title: Duke of Rothesay

text: An Act of the Parliament of Scotland passed in 1469 governs the succession to most of these titles. It provides that "the first-born Prince of the King of Scots for ever" should hold the dukedom. If the firstborn Prince dies before the King, the title is not inherited by his heir – it is only for the firstborn son, like the Duchy of Cornwall — nor is either inherited by the deceased duke's next brother, unless that brother also becomes heir apparent. Though the Act specified "King", eldest sons of queens regnant subsequently also held the dukedom. The interpretation of the word "Prince", however, does not include women. The eldest son of the British Sovereign, as Duke of Rothesay, had the right to vote in elections for representative peers from 1707. (The 1707 Acts of Union between the Parliament of Scotland and Parliament of England formally unified both kingdoms to create the Kingdom of Great Britain). This right continued until 1963, when the UK Parliament abolished the election of representative peers.


title: Duke of Rothesay

text: Holders of the Dukedom of Rothesay, with the processes by which they became Dukes of Rothesay and by which they ceased to hold the title:


title: Duke of Rothesay

text: Since 2022 William, Prince of Wales, has held the title of Duke of Rothesay, and uses it when in Scotland. He has the formal Scottish style of "HRH The Prince William, Duke of Rothesay".


title: Duke of Rothesay

text: The personal arms of the preceding Duke were bestowed upon him in 1974 by the Queen. The escutcheon features on the 1st and 4th quarters the arms of the Great Steward of Scotland, with the 2nd and 3rd quarters featuring the arms of the Lord of the Isles. The arms of the current Duke are distinguished from those of Clan Stewart of Appin through the addition of an inescutcheon displaying the arms of the heir apparent to the King of Scots, namely the Royal arms of Scotland with a three-point label. The full achievement of the current Duke's arms are a variation of the Royal coat of arms of Scotland used prior to the Union of the Crowns in 1603.


title: Trade fair

text: A trade fair, also known as trade show, trade exhibition, or trade exposition, is an exhibition organized so that companies in a specific industry can showcase and demonstrate their latest products and services, meet with industry partners and customers, study activities of rivals, and examine recent market trends and opportunities.


title: Trade fair

text: In contrast to consumer fairs, only some trade fairs are open to the public, while others can only be attended by company representatives (members of the trade, e.g. professionals) and members of the press, therefore trade shows are classified as either "public" or "trade only". A few fairs are hybrids of the two; one example is the Frankfurt Book Fair, which is trade only for its first three days and open to the general public on its final two days. They are held on a continuing basis in virtually all markets and normally attract companies from around the globe. For example, in the U.S., there are currently over 10,000 trade shows held every year, and several online directories have been established to help organizers, attendees, and marketers identify appropriate events.


title: Trade fair

text: Modern trade fairs follow in the tradition of trade fairs established in late medieval Europe such as the Champagne fairs or the Skåne Market, in the era of merchant capitalism. In this era, produce and craft producers visited towns for trading fairs, to sell and showcase products. From the late eighteenth century, industrial exhibitions in Europe and North America became more common reflecting the technological dynamism of the Industrial Revolution.


title: Trade fair

text: In the late 19th century, the concept of annual industry-wide trade shows gained traction, spreading from European manufacturing centers to North America. By the 20th century, specialized companies came into existence simply to manage the trade-show industry, and permanent trade show grounds or convention centers were established as venues that featured a rotating calendar of trade shows.


title: Trade fair

text: In the 21st century, with the rapid industrialization of Asia, trade shows and exhibitions are now commonplace throughout the Asian continent, with China dominating the exhibitions industry in Asia, accounting for more than 55 per cent of all space sold in the region in 2011.


title: Trade fair

text: Trade fairs play important roles in marketing as well as business networking in market sectors that use them. People will seek to meet people and companies at their own level in the supply chain, as well as potential suppliers and potential buyers.


title: Trade fair

text: Generally there will be a central trade show floor with booths where people exhibit their goods or services, and throughout the day there will be seminars for continuing education on matters relevant to the industry, like best practices, trends, and regulation. There will also be some shared meals with keynote speakers, and social events in the evenings. Booths range from simple tables to elaborate constructions.


title: Trade fair

text: Trade fairs often involve a considerable investment in time and money by participating companies. The planning includes arranging meetings with other attendees beforehand and resources to follow up on opportunities that are created at the fair. Costs include space rental, booth design and construction of trade show displays, telecommunications, travel, accommodations, and promotional literature and items to give to attendees.


title: Trade fair

text: In addition, costs are incurred at the show for services such as electrical, booth cleaning, internet services, and drayage (also known as material handling). This local spending on logistics leads cities to promote trade shows as a means of local economic development, as well as providing opportunities for local businesses to grow, and attract new businesses to come.


title: Shaan (1980 film)

text: Shaan () is a 1980 Indian Hindi-language action crime film directed by Ramesh Sippy, with a story written by Salim–Javed, after the blockbuster success of their previous venture, "Sholay". It stars an ensemble cast, consisting of Sunil Dutt, Shashi Kapoor, Amitabh Bachchan, Raakhee Gulzar, Shatrughan Sinha, Kulbhushan Kharbanda, Parveen Babi, Bindiya Goswami, and Johnny Walker, with Helen and Bindu appeared in item numbers


title: Shaan (1980 film)

text: The film was an average performer upon its initial release. However, it did good business during re-runs, and also obtained the services of "Sholay"s music composer, R.D. Burman, whose songs bagged a Best Music nomination at Filmfare. "Shaan" was one of the last films to feature the vocals of Mohammed Rafi. The character of Shakaal was inspired from the Ernst Stavro Blofeld's character from the James Bond film series.


title: Shaan (1980 film)

text: Shiv Kumar (Sunil Dutt) is a brave, loyal deputy commissioner of police who announces to his wife Sheetal (Rakhee Gulzar) and their young daughter Guddi that he has been transferred to Mumbai. He has two younger brothers Vijay (Amitabh Bachchan) and Ravi (Shashi Kapoor) who live in Mumbai but spend their time loafing about the city and conning unsuspecting people. After being swindled by a beautiful, young girl Renu (Bindiya Goswami) and her uncle Chacha (Johnny Walker) in the city, the duo decide to join forces with them along with a glamorous thief Sunita (Parveen Babi). However, one of the tricks of the team backfires which lands Vijay and Ravi in prison. Nevertheless, Shiv bails them out and hopes to shape them into a much honourable life.


title: Shaan (1980 film)

text: Few days later, a mysterious man (Shatrughan Sinha) tries to shoot Shiv twice in the city, but Shiv survives both the attempts. Due to this shocking incident, Vijay and Ravi advise him to find a different line of work for the sake of Sheetal and Guddi. However, Shiv stands firm by citing his undying patriotic commitment to his corps and his country. It eventually turns out that the mysterious man had acted on the orders of Shakaal (Kulbhushan Kharbanda), a sadistic international crime lord who is operating from a remote island outside India, while funding crime in Mumbai and rejoicing in pain of his enemies and traitors.


title: Shaan (1980 film)

text: Due to the fact that Shiv is getting closer to finding out the criminal acts in Mumbai, Shakaal sets a trap for him which causes him to travel to a faraway place all by himself. As a result, Shiv is captured and brought to the island by Shakaal's aides. Over there, Shakaal influences Shiv over joining his criminal forces in exchange of much wealth for his living. However, Shiv cleverly escapes from the island and ends up at a beach involving wild dogs sent by Shakaal. He runs away from them too but is spotted at the beach by Shakaal. Unfortunately, Shiv is shot dead this time by Shakaal from a helicopter and his body is dumped back to Mumbai.


title: Shaan (1980 film)

text: As Vijay, Ravi and Sheetal lament their tragic loss of Shiv, the mysterious man shows up and introduces himself as Rakesh, a marksman and former circus performer who used to shoot targets blindfolded. Rakesh confesses that he was blackmailed to kill Shiv by Shakaal, who had held his wife hostage, and that he deliberately missed on the two previous occasions in hopes of buying time to save his wife. However, Shakaal had already deduced this and arranged Rakesh's wife to be killed in a car accident. Upon learning this, Vijay and Ravi ally with Rakesh and they plan to defeat Shakaal's criminal force together in revenge of their families' deaths. As time passes, Rakesh and Sheetal find themselves growing closer to each other as well.


title: Shaan (1980 film)

text: To that end, Vijay and Ravi seek the aid of a legless street-beggar Abdul (Mazhar Khan), who provides them information about Shakaal's warehouse in Mumbai. Even though the trio (Vijay, Ravi and Rakesh) succeed in destroying the warehouse, Shakaal's goons learn about Abdul helping them and locate his place, killing him. However, Vijay retaliates by fighting against Shakaal's goons over Abdul's death in a local bar. This leaves Shakaal infuriated and disappointed at his aides, and he now decides to play his next move in order to make the trio suffer a lot to death. According to Shakaal's plan, he has his aides abduct Sheetal and holds her captive at his island.


title: Shaan (1980 film)

text: Though it would have appeared that the trio are able to concede defeat over Sheetal's imminent fate, one of Shakaal's aides Jagmohan (Mac Mohan) approaches them and offers them help to gain entry in Shakaal's hideout, as he was brutally thrashed by Shakaal for his previous failure. Posing as a dance troupe, the trio (along with Sunita, Renu and Chacha) enter the island and perform for Shakaal who later captures Vijay and Ravi, revealing that he had only sent Jagmohan (who was faking his injuries) to trap them. Rakesh holds Shakaal at gunpoint but his aides outsmart him by threatening to kill Sunita and Renu.


