novello Awards, "Michelle" won in the category of "the Most Performed Work" of 1966, ahead of "Yesterday". "Michelle" won the Grammy Award for Song of the Year in 1967, against competition from "Born Free", "The Impossible Dream", "Somewhere My Love" and "Strangers in the Night". In 1999, BMI named "Michelle" as the 42nd most performed song of the 20th century.


title: Michelle (song)

text: In a contemporary review for the "NME", Allen Evans described "Michelle" as a "memorable track" with a "bluesy French sound" in which McCartney's vocal was supported by "[the] others using voices as instruments". "Record Mirror"s reviewer admired the lyrics and said that the song was "just remotely, faintly, slightly similar to 'Yesterday' in the general approach" and "another stand-out performance". Eden of "KRLA Beat" described "Michelle" as a "beautiful ballad", adding: "Although it doesn't sound at all like his fantastic 'Yesterday', it is another tender love song, sung as only Paul could sing it. He even croons the choruses in Frenchand what better language for a love song?" Jazz critic and broadcaster Steve Race admitted to being "astonished" by the album, and added: "When I heard 'Michelle' I couldn't believe my ears. The second chord is an A-chord, while the note in the melody above is A-flat. This is an unforgivable clash, something no one brought up knowing older music could ever have done. It is entirely unique, a stroke of genius... I suppose it was sheer musical ignorance that allowed John and Paul to do it, but it took incredible daring."<ref name="Lydon/RBP"></ref>


title: Michelle (song)

text: Among the Beatles' peers, Bob Dylan, whose work was especially influential on Lennon and Harrison's songwriting on "Rubber Soul", was dismissive of McCartney's ballad style. In March 1966, he said: "A song like 'Yesterday' or 'Michelle'... it's such a cop-out, man... if you go to the Library of Congress you can find a lot better than that. There are millions of songs like 'Yesterday' and 'Michelle' written in Tin Pan Alley." Levi Stubbs of the Four Tops, an American vocal group promoted in the UK by Beatles manager Brian Epstein, cited the song as an example of the sophistication the Beatles had introduced into pop music. He said that the US music scene had been "very dead-beat" and "stagnant" before the arrival of the British Invasion, after which, "Good music became accepted. Would 'Michelle' have been a hit before the Beatles? Of course not."


title: Michelle (song)

text: From 1970, McCartney's standing among music critics suffered as the authentic rock 'n' roll qualities personified by Lennon came to be valued over his former bandmate's more eclectic tastes. In his 1979 essay on the Beatles in "The Rolling Stone Illustrated History of Rock & Roll", Greil Marcus said that "Rubber Soul" was the best of all the band's LPs and that "every cut was an inspiration, something new and remarkable in and of itself" except "Michelle", although he added, "to be fair, [it] paid the bills for years to come".


title: Michelle (song)

text: "Michelle" was the most successful track from "Rubber Soul" for other recording artists and attracted dozens of cover versions within a year of its release. Author Peter Doggett lists it with "Yesterday" and several other Beatles compositions, mostly written by McCartney, that provided contemporary relevance for "light orchestras and crooners" in the easy listening category, persuaded adults that the new generation's musical tastes had merit and, by becoming some of the most widely recorded songs of all time, "ensured that Lennon and McCartney would become the highest-earning composers in history".


title: Michelle (song)

text: The song was a UK hit in January 1966 for the Overlanders, whose version topped the "Record Retailer" chart. It also reached number 2 in Australia. Signed to Pye Records, the Overlanders issued their recording after the Beatles had declined to release it as a single themselves in the United Kingdom and the United States. Pye and the Overlanders were given the Beatles' blessing because the record label had recently acquiesced to Epstein's request that they withdraw a single by Lennon's estranged father, Alf Lennon.


title: Michelle (song)

text: "Michelle" was also covered by David and Jonathan, whose version was produced by Martin. This recording went to number 1 in Canada and number 18 in the US, and was also a top 20 hit in Britain. Author Jon Savage writes that both the Overlanders' and David and Jonathan's versions were "mainstream pop songs, accentuating the very Beatles balladry that put off many hardcore fans"; he says this added to a perception that the Beatles had become "part of the Establishment" after receiving their MBEs from Queen Elizabeth II in October 1965.


title: Michelle (song)

text: American singer Billy Vaughn was another artist who recorded the song soon after its release. In his comments on the Lennon–McCartney composition, Steve Race remarked that Vaughn's arranger had altered the second chord to incorporate an A note, thereby "taking all the sting out" of the unorthodox change. Race said this was indicative of how a formally trained arranger "was so attuned to the conventional way of thinking he didn't even hear what the boys had done".


title: Michelle (song)

text: Andy Williams covered the song on his 1966 album "The Shadow of Your Smile". That same year, "Michelle" was one of Louis Andriessen's "Satirical Arrangements" of Beatles songs for singer Cathy Berberian. American jazz singer Sarah Vaughan also covered the song, while Matt Monro recorded it in 1973 with a string quartet. Instrumental versions were released by the Ventures, using a clavinet over the solo; Booker T. & the M.G.'s; and French bandleader Paul Mauriat, whose interpretation author John Kruth describes as "the most elegant Muzak version" of the song.


title: Michelle (song)

text: Italian singer Mango released an a cappella rendition of "Michelle" on his 2002 album "Disincanto". The band Rubblebucket covered the song in 2010, a trip hop version that was included on their "Triangular Daisies" EP. Beatallica did a cover of the song incorporating the music from "For Whom the Bell Tolls" by Metallica. Titled "For Whom Michelle Tolls", the track appeared on their 2013 album "Abbey Load".


title: Michelle (song)

text: The song "Champagne Poetry" from Drake's album "Certified Lover Boy" samples the lyrics of "Michelle" with "I love you I love you until I find the only words I know that you" in the backing track.


