title: Import substitution industrialization

text: To overcome the difficulties of implementing ISI in small-scale economies, proponents of the economic policy, some within UNECLAC, suggested two alternatives to enlarge consumer markets: income redistribution within each country by agrarian reform and other initiatives aimed at bringing Latin America's enormous marginalized population into the consumer market and regional integration by initiatives such as the Latin American Free Trade Association (ALALC), which would allow for the products of one country to be sold in another.


title: Import substitution industrialization

text: In Latin American countries in which ISI was most successful, it was accompanied by structural changes to the government. Old neocolonial governments were replaced by more-or-less democratic governments. Banks, utilities, and certain other foreign-owned companies were nationalized or had their ownership transferred to locals.


title: Import substitution industrialization

text: Many economists contend that ISI failed in Latin America and was one of many factors leading to the so-called lost decade of Latin American economics, but others contend that ISI led to the "Mexican miracle;" from 1940 to 1975, the annual economic growth stood at 6% or higher.


title: Import substitution industrialization

text: Against most opinions, one historian argued that ISI was successful in fostering a great deal of social and economic development in Latin America:


title: Import substitution industrialization

text: "By the early 1960s, domestic industry supplied 95% of Mexico's and 98% of Brazil's consumer goods. Between 1950 and 1980, Latin America's industrial output went up six times, keeping well ahead of population growth. Infant mortality fell from 107 per 1,000 live births in 1960 to 69 per 1,000 in 1980, [and] life expectancy rose from 52 to 64 years. In the mid-1950s, Latin America's economies were growing faster than those of the industrialized West."


title: Import substitution industrialization

text: ISI policies were implemented in various forms across Africa from the early 1960s to the mid-1970s to promote indigenous economic growth within newly independent states. The national impetus for ISI can be seen from 1927, with the creation of the East African and Central African common markets in British and French colonies that recognized the importance of common trading tariffs in specific parts of the continent and aimed to protect domestic manufacturing from external competitors.


title: Import substitution industrialization

text: Early attempts at ISI were stifled by colonial neomercantilist policies of the 1940s and the 1950s that aimed to generate growth by exporting primary products to the detriment of imports. The promotion of exports to metropoles was the primary goal of the colonial economic system. The metropolitan governments aimed to offset colonial expenditures and attain primary commercial products from Africa at a significantly reduced rate. That was successful for British commercial interests in Ghana and Nigeria, which increased 20 times the value of foreign trade between 1897 and 1960 because of the promotion of export crops such as cocoa and palm oil. Such economic growth occurred at the expense of indigenous communities, which had no say over the crops that were produced and retained marginal profits from their agricultural output. That model also expanded monocultures, whose economies were centered on a single crop or natural resource for exports. Monoculturing was prevalent in countries such as Senegal and Gambia, where groundnuts accounted for 85% to 90% of earnings throughout the 1940s. That economic model rendered the postcolonial states vulnerable to unstable export prices and failed to promote the diversification of the economy. Postcolonial governments were also sceptical of the reliance on multinational corporations for economic development, as they were less likely to pay taxes and exported capital abroad. Thus, ISI policies were adopted to redirect African economies towards indigenous growth and industrialisation.


title: Import substitution industrialization

text: The underdeveloped political and economic structures inherited across post-colonial Africa created a domestic impetus for ISI. Marxist historians such as Walter Rodney contend that the gross underdevelopment in social services were a direct result of colonial economic strategy, which had to be abandoned to generate sustainable development. Rene Dumont supported that observation and argued that African states were administratively overburdened as a result of colonialism. The initial, unchanged conditions created discontent in states such as Ghana and Tanzania during the early 1960s over the fall in wages and employment opportunities. The unrest culminated in a series of mass strikes and tensions between governments and trade unions. Dissatisfaction with the poor economic progress upon decolonisation made it clear to African leaders that they could no longer rely on rhetoric and tradition to maintain power and could retain the support of their political base only through a coherent economic model aligned with their political interests. The culmination of the political and economic issues necessitated the adoption of ISI, as it rejected the colonial neo-mercantilist policies that they believed had led to underdevelopment.


title: Import substitution industrialization

text: For leaders of post-colonial African nations, it was imperative for their economic policies to represent an ideological break with the imperialist models of development. To achieve that, some newly independent states pursued African socialism to build indigenous growth and break free from capitalist development patterns. Through the adoption of African socialism, leaders such as Kwame Nkrumah, Julius Nyerere, and Leopold Senghor hoped to establish a model of development based around consciencism an intellectual and cultural revolution; and, most importantly, a big push in industrialization towards rapid development for the continent. One of the main aspects of the big push towards development was the growth of parastatals from 1960 to 1980. The state-owned trading corporations were given control over the import-export business as well as the retail-wholesale distribution. That allowed post-colonial states to nationalise industries and retain the profits from their output, rather than allow capital flight to the west through multinational corporations.


title: Import substitution industrialization

text: The growth of African socialism in the pursuit of ISI can be seen in the 1967 Arusha Declaration (Tanzania) in which Nyerere argued that "we cannot get enough money and borrow enough technicians to start all the industries we need and even if we could get the necessary assistance, dependence on it would interfere with our policy on socialism." The need for indigenous development formed the core of the African socialist vision whereby the state would manage a planned economy to prevent it from being controlled by the free market, which was regarded as a form of neo-imperialism. In line with that economic vision, Tanzania engaged in the nationalization of industry to create jobs and to produce a domestic market for goods while it maintained an adherence to African socialist principles exemplified through the ujamaa program of villagization. The unaffordability of industrial products and increased tensions between managers and settlers of the villages contributed to a "colossal failure" of ISI in Tanzania, leading it to abandon the villagization project and to focus on agricultural development.


title: Import substitution industrialization

text: While ISI under African socialism was purported to be an anti-Western development model, scholars such as Anthony Smith argued that its ideological roots came from Rostow's modernization theory, which maintains that commitment to economic growth and free-market capitalism is the most efficient means of state development. Kenya's implementation of ISI under state capitalism exemplifies the model of development. Tom Mboya, the first minister for economic development and planning, aimed to create a growth-oriented path of industrialization, even at the expense of traditional socialist morals. Kenya's Sessional Paper No. 10 of 1965 reinforced the view by claiming, "If Africanization is undertaken at the expense of growth, our reward will be a falling standard of living." Under such a development path, multinational corporations occupied a dominant role in the economy, primarily in the manufacturing sectors. Economic historians such as Ralph Austen argue that the openness to western enterprise and technical expertise led to a higher GNP in Kenya than comparative socialist countries such as Ghana and Tanzania. However, the 1972 World Bank ILO report on Kenya claimed that direct state intervention was necessary to reduce the growing economic inequalities that had occurred as a result of state capitalism.


title: Import substitution industrialization

text: In all of the countries that adopted ISI, the state oversaw and managed its implementation, designing economic policies that directed development towards the indigenous population, with the aim of creating an industrialised economy. The 1972 Nigerian Enterprises Promotion Decree exemplified such control, as it required foreign companies to offer at least 40% of their equity shares to local people. A state-controlled economy has been criticized by scholars such as Douglas North who claim that the interests of political elites may be self-serving, rather than for the good of the nation. That correlates with the theory of neo-patrimonialism, which claims that post-colonial elites used the coercive powers of the state to maintain their political positions and to increase their personal wealth. Ola Olson opposes that view by arguing that in a developing economy, the government is the only actor with the financial and political means to unify the state apparatus behind an industrialization process.


title: Import substitution industrialization

text: Sub-Saharan Africa's experiment with ISI created largely pessimistic results across the continent by the early 1980s. Manufacturing, which formed the core of the big push towards industrialisation, accounted for only 7% of GDP across the continent by 1983. The failures of the model stemmed from various external and domestic factors. Internally, efforts to industrialise came at the expense of the agricultural sector, which accounted for 70% of the region's workforce throughout the 1970s. The neglect was detrimental to producers as well as the urban population, as agricultural output could not meet the increasing demands for foodstuffs and raw materials in the growing urban areas. ISI efforts also suffered from a comparative disadvantage in skilled labor for industrial growth.


title: Import substitution industrialization

text: A 1982 World Bank report stated, "There exists a chronic shortage of skills which pervades not only the small manufacturing sector but the entire economy and the over-loaded government machine." Tanzania, for example, had only two engineers at the beginning of the import-substitution period. The skills shortage was exacerbated by the technological deficiencies facing African states throughout industrialisation. Learning and adopting the technological resources and skills was a protracted and costly process, something that African states were unable to capitalise on because of the lack of domestic savings and poor literacy rates across the continent.


title: Import substitution industrialization

text: The failure of ISI to generate sufficient growth in industrialisation and overall development led to its abandonment by the early 1980s. In response to the underdeveloped economies in the region, the IMF and the World Bank imposed a neo-classical counter-revolution in Africa through Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs) from 1981.


title: Import substitution industrialization

text: The new economic consensus blamed the low growth rates on excessive protectionism in the industrial sector, the neglect of exports, and the low agricultural productivity. For the IMF and the World Bank, the solution to the failure of import substitution was a restructuring of the economy towards strict adherence to a neoliberal model of development throughout the 1980s and the 1990s.


title: Import substitution industrialization

text: In recent years, the policy of import substitution by tariffs, the replacement of imported products by domestic products, has been considered a success because it has enabled Russia to increase its domestic production and to save several billion dollars. Russia has been able to reduce its imports and to launch an emerging and increasingly successful domestic production in almost all industrial sectors.


title: Import substitution industrialization

text: In 2014, customs duties were applied on imported products in the food sector. Russia has considerably reduced its food imports, and domestic production has increased considerably. The cost of food imports dropped from $60 billion in 2014 to $20 billion in 2017, and the country enjoys record cereal production. Russia has strengthened its position on the world food market and has become food self-sufficient. In the fisheries, fruit, and vegetables sectors, domestic production has increased sharply, imports have declined significantly, and the trade balance (the difference between exports and imports) has improved. In the second quarter of 2017, agricultural exports were expected to exceed imports, which would make Russia a net agricultural exporter for the first time in almost 100 years.