title: Shaan (1980 film)

text: However, Chacha creates a commotion that allows the trio to be freed and kill Jagmohan and the rest of Shakaal's aides. Meanwhile, Sheetal is imprisoned and the trio arrive at the scene to save her, but Shakaal throws Vijay in a pool that contains a man-eating crocodile, while he intends to kill Ravi and Rakesh himself. Being able to kill the crocodile, Vijay escapes from the pool and helps Ravi and Rakesh fight against Shakaal. The trio eventually gain the upper-hand and look forward to have Shakaal punished by the karma for his crimes till date.


title: Shaan (1980 film)

text: Just as the trio finally succeed in capturing Shakaal and are about to kill him, Sheetal intervenes and stops them from doing so, pointing out that their actions can be disrespectful to the law that Shiv upholds. The arguing commotion allows Shakaal to free himself and threaten to kill Sheetal, forcing the trio to fatally shoot him down in defense. Shakaal dies but not before he sets the island to self-destruct. However, the trio and their loved ones (including Chacha) escape on a helicopter to safety, satisfied that they have beaten Shakaal in his tracks for good.


title: Shaan (1980 film)

text: Logistical issues relating to other projects in which the cast was involved meant that "Shaan" took three years to make. While "Sholay" drew its inspiration from the American Western and Spaghetti Western films, "Shaan" took its lead from the James Bond films with fancy sets and beautiful costumes. Shakaal, the bald villain (originally to be played by Sanjeev Kumar) played by Kulbhushan Kharbanda, was based on the James Bond villain, Blofeld.


title: Shaan (1980 film)

text: A large golden eagle is prominent in Shakaal's island lair and in the Bollywood obligatory final song-and-dance. The eagle is reminiscent of the golden lamb in Cecile DeMille's Ten Commandments; construction on the golden eagle required outside experts to be flown in and cost, in Rupees, the equivalent of the chariot scene in Ben-Hur.


title: Shaan (1980 film)

text: Sippy wanted to repeat the cast of "Sholay" for this film, but due to date issues, Sunil Dutt played the role initially offered to Sanjeev Kumar, Bindiya Goswami played the role initially offered to Hema Malini, and Shashi Kapoor was selected when Dharmendra declined to do the character of Ravi.


title: Shaan (1980 film)

text: Parveen Babi suffered her first anxiety attack when she completed shooting the song "Pyar Karne Wale". Just after the shooting of that song, there was a scene in the film where Parveen Babi is inside the car and then Amitabh Bachchan gets in the car. The scene was later shot when Parveen Babi returned from the U.S. and she recommenced work by shooting this scene.


title: Shaan (1980 film)

text: The version of the song "Yamma Yamma" is not the final recorded song, that is used in the movie. It was a rehearsed copy sung by Late Mohd Rafi, and the actual recording was scheduled for later, which was used by RD Burman in the movie due to the sudden untimely death of Mohd Rafi before the final recording. This is the only song where Mohd Rafi and RD Burman sing a duet together.


title: Freedmen's Bureau

text: The Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands, usually referred to as simply the Freedmen's Bureau, was an agency of early Reconstruction, assisting freedmen in the South. It was established on March 3, 1865, and operated briefly as a U.S. government agency, from 1865 to 1872, after the American Civil War, to direct "provisions, clothing, and fuel...for the immediate and temporary shelter and supply of destitute and suffering refugees and freedmen and their wives and children".


title: Freedmen's Bureau

text: In 1863, the American Freedmen's Inquiry Commission was established. Two years later, as a result of the inquiry the Freedmen's Bureau Bill was passed, which established the Freedmen's Bureau as initiated by U.S. President Abraham Lincoln. It was intended to last for one year after the end of the Civil War. The Bureau became a part of the United States Department of War, as Congress provided no funding for it. The War Department was the only agency with funds the Freedmen's Bureau could use and with an existing presence in the South.


title: Freedmen's Bureau

text: Headed by Union Army General Oliver O. Howard, the Bureau started operations in 1865. From the beginning its representatives found its tasks very difficult, partly because Southern legislatures passed Black Codes that restricted movement, conditions of labor, and other civil rights of African Americans, nearly duplicating conditions of slavery. Also, the Freedmen's Bureau controlled only a limited amount of arable land.


title: Freedmen's Bureau

text: The Bureau's powers were expanded to help African Americans find family members from whom they had become separated during the war. It arranged to teach them to read and write—skills considered critical by the freedmen themselves as well as by the government. Bureau agents also served as legal advocates for African Americans in both state and federal courts, mostly in cases dealing with family issues. The Bureau encouraged former major planters to rebuild their plantations and pay wages to their formerly-enslaved workers. It kept an eye on contracts between the newly-free laborers and planters, since few freedmen could read, and pushed whites and blacks to work together in a free-labor market as employers and employees rather than as masters and slaves.


title: Freedmen's Bureau

text: In 1866 Congress renewed the charter for the Bureau. President Andrew Johnson, a Southern Democrat who had succeeded to the office following Lincoln's assassination in 1865, vetoed the bill, arguing that the Bureau encroached on states' rights, relied inappropriately on the military in peacetime, gave blacks help that poor whites had never had, and would ultimately prevent freed slaves from becoming self sufficient by rendering them dependent on public assistance. Though the Republican controlled Congress, overrode Johnson's veto, by 1869 Southern Democrats in Congress had deprived the Bureau of most of its funding, and as a result it had to cut much of its staff. By 1870 the Bureau had been weakened further due to the rise of Ku Klux Klan (KKK) violence across the South; members of the KKK and other terrorist organizations, attacked both blacks and sympathetic white Republicans, including teachers. Northern Democrats also opposed the Bureau's work, painting it as a program that would make African Americans "lazy".


title: Freedmen's Bureau

text: In 1872 Congress abruptly abandoned the program, refusing to approve renewal legislation. It did not inform Howard, whom U.S. President Ulysses S. Grant had transferred to Arizona to settle hostilities between the Apache and settlers. Grant's Secretary of War William W. Belknap was hostile to Howard's leadership and authority at the Bureau. Belknap aroused controversy among Republicans by his reassignment of Howard.


title: Freedmen's Bureau

text: The Bureau mission was to help solve everyday problems of the newly freed slaves, such as obtaining food, medical care, communication with family members, and jobs. Between 1865 and 1869, it distributed 15 million rations of food to freed African Americans and 5 million rations to impoverished whites, and set up a system by which planters could borrow rations in order to feed freedmen they employed. Although the Bureau set aside $350,000 for this latter service, only $35,000 (10%) was borrowed by planters.


title: Freedmen's Bureau

text: The Bureau's humanitarian efforts had limited success. Medical treatment of the freedmen was severely deficient, as few Southern doctors, all of whom were white, would treat them. Much infrastructure had been destroyed by the war, and people had few means of improving sanitation. Blacks had little opportunity to become medical personnel. Travelers unknowingly carried epidemics of cholera and yellow fever along the river corridors, which broke out across the South and caused many fatalities, especially among the poor.


title: Freedmen's Bureau

text: Freedman's Bureau agents initially complained that freedwomen were refusing to contract their labor. One of the first actions black families took for independence was to withdraw women's labor from fieldwork. The Bureau attempted to force freedwomen to work by insisting that their husbands sign contracts making the whole family available as field labor in the cotton industry, and by declaring that unemployed freedwomen should be treated as vagrants just as black men were. The Bureau did allow some exceptions, such as married women with employed husbands, and some "worthy" women who had been widowed or abandoned and had large families of small children to care for. "Unworthy" women, meaning the unruly and prostitutes, were usually the ones subjected to punishment for vagrancy.


title: Freedmen's Bureau

text: Before the Civil War the enslaved could not marry legally, and most marriages had been informal, although planters often presided over "marriage" ceremonies for their enslaved. After the war, the Freedmen's Bureau performed numerous marriages for freed couples who asked for it. As many husbands, wives, and children had been forcibly separated under slavery, the Bureau agents helped families reunite after the war. The Bureau had an informal regional communications system that allowed agents to send inquiries and provide answers. It sometimes provided transportation to reunite families. Freedmen and freedwomen turned to the Bureau for assistance in resolving issues of abandonment and divorce.


title: Freedmen's Bureau

text: The most widely recognized accomplishments of the Freedman's Bureau were in education. Prior to the Civil War, no Southern state had a system of universal, state-supported public education; in addition, most had prohibited both enslaved and free blacks from gaining an education. This meant learning to read and write, and do simple arithmetic. Former slaves wanted public education while the wealthier whites opposed the idea. Freedmen had a strong desire to learn to read and write; some had already started schools at refugee camps; others worked hard to establish schools in their communities even prior to the advent of the Freedmen's Bureau.


title: Freedmen's Bureau

text: Oliver Otis Howard was appointed as the first Freedmen's Bureau Commissioner. Through his leadership, the bureau set up four divisions: Government-Controlled Lands, Records, Financial Affairs, and Medical Affairs. Education was considered part of the Records division. Howard turned over confiscated property including planters' mansions, government buildings, books, and furniture to superintendents to be used in the education of freedmen. He provided transportation and room and board for teachers. Many Northerners came south to educate freedmen.