title: Michelle (song)

text: "Michelle" was performed by McCartney throughout his 1993 world tour. He has rarely performed the song since, but did include it in a 2009 performance in Washington, DC, in honour of Michelle Obama, the American First Lady, and he would play it on most (if not all) of his performances in France or other francophone countries.


title: Michelle (song)

text: On 2 June 2010, after being awarded the Gershwin Prize for Popular Song by President Barack Obama in a ceremony at the White House, McCartney performed the song for Michelle Obama, who sang along from her seat. McCartney quipped, "I could be the first guy ever to be punched out by a president." Michelle Obama reportedly later told others that she could never have imagined, growing up an African-American girl on the South Side of Chicago, that someday a Beatle would sing "Michelle" to her as First Lady of the United States.


title: Hogan

text: A hogan ( or ; from Navajo "" ) is the primary, traditional dwelling of the Navajo people. Other traditional structures include the summer shelter, the underground home, and the sweat house. A hogan can be round, cone-shaped, multi-sided, or square; with or without internal posts; timber or stone walls and packed with earth in varying amounts or a bark roof for a summer house, with the door facing east to welcome the rising sun for wealth and good fortune.


title: Hogan

text: Today, while some older hogans are now still used as dwellings and others are maintained for ceremonial purposes, new hogans are rarely intended as family dwellings.


title: Hogan

text: Traditional structured hogans are also considered pioneers of energy efficient homes. Using packed mud against the entire wood structure, the home was kept cool by natural air ventilation and water sprinkled on the dirt ground inside. During the winter the fireplace kept the inside warm well into the night. This concept is called thermal mass.


title: Hogan

text: The preference of hogan construction and use is still very popular among the Navajos, although the use of it as a home shelter dwindled through the 1900s, due mainly to the requirement by many Navajos to acquire homes built through government and lender funding – which largely ignored the hogan-style and cultural needs of a community – in preference for HUD-standardized construction.


title: Hogan

text: With government and lender requirements requiring low costs, as well as bathrooms and kitchens, the hogan as a person's home was dwindling away, save for those who could build their own. That began to officially change in the late 1990s with various small projects to find ways to bring the hogan back. In 2001, it began changing significantly with a joint-venture of a partnership involving the Navajo Nation, Northern Arizona University, the US Forest Service and other private and public partners – to begin manufacturing and building log hogans from a Navajo-majority owned log home factory in Cameron, Arizona, next to the Cameron Chapter House. Using surplus small-diameter wood being culled out of the Northern Arizona forests to mitigate devastating wildfires, and with a series of meetings between elders, medicine men, and project leaders – a log hogan revival is being born on the Navajo Nation. While keeping the sacred space of the hogan relatively untouched, and also meeting the requirements for modern home amenities, an ancient tradition is now once again beginning to flourish. Along with assuring the survival of a cultural heritage, this project has also created new jobs, summer school construction experience for Navajo teens, public buildings, and much more.


title: Lompoc, California

text: Lompoc ( ; Chumash: "Lum Poc") is a city in Santa Barbara County, California. Located on the Central Coast, Lompoc has a population of 43,834 as of July 2021.


title: Lompoc, California

text: Lompoc has been inhabited for thousands of years by the Chumash people, who called the area Lum Poc, meaning "stagnant waters" or "lagoon" in the local Purisimeño language. The Spanish called the area Lompoco after Fermín de Lasuén had established Mission La Purísima in 1787. In 1837, the Mexican government sold the area as the Rancho Lompoc land grant. Following the U.S. conquest of California, multiple settlers acquired the Lompoc Valley, including William Welles Hollister, who sold the land around the mission to the Lompoc Valley Land Company, which established a temperance colony which incorporated in 1888 as Lompoc. Lompoc is often considered a military town because it is near Vandenberg Space Force Base.


title: Lompoc, California

text: Before the Spanish conquest, the area around Lompoc was inhabited by the Chumash people. The Original Mission La Purísima was established in 1787 near what is now the southern edge of the city. Purisimeño, a Chumashan language, was spoken in the region during the mission period. After an earthquake destroyed the mission in 1812, it was moved to its present location northeast of the present city. After independence from the Spanish Empire, the First Mexican Empire was established in 1821. The Mexicans secularized the Spanish missions in 1833, and La Purisima Mission fell into ruins.


title: Lompoc, California

text: In 1893, a diatomaceous earth mine, formerly owned by Johns Manville, World Mineral, and Celite corporation, now Imerys Inc., opened in the southern hills in Miguelito Canyon. It became (and still is) the largest marine diatomite mine in the world, and at one time was the largest employer in the valley. While owned by Johns Manville, the mine employed more than 900 people at its peak, and built housing for its employees onsite and in town; the houses in town are next to JM park, which was donated to the city by the mine. Another diatomaceous earth company, Grefco, operated here from the 1940s until 1998. The remnants of its mine at the northeast end of town were torn down in 2001.


title: Lompoc, California

text: In 1909, the Sibyl Marston—at the time, the largest steam schooner built on the West Coast—sank nearby while carrying of lumber. Many of the older Lompoc homes were built with lumber from the shipwreck. The wreckage can still be seen south of Surf Beach.


title: Lompoc, California

text: The coastal branch of the Southern Pacific Railroad opened around 1900 and eventually replaced ship transportation. A paved road linked Lompoc to Buellton and the rest of California around 1920. In 1923, the Honda Point disaster, the U.S.'s largest peacetime naval accident, occurred just off the coast; nine U.S. destroyers ran aground, killing 23 people. During the Great Depression, La Purisima Mission was restored by the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC). During World War II, the coast west of Lompoc was the site of Camp Cooke, a United States Army training camp where large units could practice maneuvers.


title: Lompoc, California

text: Lompoc grew slowly until 1958, when the United States Air Force announced that the former Camp Cooke would be a test site for the Thor family of intermediate-range ballistic missiles and the first operational base for the SM-65 Atlas, an intercontinental ballistic missile. The city then began to grow rapidly to provide housing for thousands of civilians and contractors employed at what was soon renamed Vandenberg Air Force Base. It was the Air Force's first missile base.