title: Import substitution industrialization

text: The policy of import substitution by tariffs has led many other industries to be developed. For example, in the aviation industry, Russia is developing a significant range of new aircraft. The aerospace industry is expected to reach an annual turnover of $50 billion by 2025. In 2017, the pharmaceutical industry represented $5 billion and will probably double in 2022, but in 2012, the country's medical industry was negligible. The country has set itself the objective of producing 90% of the drugs deemed "vital" on its territory. In 2017, Russia spent only $6 billion on imported cars, but the value of imports reached $20 billion in 2007. The energy sector is also booming, and the country has succeeded in developing its own technology and has continued to develop oil drilling and gas production centres.


title: Import substitution industrialization

text: Import substitution policies might create jobs in the short run, but as domestic producers replace foreign producers, both output and growth are lower than would otherwise have been in the long run. Import substitution denies the country the benefits to be gained from specialisation and foreign imports. The theory of comparative advantage shows how countries within the model gain from trade, however, this concept has received criticism for its misguided underlying assumptions and inapplicability to modern production. Moreover, protectionism leads to dynamic inefficiency, as domestic producers have no incentive from foreign competitors to reduce costs or improve products. Import substitution can impede growth through poor allocation of resources, and its effect on exchange rates harms exports.


title: Import substitution industrialization

text: Despite some apparent gains, import substitution was "both unsustainable over time and produced high economic and social costs." Given import substitution's dependence upon its developed and isolated markets within Latin America, it relied upon the growth of a market that was limited in size. In most cases, the lack of experience in manufacturing and the lack of competition reduced innovation and efficiency, which restrained the quality of Latin American produced goods, and protectionist policies kept prices high. In addition, power was concentrated in the hands of a few, which decreased the incentive for entrepreneurial development. Lastly, the large deficits and debts resulting from import substitution policies are largely credited for the Latin American crisis of the 1980s.


title: Jeremy Kenyon Lockyer Corbell

text: Jeremy Kenyon Lockyer Corbell (born February 3, 1977) is an American contemporary artist, documentary filmmaker, and ufologist based in Los Angeles, California. Corbell is a mixed media artist whose exhibitions combine art, fashion, and film. He is also a photographer, fashion designer, and author. He has worked with Bob Lazar and his mentor in journalism, George Knapp.


title: Jeremy Kenyon Lockyer Corbell

text: After graduating from the Harvard-Westlake High School in 1995, Corbell entered the University of California, Santa Cruz, and graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree in "Quantum Studies."


title: Jeremy Kenyon Lockyer Corbell

text: Corbell is a Black Belt in Jujitsu. In 2001, his first book was published, "Radiant Source - Cultivating Warrior Consciousness", about his philosophy of martial arts.


title: Jeremy Kenyon Lockyer Corbell

text: Corbell taught Jujitsu and Yoga at the University of California Santa Cruz for many years, developing his own styles of martial and healing arts, Quantum Jujitsu and Warrior Yoga. He has appeared in Black Belt Magazine, Yoga Journal, and others.


title: Jeremy Kenyon Lockyer Corbell

text: Corbell developed a martial arts and yoga curriculum to provide training for at-risk youth. This includes a Juvenile Hall yoga program to incorporate his philosophy of meaningful living with the practical instruction of Warrior Yoga. Following discharge from Juvenile Hall, students continue instruction during and after their probation period.


title: Jeremy Kenyon Lockyer Corbell

text: Corbell has consulted on films such as "I Am Number Four" and "Bunraku", and for video games such as UFC Undisputed 2010. One of his Jujitsu demonstrations has received over 5.9 million views on YouTube.


title: Jeremy Kenyon Lockyer Corbell

text: While traveling in Nepal and India in 2004 Corbell contracted Valley fever. He lost more than , experienced daily fevers, hallucinations, and distorted vision. He made it home to be treated by doctors at UCLA. Unable to practice martial arts for over a year due to medical complications, he began creating art.


title: Jeremy Kenyon Lockyer Corbell

text: In 2004, Corbell began secretly harvesting local building demolitions for early-century windows and doors in the Los Angeles area. He began recycling them into art installations. Over the years Corbell has exhibited numerous bodies of work in avant-garde locations, private settings and galleries across the United States. His invitational art events have generated national interest and press.


title: Jeremy Kenyon Lockyer Corbell

text: In the Summer of 2010, Corbell launched his art-apparel line called ICON Apparel. A collaboration with Five Four Clothing's Creative Director Andres Izquieta, ICON Apparel was inspired by Corbell's mixed media art. Each piece was hand-touched and autographed by the artist. The line launched at Fred Segal in Santa Monica California and was limited edition.


title: Jeremy Kenyon Lockyer Corbell

text: Corbell has made a number of experimental and documentary films presented on Netflix & Hulu including:


title: Jeremy Kenyon Lockyer Corbell

text: In 2015, Corbell launched his investigative film series titled, "Extraordinary Beliefs presented by Jeremy Kenyon Lockyer Corbell". Corbell explores the beliefs of people deep within the aerospace, military, conspiracy, extraterrestrial, and underworld communities. Topics include advanced nanotechnology, non-lethal weaponry, off-world technologies, space travel, and extraterrestrial contact.


title: Jeremy Kenyon Lockyer Corbell

text: Corbell has released several Unidentified Aerial Phenomena (UAP) videos and still images, which have been verified as authentic by sources in The Pentagon and Dept. of Defense. These have included images taken by pilots using their cellphones while in cockpit, Radar data showing 14 UAPs "swarming" the USS Omaha, and video of Triangular "crafts" in the sky, filmed by US Navy personnel.


title: Christian Keyes

text: Christian Keyes (born July 24, 1975) is an American actor and model. Born in Detroit, MI but raised in Flint, MI, Christian got his start in the entertainment industry by appearing in stage plays having since graduated to television and film. Since his introduction as an actor he has added singer, author and producer to his resume. He describes his ethnicity as a combination of African American (father) and Native American/French (mother). Keyes has one son named Christian Keyes, Jr.


title: Christian Keyes

text: Keyes was born in Detroit and raised in Flint. He began his career appearing on stage productions and also worked as model and fitness trainer. comedy-drama film. On television, he has had guest starring roles on "Brothers & Sisters", "Moonlight", "Family Time", "Beauty and the Beast", "Instant Mom", "Mistresses" and "Born Again Virgin". From 2011 to 2014, Keyes had a recurring role in the BET comedy series "Let's Stay Together". Keyes made an appearance on the CW hit show “Supernatural”, playing the character Michael the Archangel. He also appeared in Keri Hilson's music video "Energy", "The Way That I Love You" by Ashanti, "In the Morning" by Ledisi, "Suitcase" by Mary J. Blige playing love interests.


title: Christian Keyes

text: Keyes has appeared in several films and made-for-television movies, include leading roles in "Perfect Combination" (2010), "Lord, All Men Can't Be Dogs" (2011) alongside Vivica A. Fox, "Note to Self" (2012), "Act Like You Love Me" (2013) and "The Man in 3B" (2015). He also appear in Tyler Perry's stage plays including "Madea Goes to Jail" and "What's Done in the Dark".


title: Christian Keyes

text: In 2016, Keyes was cast as male lead alongside Vanessa Bell Calloway, Gloria Reuben, Jasmine Burke and Clifton Powell in the Bounce TV prime time soap opera, "Saints & Sinners". In 2018, Keyes starred on BET drama series "In Contempt" as Charlie Riggs. In January 2020, it was announced that he had been cast in the role of Ripley Turner on "The Young and the Restless".


title: Atrioventricular block

text: Atrioventricular block (AV block) is a type of heart block that occurs when the electrical signal traveling from the atria, or the upper chambers of the heart, to ventricles, or the lower chambers of the heart, is impaired. Normally, the sinoatrial node (SA node) produces an electrical signal to control the heart rate. The signal travels from the SA node to the ventricles through the atrioventricular node (AV node). In an AV block, this electrical signal is either delayed or completely blocked. When the signal is completely blocked, the ventricles produce their own electrical signal to control the heart rate. The heart rate produced by the ventricles is much slower than that produced by the SA node.


title: Atrioventricular block

text: Some AV blocks are benign, or normal, in certain people, such as in athletes or children. Other blocks are pathologic, or abnormal, and have several causes, including ischemia, infarction, fibrosis, and drugs.


title: Atrioventricular block

text: There are three types, or degrees, of AV block: (1) first-degree, (2) second-degree, and (3) third-degree, with third-degree being the most severe. An ECG is used to differentiate between the different types of AV blocks. However, one important consideration when diagnosing AV blocks from ECGs is the possibility of pseudo- AV blocks which are due to concealed junctional extrasystoles. It is important to diagnose AV-blocks precisely because unnecessary pacemaker placement in patients with pseudo-AV blocks can worsen symptoms and create complications.


title: Atrioventricular block

text: First-degree AV block occurs when there is a delay, but not disruption, as the electrical signal moves between the atrium and the ventricles through the AV node. On ECG, this is defined by a PR interval greater than 200 msec. Additionally, there are no dropped, or skipped, beats.


title: Atrioventricular block

text: Second-degree AV block occurs when the electrical signal between the atria and ventricles is even more impaired than in a first-degree AV block. In a second-degree AV block, the impairment results in a failure to conduct an impulse, which causes a skipped beat.


title: Atrioventricular block

text: Mobitz I is characterized by a progressive yet reversible block of the AV node. On ECG, this is defined by progressive prolongation of the PR interval, with a resulting dropped beat (the PR interval gets longer and longer until a beat is finally dropped, or skipped).


title: Atrioventricular block

text: Some patients are asymptomatic; those who have symptoms respond to treatment effectively. There is a low risk of a Mobitz I AV block leading to heart attack and complete heart block.


title: Atrioventricular block

text: Mobitz II is caused by a sudden, unexpected failure of the His-Purkinje cells to conduct the electrical impulse. On ECG, the PR interval is unchanged from beat to beat, but there is a sudden failure to conduct the signal to the ventricles, and resulting in random skipped beat.


title: Atrioventricular block

text: The risks and possible effects of Mobitz II are much more severe than Mobitz I in that it can lead to severe heart attack.


title: Atrioventricular block

text: Third-degree AV block occurs when the signal between the atria and ventricles is completely blocked, and there is no communication between the two. None of the signals from the upper chambers makes it to the lower chambers. On ECG, there is no relationship between P waves and QRS complexes, meaning the P waves and QRS complexes are not in a 1:1 ratio.