title: Freedmen's Bureau

text: By 1866, Northern missionary and aid societies worked in conjunction with the Freedmen's Bureau to provide education for former slaves. The American Missionary Association was particularly active, establishing eleven "colleges" in Southern states for the education of freedmen. The primary focus of these groups was to raise funds to pay teachers and manage schools, while the secondary focus was the day-to-day operation of individual schools. After 1866, Congress appropriated some funds to operate the freedmen's schools. The main source of educational revenue for these schools came through a Congressional Act that gave the Freedmen's Bureau the power to seize Confederate property for educational use.


title: Freedmen's Bureau

text: George Ruby, an African American, served as a teacher and school administrator and as a traveling inspector for the Bureau, observing local conditions, aiding in the establishment of black schools, and evaluating the performance of Bureau field officers. Blacks supported him, but planters and other whites opposed him.


title: Freedmen's Bureau

text: Overall, the Bureau spent $5 million to set up schools for blacks. By the end of 1865, more than 90,000 former slaves were enrolled as students in such public schools. Attendance rates at the new schools for freedmen were about 80%. Brigadier General Samuel Chapman Armstrong created and led Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute in Virginia in 1868. It is now known as Hampton University.


title: Freedmen's Bureau

text: The Freedmen's Bureau published their own freedmen's textbook. They emphasized the bootstrap philosophy, encouraging freedmen to believe that each person had the ability to work hard and to do better in life. These readers included traditional literacy lessons, as well as selections on the life and works of Abraham Lincoln, excerpts from the Bible focused on forgiveness, biographies of famous African Americans with emphasis on their piety, humbleness, and industry; and essays on humility, the work ethic, temperance, loving your enemies, and avoiding bitterness.


title: Freedmen's Bureau

text: By 1870, there were more than 1,000 schools for freedmen in the South. J. W. Alvord, an inspector for the Bureau, wrote that the freedmen "have the natural thirst for knowledge," aspire to "power and influence … coupled with learning," and are excited by "the special study of books." Among the former slaves, both children and adults sought this new opportunity to learn. After the Bureau was abolished, some of its achievements collapsed under the weight of white violence against schools and teachers for blacks. Most Reconstruction-era legislatures had established public education but, after the 1870s, when white Democrats regained power of Southern governments, they reduced funds available to fund public education, particularly for blacks. Beginning in 1890 in Mississippi, Democratic-dominated legislatures in the South passed new state constitutions disenfranchising most blacks by creating barriers to voter registration. They then passed Jim Crow laws establishing legal segregation of public places. Segregated schools and other services for blacks were consistently underfunded by the Southern legislatures.


title: Freedmen's Bureau

text: By 1871, Northerners' interest in reconstructing the South had waned. Northerners were beginning to tire of the effort that Reconstruction required, were discouraged by the high rate of continuing violence around elections, and were ready for the South to take care of itself. All of the Southern states had created new constitutions that established universal, publicly-funded education. Groups based in the North began to redirect their money toward universities and colleges founded to educate African-American leaders.


title: Freedmen's Bureau

text: Written accounts by northern women and missionary societies resulted in historians' overestimating their influence, writing that most Bureau teachers were well-educated women from the North, motivated by religion and abolitionism to teach in the South. In the early 21st century, new research has found that half the teachers were southern whites; one-third were blacks (mostly southern), and one-sixth were northern whites. Few were abolitionists; few came from New England. Men outnumbered women. The salary was the strongest motivation except for the northerners, who were typically funded by northern organizations and had a humanitarian motivation. As a group, the black cohort showed the greatest commitment to racial equality; and they were the ones most likely to remain teachers. The school curriculum resembled that of schools in the north.


title: Freedmen's Bureau

text: The building and opening by the AMA and other missionary societies of schools of higher learning for African Americans coincided with the shift in focus for the Freedmen's Aid Societies from supporting an elementary education for all African Americans to enabling African-American leaders to gain high school and college educations. Some white officials working with African Americans in the South were concerned about what they considered the lack of a moral or financial foundation seen in the African-American community and traced that lack of foundation back to slavery.


title: Freedmen's Bureau

text: Generally, they believed that Blacks needed help to enter a free labor market and rebuild a stable family life. Heads of local American Missionary Associations sponsored various educational and religious efforts for African Americans. Later efforts for higher education were supported by such leaders as Samuel Chapman Armstrong of the Hampton Institute and Booker T. Washington of the Tuskegee Institute (from 1881). They said that black students should be able to leave home and "live in an atmosphere conducive not only to scholarship but to culture and refinement".


title: Freedmen's Bureau

text: Most of these colleges, universities and normal schools combined what they believed were the best fundamentals of a college with that of the home, giving students a basic structure to build acceptable practices of upstanding lives. At many of these institutions, Christian principles and practices were also part of the daily regime.


title: Freedmen's Bureau

text: Despite the untimely dissolution of the Freedman's Bureau, its legacy influenced the important historically black colleges and universities (HBCUs), which were the chief institutions of higher learning for blacks in the South through the decades of segregation into the mid-20th century. Under the direction and sponsorship of the Bureau, together with the American Missionary Association in many cases, from approximately 1866 until its termination in 1872, an estimated 25 institutions of higher learning for black youth were established. The leaders among them continue to operate as highly ranked institutions in the 21st century and have seen increasing enrollment. (Examples of HBCUs include Howard University, St. Augustine's College, Fisk University, Johnson C. Smith University, Clark Atlanta University, Dillard University, Shaw University, Virginia Union University, and Tougaloo College).


title: Freedmen's Bureau

text: , there exist approximately 105 HBCUs that range in scope, size, organization, and orientation. Under the Education Act of 1965, Congress officially defined an HBCU as "an institution whose principal missions were and are the education of Black Americans". HBCUs graduate over 50% of African-American professionals, 50% of African-American public school teachers, and 70% of African-American dentists. In addition, 50% of African Americans who graduate from HBCUs pursue graduate or professional degrees. One in three degrees held by African Americans in the natural sciences, and half the degrees held by African Americans in mathematics, were earned at HBCUs.


title: Freedmen's Bureau

text: Perhaps the best known of these institutions is Howard University, founded in Washington, D.C., in 1867, with the aid of the Freedmen's Bureau. It was named for the commissioner of the Freedmen's Bureau, General Oliver Otis Howard.


title: Freedmen's Bureau

text: After the Civil War, control over existing churches was a contentious issue. The Methodist denomination had split into regional associations in the 1840s prior to the war, as had the Baptists, when Southern Baptists were founded. In some cities, Northern Methodists seized control of Southern Methodist buildings. Numerous northern denominations, including the independent black denominations of the African Methodist Episcopal (AME) and African Methodist Episcopal Zion, sent missionaries to the South to help the freedmen and plant new congregations. By this time the independent black denominations were increasingly well organized and prepared to evangelize to the freedmen. Within a decade, the AME and AME Zion churches had gained hundreds of thousands of new members and were rapidly organizing new congregations.


title: Freedmen's Bureau

text: Even before the war, blacks had established independent Baptist congregations in some cities and towns, such as Silver Bluff and Charleston, South Carolina; and Petersburg and Richmond, Virginia. In many places, especially in more rural areas, they shared public services with whites. Often enslaved blacks met secretly to conduct their own services away from white supervision or oversight. After the war, freedmen mostly withdrew from the white-dominated congregations of the Baptist, Methodist and Presbyterian churches in order to be free of white supervision. Within a short time, they were organizing black Baptist state associations and organized a national association in the 1890s.


title: Freedmen's Bureau

text: Northern mission societies raised funds for land, buildings, teachers' salaries, and basic necessities such as books and furniture. For years they used networks throughout their churches to raise money for freedmen's education and worship.


title: Freedmen's Bureau

text: Most of the assistant commissioners, realizing that African Americans would not receive fair trials in the civil courts, tried to handle black cases in their own Bureau courts. Southern whites objected that this was unconstitutional. In Alabama, the Bureau commissioned state and county judges as Bureau agents. They were to try cases involving blacks with no distinctions on racial grounds. If a judge refused, the Freedmen's Bureau could institute martial law in his district. All but three judges accepted their unwanted commissions, and the governor urged compliance.


title: Freedmen's Bureau

text: Perhaps the most difficult region reported by the Freedmen's Bureau was Louisiana's Caddo and Bossier parishes in the northwest part of the state. It had not suffered wartime devastation or Union occupation, but white hostility was high against the black majority population. Well-meaning Bureau agents were understaffed and weakly supported by federal troops, and found their investigations blocked and authority undermined at every turn by recalcitrant plantation owners. Murders of freedmen were common, and white suspects in these cases were not prosecuted. Bureau agents did negotiate labor contracts, build schools and hospitals, and aid freedmen, but they struggled against the violence of the oppressive environment.


title: Freedmen's Bureau

text: In addition to internal parish problems, this area was reportedly invaded by insurgents from Arkansas, described as Desperadoes by the Bureau agent in 1868. In September 1868, for example, whites arrested and convicted 21 blacks accused of planning an insurrection in Bossier Parish. Henry Jones, accused of being the leader of the purported insurrection, was shot and left to burn by whites, but he survived, badly hurt. Other freedmen were killed or driven from their land by Arkansas Desperadoes. Whites were anxious about their power as blacks were to receive the franchise, and tensions were rising over land use. In early October, blacks arrested two whites from Arkansas "accused of being part of a mob ... that killed several Negroes." The agent reported 14 blacks had been killed in this incident, then said that another eight to ten had been killed by the same Desperadoes. Blacks were reported to have killed the two white men in the altercation. The whites' Arkansas friends and local whites went on a rampage against blacks in the area, resulting in more than 150 blacks being killed.