title: Lompoc, California

text: The Space Shuttle program was slated to begin launches from Vandenberg in the late 1980s, and the city experienced a boom in restaurant and hotel construction in anticipation of tourists coming to see shuttle launches. However, when the Challenger exploded during take-off from Cape Canaveral in 1986, the West Coast shuttle program was terminated, sending Lompoc into a severe recession.


title: Lompoc, California

text: Lompoc is called "The City of Arts and Flowers" and is also known for its wines. In 2010, "Playboy" named Jasper's, a local bar, one of the top 10 dive bars in the country. The bar is the setting of the classic 1940 W.C. Fields comedy "The Bank Dick".


title: Lompoc, California

text: Lompoc is located at (34.646182, -120.460316). According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , 99.34% of it land and 0.66% of it water.


title: Lompoc, California

text: Most of the city is in the valley of the Santa Ynez River, at an elevation of about 80–100 feet (25–30 meters); recent expansion has been to the north, on higher ground known as Vandenberg Village, with elevations of 150–300 feet (50–100 meters). Like most rivers in Southern California, the Santa Ynez River does not have a surface flow for most of the year. Underground flow in the sandy river bed recharges the aquifer beneath the city, from which nine wells (with a tenth one planned) supply the city with water. Unlike many other cities in Southern California, Lompoc is not connected to the State Water Project.


title: Lompoc, California

text: Lompoc has a cool Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification "Csb"), typical of coastal California. The city is mostly sunny, with an ocean breeze. Fog is common. Snow is virtually unknown. The highest recorded temperature was in 1987, and the lowest recorded temperature was in 1990.


title: Lompoc, California

text: In the 2010 United States Census, Lompoc had a population of 42,434. The population density was . The racial makeup was 25,950 (61.2%) White; 2,432 (5.7%) African American; 750 (1.8%) Native American; 1,615 (3.8%) Asian; 186 (0.4%) Pacific Islander; 9,020 (21.3%) from other races; and 2,481 (5.8%) from two or more races. There were 21,557 Hispanics or Latinos of any race (50.8%).


title: Lompoc, California

text: The Census reported that 38,778 people (91.4% of the population) lived in households, 99 (0.2%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 3,557 (8.4%) were institutionalized.


title: Lompoc, California

text: There were 13,355 households, of which 5,481 (41.0%) had children under the age of 18 living in them; 6,323 (47.3%) were opposite-sex married couples living together; 2,061 (15.4%) had a female householder with no husband present; and 913 (6.8%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 949 (7.1%) unmarried opposite-sex partnerships and 75 (0.6%) same-sex married couples or partnerships. 3,304 households (24.7%) were made up of individuals, and 1,187 (8.9%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.9. There were 9,297 families (69.6% of all households); the average family size was 3.48.


title: Lompoc, California

text: The population included 11,188 people (26.4%) under the age of 18, 4,452 people (10.5%) aged 18 to 24, 12,233 people (28.8%) aged 25 to 44, 10,338 people (24.4%) aged 45 to 64, and 4,223 people (10.0%) who were 65 or older. The median age was 33.9 years. For every 100 females, there were 114.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 118.7 males.


title: Lompoc, California

text: There were 14,416 housing units at an average density of , of which 6,493 (48.6%) were owner-occupied and 6,862 (51.4%) were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 2.2%; the rental vacancy rate was 7.1%. 18,534 people (43.7% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units, and 20,244 people (47.7%) lived in rental housing units.


title: Lompoc, California

text: As of the 2000 Census, there were 43,284 people, 13,059 households and 9,311 families residing in Lompoc. The population density was . There were 13,621 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 65.81% White, 7.34% African American, 1.58% Native American, 3.90% Asian, 0.32% Pacific Islander, 15.68% from other races, and 5.35% from two or more races. Hispanics or Latinos of any race were 37.31% of the population.


title: Lompoc, California

text: There were 13,059 households, of which 41.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 51.0% were married couples living together, 14.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 28.7% were non-families. 23.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 8.3% had someone living alone who was 65 or older. The average household size was 2.88, and the average family size was 3.42.


title: Lompoc, California

text: The population included 29.9% under the age of 18, 8.9% from 18 to 24, 33.3% from 25 to 44, 18.5% from 45 to 64, and 9.4% who were 65 or older. The median age was 32. For every 100 females, there were 113.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 116.4 males.


title: Lompoc, California

text: The median income for a household in the city was $47,587, and the median income for a family was $62,199. Males had a median income of $35,074, versus $26,824 for females. The per capita income was $15,509. About 12.6% of families and 15.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 20.8% of those under 18 and 6.7% of those 65 or older.


title: Lompoc, California

text: Vandenberg Space Force Base dominates the economy, directly employing more Lompoc residents than any other employer, and contributing $1.7 billion to the regional economy. Other mainstays of the economy include the Federal Correctional Institution, the diatomaceous earth mine (today owned by Imerys), the Lompoc Oil Field and associated oil processing facilities north of town, and agriculture (especially seed flowers and vegetables).


title: Lompoc, California

text: Wine production and wine tourism make up an expanding agricultural sector. Lompoc Valley is the gateway to the Sta. Rita Hills AVA wine appellation, internationally recognized for premium pinot noir and chardonnay. Thirty premium boutique wine labels are produced in Lompoc. Numerous other wineries are located along State Route 246 and on Santa Rosa Road. Tasting rooms are located in various parts of Lompoc.


title: Lompoc, California

text: Since the end of the Cold War, many workers employed in Santa Barbara and Goleta have moved to Lompoc to take advantage of lower housing costs, effectively making Lompoc a bedroom community of Santa Barbara. The character of the town has changed considerably with the growth associated with this demographic shift. In addition, new housing developments are spreading into the adjacent hills on the north side of town.