title: Atrioventricular block

text: Third-degree AV block is the most severe of the AV blocks. Persons with third-degree AV block need emergency treatment including but not limited to a pacemaker.


title: Atrioventricular block

text: There are many causes of AV block, ranging from a normal variant among people to the result of a heart attack.


title: Atrioventricular block

text: First-degree AV block and Mobitz I second-degree block are often thought to be just normal, benign, conditions in people, and do not often result from a severe underlying condition.


title: Atrioventricular block

text: Mobitz II second-degree block and third-degree AV block are not normal variants and are associated with an underlying condition. Common causes include ischemia (lack of blood flow and oxygen to the heart muscle) or progressive fibrosis (excessive scaring) of the heart. It is also possible that a high degree block can result after cardiac surgery during which the surgeon was in close proximity to the electrical conduction system and accidentally injured it. Reversible causes of Mobitz II and third-degree heart block include untreated Lyme disease, hypothyroidism, hyperkalemia (high levels of potassium), and drug toxicity. Drugs that slow the conduction of the electrical signal through AV node, such as beta-blockers, digoxin, calcium channel blockers, and amiodarone, can cause heart block if they are taken in excessive amounts, or the levels in the blood get too high.


title: Atrioventricular block

text: The synchronized contraction of the heart occurs through a well-coordinated electrical signal pathway. The initial electrical signal originates from the SA node located in the upper portion of the right atrium. The electrical signal then travels through both the right and left atrium and causes the two atria to contract at the same time. This simultaneous contraction results in the P wave seen in an ECG tracing.


title: Atrioventricular block

text: The electrical signal then travels to the AV node located on the lower portion of the interatrial septum. At the AV node there is a delay in the electrical signal, which allows the atria to contract and blood to flow from the atria to the ventricles. This delay accounts for the ECG period between the P wave and the QRS complex, and creates the PR interval.


title: Atrioventricular block

text: From the AV nodes, the electrical signal travels through Bundle of His and divides into the right bundle and left bundle, which are located within the interventricular septum. Finally, the electrical signal travels into the Purkinje fibers. The division of the signal into a right and left bundle and then into the Purkinje fibers allows for a simultaneous depolarization and contraction of the right and left ventricles. The contraction of the ventricles results in the QRS complex seen on an ECG tracing. After contraction, the ventricles must repolarize, or reset themselves, in order to allow for a second depolarization and contraction. The repolarization creates the T wave in the ECG tracing.


title: Atrioventricular block

text: An electrocardiogram, or ECG, is used to differentiate between the different types of AV block. In AV block, there is a disruption between the signal traveling from the atria to the ventricles. This results in abnormalities in the PR interval, as well as the relationship between P waves and QRS complexes on the ECG tracing. If the patient is symptomatic from their suspected AV block, it is important that an ECG is also obtained while having symptoms. Physicians may also order a continuous ECG (i.e. Holter monitor or implanted cardiac monitor) to monitor the patient for symptoms and conduction abnormalities over a longer period of time, as AV blocks can be intermittent.


title: Atrioventricular block

text: Because some types of AV block can be associated with underlying structural heart disease, patients may also undergo echocardiogram to look at the heart and assess the function.


title: Atrioventricular block

text: Laboratory diagnosis for AV blocks include electrolyte, drug level and cardiac enzyme level tests. Based upon clinical suspicion, the physician may do lab tests to assess for reversible causes of AV block, such as hypothyroidism, rheumatologic disorders, and infections (such as Lyme disease).


title: Atrioventricular block

text: Management is dependent upon the severity, or degree, of the blockage, the consistency of symptoms, as well as the cause of the AV block.


title: Atrioventricular block

text: Patients with first-degree AV block do not have any resulting severe or life-threatening symptoms, such as symptomatic bradycardia or hypotension, and, thus, do not require treatment.


title: Atrioventricular block

text: Similarly, patients with second-degree Mobitz I AV block rarely develop life-threatening symptoms, and patients who are asymptomatic do not require treatment. However, in some cases, patients with Mobitz I block can develop life-threatening symptoms that require intervention. These patients often respond well to atropine, but may require temporary transcutaneous pacing or transvenous pacing until they are no longer symptomatic.


title: Atrioventricular block

text: Patients with second-degree Mobitz II and third-degree heart block are much more likely to have symptomatic bradycardia and hemodynamic instability, such as hypotension. Additionally, there is an increased risk of patients with Mobitz II heart block developing third-degree heart block. Therefore, these patients often require temporary pacing with transcutaneous or transvenous pacing wires, and many will ultimately require a permanent implanted pacemaker.


title: Atrioventricular block

text: If the heart block is found to be caused by a reversible condition, such as Lyme disease, the underlying condition should first be treated. Often, this will lead to resolution of the heart block and the associated symptoms.


title: FC Pyunik

text: Football Club Pyunik Yerevan (), commonly known as Pyunik ("Phoenix"), is an Armenian professional sports club based in the Kentron neighbourhood of Yerevan. Pyunik is mostly known for its professional football team which, since its creation in 1992, has always played in the Armenian Premier League, becoming the most successful team of Armenia in number of official titles, with 31 won to date.


title: FC Pyunik

text: Internationally, Pyunik has yet to win an international title, with the closest result being a bronze place finish in the 2006 Commonwealth of Independent States Cup. Pyunik's domestic success usually qualifies the team for UEFA Champions League and UEFA Europa League qualifying rounds. Pyunik is also known to be one of the most popular football clubs in Armenia, along with Urartu, Shirak and Ararat.


title: FC Pyunik

text: Pyunik has always had a fierce rivalry with Ararat, as both clubs are considered to be the most successful clubs in Armenia, the latter due to its Soviet accomplishments. Both clubs are also the two most popular in the country and favorites within the Armenian Diaspora. Pyunik also shares a rivalry with Urartu which began when Urartu relocated from Abovyan to Yerevan in 2001, and became the third largest team in the city. The Pyunik-Urartu rivalry is seen as one of the biggest clashes in Armenian football.


title: FC Pyunik

text: Pyunik's home stadium is the Vazgen Sargsyan Republican Stadium, which is also home to the Armenia national football team. The youth academy has produced many Armenian internationals such as Henrikh Mkhitaryan, Robert Arzumanyan, Karlen Mkrtchyan, Edgar Manucharyan, Varazdat Haroyan and Gevorg Ghazaryan, many who have played or are playing for top European clubs.


title: FC Pyunik

text: Pyunik was founded in 1992 by Armenian football legend Khoren Oganesian and originally named Homenetmen Yerevan. The club won the first Armenian Premier League competition held in 1992 which it shared with Shirak since both teams were tied on points. In 1995, Homenetmen Yerevan was renamed FC Pyunik (Armenian for "Phoenix"). Following the change of name, Pyunik went on to win the 1995–96 Armenian Premier League and end the season with a 59-match unbeaten streak.


title: FC Pyunik

text: In 1996, Pyunik played its first international cup match, a UEFA Europa League qualifying match against Finnish club HJK Helsinki which Pyunik won 3–1. Pyunik also won the 1996-97 Armenian Premier League securing itself another chance at qualifying for an international cup playoffs the following year.


title: FC Pyunik

text: In 1997, Pyunik played its first UEFA Champions League qualifying match against Hungarian side MTK Budapest FC yet failed to qualify for the playoffs following a 6–3 defeat on aggregate.


title: FC Pyunik

text: 1998 proved to be a crucial year for the club following the loss of its main source of funding and the subsequent departure of its main players. Pyunik finished 6th that season and withdrew from football altogether.


title: FC Pyunik

text: Pyunik secured a comeback to professional football following its absorption of FC Armenicum, a newly promoted team to the Armenian Premier League. The club's new management sought to bring more experience to the club and reinforced the squad with foreign players from Argentina, Cameroon, Mali and Romania. The reinforcements brought positive results and Pyunik went on to win the 2001 Armenian Premier League and 2002 Armenian Cup.


title: FC Pyunik

text: 2002 saw Pyunik advance to the second round of the UEFA Champions League qualifying round after beating Finnish champions Tampere United 6–0 on aggregate. From 2002 forwards, Pyunik went on to win the Armenian Premier League a record of 10 times in a row, from 2001 to 2010.


title: FC Pyunik

text: On 8 January 2020, former Armenian international goalkeeper Roman Berezovsky was announced as the club's new manager. Just over 7-months later, 13 July 2020, Berezovsky left the club by mutual consent. On 20 July 2020, Artak Oseyan was announced as Pyunik's new manager, but left his role as head coach on 13 December 2020. On 7 January 2021, Yegishe Melikyan was announced as Pyunik's new manager.


title: FC Pyunik

text: In the 2022/23 season, after victories over Cluj and Dudelange, Pyunik became the first ever Armenian club to reach the third round of Champions League qualifying, where they played against former European Champions Crvena Zvezda, losing 7-0 on aggregate.


title: FC Pyunik

text: Subsequently, Pyunik dropped into the play-off round of the Europa League, where they played against the Moldovan side Sheriff Tiraspol. After two scoreless draws, Pyunik lost on penalties, thus dropping into the group stages of the Conference League, the first ever group stage appearance in a European competition for the club.


title: FC Pyunik

text: After a defeat away against Basel on the first matchday, Pyunik faced Slovan Bratislava in their first home match in Yerevan, which they won thanks to goals from Artak Dashyan and Yusuf Otubanjo. This result meant that they became the first ever Armenian team to win a game in UEFA group stage competitions.


title: FC Pyunik

text: Throughout the seasons, Pyunik has predominantly worn blue and white jerseys, with a few exceptions including Pyunik's first jerseys which were orange and


title: FC Pyunik

text: On 3 August 2020, Pyunik announced that Joma would be supplying the team's kit for the 2020–21 season.


title: FC Pyunik

text: The club has had five different designs for its badge during its history, with the first three designs being significantly different from each other.


title: FC Pyunik

text: Following the club's reappearance in 2001, Pyunik introduced its iconic logo design which included a bold letter P placed on top of a football. The club kept this design for 13 years before introducing a double-headed golden phoenix crest in 2014. This change resulted unpopular among the fans and Pyunik introduced a new badge in 2019, this time returning to its original round shape with a predominantly blue logo and a red phoenix in the center.