title: Freedmen's Bureau

text: In March 1872, at the request of President Ulysses S. Grant and the Secretary of the Interior, Columbus Delano, General Howard was asked to temporarily leave his duties as Commissioner of the Bureau to deal with Indian affairs in the west. Upon returning from his assignment in November 1872, General Howard discovered that the Bureau and all of its activities had been officially terminated by Congress, effective as of June (Howard, 1907). While General Howard was dealing with Indian affairs in the west, the Freedmen's Bureau was steadily losing its support in Congress. President Johnson had opposed the Freedmen's Bureau and his attitude encouraged many people, especially white Southerners, to challenge the Bureau. But insurgents showed that the war had not ended, as armed whites attacked black Republicans and their sympathizers, including teachers and officeholders. Congress dismantled the Bureau in 1872 due to pressure from white Southerners. The Bureau was unable to change much of the social dynamic as whites continued to seek supremacy over blacks, frequently with violence.


title: Freedmen's Bureau

text: In his autobiography, General Howard expressed great frustration about Congress having closed down the bureau. He said, "the legislative action, however, was just what I desired, except that I would have preferred to close out my own Bureau and not have another do it for me in an unfriendly manner in my absence." All documents and matters pertaining to the Freedmen's Bureau were transferred from the office of General Howard to the War Department of the United States Congress.


title: Freedmen's Bureau

text: The Bureau began distributing rations in the summer of 1865. Drought conditions resulted in so much need that the state established its own Office of the Commissioner of the Destitute to provide additional relief. The two agencies coordinated their efforts starting in 1866. The Bureau established depots in eight major cities. Counties were allocated aid in kind each month based on the number of poor reported. The counties were required to provide transportation from the depots for the supplies. The ration was larger in winter and spring, and reduced in seasons when locally grown food was available.


title: Freedmen's Bureau

text: In 1866, the depot at Huntsville provided five thousand rations a day. The food was distributed without regard to race. Corruption and abuse was so great that in October 1866, President Johnson ended in-kind aid in that state. One hundred twenty thousand dollars was given to the state to provide relief to the end of January 1867. Aid was ended in the state. Records show that by the end of the program, four times as many White people received aid than did Black people.


title: Freedmen's Bureau

text: The Florida Bureau was assessed to be working effectively. Thomas Ward Osborne, the assistant commissioner of the Freedmen's Bureau for Florida, was an astute politician who collaborated with the leadership of both parties in the state. He was warmly praised by observers on all sides.


title: Freedmen's Bureau

text: The Bureau played a major role in Georgia politics. It was especially active in setting up, monitoring, and enforcing labor contracts for both men and women. It also set up a new system of healthcare for the freedmen. Although a majority of the agency's relief rations went to freedpeople, a large number of whites also benefited. In Georgia, poor whites received almost one-fifth of the Bureau's rations.


title: Freedmen's Bureau

text: In North Carolina, the bureau employed: 9 contract surgeons, at $100 per month; 26 hospital attendants, at average pay each per month $11.25; 18 civilian employees, clerks, agents, etc., at an average pay per month of $17.20; 4 laborers, at an average pay per month of $11.90; enlisted men are detailed as orderlies, guards, etc., by commanding officers of the different military posts where officers of the Bureau are serving.


title: Freedmen's Bureau

text: Some misconduct was reported to the bureau main office that bureau agents were using their posts for personal gains. Colonel E. Whittlesey was questioned but said he was not involved in nor knew of anyone involved in such activities. The bureau exercised what whites believed were arbitrary powers: making arrests, imposing fines, and inflicting punishments. They were considered to be disregarding the local laws and especially the statute of limitations. Their activities resulted in resentment among whites toward the federal government in general. These powers invoked negative feelings in many southerners that sparked many to want the agency to leave. In their review, Steedman and Fullerton repeated their conclusion from Virginia, which was to withdraw the Bureau and turn daily operations over to the military.


title: Freedmen's Bureau

text: In South Carolina, the bureau employed, nine clerks, at average pay each per month $108.33, one rental agent, at monthly pay of $75.00, one clerk, at monthly pay of $50.00, one storekeeper, at monthly pay of $85.00, one counselor, at monthly pay of $125.00, one superintendent of education, at monthly pay of $150.00, one printer, at monthly pay of $100.00, one contract surgeon, at monthly pay of $100.00, twenty-five laborers, at average pay per month $19.20.


title: Freedmen's Bureau

text: General Saxton was head of the bureau operations in South Carolina; he was reported by Steedman and Fullerton to have made so many "mistakes and blunders" that he made matters worse for the freedmen. He was replaced by Brigadier General R.K. Scott. Steedman and Fullerton described Scott as energetic and a competent officer. It appeared that he took great pains to turn things around and correct the mistakes made by his predecessors.


title: Freedmen's Bureau

text: The investigators learned of reported murders of freedmen by a band of outlaws. These outlaws were thought to be people from other states, such as Texas, Kentucky and Tennessee, who had been part of the rebel army (Ku Klux Klan chapters were similarly started by veterans in the first years after the war.) When citizens were asked why the perpetrators had not been arrested, many answered that the Bureau, with the support of the military, had the primary authority.


title: Freedmen's Bureau

text: In certain areas, such as the Sea Islands, many freedmen were destitute. Many had tried to cultivate the land and began businesses with little to no success in the social disruption of the period.


title: Freedmen's Bureau

text: Suffering much less damage in the war than some other Deep South states, Texas became a destination for some 200,000 refugee blacks from other parts of the South, in addition to 200,000 already in Texas. Slavery had been prevalent only in East Texas, and some freedmen hoped for the chance of new types of opportunity in the lightly populated but booming state. The Bureau's political role was central, as was close attention to the need for schools.


title: Freedmen's Bureau

text: The Freedmen's Bureau had 58 clerks and superintendents of farms, paid average monthly wages $78.50; 12 assistant superintendents, paid average monthly wages 87.00; and 163 laborers, paid average monthly wages 11.75; as personnel in the state of Virginia. Other personnel included orderlies and guards.


title: Freedmen's Bureau

text: During the war, slaves had escaped to Union lines and forts in the Tidewater, where contraband camps were established. Many stayed in that area after the war, seeking protection near the federal forts. The Bureau fed 9,000 to 10,000 blacks a month over the winter, explaining:


title: Freedmen's Bureau

text: In 2000, the U.S. Congress passed the Freedmen's Bureau Preservation Act, which directed the National Archivist to preserve the extensive records of the Bureau on microfilm, and work with educational institutions to index the records. In addition to those records of the Bureau headquarters, assistant commissioners, and superintendents of education, the National Archives now has records of the field offices, marriage records, and records of the Freedmen's Branch of the Adjutant General on microfilm. They are being digitized and made available through online databases. These constitute a major source of documentation on the operations of the Bureau, political and social conditions in the Reconstruction Era, and the genealogies of freedpeople.


title: Freedmen's Bureau

text: The Freedmen's Bureau Project (announced on June 19, 2015) was created as a set of partnerships between FamilySearch International and the National Archives and Records Administration (NARA), the Smithsonian's National Museum of African American History and Culture, the Afro-American Historical and Genealogical Society (AAHGS), and the California African American Museum. Tens of thousands of volunteers are needed to make these records searchable online. No specific time commitment is required, and anyone may participate. Volunteers simply log on (http://www.discoverfreedmen.org/), pull up as many scanned documents as they like, and enter the names and dates into the fields provided. Once published, information for millions of African Americans will be accessible, allowing families to build their family trees and connect with their ancestors. As of February 2016, the project was 51% complete.


title: Freedmen's Bureau

text: In October 2006, Virginia governor Tim Kaine announced that Virginia would be the first state to index and digitize Freedmen's Bureau records.


title: Irish neutrality

text: Ireland has been neutral in international relations since the 1930s. The nature of Irish neutrality has varied over time, and has been contested since the 1970s. Historically, the state was a "non-belligerent" in the Second World War (see Irish neutrality during World War II) and has never joined NATO, although during the Cold War it was anti-communist and aloof from the Non-Aligned Movement. The compatibility of neutrality with Ireland's membership of the European Union has been a point of debate in EU treaty referendum campaigns since the 1990s. The Seville Declarations on the Treaty of Nice acknowledge Ireland's "traditional policy of military neutrality", reflecting the narrow formulation of successive Irish governments. Others define Irish neutrality more broadly, as having "a strong normative focus, with a commitment to development, United Nations peacekeeping, human rights and disarmament".


title: Irish neutrality

text: After the September 11 attacks, these conditions were "waived in respect of aircraft operating in pursuit of the implementation of the United Nations Security Council Resolution 1368". Irish governments have always said that allowing aircraft to use Irish soil does not constitute participation in any particular conflict and is compatible with a neutral stance, instancing the transit of German troops between Finland and Norway through neutral Swedish territory during World War II.


title: Irish neutrality

text: A neutral state may also allow its citizens to serve in the armed forces of other, possibly belligerent, nations. Ireland does not restrict its citizens from serving in foreign armies, and significant numbers of Irish citizens serve or have served in the British, and to a lesser extent United States armies and the French Foreign Legion.


title: Irish neutrality

text: Ireland's neutrality is in general a matter of government policy rather than a requirement of statute law. One exception is Article 29, section 4, subsection 9° of the Irish constitution:


title: Irish neutrality

text: This was originally inserted by the 2002 amendment ratifying the Treaty of Nice, and updated by the 2009 amendment ratifying the Treaty of Lisbon. An earlier bill intended to ratify the Treaty of Nice did not include a common defence opt-out, and was rejected in the first Nice referendum, in 2001.