title: Lompoc, California

text: Upon the legalization of the sale and distribution of cannabis in California, the city had seven recreational marijuana storefronts by February 2020 with nineteen cannabis business licenses having been issued by the city. One of the retail establishment is being licensed for on site consumption claiming to be the first between Los Angeles and San Francisco. A manufacturing facility has been established and a testing lab provides the required analysis for growers. Companies must be licensed by the local agency and the state to grow, test, or sell cannabis and the city may authorize none or only some of these activities. Cannabis dispensaries pay a 6% gross sales tax to the city. Local governments may not prohibit adults, who are in compliance with state laws, from growing, using, or transporting marijuana for personal use.


title: Lompoc, California

text: The Lompoc Police Department is the primary law enforcement agency for the city. The city is also served by the Lompoc Fire Department (LFD), which responds to more than 3,800 emergency and non-emergency calls per year.


title: Lompoc, California

text: American Medical Response Santa Barbara County (AMR SBC) provides the primary emergency medical response and ambulance services. The LFD provides mutual aid to the Santa Barbara County Fire Department as well as providing primary fire protection and emergency medical response to the United States Penitentiary, Lompoc.


title: Lompoc, California

text: The Federal Correctional Complex located between Lompoc and Vandenberg SFB includes the medium- and low-security Federal Correctional Institution, Lompoc, two minimum-security camps.


title: Lompoc, California

text: State Route 1 is the major north–south artery through Lompoc. State Route 246 heads east to Buellton and the Santa Ynez Valley.


title: Lompoc, California

text: The Surf train station is located to the west at Surf Beach and is served by Amtrak's "Pacific Surfliner" line. Thruway Motorcoach buses stop in town. Lompoc is also served by City of Lompoc Transit, the Clean Air Express to Santa Barbara/Goleta, and the Breeze Bus to Buellton/Solvang and Santa Maria.


title: Lompoc, California

text: The Lompoc Valley Flower Festival, held the last week of June, features a parade, carnival, food vendors, and craft show. In 2002, the Bodger Seed Company planted a "floral flag" as a tribute after the September 11 attacks. The "flag" was 740 feet by 390 feet, covered , and was estimated to contain more than 400,000 larkspur plants.


title: Lompoc, California

text: The Lompoc arts scene features a number of artists, musicians, and bands, ranging from singer-songwriters to psychedelic blues-rock bands. At the center of this scene is Certain Sparks Music, a music store and frequent venue for Lompoc's musicians. Certain Sparks opened in 2006 and moved in 2015 from the corner of H & Laurel to South H Street.


title: Lompoc, California

text: One of Lompoc's most successful musical artists is the rock band Saint Anne's Place, which was formed in 2008 and originally featured guitarist and vocalist Jacob Cole, percussionist Samuel Cole, bassist JT Wild and guitarist-vocalist Clive Hacker. Clive Hacker was also a founding member of an earlier locally famous rock band Crash Plastic, who eventually added Jacob Cole to the mix and played famous venues like the 1920's Majestic Ventura Theater. In 2011, Saint Anne's Place members firmly became the Coles and their cousin, Joel, a bassist and keyboard player. They grew up playing in their families' blues bands like The Revelators, Pre-Amp Out and The Hellhounds and released their first EP, "Speak Easy", in 2011. The band's music has been described as a "blistering yet rustic mix of blues, psychedelia, and folk rock with the chops of players twice their senior". In 2011, they won the "Santa Barbara Independent" battle of the bands. They released their second EP, "The Earth Shaker", in December 2012 to positive reviews by the local media.


title: Lompoc, California

text: Emily Wryn is a Lompoc songwriter whose music has been featured on NPR’s "Morning Becomes Eclectic". Her first EP, "Head on Straight", was released in February 2012, and she played at the Indie Week festival in Ireland in April 2014. Wryn also collaborates with a local band, Saint Anne's Place, and in a group called The Lights Electric.


title: Lompoc, California

text: Another band, Millions, led by Randall Sena, played along the Central Coast. Randall Sena was also in a performing band called Le Petite Protest. Sena recorded and produced Wryn's "Head on Straight" and Saint Anne's Place's "Speak Easy" in his recording studio, Certain Sparks.


title: Lompoc, California

text: The Lompoc Theatre, which opened in 1927, was owned and operated by the Calvert family for many years. It encountered financial trouble in the 1970s because of competition from multiplexes and television. The last time a movie was shown on its screen was in 1987.


title: Lompoc, California

text: In July 2003, a non-profit group, the Lompoc Housing and Community Development Corporation, announced plans to restore the theater. With the assistance of the city, the LHCDC was able to raise funds to buy the theater. By March 2008, the cost of renovating the building was estimated at just under $10 million. The LHCDC was unable to raise the money needed for renovations, and the building accumulated three liens. The Lompoc Theatre Project Organization was formed in 2012 with the help of Howlin' Byroon's Music Store (2009-2014) owner Brian W. Cole, Donelle Martin, Carol Benham, Michelle Shaefer and others. It was formally sold, and attaining the keys, to the same grassroots group called the Lompoc Theatre Project in 2016. , restoration and fund-raising is still ongoing.


title: Lompoc, California

text: Founded in 1996, the Lompoc Pops Orchestra consists of about 45 semi-professional musicians under the direction of Dr. Brian Asher Alhadeff. Tts four annual performances include musicals, Broadway hits, jazz pieces, big band, gospel and patriotic music.


title: Peganum harmala

text: Peganum harmala, commonly called wild rue, Syrian rue, African rue, esfand or espand, or harmel, (among other similar pronunciations and spellings) is a perennial, herbaceous plant, with a woody underground root-stock, of the family Nitrariaceae, usually growing in saline soils in temperate desert and Mediterranean regions. Its common English-language name came about because of a resemblance to rue (to which it is not related). Because eating it can cause livestock to sicken or die, it is considered a noxious weed in a number of countries. It has become an invasive species in some regions of the western United States. The plant is popular in Middle Eastern and north African folk medicine. The alkaloids contained in the plant, including the seeds, are monoamine oxidase inhibitors (Harmine, Harmaline).