title: FC Pyunik

text: Pyunik used several locations throughout its history. Between 1992 and 1998, Pyunik played at Hrazdan Stadium, Armenia's largest stadium with a capacity for 54,208 spectators.


title: FC Pyunik

text: In 2001, following the renovations works done at the Republican Stadium two years before, Pyunik relocated and played all its home matches there until 2013, with a brief interruption in 2008, when the club was forced to play at Pyunik Stadium; its training ground, due to renovation works at the Republican Stadium.


title: FC Pyunik

text: Between 2013 and 2017, the Yerevan Football Academy served as a home venue for all domestic competitions, while still using the Republican Stadium for international fixtures.


title: FC Pyunik

text: At the beginning of 2017–18 Armenian Premier League season, Pyunik used the Republican Stadium as a home venue during the first half of the season, and eventually returning to their own Pyunik Stadium during the second half.


title: FC Pyunik

text: The Republican Stadium is also the home of the Armenia national football team, and is sometimes used by other Armenian teams for their international cup fixtures.


title: FC Pyunik

text: Pyunik's supporter base is traditionally regarded as part of Yerevan's higher class, in contrast with the supposedly more lower-class base of cross-town arch rival FC Urartu. Because of the club's history and recent success, the fanbase has grown not only in Yerevan, but in other provinces of Armenia and within the Armenian Diaspora as well.


title: FC Pyunik

text: Pyunik is considered to be one of the most popular clubs in Armenia, and has one of the biggest Ultras fanbases in Armenia, called Sector 18, named after the sector they occupy at the Vazgen Sargsyan Republican Stadium.


title: FC Pyunik

text: Pyunik's rivalry with Ararat originates with the creation of the club itself. Pyunik's founder Khoren Oganesian, is considered an Ararat club idol, due to his achievements at the club during the Soviet period, winning the 1975 Soviet Cup. Pyunik's success in recent history has led the club's image to surpass that of Ararat, which has led to arguments over which club has had a bigger impact on Armenian football.


title: FC Pyunik

text: The other rivalry, between Pyunik and Urartu is also known as the clash of Yerevan neighborhoods, since Pyunik is located in the wealthier Kentron neighborhood, whereas Urartu is located in the lower-class Malatia-Sebastia neighborhood. The rivalry between both teams originates from Urartu's relocation from Abovyan to Yerevan in 2001, competing with and eventually becoming one of the largest teams in the city. Both teams' youth academies also compete with each other as they are considered to be two of the best in the country.


title: FC Pyunik

text: The reserve is currently coached by Yuri Tarkhanov and competes in the Armenian First League. The youth academy is managed by Albert Sargsyan.


title: FC Pyunik

text: Notable players from the youth academy include Henrikh Mkhitaryan, Robert Arzumanyan, Karlen Mkrtchyan, Edgar Manucharyan, Varazdat Haroyan and Gevorg Ghazaryan.


title: Roger Fisher (guitarist)

text: Roger Fisher (born February 14, 1950) is an American guitarist primarily known as one of the founding members of the band Heart. His tenure lasted from 1967 until 1980.


title: Roger Fisher (guitarist)

text: The band Heart started out as Army in 1967 in Seattle, Washington, formed by bassist Steve Fossen and brothers Roger and Michael Fisher. The group went by the names Army, Hocus Pocus, and White Heart before settling on just Heart in the mid-1970s. Ann Wilson joined the band in 1970 and Nancy in 1974; romances sprang up between the Fisher brothers and Wilson sisters, with Mike dating Ann and Roger dating Nancy.


title: Roger Fisher (guitarist)

text: Heart rose to fame following the release of their debut album, "Dreamboat Annie", in 1976. Follow-up albums "Little Queen", "Magazine", and "Dog and Butterfly" also sold well. Following the release of the "Dog and Butterfly" album, the Roger Fisher / Nancy Wilson romance came to an end. In October 1979, Fisher was dismissed from the group.


title: Roger Fisher (guitarist)

text: In 1990, Roger Fisher formed the band Alias with vocalist Freddy Curci and guitarist Steve DeMarchi, who were previously members of the Canadian rock band Sheriff; the other two musicians were fellow ex-Heart members Steve Fossen on bass and Mike Derosier on drums. Alias had a few hits, most notably in 1990 with the song "More Than Words Can Say", which in 2005 resurfaced in a Subway sandwich commercial. Alias toured extensively through 1990. The band also performed twice on "The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson", once with Johnny Carson and once with Jay Leno. The group disbanded in the early 1990s while touring to promote their album.


title: Roger Fisher (guitarist)

text: Fisher continues his musical career. He has recorded two solo albums and has collaborated with many musicians in the Pacific Northwest USA, including session/touring percussionist Matthew Burgess. He was also involved with a group called "Clever Bastards". Fisher moved with his family from Washington State to Prague, Czech Republic, in 2007. As of September 2008, however, he resides in Monroe, Washington.


title: Down and Out in Paris and London

text: Down and Out in Paris and London is the first full-length work by the English author George Orwell, published in 1933. It is a memoir in two parts on the theme of poverty in the two cities. Its target audience was the middle- and upper-class members of society—those who were more likely to be well educated—and it exposes the poverty existing in two prosperous cities: Paris and London. The first part is an account of living in near-extreme poverty and destitution in Paris and the experience of casual labour in restaurant kitchens. The second part is a travelogue of life on the road in and around London from the tramp's perspective, with descriptions of the types of hostel accommodation available and some of the characters to be found living on the margins.


title: Down and Out in Paris and London

text: After giving up his post as a policeman in Burma to become a writer, Orwell moved to rooms in Portobello Road, London at the end of 1927 when he was 24. While contributing to various journals, he undertook investigative tramping expeditions in and around London, collecting material for use in "The Spike", his first published essay, and for the latter half of "Down and Out in Paris and London". In spring of 1928 he moved to Paris and lived at 6 Rue du Pot de Fer in the Latin Quarter, a bohemian quarter with a cosmopolitan flavour. American writers like Ernest Hemingway and F. Scott Fitzgerald had lived in the same area. Following the Russian Revolution, there was a large Russian emigre community in Paris. Orwell's aunt Nellie Limouzin also lived in Paris and gave him social and, when necessary, financial support. He led an active social life, worked on his novels and had several articles published in avant-garde journals.


title: Down and Out in Paris and London

text: Orwell fell seriously ill in March 1929 and shortly afterwards had money stolen from the lodging house. The thief was probably not the young Italian described in "Down and Out". In a later account, he said the theft was the work of a young woman whom he had picked up and brought back with him; it has been submitted that "consideration for his parents' sensibilities would have required the suppression of this misadventure". Whoever reduced Orwell to destitution did him a good turn; his final ten weeks in Paris sowed the seed of his first published book. Whether through necessity or just to collect material, and probably both, he undertook casual work as a dishwasher in restaurants. In August 1929 he sent a copy of "The Spike" to the "Adelphi" magazine in London, and it was accepted for publication. Orwell left Paris in December 1929 and returned to England, going straight home to his parents' house in Southwold. Later he acted as a private tutor to a disabled child there and also undertook further tramping expeditions, culminating in a stint working in the Kent hop fields in August and September 1931. After this adventure, he ended up in the Tooley Street kip, which he found so unpleasant that he wrote home for money and moved to more comfortable lodgings.


title: Down and Out in Paris and London

text: Orwell's first version of "Down and Out" was called "A Scullion's Diary". Completed in October 1930, it used only his Paris material. He offered it to Jonathan Cape in the summer of 1931. Cape rejected it in the autumn. A year later he offered "a fatter typescript (the London chapters had been added)" to Faber & Faber, where T. S. Eliot, then an editorial director, also rejected it, stating, "We did find it of very great interest, but I regret to say that it does not appear to me possible as a publishing venture."


title: Down and Out in Paris and London

text: It was in the home of Mabel Fierz that Orwell then discarded the typescript. She had, with her husband, a London businessman named Francis, been for a number of years a visitor to Southwold in the summer and was on friendly terms with the Blairs. Fierz at this point took it to a literary agent, Leonard Moore, who "recognised it as a 'natural' for the new house of Gollancz." Victor Gollancz was prepared to publish the work, subject to the removal of bad language and some identifiable names, and offered an advance of £40. Orwell complained that one passage that Gollancz asked be changed or cut was "about the only good bit of writing in the book". The title improvised by Gollancz, "Confessions of a Down and Outer", bothered Orwell. "Would "The Confessions of a Dishwasher" do as well?" he asked Moore. "I would "rather" answer to "dishwasher" than "down & out"." In July 1932, Orwell had suggested calling the book "The Lady Poverty", in reference to a poem by Alice Meynell; in August 1932, he suggested "In Praise of Poverty". At the last minute, Gollancz shortened the title to "Down and Out in Paris and London". The author, after possibilities including "X," "P.S. Burton" (an alias Orwell had used on tramping expeditions), "Kenneth Miles" and "H. Lewis Allways" had been considered, was renamed "George Orwell." Orwell did not wish to publish under his own name Eric Blair, and Orwell was the name he used from then on for his main works—although many periodical articles were still published under the name Eric Blair. "Down and Out in Paris and London" was published on 9 January 1933 and received favourable reviews from, among others, C. Day Lewis, WH Davies, Compton Mackenzie and JB Priestley. It was subsequently published by Harper & Brothers in New York. Sales were low, however, until December 1940, when Penguin Books printed 55,000 copies for sale at sixpence.


title: Down and Out in Paris and London

text: A French translation, which Orwell admired, by RN Raimbault and Gwen Gilbert, entitled "", was published by Éditions Gallimard, on 2 May 1935, with a preface by Panait Istrati and an introduction by Orwell.


title: Down and Out in Paris and London

text: The scene-setting opening chapters describe the atmosphere in the Paris quarter and introduce various characters who appear later in the book. From Chapter III to Chapter X, where the narrator obtains a job at "Hotel X," he describes his descent into poverty, often in tragi-comic terms. An Italian compositor forges room keys and steals his savings and his scant income vanishes when the English lessons he is giving stop. He begins at first to sell some of his clothes, and then to pawn his remaining clothes, and then searches for work with a Russian waiter named Boris—work as a porter at Les Halles, work as an English teacher and restaurant work. He recounts his two-day experience without any food and tells of meeting Russian "Communists" who, he later concludes, on their disappearance, must be mere swindlers.