title: Irish neutrality

text: The Defence Act 1954, the principal statute governing the Irish Defence Forces, did not oblige members of the Irish Army to serve outside the state (members of the Air Corps and Naval Service were not so limited). A 1960 amendment was intended to allow deployment in United Nations peacekeeping missions, and requires three forms of authorisation, which since the 1990s have come to be called the "triple lock":


title: Irish neutrality

text: These provisions were modified in 1993 to allow for Chapter VII missions and again in 2006 to allow for regionally organised UN missions.


title: Irish neutrality

text: Before the creation of the Irish Free State, the whole island of Ireland was part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 1801 to 1922; the pre-1801 Kingdom of Ireland was under siege of Britain (and before 1707 the Kingdom of England). While Irish unionists supported political integration with Britain, Irish nationalists were divided between those who envisaged some continuing link with Britain and the "advanced nationalists", mainly republicans, who wanted total independence. Separatists generally envisaged an independent Ireland being neutral, but were prepared to ally with Britain's enemies in order to secure that independence, reflected in the maxim "England's difficulty is Ireland's opportunity". Irish leaders in the Nine Years' War (1594–1603) allied with Spain. Wolfe Tone's 1790 pamphlet "Spanish War" claimed that Ireland was not obliged to support Britain if the Nootka Crisis started a war with Spain; Tone later sought France's aid for the United Irishmen Rebellion of 1798. At the outbreak of the First World War, James Connolly was president of the Irish Neutrality League and was prosecuted for a banner reading "We serve neither King nor Kaiser but Ireland"; Connolly and the other leaders of the 1916 Rising sought military aid from Germany, and some countenanced a German prince becoming king of independent Ireland. In the 1921 negotiations leading to the Anglo-Irish Treaty, Erskine Childers envisaged the Irish Republic having a neutral status guaranteed in international law on the model of Belgium and Switzerland. However, the Free State established under the Treaty as signed was a Dominion of the British Commonwealth, with the UK retaining responsibility for Ireland's marine defence as well as three naval bases, the "Treaty Ports".


title: Irish neutrality

text: Article 49 of the 1922 Constitution of the Irish Free State stated, "Save in the case of actual invasion, the Irish Free State ... shall not be committed to active participation in any war without the assent of the Oireachtas [parliament]". In the Third Dáil debate on the draft constitution, the Provisional Government rejected a Labour Party amendment requiring assent of the electorate via referendum. Thomas Johnson argued "The war that is to be guarded against is a war overseas, is a war that this country may be drawn into by Parliament, by the will of Parliament perhaps, at the instigation of perhaps Canada, or perhaps Australia, or perhaps South Africa, or perhaps Great Britain, and the last is very much the more likely".


title: Irish neutrality

text: In the Statute of Westminster 1931, the UK renounced the right to legislate for the Free State. The 1938 Anglo-Irish Trade Agreement saw the Treaty Ports handed over to the Free State.


title: Irish neutrality

text: The Free State joined the International Committee for Non-Intervention in the Spanish Civil War. The Spanish Civil War (Non-Intervention) Act, 1937 made it an offence to travel from Ireland to Spain to fight for either side. This applied both to Irish citizens and nationals of other countries on the committee. Nevertheless, there was Irish involvement in the Spanish Civil War on both sides by private individuals and groups. Another statute related to the committee was the Merchant Shipping (Spanish Civil War) Act 1937, which restricted Irish shipping's access to Spain until 27 April 1939.


title: Irish neutrality

text: Ireland remained neutral during World War II. The Fianna Fáil government's position was flagged years in advance by Taoiseach Éamon de Valera and had broad support. James Dillon was the only member of Dáil Éireann to oppose it during the war, resigning from Fine Gael in 1942 and demanding that Ireland assist the Allies (while not necessarily declaring war on the Axis). However, tens of thousands of Irish citizens, who were by law British subjects, fought in the Allied armies against the Nazis, mostly in the British army. Senators John Keane and Frank MacDermot also favoured Allied support.


title: Irish neutrality

text: De Valera stated in his wartime speeches that small states should stay out of the conflicts of big powers; hence Ireland's policy was officially "neutral", and the country did not publicly declare its support for either side. In practice, while Luftwaffe pilots who crash-landed in Ireland and German sailors were interned, Royal Air Force (RAF), Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF), and United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) pilots who crashed were released on personal assurances and usually allowed to cross the border into British territory (although some Allied personnel were also interned). The internees were referred to as "guests of the nation". The German embassy had to pay for their keep. If they were on a non-combative mission they were repatriated. While it was easy for Allied pilots to make that claim, it was not realistic for Luftwaffe pilots to make a similar claim. Towards the end of the war, the German embassy was unable to pay, so the internees had to work on local farms. Strict wartime press censorship had the effect of controlling a moral reaction to the war's unfolding events and reiterated the public position that Irish neutrality was morally superior to the stance of any of the combatants.


title: Irish neutrality

text: Allied aircraft were allowed to overfly County Donegal to bases in County Fermanagh. Many of these aircraft were manufactured in the United States, to be flown by the RAF. This was known as the Donegal Corridor. Navigational markings are still, faintly, visible on mountains, such as Slieve League. There were many unfortunate crashes into these mountains. The bodies of crashed allied airmen were repatriated by the Irish Army at the border, where they would be met by an Allied officer. The Irish delivered the bodies in covered trucks, the coffins draped with the Union Jack and the soldiers serving as an honour guard for the deceased. A chaplain was on hand to deliver a benediction. On at least one occasion, an Allied Air Force officer thanked his Irish counterpart for the honour they bestowed upon the repatriated airmen. The Irish captain was said to reply, "Ours may be the honour, but yours is the glory."


title: Irish neutrality

text: USAAF aircraft en route to North Africa refuelled at Shannon Airport, flying boats at nearby Foynes. A total of 1,400 aircraft and 15,000 passengers passed through Foynes airport during the war years.


title: Irish neutrality

text: In the course of the war, an estimated 70,000 citizens of neutral Ireland served as volunteers in the British Armed Forces (and another estimated 50,000 from Northern Ireland, and this figure does not include Irish people who were resident in Britain before the war (though many used aliases). Those who deserted the Irish Army to serve in the British Army, on returning to Ireland were stripped of all pay and pension rights, and banned for seven years from any employment paid for by state or government funds. Some 200,000 Irish migrated to England to work in the war economy— most of them stayed after the war. Those who went without proper papers were liable to be conscripted. Irish military intelligence (G2) shared information with the British military and even held secret meetings to decide what to do if Germany invaded Ireland to attack Britain, which resulted in Plan W, a plan for joint Irish and British military action should the Germans invade. However General Hugo McNeill, the commander of the Irish Second Division based on the Northern Ireland border, had private discussions with the German ambassador, Edouard Hempel, about German military assistance in the event of a British invasion from the north. De Valera declined Germany's offer of captured British weapons. The Germans did have a plan to simulate an invasion of Ireland called Operation Green, similar to the Allies' Operation Bodyguard, but it was only to be put into operation with Operation Sea Lion, the plan to conquer Britain.


title: Irish neutrality

text: On Easter Tuesday, 15 April 1941, 180 Luftwaffe bombers attacked Belfast. De Valera responded immediately to a request for assistance from Basil Brooke, Prime Minister of Northern Ireland. Within two hours, 13 fire tenders from Dublin, Drogheda, Dundalk and Dún Laoghaire were on their way to assist their Belfast colleagues. De Valera followed up with his "they are our people" speech and formally protested to Berlin. Joseph Goebbels instructed German radio not to repeat their report of the raid, as Adolf Hitler was surprised at the Irish reaction, which might influence Irish Americans to bring the United States into the war. Although there was a later raid on 4 May, it was confined to the docks and shipyards (see Belfast blitz).


title: Irish neutrality

text: Ireland wanted to maintain a public stance of neutrality and refused to close the German and Japanese embassies. Unlike many other non-combatant states, Ireland did not declare war on the near-defeated Germany, and therefore did not seize any German assets. Other neutral countries like Sweden and Switzerland expelled German embassy staff at the end of the war, as they no longer represented a state, but the German legation in Dublin was allowed to remain open.


title: Irish neutrality

text: Irish neutrality during the war was threatened from within by the Irish Republican Army (IRA), which sought to provoke a confrontation between Britain and Ireland. This plan collapsed, however, when IRA chief of staff Seán Russell died in a U-boat off the Irish coast as part of Operation Dove; the Germans also later came to realise they had overestimated the capabilities of the IRA. The American ambassador, David Gray, stated that he once asked de Valera, early in the war, what he would do if German paratroopers "liberated" Derry. According to Gray, de Valera was silent for a time and then replied "I don't know." De Valera viewed the IRA threat to the authority of the state as sufficiently significant to intern 5,000 IRA members without trial at the Curragh Camp for the duration of the war.


title: Irish neutrality

text: Many German spies were sent to Ireland, but all were captured quickly as a result of good intelligence and sometimes their ineptitude. The chief Abwehr spy was Hermann Görtz. In 1983, RTÉ made "Caught in a Free State", a dramatised television series about Görtz and his fellow spies.