title: Peganum harmala

text: It is known in as اسپند in Persian, which is transliterated as , or but may also be pronounced or transliterated as , , , , , , or depending on source or dialect. The Persian word is also the name of the last month of the year, approximately March, in the traditional Persian calendar. It is derived from Middle Persian , which is thought, along with the English word "spinach", to be ultimately derived from Proto-Iranian "*", 'holy' (compare Avestan , , 'holy', and Middle Persian , 'holy'), itself thought to be ultimately derived from Proto-Indo-European "*".


title: Peganum harmala

text: It is known as in Pashto. In Urdu it is known as , , or . In Turkish it is known as or . In Chinese it is , , or , .


title: Peganum harmala

text: It is a perennial, herbaceous, suffrutescent, hemicryptophyte plant, which dies off in the winter, but regrows from the rootstock the following spring. It can grow to about tall, but normally it is about tall. The entire plant is hairless (glabrous). Plants are bad tasting and smell foul when crushed.


title: Peganum harmala

text: Numerous erect to spreading stems grow from the crown of the root-stock in the spring, these branch in a corymbose fashion.


title: Peganum harmala

text: The roots of the plant can reach a depth of up to , if the soil where it is growing is very dry. The roots can grow to thick.


title: Peganum harmala

text: The leaves are alternate, sessile, and have bristly, long stipules at the base. The leaf blade is dissected/forked twice or more into three to five thin, linear to lanceolate-linear, greyish lobes. The forks are irregular. The lobes have smooth margins, are long and broad, and end in points.


title: Peganum harmala

text: It blooms with solitary flowers opposite to the leaves on the apical parts of branches. It flowers between March and October in India, between April and October in Pakistan, between May and June in China, between March and April in Palestine, and between May and July in Morocco. The flowers are white or yellowish white, and are about 2–3 cm in diameter. Greenish veins are visible in the petals. They have a threadlike, 1.2 cm long pedicel. The flowers have five (10-)12–15(−20)mm long, linear, pointy-ended, glabrous sepals, often divided into lobes, although sometimes entire and only divided at the end. There are five petals which are oblong-elliptic, obovate to oblong in shape, (10-)14–15(−20)mm long, (5-)6–8(−9)mm broad, and ending with an obtuse apex. The flowers are hermaphroditic, having both male and female organs. The flowers usually have 15 stamens (rarely fewer); these have a 4-5mm long filament with an enlarged base. The dorsifixed, 6mm long anthers are longer than the filaments. The ovary is superior, and has 3 locules and ends in an 8-10mm long style, the ending 6mm of which are triangular or 3-keeled in cross-section. The ovary is surrounded by a nectary which is glabrous and has five lobes in a regular pattern.


title: Peganum harmala

text: The flowers produce only a tiny amount of nectar. The nectar is rich in hexose sugars. It contains a relatively small concentration of amino acids among which there is an especially high amount of the glutamic acid, tyrosine and proline, the last of which can be tasted by, and is favoured by, many insects. It also contains (four) alkaloids, in relatively high concentration compared to the flowers of other species, among them the toxins harmalol and harmine. The proportions and concentrations of the alkaloids in the nectar are different than in the other organs of the plant, indicating an adaptive reason for their presence.


title: Peganum harmala

text: "P. harmala" has smallish, tricolpate pollen grains with a rugulate-reticulate surface. The exine has a sexine which is thicker than the nexine. These grains are well distinguishable from pollen of related plants ("Nitraria") in Pakistan.


title: Peganum harmala

text: The plant fruits between July and November in China. The fruit is a dry, round seed capsule which measures about 6–10(−15) mm in diameter, These seed capsules have three chambers and carry more than 50 seeds. The end of the fruit is usually somewhat sunken inwards and retains a persistent style.


title: Peganum harmala

text: The seeds are colored dark brown to blackish-brown, slightly curved, triangular, about long with a muriculate surface. The endosperm is oily.


title: Peganum harmala

text: "Peganum harmala" is native to a wide area stretching from Morocco in north Africa and Spain and Italy in Europe, north to Serbia, Romania (possibly), Dagestan and Kazakhstan, south to Mauritania (possibly), Yemen, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and Pakistan, and east to western Mongolia, northern China and possibly Bangladesh. It is a common weed in Afghanistan, Iran, parts of Israel, eastern and central Anatolia (Turkey), and Morocco.


title: Peganum harmala

text: In Africa it is known from Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, and Egypt. It likely does not occur in Mauritania. In Morocco it is quite common and occurs throughout the country, excepting Western Sahara. In Algeria it is found mostly in the north bordering Morocco and Tunisia, being absent in the south and central regions. It is reasonably commonly found throughout Tunisia. In Libya it is found in the maritime zone, especially around Bengazi, and is not abundant. In Egypt it grows in the Sinai, has been recorded from the east of the Eastern Desert, and been rarely collected on the mid-west of the Mediterranean coast.


title: Peganum harmala

text: In Europe it is native to Spain, Corsica (disputed), much of Russia, Serbia, Moldova, Ukraine (especially in Crimea), Romania (possibly introduced), Bulgaria, Greece (including Crete and the Cyclades), Cyprus, Turkey (Thrace) and southern Italy (including Sardinia, but not Sicily). It also is native to the Caucasus: Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia. On the Iberian Peninsula it is absent from Portugal and Andorra, but it is not uncommon in Spain, especially in the southeast, the Ebro depression, and the inland valleys of the Duero and Tajo, but it is rare in Andalusia (south) and it does not occur on the Balearic Islands and the Canary Islands, and in the west along the Portuguese border, Galicia, the northern coast, and the northern mountain ranges.