title: Down and Out in Paris and London

text: After the various ordeals of unemployment and hunger the narrator obtains a job as a "plongeur" (dishwasher) in the "Hôtel X" near the Place de la Concorde, and begins to work long hours there. In Chapter XIII, he describes the "caste system" of the hotel—"manager-cooks-waiters-plongeurs"—and, in Chapter XIV, its frantic and seemingly chaotic workings. He notes also "the dirt in the Hôtel X.," which became apparent "as soon as one penetrated into the service quarters." He talks of his routine life among the working poor of Paris, slaving and sleeping, and then drinking on Saturday night through the early hours of Sunday morning. In Chapter XVI, he refers briefly to a murder committed "just beneath my window [while he was sleeping ... The thing that strikes me in looking back," he says, "is that I was in bed and asleep within three minutes of the murder [...] We were working people, and where was the sense of wasting sleep over a murder?"


title: Down and Out in Paris and London

text: Misled by Boris's optimism, the narrator is briefly penniless again after he and Boris quit their hotel jobs in the expectation of work at a new restaurant, the "Auberge de Jehan Cottard," where Boris feels sure he will become a waiter again; at the Hotel X, he had been doing lower-grade work. The "patron" of the Auberge, "an ex-colonel of the Russian Army," seems to have financial difficulties. The narrator is not paid for ten days and is compelled to spend a night on a bench—"It was very uncomfortable—the arm of the seat cuts into your back—and much colder than I had expected"—rather than face his landlady over the outstanding rent.


title: Down and Out in Paris and London

text: At the restaurant, the narrator finds himself working "seventeen and a half hours" a day, "almost without a break," and looking back wistfully at his relatively leisured and orderly life at the Hotel X. Boris works even longer: "eighteen hours a day, seven days a week." The narrator claims that "such hours, though not usual, are nothing extraordinary in Paris." He adds


title: Down and Out in Paris and London

text: by the way, that the Auberge was not the ordinary cheap eating-house frequented by students and workmen. We did not provide an adequate meal at less than twenty-five francs, and we were picturesque and artistic, which sent up our social standing. There were the indecent pictures in the bar, and the Norman decorations—sham beams on the walls, electric lights done up as candlesticks, "peasant" pottery, even a mounting-block at the door—and the "patron" and the head waiter were Russian officers, and many of the customers titled Russian refugees. In short, we were decidedly chic.


title: Down and Out in Paris and London

text: He falls into a routine again and speaks of quite literally fighting for a place on the Paris Métro to reach the "cold, filthy kitchen" by seven. Despite the filth and incompetence, the restaurant turns out to be a success.


title: Down and Out in Paris and London

text: The narrative is interspersed with anecdotes recounted by some of the minor characters, such as Valenti, an Italian waiter at Hotel X, and Charlie, "one of the local curiosities," who is "a youth of family and education who had run away from home." In Chapter XXII, the narrator considers the life of a "plongeur":


title: Down and Out in Paris and London

text: [A] "plongeur" is one of the slaves of the modern world. Not that there is any need to whine over him, for he is better off than many manual workers, but still, he is no freer than if he were bought and sold. His work is servile and without art; he is paid just enough to keep him alive; his only holiday is the sack [... He has] been trapped by a routine which makes thought impossible. If "plongeurs" thought at all, they would long ago have formed a labour union and gone on strike for better treatment. But they do not think, because they have no leisure for it; their life has made slaves of them.


title: Down and Out in Paris and London

text: Because of the stress of the long hours, he mails to a friend, "B," back in London, asking if he could get him a job that allows more than five hours' sleep a night. His friend duly replies, offering a job taking care of a "congenital imbecile," and sends him some money to get his possessions from the pawn. The narrator then quits his job as a "plongeur" and leaves for London.


title: Down and Out in Paris and London

text: The narrator arrives in London expecting to have the job waiting for him. Unfortunately the would-be employers have gone abroad, "patient and all."


title: Down and Out in Paris and London

text: Until his employers return, the narrator lives as a tramp, sleeping in an assortment of venues: lodging houses, tramps' hostels or "spikes," and Salvation Army shelters. Because vagrants can not "enter any one spike, or any two London spikes, more than once in a month, on pain of being confined for a week," he is required to keep on the move, with the result that long hours are spent tramping or waiting for hostels to open. Chapters XXV to XXXV describe his various journeys, the different forms of accommodation, a selection of the people he meets, and the tramps' reaction to Christian charity: "Evidently the tramps were not grateful for their free tea. And yet it was excellent [...] I am sure too that it was given in a good spirit, without any intention of humiliating us; so in fairness we ought to have been grateful—still, we were not." Characters in this section of the book include the Irish tramp called Paddy, "a good fellow" whose "ignorance was limitless and appalling," and the pavement artist Bozo, who has a good literary background and was formerly an amateur astronomer, but who has suffered a succession of misfortunes.


title: Down and Out in Paris and London

text: The final chapters provide a catalogue of various types of accommodation open to tramps. The narrator offers some general remarks, concluding,


title: Down and Out in Paris and London

text: At present I do not feel that I have seen more than the fringe of poverty. Still, I can point to one or two things I have definitely learned by being hard up. I shall never again think that all tramps are drunken scoundrels, nor expect a beggar to be grateful when I give him a penny, nor be surprised if men out of work lack energy, nor subscribe to the Salvation Army, nor pawn my clothes, nor refuse a handbill, nor enjoy a meal at a smart restaurant. That is a beginning.


title: Down and Out in Paris and London

text: One of the debates surrounding "Down and Out" is whether it was a piece of factual autobiography or part fiction. Orwell wrote in the Introduction to the 1935 French edition: "I think I can say that I have exaggerated nothing except in so far as all writers exaggerate by selecting. I did not feel that I had to describe events in the exact order in which they happened, but everything I have described did take place at one time or another." In Chapter XXIV, it is "clear that Orwell did distort facts by claiming on his return from Paris he found himself down and out in London and had not 'the slightest notion of how to get a cheap bed'. This of course heightens the tension [...] but the truth is that in Paris he had already written his first substantial essay, "The Spike", describing a night spent in a Notting Hill tramps' hostel. Before his departure from England he had voluntarily lived among tramps for some time."


title: Down and Out in Paris and London

text: In "The Road to Wigan Pier", Orwell referred to the tramping experiences described in "Down and Out", writing that "nearly all the incidents described there actually happened, though they have been re-arranged." Some measure of the work's veracity may be gleaned from a marked-up copy, containing sixteen annotations, which Orwell gave to Brenda Salkeld. Of the descent into poverty from Chapter III, he wrote, "Succeeding chapters are not actually autobiography but drawn from what I have seen." Of Chapter VII, however, he wrote, "This all happened;" of Hotel X, "All as exact as I could make it;" and, of the Russian restaurant, "All the following is an entirely accurate description of the restaurant." On the personalities, Orwell's own introduction to the French edition states that the characters are individuals, but are "intended more as representative types."


title: Down and Out in Paris and London

text: The luxury hotel in which Orwell worked in the autumn of 1929 was identified as the Crillon by Sonia Orwell, as recounted by Sam White, the London "Evening Standard"'s Paris correspondent in his column for 16 June 1967. The writers Stansky and Abrahams suggested, in their study of Orwell, that it was the Hotel Lotti.


title: Down and Out in Paris and London

text: Within a month of publication, Humbert Possenti, "a restaurateur and hotelier of forty years," had written to "The Times" complaining that the book was unfairly disparaging to the restaurant trade. The "Times Literary Supplement" had previously reviewed "Down and Out in Paris and London", describing it as "a vivid picture of an apparently mad world." Orwell responded to the restaurateur's criticism with a letter to the same newspaper: "I do know that in our hotel there were places which no customer could possibly have been allowed to see with any hope of retaining his custom." In France, political outlook very much determined the reception of "La Vache enragée". The left welcomed it as an indictment of health hazards in commercial kitchens. The right accused Orwell of Francophobia. A middle of the road paper surmised that Orwell's account was likely to "give a retrospective retch to Americans" who had patronized Parisian restaurants.


title: Down and Out in Paris and London

text: In the "Adelphi", C. Day Lewis wrote, "Orwell's book is a tour of the underworld, conducted without hysteria or prejudice [...] a model of clarity and good sense." JB Priestley, in the "Evening Standard", considered it "uncommonly good reading. An excellent book and a valuable social document. The best book of its kind I have read in a long time." Compton Mackenzie wrote of Orwell's "immensely interesting book [...] a genuine human document, which at the same time is written with so much artistic force that, in spite of the squalor and degradation thus unfolded, the result is curiously beautiful with the beauty of an accomplished etching on copper. The account of a casual ward in this country horrifies like some scene of inexplicable misery in Dante."


title: Down and Out in Paris and London

text: Following the American publication, James T. Farrell, writing in "The New Republic", called it "genuine, unexaggerated and intelligent," while Herbert Gorman wrote for the "New York Times Book Review", "He possesses a keen eye for character and a rough-and-ready 'styleless style' that plunges along and makes the reader see what the author wants him to see." In contrast, the reviewer for "New English Weekly" wrote, "This book [...] is forcefully written and is very readable, yet it fails to carry conviction. We wonder if the author was really down and out. Down certainly, but out?"


title: Down and Out in Paris and London

text: Cyril Connolly later wrote, "I don't think "Down and Out in London and Paris" is more than agreeable journalism; it was all better done by his friend Henry Miller. Orwell found his true form a few years later." Orwell agreed with this assessment. Henry Miller's controversial work "Tropic of Cancer" (1934) is based on his own experiences in Paris around the time Orwell was there.


title: Down and Out in Paris and London

text: In an essay for the 1971 "The World of George Orwell", Richard Mayne considered the book as typical of something that was true of a great deal of Orwell's later writing: his "relish at revealing behind-the-scenes squalor. He was always taking the lid off things—poverty, parlour Socialism, life in a coal mine, prep-school tyranny, the Empire, the Spanish Civil War, the Russian Revolution, the political misuse of language. He might well have echoed W.H. Auden: "All I have is a voice/To undo the folded lie.""