title: Irish neutrality

text: As the state was neutral, Irish cargo ships continued to sail with full navigation lights. They had large tricolours and the word "EIRE" painted large on their sides and decks. At that time, Allied ships travelled in convoy for protection from the U-boat wolfpacks. If a ship was torpedoed, it was left behind since the other ships could not stop for fear of becoming a target themselves. Irish ships often stopped, and they rescued more than 500 seamen, and some airmen, from many nations. However, many Irish ships were attacked by belligerents on both sides. Over 20% of Irish seamen, on clearly marked neutral vessels, died, in the Irish Mercantile Marine during World War II.


title: Irish neutrality

text: While civilian aircraft in other countries were frequently requisitioned for military purposes, Aer Lingus continued to fly a service between Dublin and Liverpool throughout the war.


title: Irish neutrality

text: Winston Churchill, the British wartime Prime Minister, made an attack on the Irish Government and in particular Éamon de Valera in his radio broadcast on VE Day. Churchill maintained that the British government displayed restraint on the Irish state while the de Valera government were allowed to "frolic with the Germans". Churchill maintained that the British could have invaded the Irish state, but displayed "considerable restraint" in not doing so. De Valera replied to Churchill in a radio broadcast:


title: Irish neutrality

text: Mr. Churchill makes it clear that in certain circumstances he would have violated our neutrality and that he would justify his action by Britain's necessity. It seems strange to me that Mr. Churchill does not see that this, if accepted, would mean that Britain's necessity would become a moral code and that when this necessity became sufficiently great, other people's rights were not to count...this same code is precisely why we have the disastrous succession of wars... shall it be world war number three?


title: Irish neutrality

text: Ireland applied to join the United Nations in 1945, but this was blocked by an objection by the Soviet Union in the security council. Seán MacBride considered that the UN boycott of Ireland was originally agreed to at the 1945 Yalta Conference by Churchill and Joseph Stalin. Despite MacBride's belief, the United Kingdom fully supported Ireland's applications to join the UN.(Ireland eventually joined the United Nations in 1955.)


title: Irish neutrality

text: During the Cold War, Ireland maintained its policy of neutrality. It did not align itself officially with NATOor the Warsaw Pact either. It refused to join NATO due to its sovereignty claims over Northern Ireland, which was administered by the United Kingdom, a NATO member. Ireland offered to set up a separate alliance with the United States but this was refused. This offer was linked in part to the $133 million received from the Marshall Aid Plan.


title: Irish neutrality

text: However, secret transmission of information from the government to the CIA started in 1955. The link was established by Liam Cosgrave via a Mr. Cram and the Irish embassy in London, and was not revealed until December 2007. In 1962–63, during the Cuban Missile Crisis, Seán Lemass authorised searches of aircraft that stopped over at Shannon en route between Warsaw Pact countries, and Cuba, for "warlike material".


title: Irish neutrality

text: Ireland applied to join the then European Communities in 1963 and finally acceded in 1973. Garret FitzGerald, who was Minister for Foreign Affairs 1973–77 and Taoiseach 1981–82 and 1982–87, claims that both Fianna Fáil and Fine Gael in the 1960s and 1970s accepted that European integration would eventually reach a point where Ireland would have to join in defence co-operation. FitzGerald points to Charles Haughey's opposition to the explicit mention of neutrality in a 1981 Dáil motion, stating that Haughey adopted a more pro-neutrality stance upon entering opposition later in 1981, and further in opposing sanctions against Argentina when it invaded the Falklands in 1982.


title: Irish neutrality

text: Irish Defence Forces have seen active service as part of United Nations peacekeeping activitiesinitially in the early 1960s Congo Crisis, and subsequently in Cyprus (UNFICYP) and the Lebanon (UNIFIL).


title: Irish neutrality

text: The 1994 coalition government's programme undertook not to change the policy of military neutrality without a referendum. That government's 1996 white paper on foreign policy stated:


title: Irish neutrality

text: It recommended joining NATO's Partnership for Peace and participating in humanitarian missions of the Western European Union (WEU), but opposed joining NATO or the WEU as incompatible with military neutrality.


title: Irish neutrality

text: In February 2006, the Minister for Defence Willie O'Dea announced that the Irish government would open talks on joining the European Union battle groups. O'Dea said that joining the battlegroups would not affect Ireland's traditional policy of military neutrality, and that a UN mandate would be required for all battlegroup operations with Irish participation. Green Party foreign affairs spokesperson John Gormley condemned the decision, saying that the government was ""discarding the remnants of Irish neutrality"".


title: Irish neutrality

text: Under Enda Kenny, the Fine Gael party has questioned Irish neutrality, with Kenny claiming that "the truth is, Ireland is not neutral. We are merely unaligned."


title: Irish neutrality

text: In 2012, the Oireachtas established a joint committee to review petitions submitted by the public. An early petition sought clarification of government policy in relation to the use of Irish airspace by foreign military aircraft. In 2013–16 the committee held discussions with the petitioners, government members, the Secretary General of the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, and academics, and issued a report, which stated:


title: Irish neutrality

text: The 2011–2016 Fine Gael–Labour government published a 2015 foreign policy review which stated, "Our policy of military neutrality remains a core element of Irish foreign policy." The 2015 defence white paper presupposed "a policy of military neutrality which is characterised by non-membership of military alliances and non-participation in common or mutual defence arrangements", while engaging for peacekeeping purposes with the EU and NATO. An "Institute for Peace Support and Leadership Training" is to be established at the Curragh Camp; defence minister Simon Coveney said trainees from "non-neutral" countries would be permitted to enrol.


title: Irish neutrality

text: Ireland joined the EU's Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO) at its establishment in December 2017. The Fine Gael-led government said it would participate on a case-by-case basis and membership did not compromise neutrality. Fianna Fáil supported membership; Sinn Féin, the Greens, Solidarity, and People Before Profit opposed it; the Labour Party had reservations. In March 2018 Ireland expelled a Russian diplomat in protest at the poisoning of Sergei and Yulia Skripal in the UK. This decision was supported by Fianna Fáil and Labour and opposed by other opposition parties as compromising neutrality.


title: Irish neutrality

text: Despite its policy of neutrality, Ireland has supplied the NATO-led ISAF mission in the 2001–2021 Afghanistan War with a running total of 120 Irish troops as trainers. The troops are provided under United Nations mandate. As at 8 June 2011, there were seven personnel there.


title: Irish neutrality

text: The Fianna Fáil-led government did not take a position on the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Ireland, then a member of the UN Security Council, voted yes to Resolution 1441, which threatened "serious consequences" if Iraq did not comply with weapons inspectors. Some United States Air Force planes were allowed to refuel at Shannon Airport before and during the conflict, as were civilian aircraft transporting US military personnel; others had permission to overfly Irish air space. A resolution of the Dáil on 20 March 2003 approved these arrangements.


title: Irish neutrality

text: Anti-war activist Edward Horgan took a case in the High Court seeking several declarations that the government, in allowing use of Shannon, had breached the state's obligations as a neutral state. While the court held that the custom in international law was that "a neutral state may not permit the movement of large numbers of troops or munitions of one belligerent State through its territory en route to a theatre of war with another", it found this was not part of Irish domestic law, as Irish neutrality was "a matter of government policy only". It found that the Dáil resolution implied that the availability of Shannon did not constitute "participation" in the war, and that the courts had no power to overrule the Dáil on this question.


title: Irish neutrality

text: In response to Russia's invasion of Ukraine on 24 February 2022, the Tánaiste Leo Varadkar stated that while Ireland is not militarily aligned, the country is "not neutral at all" in relation to this conflict and that "support for Ukraine is unwavering and unconditional". Days later the Department of Foreign Affairs said it would "constructively abstain" from an EU fund for military aid to Ukraine, by contributing instead to a parallel non-lethal aid fund.


title: Irish neutrality

text: A 2004 report by Forfás noted that the policy of neutrality is a factor in Ireland's lack of an arms industry and strict export controls on weapons. The latter were previously enforced by the Control of Exports (Goods and Technology) Order 2009, a statutory instrument made under the Control of Exports Act 1983. The 2009 order was replaced by the Control of Exports (Goods and Technology) Order 2012, which reflects the 2008 EU Common Position on Arms Exports. The 2004 Forfás report noted concerns about dual-use technology and the use as weapons components of products from major Irish export industries such as chemicals, telecommunications equipment, computer chips and software. The state is also bound by EU regulations and international arms control treaties. In 2017, four export licence applications were refused for dual-use items.


title: Pooch Hall

text: Marion "Pooch" Hall, Jr. (born February 8, 1976) is an American television and film actor known for his role as Derwin Davis, the football player on the sitcom "The Game", and as Ricky in the 2011 film "Jumping the Broom". He also played the character of Daryll Donovan in the Showtime drama "Ray Donovan".


title: Pooch Hall

text: Hall portrayed Muhammad Ali in the 2016 sports biography film "Chuck", about Ali's opponent Chuck Wepner and the Ali–Wepner 1975 world heavyweight title boxing bout.


title: Pooch Hall

text: Marion H. Hall, Jr. is the son of Marion and Cindy Hall. He was born in Brockton, Massachusetts and attended Brockton High School. In 1994, he won the Southern New England Golden Gloves for boxing. Hall attended the University of Massachusetts Dartmouth where he first began acting with the UMass Dartmouth Theatre Company.


title: Pooch Hall

text: Hall started his career doing commercials and modeling. Hall landed his first acting role in the 2001 "Lift". That same year, he appeared in "Blue Hill Avenue". In 2003, he served as co-host for The N reality series "Girls v. Boys". In 2005, he portrayed Ty'ree in the miniseries "Miracle's Boys". The following year, he won the role of Derwin Davis on "Game". He was featured as Chrisette Michele's love interest in her music video "What You Do".