title: Peganum harmala

text: In Turkey it is found both in Thrace and across most of Anatolia, but is absent from the northern Black Sea coast. It is abundant in some regions of south and central Anatolia.


title: Peganum harmala

text: In Israel it is most commonly found around the Dead Sea, in the Judean mountains and desert, in the Negev and its surrounding areas, including areas in Jordan and Saudi Arabia, being rare or very rare in the northern mountains, Galilee, coastal areas and the Arava valley.


title: Peganum harmala

text: It grows in drier parts of the northern half of India but is possibly only native to the Kashmir and Ladakh regions. It also occurs in, and is possibly native to, Bangladesh.


title: Peganum harmala

text: The distribution in China is in dispute. The 2008 Flora of China considers it to be native to northern China in the provinces of Gansu, western Hebei, western Inner Mongolia, Ningxia, Qinghai, northern Shanxi, Tibet and Xinjiang. The 2017 Species Catalogue of China considers it to be restricted to Inner Mongolia, Ningxia and Gansu.


title: Peganum harmala

text: It has been added to the lists of the Global Register of Introduced and Invasive Species for the countries of South Africa, Mexico, France and Ukraine, although it is not reported as having a negative impact in any of these countries. Most Ukrainian and other references consider the plant native to Ukraine. Sources are in disagreement regarding rare collections in coastal Romania, but many consider it introduced. At least 7 occurrences have been registered in South Africa, and none in Mexico (as of 2017). As of 2020 it is included in South African National Biodiversity Institute's "Plants of Southern Africa" website as an introduced plant to South Africa. One database has it occurring as a non-native in Hungary.


title: Peganum harmala

text: In France it is considered a former accidental introduction once uncommonly found on the Côte d'Azur along the Mediterranean coast. It has very rarely been found elsewhere in France in the past. According to the Flora Europaea there is a native population on Corsica, however, according to Tela Botanica it does not occur on the island, either as a native or not.


title: Peganum harmala

text: It was first planted in the United States in 1928 in New Mexico by a farmer wanting to manufacture a dye called "Turkish red" from its seeds. From here the plant spread over most of southern New Mexico and the Big Bend region of Texas. An additional spread has occurred from east of Los Angeles in California to the tip of southernmost Nevada. Outside of these regions the distribution in the US is not continuous and localised. As of 2019 it has been reported in southern Arizona (in at least 3 adjacent counties), northeastern Montana (2 adjacent counties), northern Nevada (Churchill county), Oregon (town of Prineville in the Oregon high desert) and possibly Washington. "Because it is so drought tolerant, African rue can displace the native saltbushes and grasses growing in the salt-desert shrub lands of the Western U.S."


title: Peganum harmala

text: Although the distribution in New Mexico and Texas would suggest it has spread to parts of northern Mexico, the species has not been included in the 2004 list of introduced plants of Mexico.


title: Peganum harmala

text: In Kashmir and Ladakh it is known from elevations of 300–2400 m, in China 400–3600 m, in Turkey 0–1500 m, and in Spain 0–1200 m.


title: Peganum harmala

text: In Spain it can be found in abandoned fields, rubbish tips, stony slopes, along the verges of roads, ploughed and worked earth, as well as in disturbed, saline scrubland.


title: Peganum harmala

text: In Morocco it is said to grow in steppes, arid coasts, dry uncultivated fields and amongst ruins. A study in Morocco found that it could be used as an indicator species for rangeland degraded from agricultural activities, when found in association with certain "Artemisia" sp., "Noaea mucronata" and "Anabasis aphylla". In Israel it is a common dominant plant along with "Anabasis syriaca" and "Haloxylon scoparium" in a low semi-shrubby steppe ecosystem which during dry years is almost devoid of plant cover, growing on saline, loess-derived soils. In rainy times "Leontice leontopetalum" and "Ixiolirion tataricum" appear here. It also grows in Israel in semi-steppe shrublands, Mediterranean woodlands and shrublands, and deserts. Between 800–1300m elevation on the sandstone slopes of the mountains around Petra, Jordan, there is an open Mediterranean steppe forest dominated by "Juniperus phoenicea" and "Artemisia herba-alba" together with occasional trees of "Pistacia atlantica" and "Crataegus aronia" with common shrubs being "Thymelaea hirsuta", "Ephedra campylopoda", "Ononis natrix", "Hammada salicornia" and "Anabasis articulata"; when this habitat is further degraded (it is already degraded) by overgrazing "P. harmala" along with "Noaea mucronata" invade. It is often found with "Euphorbia virgata" in the foothills of Mount Ararat, Iğdır Province, Turkey.


title: Peganum harmala

text: The flowers are pollinated by insects. Little is known about pollen vectors. A year-long study around the town of St. Katherine in the El-Tur mountains of southern Sinai found "P. harmala" to be exclusively pollinated by the domesticated honey bee, "Apis mellifera", although it is possible these animals are displacing native bees. The floral morphology, nectar amount and composition – high in hexane sugars, presence of toxic alkaloids and high proline content together suggest pollination by short-tongued bees (see pollination syndrome).


title: Peganum harmala

text: Regarding seed dispersal it is considered a barochore. According to a Mongolian study, its seeds are exclusively dispersed by human activities, although "Peganum multisectum", sometimes seen as a variety or synonym of this species, is dispersed solely by water flow.


title: Peganum harmala

text: A species of tiny, hairy beetle, "Thamnurgus pegani", has been found inhabiting stems of "P. harmala" in Turkey and elsewhere. It feeds only on "P. harmala". When the aerial parts of the plant begin to die off in the autumn, the adult beetles retreat to overwinter in the soil underneath the root-crown, or in old larval tunnels in the dead stems; emerging in the spring (May in Turkey), the females bore small holes in the now shooting stems of the plant, in which they lay their eggs. The hatched larvae bore inward toward the pith. The beetles somehow infect the surrounding tissue in the tunnels with a fungus, "Fusarium oxysporum". The infected plant tissue turns blackish and is then used by the adult beetles and their larvae as a food source, until they are ready to pupate within the stem tunnels. It has been proposed as a candidate for using in biological control of "P. harmala", as a relative of it, "T. euphorbiae", has been approved for use against invasive "Euphorbia" in the United States.