title: Down and Out in Paris and London

text: The narrator's comments on Jews in the book are cited by a journalist for "Haaretz" when considering what he terms "Orwell’s latent anti-Semitism". Some suggest the work may have been Orwell's parody of his own social upbringing and social class, noticing the narrator has both racist and anti-racist outbursts. Another commentator cites the book as evidence that anti-Semitism was much more prevalent in Paris than in London.


title: Warner Bros. Studio Tour London – The Making of Harry Potter

text: Warner Bros. Studio Tour London – The Making of "Harry Potter" is a walkthrough exhibition and studio tour in Leavesden, East of England, owned by Warner Bros. and operated by their Studio Tours division. It is located within Warner Bros. Studios, Leavesden, in Watford, in southwest Hertfordshire, and houses a permanent exhibit of authentic costumes, props and sets utilised in the production of the "Harry Potter" films, as well as behind-the-scenes production of visual effects. The tour is contained in Soundstages J and K, which were specially built for the attraction, and is separate from the studio's actual production facilities.


text: Warner Bros. Studio Tour London opened to the public in 2012 and has since welcomed up to 6,000 visitors a day during peak times. TripAdvisor reported that Warner Bros. Studio Tour London – The Making of "Harry Potter" has been the highest-rated attraction worldwide every year since the tour opened.


text: Leavesden Aerodrome was a British airfield created in 1940 by the de Havilland Aircraft Company & the Air Ministry in the tiny village of Leavesden, between Watford and Abbots Langley, in Hertfordshire. It was an important centre for aircraft production during World War II. By the end of the war Leavesden Airfield was, by volume, the largest factory in the world.


text: After the war, the aerodrome was purchased outright by de Havilland, who themselves had a succession of owners in the following decades but ultimately they and the site were acquired by Rolls-Royce. However, by the early 1990s, Britain's manufacturing industry was in decline and Rolls-Royce had sold their interests in the site. Unable to find a new owner, Leavesden Aerodrome was left disused and all but abandoned.


text: Then in 1994, the production team for the "James Bond" film "GoldenEye" discovered the unoccupied Leavesden. The wide, tall and open aircraft hangars were uniquely well suited to conversion into film stages. Eon leased the site for the duration of their shoot and went about gutting the factories, turning them into stages, workshops and offices - in short a working film studio. Leavesden Studios, as the site was rebranded by its owners, quickly became popular after "GoldenEye" wrapped. A succession of major feature films made use of the site, including the first of the "Star Wars" prequels, "", and Tim Burton's "Sleepy Hollow".


text: In 1999, Heyday Films leased the site for the "Harry Potter" films. Over the next ten years, all of the "Harry Potter" films were made there, along with some other notable Warner Bros. productions, with the series eventually becoming the most successful film series in history.


text: As the eighth and final film, "Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2", was nearing completion, in 2010, Warner Bros. announced their intention to purchase the studio as a permanent European base.


text: By November, Warner Bros. completed its purchase of Leavesden Studios and announced plans to invest more than £100m into the site they had occupied for over ten years, rebranding it again - this time to Warner Bros. Studios, Leavesden.


text: As part of this redevelopment, Warner Bros. also created two entirely new soundstages, J and K, to house a permanent public exhibition called Warner Bros. Studio Tour London – The Making of "Harry Potter", creating 300 new jobs in the local area. Currently the whole attraction is dedicated to the making of "Harry Potter" and is now home to many of the series' sets, props and costumes. It was opened to the public in early 2012.


text: As early as 2001, after the success of the first film, Warner Bros. were putting plans to build an attraction dedicated to the series in place and so began storing items from the films when they were no longer being used. In 2010, as the last film was nearing completion, Warner Bros. announced they would be purchasing Leavesden Studios and work on the tour began.


text: The tour's layout and overall presentation was designed by the Burbank-based Thinkwell Group in collaboration with Warner Bros, as well as the actual filmmakers, including production designer Stuart Craig, set dresser Stephenie McMillan, creature designer Nick Dudman, construction manager Paul Hayes and special effects supervisor John Richardson. It only includes sets, props and costumes that were created for or used in the production of the "Harry Potter" film series. Sets include the Great Hall, Dumbledore's office, Diagon Alley, the Ministry of Magic, the Gryffindor common room and boys' dormitory, Hagrid's hut and a 1:24 scale model of the Hogwarts castle (used for exterior shots).


text: Warner Bros. Studio Tour London – The Making of "Harry Potter" opened to the public on 31 March 2012. The opening event was attended by many of the "Harry Potter" film series' cast and crew members, including Rupert Grint, Tom Felton, Bonnie Wright, Evanna Lynch, Warwick Davis, David Thewlis, Helen McCrory, George Harris, Nick Moran, Natalia Tena, David Bradley, Alfred Enoch, Harry Melling, producers David Heyman and David Barron and directors David Yates, Alfonso Cuarón and Mike Newell. Since 2020, "Harry Potter" fans have been able to purchase bottled 'Butterbeer' exclusively at the tour.


text: Over a year since the opening of the tour (and nearly twenty years after the complex was converted from an aerodrome to film studios), the site was officially opened by the Duke and Duchess of Cambridge on 26 April 2013. On their royal visit, they were accompanied by the Duke's brother Prince Harry and J. K. Rowling, author of the "Harry Potter" book series, who had been unable to attend the tour's grand opening the year before, amongst other guests. Several hundred beneficiaries of charities they all support were given exclusive invitations to the tour on the day of the royal visit. The royal entourage visited the tour and met many of their beneficiaries, as well as the studios, where they saw some of the props and costumes from Christopher Nolan's "The Dark Knight" trilogy, before conducting Leavesden's royal opening.


text: Each tour session typically lasts three and a half hours, and the tour has the capacity to handle 6,000 visitors daily. Despite Warner Bros. being the studio behind "Harry Potter", the tour is not styled as a theme park due to the fact that Warner Bros. sold the license to do so to Universal Studios. Instead, visitors get a chance to see up close the detail and effort that goes into a major feature film at the scale of the "Harry Potter" series.


text: Though the standard tour is self guided, allowing visitors to enjoy the tour at their own preferred pace, various guided tours are available at an additional cost. Visitors with some disabilities may find, however, that certain guided tours are available to them at no extra cost if they contact the tour in advance.


text: Warner Bros. has continued to put on special features for the school holidays, such as Dark Arts and Animal Actors, at no extra cost to visitors. Some installations like the Wand Choreography Interactive and the inside of the No. 4 Privet Drive Exterior set have been so popular that they have remained after their respective features have closed.


text: In January 2015, the attraction's first expansion was announced - a brand new "Platform 9¾" section, where visitors are able to board the original carriages behind the Hogwarts Express steam engine used in the films. As with the rest of the attraction, the set was constructed and dressed by the original crew members who worked on the film - including Stuart Craig himself, who designed the new set exclusively for the tour (since these scenes in the films were actually shot on location in Kings Cross). The setup includes the steam locomotive used in the films GWR 4900 Hall class no 5972 "Olton Hall" (wearing "Hogwarts Castle" nameplates) and the British Rail Mark 1 carriage that appeared in the films, brought to life by John Richardson's special effects team. Finally a new green screen experience illustrates what working on the films is like from an actor's point of view. This section opened in late March 2015.


text: In April 2019 the "Gringotts Wizarding Bank" expansion opened. It is the largest expansion to date, at 16,500 ft².


text: On 1 July 2022, the "Professor Sprout's Greenhouse" expansion opened, as part of a new feature titled "Mandrakes and Magical Creatures".


text: The tour was warmly received by the press in the run up to its launch. Anita Singh of "The Daily Telegraph" described the model of Hogwarts Castle as "the highlight" of the tour.


text: The Warner Bros. Studio Tour London – "The Making of Harry Potter" has won several awards since its opening, including:


text: The Studio Tour has also been presented with awards for its lighting design, including the 2013 IES Illumination Award of Merit and 2013 Lighting Design Award for Lighting for Leisure.


text: In addition, the Studio Tour was named one of the Top 10 Most Innovative Entertainment Design Projects of 2012 by EntertainmentDesigner.com.


title: Aegukga

text: "" (; ; "Patriotic Song"), often translated as "The Patriotic Song", is the national anthem of the Republic of Korea. It was adopted in 1948, the year the country was founded. Its music was composed in the 1930s and arranged most recently in 2018; its lyrics date back to the 1890s. The lyrics of "Aegukga" were originally set to the music of the Scottish song "Auld Lang Syne" before Ahn Eak-tai composed a unique melody specifically for it in 1936. Before the founding of South Korea, the song, set to the music of "Auld Lang Syne", was sung, as well as during Korea under Japanese rule by dissidents. The version set to the melody composed by Ahn Eak-tai was adopted as the national anthem of the Korean exile government, which existed during Korea's occupation by Japan from the early 1910s to the mid-1940s.


title: Aegukga

text: "Aegukga" has four verses, but on most occasions only the first one, followed by the chorus, is sung when performed publicly at events such as baseball games and football matches.


title: Aegukga

text: literally means "patriotic song". The "Encyclopedia of Korean Culture" defines "Aegukga" as "the song to wake up the mind to love the country". "Aegukga" in itself is differentiated from a national anthem. While a national anthem or () is an official symbol of the state, refers to any song, official or unofficial, that contains patriotic fervor towards its country, such as Hungary's "Szózat" or the U.S. "The Stars and Stripes Forever". However, the nationally designated "Aegukga" plays the role of symbolizing the country. In general shorthand, the term "aegukga" refers to the national anthem of South Korea. Nevertheless, there are still more than ten other extant "Aegukgas" in South Korea.


title: Aegukga

text: In the 1890s, the previously established Joseon dynasty began to contact other countries for the first time, including the United States, United Kingdom, and Russia. The meeting with foreign countries ultimately gave rise to nationalism and patriotism, which then created several "Aegugkas.” For instance, works in 1896 includes "Aegukga" created by Na Pil-gun, Han Myung-one, and Lee Yong-mu. On November 21, 1896, scholars from the Pai Chai school sang a version of "Aegukga" at the Independence Gate cornerstone-laying ceremony. However, this song differs from the song sung by the Military Academy in 1898 and from the songs sung on the birthday of the former emperor.