title: Pooch Hall

text: Hall had a recurring role on the CBS sitcom "Accidentally on Purpose" during its 2009–2010 season. He replaced Cory Hardrict (the husband of Tia Mowry, his co-star from "The Game"). In an interview on "The Tom Joyner Morning Show", Hall clarified details about his departure from the series "The Game". "My contract came up, I promise you. We negotiated, and we couldn't come up with a number. So my team said we're going to send you out [to auditions]". Hall said the Showtime series "Ray Donovan" knew about his commitment to BET, but it took so long to respond to his agents; however, he continued to move forward with his new projects. "I never did quit the show," Hall said. "When "The Game" got canceled, I was offered another job and I booked "Ray Donovan" the next day." Hall made a guest appearance for the sixth season in one episode "The Blueprint" and in the series finale.


title: Pooch Hall

text: Hall met his wife Linda in 1996 when she was a freshman in college. They married in 1997. They have four children.


title: Hank Worden

text: Hank Worden (born Norton Earl Worden; July 23, 1901 – December 6, 1992) was an American cowboy-turned-character actor who appeared in many Westerns, including many John Ford films such as "The Searchers" and the TV series "The Lone Ranger".


title: Hank Worden

text: Born in Rolfe, Iowa, Worden was raised on a cattle ranch near Glendive, Montana and was educated at Stanford University and the University of Nevada as an engineer. He enlisted in the U.S. Army hoping to become an Army pilot, but failed to pass flight school. An expert horseman, he toured the country in rodeos as a saddle bronc rider. During one ride, his horse landed atop him and fractured his neck, but aside from a temporary soreness, Worden did not know of the nature of the damage until x-rayed 20 years later. While appearing in a rodeo at Madison Square Garden in New York, he and fellow cowboy Tex Ritter were chosen to appear in the Broadway play "Green Grow the Lilacs" (1931). Following the run of the play, Worden drove a cab in New York City, and then worked on dude ranches as a wrangler and as a guide on the Bright Angel trail of the Grand Canyon.


title: Hank Worden

text: A chance encounter with actress Billie Burke at a dude ranch led her to recommend him to several film producers. Worden made his film debut as an extra in Cecil B. DeMille's "The Plainsman" (though a few later films were released prior to "The Plainsman"). By this time, Tex Ritter had become a star, and Worden played sidekick roles in a number of Ritter's Westerns. In several of his early appearances, Worden was billed as "Heber Snow", until he reverted to his real name. A small part in Howard Hawks's "Come and Get It" led to a number of later appearances for that director, who also recommended him to director John Ford. He appeared in six episodes of the TV series "The Lone Ranger".


title: Hank Worden

text: Worden eventually became a member of the John Ford Stock Company, and was directed by Ford twelve times in films and television. The connection with Ford led to an association with actor John Wayne, and Worden appeared in 17 of Wayne's films. Foremost among his collaborations with Wayne and Ford in "The Searchers", the 1956 classic Western in which Worden portrayed his most memorable role, that of "Mose Harper," the Shakespearean fool who only longed for "a roof over [his] head and a rocking chair by the fire."


title: Hank Worden

text: Worden's best performances were given for demanding directors. He had a striking appearance: tall, thin, bald, his voice and mannerisms unforgettable to anyone who saw him. He worked steadily in television as well as films, long outliving Hawks, Ford and Wayne, and achieving some late notice as a senile hotel waiter in David Lynch's "Twin Peaks" TV series.


title: Hank Worden

text: In 1992, Worden hosted and co-produced, with director Clyde Lucas, an independent special shown on the Nostalgia Channel and some PBS stations entitled "Thank Ya, Thank Ya Kindly". The special looked back on Worden's career and featured guests Clint Eastwood, Paul Hogan, Harry Carey Jr., Ben Johnson, Frankie Avalon, Burt Kennedy and stuntman Dean Smith.


title: Hank Worden

text: Widowed by his wife of 37 years (the former Emma Louise Eaton) in 1977, he later shared his house for several years with actor Jim Beaver. He died at his home in Los Angeles on December 6, 1992, aged 91. He was survived by his daughter, Dawn Henry, whom he and his wife had adopted as an adult.


title: Paradise, California

text: Paradise is a town in Butte County, California, United States in the Sierra Nevada foothills above the northeastern Sacramento Valley. As of the 2020 census, the town population was 4,764. On November 8, 2018, a major wildfire, the Camp Fire, destroyed most of Paradise and much of the adjacent communities of Magalia, Butte Creek Canyon, and Concow. After the Camp Fire, the population declined by more than 90%. In January 2019, the state of California reported 4,600 residents, and a door-to-door count in April 2019 found 2,034.


title: Paradise, California

text: The first post office was established at Paradise in 1877. It closed for a time in 1911, but was re-established later that year, when the post office at Orloff was closed. Paradise incorporated in 1979. For many years, the Butte County Railroad operated trains along the ridge, serving mines and sawmills.


title: Paradise, California

text: According to GNIS, the community has been known in the past by four different names or spellings: "Leonards Mill", "Poverty Ridge", "Pair-O-Dice", and "Paradice".


title: Paradise, California

text: A legend persists that the town was named because it was the home of the "Pair o' Dice Saloon", an idea supported by a 1900 railroad map referring to the town as "Paradice". However, no documentation has been found to prove the establishment existed, nor an explanation of the spelling of the town's name on the map.


title: Paradise, California

text: Gene Sylva, a former mayor of the nearby town of Oroville, has stated that the saloon story is false, and that the true etymology of the town's name can be traced to his great-great-grandfather, William Pierce Leonard, who named the town on a summer day in 1864, after a hot and dusty ride from the Sacramento Valley; arriving at his sawmill while the staff were on break, Leonard "took a deep breath of the cool, clean air, and exclaimed, 'boys, this is "paradise".'" According to Snopes, Sylva's explanation may be "pleasingly inventive historical fiction", and it is more likely that the town was named for it being a pleasant place to live.


title: Paradise, California

text: In June 2008, a wildfire, named the "Humboldt Fire" for its point of origin, swept over of land between Chico and Paradise. As many as 9,300 people were forced to evacuate southwestern Paradise until the fire could be brought under control.


title: Paradise, California

text: In July 2008, a fire burned on the northern side of Paradise in the canyon where the Feather River is located. Again, thousands were evacuated from their homes, but the fire failed to cross the river. It was part of a larger complex of fires called the Butte Lightning Complex or BTU Complex, which also included the Belden and Pit fires. (This was a different fire from the 2018 fire of the same name.)


title: Paradise, California

text: On November 8, 2018, a wildfire named the "Camp Fire" was reported at 6:33 a.m. PST, close to Camp Creek Road near Pulga. Shortly after the fire erupted, the Butte County Sheriff's Office ordered the evacuation of the eastern quarter of Paradise, and the remaining portions one hour later. However, many residents never received an evacuation warning, while others chose not to leave because the warnings did not convey the urgency of the situation. Other locations were also issued evacuation orders or warnings, and emergency shelters were established.


title: Paradise, California

text: On the same day, much of the town of Paradise and the communities of Concow and Magalia were destroyed by this fire. Scott McLean, a Cal Fire Deputy Chief, said, "We're talking devastated. . . . The town center is completely on the ground. The south side as well as the north side has been hit very hard, as well."


title: Paradise, California

text: Eighty-six people died in the Camp Fire, tens of thousands were displaced, and 18,804 buildings were destroyed. Only 5% of buildings in the town remained without serious damage after the fire. It was the deadliest and most destructive fire in California history.


title: Paradise, California

text: The first two building permits were reissued for Paradise, after almost five months, on March 28, 2019. Local public policymakers aimed to promote rebuilding with higher standards for fire-resistant construction, upgraded infrastructure, and using the recommended 2009 redesigns for enhanced fire safety, which include expanded road capacity to increase evacuation capacity and to provide better access for emergency equipment. Two weeks of rain in early March 2019 slowed removal of debris; it was prohibited to dump waterlogged waste in landfills. Some 1,000 truckloads of material are expected to be removed daily from properties in Paradise, Concow, and Magalia. Cleanup, anticipated to take a year, involves 11,000 properties.


title: Paradise, California

text: In 2010 the U.S. Census reported a population of 26,800. After the Camp Fire, the population declined by more than 90%. In January 2019, the state of California reported 4,600 residents, and a door-to-door count in April 2019 found 2,034.


title: Paradise, California

text: One year after the fires, the town united behind the Paradise High School football team, which achieved an undefeated season. One team member commented, "You look at the stands, the whole town of Paradise is here, so it’s really our only event right now, so it means everything." Paradise Mayor Jody Jones said, "The football team has come to represent all of us.” "Los Angeles Times" columnist Bill Plaschke was inspired to write a book about the team and the town, "Paradise Found: A High School Football Team’s Rise from the Ashes" (2021).


title: Paradise, California

text: After the 2018 Camp Fire caused near complete destruction of Paradise, the town and residents agreed on a Long-Term Community Recovery Plan with five main goals to make the town Safer, Welcoming, Stronger, Better, and Greener. Paradise Recreation and Parks District (PRPD) and the Nature Conservancy teamed up to develop the idea of a Greenbelt defensible buffer zone which would make the town into a better fire-adapted community by preventing future wildfires from reaching the town center. The greenbelt would be made up of managed parks and vegetation to allow firefighters to do controlled burns and create a barrier of land without fuel around the town (a firebreak) so future wildfires have no path inwards. This borderland would serve as a source of recreation and greenspace for the community. During the wildfire season, the buffer would protect the town.