title: Peganum harmala

text: As the plant is popular in Persian cultural traditions, and is a hallucinogen, the linguists David Flattery and Martin Schwartz wrote a book in 1989 in which they theorised that the plant is the Avestan "haoma" mentioned in ancient Persian Zoroastrian texts. The transcribed word "haoma" is thought to be likely related to the Vedic word "soma"; these names refer to a magical, purportedly entheogenic plant/drink that is mentioned in ancient Indo-Iranian texts but whose exact identity has been lost to history.


title: Peganum harmala

text: This plant was first described in a recognisable manner under the name () by Dioscorides, who mentions it is called μῶλυ ("moly") in parts of Anatolia (although Dioscorides distinguishes the 'real' μῶλυ as another, bulbaceous plant). Galen later describes the plant under the name , following Dioscorides by mentioning numerous other names it was known by: , (harmala), and in Syria , (besasa). For much of the subsequent history of Europe Galen was seen as the pinnacle of human medical knowledge. As such, during the early Middle Ages, the herb was known as "moly" or .


title: Peganum harmala

text: The 12th century Arab agriculturist Ibn al-'Awwam from Seville, Spain, wrote that the seeds were used in the baking of bread; the fumes being used to facilitate fermentation and help with the taste (he usually quotes older authors).


title: Peganum harmala

text: By the mid-16th century Dodoens relates how apothecaries sold the plant under the name "harmel" as a type of extra-strength rue.


title: Peganum harmala

text: Rembert Dodoens in 1553 illustrated and described the plant (republished 1583 with better illustration, calling it "Harmala", and basing his work on Galen and Dioscorides).


title: Peganum harmala

text: In 1596 Gaspard Bauhin had his "Phytopinax" published in which he attempted to list all plants known in an ordered manner. He judges "Ruta sylvestris Dioscorides" to be a type of "Hypericum". Later, in his "Pinax Theatri Botanici" of 1623 he attempts to sort the synonymy in all the previously published names by the botanists from earlier in history. In this work he sorts "Ruta" into five species, distinguishing this plant from the others by its three-locular fruit, large white flowers and being only known as a wild plant (as opposed to cultivated). He considers his 'Ruta sylvestris flore magno albo' (="Peganum harmala") to be (not all writers named in the following): Tabernaemontanus', Dodoens' and Clusius' "Harmala"; Matthias de l'Obel's "Harmala syriaca"; Andreas Cæsalpinus' and Conrad Gesner's (in his report on Ottoman plants) "Harmel"; Pietro Andrea Mattioli's and Clusius' (in another work) "Ruta sylvestris Harmala"; Valerius Cordus' (in his "Annotations on Dioscorides"), Gesner's (in his "Hortus"), and Aloysius Anguillara's "Ruta sylvestris"; and Castore Durante's and Joachim Camerarius the Younger's "Ruta sylvestris secunda".


title: Peganum harmala

text: In 1753 Carl Linnaeus named the species "Peganum harmala". He cites this species as based on Bauhin's "Pinax Theatri Botanici" of 1623, and "Stirpium Historiae Pemptades Sex" of 1583 by Rembert Dodoens.


title: Peganum harmala

text: In 1954 Brian Laurence Burtt and Patricia Lewis designated 'Cult. in Horto Upsaliensi (Linn!)' as the lectotype for the species. This lectotype appeared to be two sheets (621.1 and 621.2) in the Linnean Herbarium, not being part of a single gathering, and hence ICBN Art. 9.15 ("Vienna Code") did not apply. In 1993 Mohammed Nabil El Hadidi designated 'Clifford Herbarium 206, "Peganum" no. 1', stored at the British Museum of Natural History, as the lectotype for "P. harmala".


title: Peganum harmala

text: Peganum harmala" var. "garamantum – "P. harmala" var. "garamantum" was originally described by René Maire in 1953 in his "Flore de l'Afrique du Nord". It was still recognised as occurring in Tunisia as of 2010 (along with var. "typicum"), although the distinction is not recognised in other works.


title: Peganum harmala

text: Peganum harmala" var. "grandiflorum – El Hadidi described "P. harmala" var. "grandiflorum" in 1972 for the Flora Iranica based on herbarium material collected by H. Bobek in Tal Shahdad in Kerman Province, Iran in 1956, and said the variety grew in both Iran and Afghanistan. It was subsequently collected only once more, at least as recorded in the GBIF, in 1980 in Spain near the bank of the Ebro river approximately halfway downriver to the sea from Zaragosa. It is not mentioned in the Flora Iberica.


title: Peganum harmala

text: Peganum harmala" var. "multisecta – First described by Karl Maximovich in 1889 from Qinghai. Sometimes incorrectly spelled var. "multisectum". Occurs in Dzungaria, Hexi, Qaidam Basin, Ordos and the Altai regions in China and Mongolia. In China it occurs in the provinces of Inner Mongolia, northern Shanxi, Ningxia, Gansu, Qinghai, Xinjiang and Tibet (the Flora of China claims it is endemic to China). It can be distinguished by having the sepals (called 'calyx leaves' in one study) incised with 3–5 lobes, instead of being entire as in the nominate form ("P. nigellastrum", which also occurs in the region, has this characteristic even more pronounced, but with the calyx leaves split into 5–7 thin string-like lobes), and by having leaves which are more dissected or may be trisected. The leaves are dissected to 3–5 lobes in the nominate form – the individual leaf lobes being 1.5–3 mm wide, whereas this variety always has more than 5 lobes 1–1.5 mm wide. The nominate form has seeds with a depressed surface, whereas var. "multisecta" has seeds with convex surface. Furthermore, the stems of this variety sprawl prostrate upon the ground, whereas the nominate has erect stems, and the variety has stems which are pubescent when young as opposed to always glabrous. Some consider it better to classify it as an independent species, "P. multisectum" ("fide" Bobrov, 1949). Others consider it a synonym of the nominate form.