title: Aegukga

text: However, a book from the Korean Empire era in 1900 has a record of a national anthem. It was called the "Korean Empire Aegukga,” or literally the "Anthem of the Greater Korean Empire.” That composition is commonly believed to have been written by Franz Eckert, who also arranged the Japanese national anthem. Some people contend that records documenting Franz Eckert's actions show that it was physically impossible for him to write the anthem. It is guessed that the song sung by the Paejae school was the Scottish song "Auld Lang Syne" and that the song sung by the Military Academy is a version of the British song "God Save the Queen.”


title: Aegukga

text: The song attributed to Eckert was established by the military in 1902. A version of Eckert's song with different lyrics began to be officially implemented in the schools in 1904. All the schools were forced to sing the version of the song. The policy is thought of as a by-product of the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905 and the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1907.


title: Aegukga

text: There are many theories concerning the writer of the currently official lyrics of "Aegukga.” It is most commonly believed that the lyrics were written for the cornerstone-laying ceremony of the Independence Gate in Seoul in 1896 by Yun Chi-ho, a Korean politician. Later, Kim Gu during the Korean government-in-exile era, said to his comrades: "In the March 1st Movement, we had the Taegeukgi and the Aegukga. Why should who wrote it be an issue?" He wrote: "The lyrics and the anthem's spirit are more important than the nature of the lyricist." Other theories name the lyricist as An Chang-ho, Choi Byung-hun, Kim In-sik, Min Yeong-hwan, or some combination of the aforementioned writers. A committee was established in 1955 by the government to determine authorship of the lyrics, on the request of the United States, but it concluded that there was not enough evidence to favor anyone.


title: Aegukga

text: Initially, "Aegukga" was sung to the tune of the Scottish folk song "Auld Lang Syne,” which was introduced to Korea by western missionaries. The Provisional Korean Government (1919–1945) in Shanghai, China, adopted it as their national anthem. At a ceremony celebrating the founding of South Korea on 15 August 1948, the Scottish tune was finally replaced by the Finale of "Korea Fantasia", which Ahn Eak-tai had composed in 1936, though its usage with it had been done unofficially for a few years before then. The new "Aegukga" was later adopted by the Presidential Decree of 1948 by the then South Korean President Syngman Rhee.


title: Aegukga

text: During official ceremonies until 1987, "Aegukga" was preceded by four ruffles and flourishes, similar to the Taiwanese practice; today the anthem is played following the playing of the presidential honours music.


title: Aegukga

text: Since the composer Ahn Eak-tai died in 1965, the copyright for the music was to not expire until at least 2036. Two South Korean professional football clubs were sued by a copyright holders' group for playing this song in December 2003. However, on March 16, 2005, the composer's widow—Lolita Ahn—and her family relinquished all rights to "Aegukga" to the South Korean government. "Aegukga" has since become a public domain song.


title: Peter Vack

text: Peter S. Brown (born September 19, 1986), better known his stage name Peter Vack, is an American actor, writer, director and producer. He is best known for portraying Jason Strider in the MTV comedy series "I Just Want My Pants Back" (2011–2012), and Alex Merriweather in the Amazon Video comedy-drama series "Mozart in the Jungle" (2014–2015). Vack also voiced antagonist Gary Smith in the Rockstar Games video game "Bully".


title: Peter Vack

text: Vack was born in the West Village neighborhood of Manhattan in New York City to Jane ( Spivack) and Ronald Brown, a movie producer and writer. He has a younger sister, Betsey, an actress and writer. Vack is Jewish.


title: Peter Vack

text: Raised in New York City, he attended Riverdale Country School and graduated from Professional Children's School. Vack graduated from the University of Southern California, where he studied Theater.


title: Peter Vack

text: Vack made his acting debut in the short film "Dear Diary" (1996), which won the Academy Award for Best Live Action Short Film. Vack has guest-starred in single episodes of "Hope & Faith" (2004), "Third Watch" (2004), "" (2005), "Ghost Whisperer" (2009) and "Cold Case" (2010).


title: Peter Vack

text: From 2011 until its cancellation the following year, he portrayed Jason Strider in the short-lived MTV television series "I Just Want My Pants Back". He co-starred as Alex Merriweather in the Amazon Video comedy-drama series "Mozart in the Jungle" (2014–2015), alongside Lola Kirke, Malcolm McDowell and Bernadette Peters.


title: Peter Vack

text: In 2022, Vack shot "www.rachelormont.com" a feature film he wrote and directed; described as a "technosatire about growing up in captivity" starring Betsey Brown, Chloe Cherry, and Dasha Nekrasova.


title: Cooperative video game

text: Cooperative video game, often abbreviated as co-op, is a video game that allows players to work together as teammates, usually against one or more non-player character opponents (PvE).


title: Cooperative video game

text: It is distinct from other multiplayer modes, such as competitive multiplayer modes like player versus player (PvP) or deathmatch. Playing simultaneously allows players to assist one another in many ways: passing weapons or items, healing, providing covering fire in a firefight, and performing cooperative maneuvers such as boosting a teammate up and over obstacles.


title: Cooperative video game

text: In its most simple form, cooperative gameplay modifies the single player mode of a game, sometimes with broader modifications to the story and gameplay. Examples include beat 'em up games such as "Double Dragon", "Streets of Rage", and "Die Hard Arcade." Other co-op games are designed for cooperative gameplay, with each player taking a special role in gameplay, or alternatively take advantage of having multiple players in an impactful way on gameplay. Example for such games include the "Left 4 Dead" and the "Payday" series.


title: Cooperative video game

text: Co-op games can be played over a network via a local area networks or wide area networks, such as in the "Destiny" and "Borderlands" series, while other co-op games can be played locally using one or multiple input controllers, with "It Takes Two" as an example. Some games such as "Mario Kart Wii" and "Call of Duty"'s co-op modes allow two players from the same console to play with others online.


title: Cooperative video game

text: Co-op gameplay has been gaining popularity in video games in recent years, as controller and networking technology has developed. On PCs and consoles, cooperative games have become increasingly common, and many genres of game—including shooter games, sports games, real-time strategy games, and massively multiplayer online games—include co-op modes.


title: Cooperative video game

text: The first video game to feature co-op play dates back to 1973, with Atari's arcade video game "Pong Doubles", which was a tennis doubles version of their hit arcade game "Pong" (1972). Co-op play was later featured in another Atari coin-op, "Fire Truck" (1978). As its title suggests, the game involves a large fire truck, and in two-player mode both players are required to cooperatively steer the vehicle along a winding road, with one driving and steering the tractor of the truck and the other steering the tiller for the rear wheels, controlling the swing of the trailer.


title: Cooperative video game

text: Several early 1980s arcade coin-op games allowed for co-op play, but typically as an option. "Wizard of Wor" offered solo, competitive two-player, or cooperative two-player gaming. while Williams Electronics' "Joust" encouraged players to alternatively compete and cooperate by awarding bonus points for co-op play in some rounds (Survival Waves) while alternatively awarding bonuses for attacking the other player (Gladiator Waves). Two-player games of Nintendo's "Mario Bros." could be played as competitively or cooperatively depending on the players' whims.


title: Cooperative video game

text: The run-and-gun shooter genre was popular for co-op games. "Gauntlet" (1985) and "Quartet" (1986) popularized co-op four-player gaming in the arcades. The games had broader consoles to allow for four sets of controls.


title: Cooperative video game

text: Beat 'em up games like "Double Dragon" in 1987 and "Final Fight" in 1989 introduced a type of game where both players would work in tandem to clear out all of the enemies and proceed to the next area and ultimately the final boss. In 1998 Time Crisis 2 launched as the first in the series as a two-player arcade rail shooter where two players would go through levels with slight differences allowing each player to cover each other and utilize the environment to create cover. In 2009 Konami and Activision put out Guitar Hero Arcade, a co-op rhythm game which allowed players to work together to complete a song of their choosing or the two players could fight each other in the battle mode with each guitarist striving for a higher score.


title: Cooperative video game

text: Early-generation home consoles typically did not offer co-op options, due to technical limitations which hindered the increased graphics required for simultaneous co-op play. Though consoles from the second generation of video games onward typically had controller ports for two-player games, most systems did not have the computing or graphical power for simultaneous play, leading most games that billed "2-player gameplay" as a feature to merely be the single player game with alternating players.


title: Cooperative video game

text: During this early era, many video games which featured co-op play (including beat 'em ups such as "Double Dragon") were ported to less advanced home systems. Alternating play replaced the arcade's co-op play in the NES version (although "" and "", for the same system, did retain their co-op gameplay). Most other titles featuring two-player were head-to-head sports titles. Though most of the console beat 'em ups were arcade ports, original franchises such as "Streets of Rage" and "River City Ransom" also became popular.


title: Cooperative video game

text: In the run-and-gun shooter genre, "Contra" was more successful in its NES incarnation than it was in the arcades in the North American market, and is now considered one of the most popular co-op games ever. "Gunstar Heroes" for the Sega Genesis and the "Metal Slug" series for the Neo Geo were also well-received titles.


title: Cooperative video game

text: Electronic Arts has produced key co-op sports games, including the original "NHL Hockey" (1991) and "Madden NFL" (1990) installments on the Sega Genesis. These games allowed two players or more to play against the CPU. These franchises are arguably the most successful co-op sports games.


title: Cooperative video game

text: Due to the lack of online multiplayer, co-op games in the RPG genre have generally been less common on console systems than on PCs. Nevertheless, some of the earliest co-op action RPGs were console titles, including the TurboGrafx-16 game "Dungeon Explorer" (1989) by Atlus which allowed up to five players to play simultaneously, and Square's "Secret of Mana" (1993) for the Super NES which offered two- and three-player action once the main character had acquired his party members. "Secret of Mana's" co-op gameplay was considered innovative in its time, as it allowed the second or third players to drop in and out of the game at any time rather than players having to join the game at the same time, which has remained influential on titles as recent as the upcoming "Dungeon Siege III". "Final Fantasy VI" (1994) offered a form of alternating co-op play for its battles, with the second player taking control of half of the characters in the party. Namco's "Tales" series allowed multiple players to take control of individual members in its real-time battles in some of the titles, such as "Tales of Symphonia", while the "" games replicated the "Diablo" formula for consoles, offering two-player simultaneous play through the game's campaign.