title: Peganum harmala

text: Peganum harmala" var. "rothschildianum – Originally described by cactus specialist Franz Buxbaum in 1927 as "P. rothschildianum" from northern Africa. Subsumed as a variety by René Maire in 1953. Not recognised for Tunisia, nor elsewhere.


title: Peganum harmala

text: Peganum harmala" var. "stenophyllum – This variety is still accepted by some authorities, although it is not recognised in the Flora of Pakistan. Pierre Edmond Boissier described it in 1867 and it has been recognised as growing in Iran, Iraq, Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Tajikistan, and the northern Caucasus. In India it is found in Kashmir, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Karnataka. It can be distinguished from the nominate form by having finer leaves with more narrow lobes, shorter sepals and broader-shaped seed capsules.


title: Peganum harmala

text: In the United States, it is considered an invasive, noxious weed in the following states: Arizona (prohibited noxious weed), California (A listed noxious weed), Colorado (A listed noxious weed), Nevada (noxious weed), New Mexico (class B noxious weed), and Oregon (A designated weed, under quarantine). This may require land owners to exterminate infestations on their land or be fined, and allows access to government grants to buy herbicides to do so. It is illegal to sell plants of this species in the states listed above. Since 2005, with caveats, the cultivation, possession or sale of this species is also illegal in Louisiana.


title: Peganum harmala

text: Since 2005 the possession of the seeds, the plant itself, and the alkaloids harmine and harmaline, which it contains, is illegal in France. In Finland, the plant is officially listed as a medicinal plant, which means one would require a doctors prescription to acquire it. In Canada, harmaline is illegal. In Australia, harmala alkaloids are illegal.


title: Peganum harmala

text: In some regions it is a common weed. In China it is seen as a noxious weed, invasive in overgrazed areas. In the United States, where it is not native, it is officially registered as a noxious weed or similar designation in Arizona, California, Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico and Oregon. Infestations can be invasive and very difficult to exterminate. It is also known as an agricultural seed contaminant. It often causes livestock poisonings, especially during drought. Consumption by animals causes reduced fertility and abortions.


title: Peganum harmala

text: Control is possible only with powerful herbicides. Manually uprooting the plants is near impossible and there are no methods of biological control currently awaiting approval. The rootstock contains starches that help the plant survive being defoliated and is thick and grows very deep, and the crown of the plant is safe below the surface.


title: Peganum harmala

text: A red dye, "Turkey red", from the seeds (but usually obtained from madder) is often used in western Asia to dye carpets. It is also used to dye wool. When the seeds are extracted with water, a yellow fluorescent dye is obtained. If they are extracted with alcohol, a red dye is obtained. The stems, roots and seeds can be used to make inks, stains and tattoos. According to one source, for a time the traditional Ottoman fez was dyed with the extract from this plant.


title: Peganum harmala

text: In Iran and neighbouring countries such as Turkey, dried capsules from the plant are strung and hung in homes or vehicles to protect against "the evil eye". It is widely used for protection against Djinn in Morocco (see Légey "Essai de Folklore marocain", 1926).


title: Peganum harmala

text: Esfand (called in Kashmiri) is burnt in Kashmiri Hindu weddings to create an auspicious atmosphere. Burning esfand seeds is also common in Persian cultures for warding off the evil eye, as in Persian weddings.


title: Peganum harmala

text: In Yemen, the Jewish custom of old was to bleach wheaten flour on Passover, in order to produce a clean and white unleavened bread. This was done by spreading whole wheat kernels upon a floor, and then spreading stratified layers of African rue ("Peganum harmala") leaves upon the wheat kernels; a layer of wheat followed by a layer of Wild rue, which process was repeated until all wheat had been covered over with the astringent leaves of this plant. The wheat was left in this state for a few days, until the outer kernels of the wheat were bleached by the astringent vapors emitted by the wild rue. Afterwards, the wheat was taken up and sifted, to rid them of the residue of leaves. They were then ground into flour, which left a clean and white batch of flour.


title: Peganum harmala

text: It is also used as an anthelmintic (to expel parasitic worms). Reportedly, the ancient Greeks used the powdered seeds to get rid of tapeworms and to treat recurring fevers (possibly malaria).


title: Peganum harmala

text: As related in Des Cruydboeks of 1554 by Rembert Dodoens, in Europe this plant was considered to be a wild type of rue and identical in medicinal uses -the identity of the two plants and their Ancient Greek and Roman uses had merged, though it was considered stronger, even dangerously so. It could be bought under the name "harmel" in the apothecaries, and was also known as 'wild' or 'mountain' rue. It could be used for a few dozen ailments, such as to treat woman of their natural disease when the leaves were used in only water, or when the juice were drunk with wine and the leaves pressed against the wound it could cure bites and stings from rabid dogs, scorpions, bees and wasps and the like. From supposedly Pliny he relates how those covered in the sap, or having eaten it sober, would be immune to poison for a day, as well as to poisonous beasts. Other cures were for 'drying' sperm, 'purifying' woman after childbirth, curing earache, getting rid of spots and blemishes on the skin, and soothing bumps and pain caused by hitting a something, among many others. All the cures call for either juice or the leaves; none call for the seeds.


title: Peganum harmala

text: "Peganum harmala" seeds have been used as a substitute for "Banisteriopsis caapi" in ayahuasca analogs, as they contain monoamine oxidase inhibitors that enable DMT to be orally active.