title: Cooperative video game

text: With the release of the Nintendo 64 (1996, 1997), having four controller ports started to become a standard feature in consoles, as the Dreamcast, Nintendo GameCube and Xbox all later featured them. As larger multiplayer games became feasible, cooperative gameplay also became more available. The 7th and current generations of video game consoles all feature wireless controllers, removing port-based local player limits. However, its effect on multiplayer is probably less pronounced than the advancement of console internet capabilities.


title: Cooperative video game

text: The release of "Doom" in 1993 was a breakthrough in network gaming. Though arguably deathmatch was both the most influential and most popular mode, "Doom"'s co-op gameplay was also significant. Up to four players could travel through the entire game together, playing on separate computers over a LAN. The game's campaign mode was designed primarily for single player, but the difficulty was tweaked to compensate for extra human players. The following three games produced by id Software ("Doom II", "Quake" and "Quake II") all featured co-op modes. Some of these first-person shooters employ cooperative gameplay, where many players are joined to reach a common goal. However, some first person shooters do not make use of cooperative gameplay.


title: Cooperative video game

text: Starting from the early 2000s, however, many FPS developers have forsaken co-op campaign play, opting to focus more purely on either a more detailed and in-depth single player experience or a purely multiplayer game. Epic's "Unreal Tournament" series had shifted almost entirely towards deathmatch modes, and significant FPS releases such as "Doom 3", "Quake 4", and both "Half-Life" titles shipped without cooperative gameplay modes. However, with the "Gears of War" franchise introducing the "Horde" four-player cooperative mode, it has undergone a resurgence, starting a trend which included ""s "Firefight" mode and ""s "Nazi Zombies" mode. More games in the genre from the 2010s include the Payday and Destiny series.


title: Cooperative video game

text: Most early role-playing video games were inspired by "Dungeons & Dragons", but were restricted to single player due to the technology of the era. The earliest RPGs featuring something resembling co-op play were MUDs, which would later evolve into the MMOG genre.


title: Cooperative video game

text: Later PC RPGs became more powerful and flexible in simulating the shared real life RPG experience, allowing players to collaborate in games over the Internet. Blizzard Entertainment's immensely successful "Diablo" (1996), which incorporated Blizzard's online matchmaking service, battle.net, allowing the game's players to play through the entire single player campaign together. The D&D-sanctioned "Baldur's Gate" and "Icewind Dale" games, released in 1998 and 2000, respectively, allowed up to six players to play through the campaign mode over a network. Atari's "Neverwinter Nights" (2002) was an official and comprehensive D&D simulator, featuring even more robust game-creation tools and developing a sizable online community. It allowed one player to serve as a Dungeon Master, shaping and altering the game world against a party of human-controlled players, playing cooperatively. (An earlier game, "" (2000) was the earliest CRPG to feature this sort of "storyteller" mode.)


title: Cooperative video game

text: Contemporary MMORPGs such as Blizzard Entertainment's "World of Warcraft" feature a mixture of single-player goals ("quests") and larger end-game challenges that can only be completed via intensive co-op play, of up to twenty-five (formerly forty) players in end-game raids, and up to forty versus forty in battlegrounds.


title: Cooperative video game

text: Cooperative games designed to be played by multiple players on the same display screen have come to be known as "couch co-op", "local co-op" or "single-player co-op" games. Cooperative games in which players each use their own display system are known as "online co-op", "network co-op" or "multiplayer co-op" games due to the majority of such systems utilizing telecommunications networks to synchronize game state among the players. Games have also been brought to market in which both modes can be combined—accommodating more than one display with each display accommodating one or more players.


title: Cooperative video game

text: While there are no practical technical limits to how many players can be involved in a cooperative game, the industry has settled on games that support up to four players as a informal standard. This comes from a combination of factors. Historically, cooperative arcade video games maxed out at four players. Similarly, consoles which supported local co-op play on the same screen also maxed out at four players. There is also a human factor according to various developers. While having more than four players involved could make a game more interesting to play, this starts to exceed a comfortable number related to social interactions between players and may cause segmenting of the larger group into smaller ones, while up to four players encourages cooperation and coordination within that group.


title: Cooperative video game

text: Many video games support split screen displays in order to show two or more players in different regions of the game. Split screen displays would usually split the main screen into either two or four sub-regions so that 2–4 players can roam freely within the game world. Many first-person and third-person shooter games use this technique when played in multiplayer co-op mode, such as the console versions of games in the "Rainbow Six" series, the "Halo series" or the fifth installment of the "Call of Duty" series, "".


title: Cooperative video game

text: Split screen modes have also been combined with 3D Television technology by hobbyists, using alternate-frame sequencing for the purpose of presenting each of two couch co-op players with their own 2D full-screen image on the same display, rather than for stereoscopy. Due to the complexity involved in correcting the resulting aspect ratios, and that in obtaining 3D glasses which allowed both lenses to synchronize to the same eye-frame, this remained the purview of enthusiasts until 2011, when


title: Cooperative video game

text: Sony Computer Entertainment America began to market a 3D display product for their consoles. This display system supported this practice under the trademark SimulView. While the SimulView feature set was designed to work only with the Sony 3D monitor, the move renewed interest in this technology, and it was not long before the gaming community circumvented this vendor lock-in gambit, allowing SimulView-supporting games to utilize the feature on third-party 3DTV equipment.


title: Cooperative video game

text: By contrast, in cooperative platform games, both players typically occupy the same screen and must coordinate their actions, particularly with regard to the scrolling. If the scrolling is limited to a forward direction only, players can potentially kill each other. For example, one player lagging behind could cause problems for his partner, as the screen will not scroll onward. If a player was attempting to complete a jump over a chasm, the "safe" surface on the far side of the chasm could be prevented from scrolling into view by a slow player.


title: Cooperative video game

text: Developers have attempted to counter these frustrations by using a camera that can zoom in and out over an entire level as needed, keeping both players within the scope of the camera. This type of camera was used to enable the display of four player cooperative gameplay in "New Super Mario Bros. Wii". Another strategy allows player screens to be split when the player characters are far apart, but combine into one full-screen image when player characters are close enough together. The 2005 video game "The Warriors" is considered notable for attempting this in a 3D third-person perspective format.


title: Cooperative video game

text: A common concept in cooperative games is the sharing of resources between players. For example, two players managing one team in a real-time strategy game, such as "StarCraft", will often have to draw off the same pool of resources to build and upgrade their units and buildings. The sharing of resources, however, can be as simple as the system used in the "Contra" games (and other shoot-'em-up/beat-'em-up games) where a player who is out of spare lives could "steal" a life from the other player so both players could continue to play at the same time.


title: Cooperative video game

text: The role that the second player takes upon joining a game differs from game to game. Most co-op games have the second player directly take control of another character that is usually subject to the same rules as the first player (i.e., a separate health bar). Some games, like "Super Mario Galaxy", , "Super Mario Odyssey" and some versions of "", however, limit the second player to an omniscient, invulnerable (and sometimes disembodied) helper role, who then moves along with and assists the first player with abilities that he/she usually lacks. This may include the ability to attack enemies within the first player's view, typically via a targeting reticle. Other co-op games such as It Takes Two and Evolve give the other player special roles, tasks or abilities.


title: Cooperative video game

text: Asynchronous co-op games are becoming prevalent among mobile platforms like smartphones and tablets due to their low-bandwidth requirement. Examples include Glu Mobile's Gun Bros and Gamevil's Zenonia 3. Asynchronous cooperative games upload only the character details to the server. During co-op gameplay, the server sends another player's character details, which are then controlled by the local AI.


title: Alimi Ballard

text: Alimi Ballard (born October 17, 1977) is an American television actor. He is best known for his role as FBI agent David Sinclair on the CBS police procedural "Numb3rs" (2005–2010).


title: Alimi Ballard

text: Ballard was born in The Bronx, New York and began acting in high school. He attended Mind-Builders Creative Arts Center in the NE Bronx and participated in their PYT theater program.


title: Alimi Ballard

text: From 1993 to 1996, Ballard portrayed Frankie Hubbard (son of "All My Children" supercouple Jesse and Angie) on the ABC daytime soap opera "Loving" and its successor series "The City". In 1997, he was a regular cast member on the short-lived ABC sitcom "Arsenio", which starred Arsenio Hall and Vivica A. Fox. He also portrayed Quizmaster Albert on the ABC/WB series "Sabrina, the Teenage Witch" (1997–99) and Herbal on the Fox series "Dark Angel" (2000–01).


title: Alimi Ballard

text: From 2005 to 2010, Ballard co-starred in the CBS police procedural, "Numb3rs", as David Sinclair. In 2011, Ballard guest-starred as Special Agent Gayne Levin on another CBS procedural, "NCIS". This guest role reunited him with Michael Weatherly, who previously co-starred with Ballard on three series: "Loving", "The City", and "Dark Angel". From 2012 to 2015, he played a recurring role on "" as Officer Crawford, a newly promoted detective, after appearing in season 3 as a music producer. He also guest starred on "NYPD Blue", "American Dreams", "Rizzoli & Isles", "Drop Dead Diva", "Castle", and "Bones".


title: Alimi Ballard

text: In 2015, Ballard was cast opposite Mireille Enos in the ABC legal thriller, "The Catch", leaving after the first season.


title: Omid Abtahi

text: Omid Abtahi () is an Iranian-American actor. He is best known for his roles as Salim in Starz Original "American Gods", Doctor Pershing in "The Mandalorian" on Disney+, Saleem Ulman in "NCIS" on Paramount+, and Homes in the fourth installment of "The Hunger Games" film series, "".


title: Omid Abtahi

text: Abtahi was born in Tehran, Iran. At the age of 5 he moved to Paris with his family and later they moved to the United States, finally moving to Irvine, Orange County, California when he was 10.


title: Omid Abtahi

text: Abtahi graduated from University High School in Irvine and attended California State University, Fullerton. He began studying advertising, then picked up a second major in theater and graduated in 2002.