title: Paradise, California

text: The Greenbelt hopes to accomplish a number of projects outlined in the plan, including improvements to parks and walking paths, a stronger fuel management plan, and better transportation access for residents and firefighters. The Nature Conservancy hired an independent nonprofit, the Conservation Biology Institute, to conduct a scientific report on the efficacy of such a barrier. According to their models, such greening of the eastern border of Paradise could reduce combustion risks in the town by as much as 64%.


title: Paradise, California

text: The most pressing challenges moving forward are obtaining rights to the mostly private land the Conservation Biology Institute identified as the most ideal location for a greenbelt, and funding the purchase of these properties. With local fires worsening every year, PRDP is hoping residents will respond to their fire risk reduction models and sell their outskirt properties to the district. With the successful purchase of several properties so far, Dan Efseaff, district manager for PRDP, "hopes at least to create pockets or sections of that full vision." If this becomes a successful model, the Nature Conservancy hopes to scale up lessons learned from Paradise and inspire other fire-threatened communities to implement their own buffers.


title: Paradise, California

text: The North Complex Fire, also known as the "Bear Fire," to the east of Concow, and Pulga endangered Paradise and surrounding communities that had been affected by the 2018 Camp Fire, and evacuations were ordered. Remaining burn scars that had reduced combustible materials fire contained the westward progress of the 2020 fire though almost 320,000 acres were consumed before it was contained.


title: Paradise, California

text: The town is spread out on a wide ridge between deep canyons formed by the west branch of the Feather River to the east and Butte Creek to the west. The Paradise area extends northward to include the unincorporated town of Magalia, as well as Stirling City, north. Elevation of the area where the town is located is . The town itself is approximately east of the city of Chico, and north of the Oroville area.


title: Paradise, California

text: Soils are mostly well-drained reddish brown loam, gravelly in some cases and often grading to clay loam or clay with increasing depth. They have developed on volcanic material. "Paradiso" is by far the most common soil series in town.


title: Paradise, California

text: The area encompassing Paradise has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Csa) according to the Köppen climate classification system. This area is characterized by hot, dry summers and cool, rainy winters.


title: Paradise, California

text: The 2010 United States Census reported that Paradise had a population of 26,218. The population density was . The racial makeup of Paradise was 24,129 (92.0%) white, 112 (0.4%) African American, 301 (1.1%) Native American, 330 (1.3%) Asian, 24 (0.1%) Pacific Islander, 416 (1.6%) from other races, and 906 (3.5%) from two or more races. There were 1,836 people (7.0%) of Hispanic or Latino origin, of any race.


title: Paradise, California

text: The Census reported that 25,810 people (98.4% of the population) lived in households, 139 (0.5%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 269 (1.0%) were institutionalized.


title: Paradise, California

text: There were 11,893 households, out of which 2,574 (21.6%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 5,227 (44.0%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 1,308 (11.0%) had a female householder with no husband present, 511 (4.3%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 742 (6.2%) unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 94 (0.8%) same-sex married couples or partnerships. 4,038 households (34.0%) were made up of individuals, and 2,126 (17.9%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.17. There were 7,046 families (59.2% of all households); the average family size was 2.73.


title: Paradise, California

text: The age distribution was 4,501 people (17.2%) under the age of 18, 1,858 people (7.1%) aged 18 to 24, 4,822 people (18.4%) aged 25 to 44, 8,466 people (32.3%) aged 45 to 64, and 6,571 people (25.1%) who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 50.2 years. For every 100 females, there were 90.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88.5 males.


title: Paradise, California

text: There were 12,981 housing units at an average density of , of which 11,893 were occupied, of which 7,975 (67.1%) were owner-occupied, and 3,918 (32.9%) were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 2.8%; the rental vacancy rate was 5.9%. 17,381 people (66.3% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 8,429 people (32.1%) lived in rental housing units.


title: Paradise, California

text: As of the census of 2000, there were 26,408 people, 11,591 households, and 7,244 families residing in the town. The population density was . There were 12,374 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the town was 93.73% White, 0.19% Black or African American, 1.07% Native American, 1.04% Asian, 0.12% Pacific Islander, 1.21% from other races, and 2.64% from two or more races. 4.27% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.


title: Paradise, California

text: There were 11,591 households, out of which 23.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 48.7% were married couples living together, 10.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 37.5% were non-families. 32.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 18.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.22 and the average family size was 2.77.


title: Paradise, California

text: In the town the population was spread out, with 20.4% under the age of 18, 5.9% from 18 to 24, 21.2% from 25 to 44, 25.3% from 45 to 64, and 27.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 47 years. For every 100 females, there were 87.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 83.5 males.


title: Paradise, California

text: The median income for a household in the town was $31,863, and the median income for a family was $41,228. Males had a median income of $35,419 versus $25,231 for females. The per capita income for the town was $19,267. About 9.7% of families and 12.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 17.6% of those under age 18 and 6.7% of those age 65 or over.


title: Paradise, California

text: The State of California Office of Statewide Health Planning and Development defined Feather River Hospital as a general acute care hospital (GACH) in Paradise with basic emergency care as of August 22, 2006. Since the 2018 Camp Fire, the hospital has been permanently closed, with no plans to reopen at this time.


title: Paradise, California

text: Paradise is served by the Paradise Unified School District, as well as by several independent charter and private schools.


title: Paradise, California

text: There are not many options for transportation within Paradise. The Paradise/Magalia area is served by the "B-Line" Butte County Transit. Butte Community College also runs bus service for students.


title: Paradise, California

text: Paradise's link with Chico, Skyway Road (referred to locally as simply "Skyway"), begins in the Sacramento Valley, at Highway 99 in Chico, and runs up the ridge as a four-lane divided highway until it reaches Paradise. Through the town, it is a four-lane undivided highway, which becomes a two-lane road as it continues up the Sierra's ridge to Magalia and into numerous smaller communities to the north. Paradise is connected to Oroville via Highway 191, otherwise known as Clark Road upon entering the town.


title: Paradise, California

text: The Paradise Memorial Trail is a paved pedestrian and bicycle path which runs through town on the path of the former railroad tracks leading up the ridge. However, aside from points along this path, the very hilly terrain of the town, coupled with the large spacing of commercial areas and large land area made Paradise difficult to navigate on foot or on a bicycle, in addition to the lack of sidewalks.


title: Paradise, California

text: Paradise Skypark (FAA identifier: CA92) is an airport located parallel to State Route 191 and south of the town.


title: Catholic social teaching

text: Catholic social teaching, commonly abbreviated CST, is an area of Catholic doctrine concerning matters of human dignity and the common good in society. The ideas address oppression, the role of the state, subsidiarity, social organization, concern for social justice, and issues of wealth distribution. Its foundations are widely considered to have been laid by Pope Leo XIII's 1891 encyclical letter "Rerum novarum", which advocated economic distributism. Its roots can be traced to the writings of Catholic theologians such as St. Thomas Aquinas and St. Augustine of Hippo. It is also derived from concepts present in the Bible and cultures of the ancient Near East.


title: Catholic social teaching

text: According to Pope John Paul II, the foundation of social justice "rests on the threefold cornerstones of human dignity, solidarity and subsidiarity". According to Pope Benedict XVI, its purpose "is simply to help purify reason and to contribute, here and now, to the acknowledgment and attainment of what is just... [The church] has to play her part through rational argument and she has to reawaken the spiritual energy without which justice ... cannot prevail and prosper." Pope Francis, in the words of Cardinal Walter Kasper, made "mercy" "the key word of his pontificate, ... (while) Scholastic theology has neglected this topic and turned it into a mere subordinate theme of justice."


title: Catholic social teaching

text: Catholic social teaching is distinctive in its consistent critiques of modern social and political ideologies both of the left and of the right: liberalism, communism, anarchism, feminism, atheism, socialism, fascism, capitalism, and Nazism have all been condemned, at least in their pure forms, by several popes since the late nineteenth century.


title: Catholic social teaching

text: Catholic social doctrine has always tried to find an equilibrium between respect for human liberty, including the right to private property and subsidiarity, and concern for the whole society, including the weakest and poorest. However, it is explicitly both anti-capitalist and anti-socialist, with John Paul II stressing the incompability of Catholic doctrine with capitalism:


title: Catholic social teaching

text: The principles of Catholic social doctrine have their roots in the social teachings of the New Testament, the Church Fathers, and the Old Testament and Hebrew scriptures generally. The Church responded to historical conditions in Medieval and Early Modern Europe with philosophical and theological teachings on social justice considering the nature of man, society, economy, and politics. In the era of mass politics and industrialization, Catholic social teaching needed to account for what was called "the social question" but which covered the complex conflicts arising with modernization: social dislocation, economic suffering, and political turbulence. From the early 19th century, many and various Catholic thinkers responded to the revolutionary tide that the French Revolution and Napoleonic Era inaugurated.  But by mid-century a new synthesis of Catholic natural law philosophy, mainly influenced by the writings of St. Thomas Aquinas, combined with the new social sciences of politics and economy, was embraced by the Vatican. It took several decades for this synthesis to become established in Catholic social teaching. Pope Leo XIII in a series of encyclicals spanning 20 years formalized the modern approach to Catholic social teaching, that combines evangelical teachings on the duties to love one another with natural law social scientific arguments on the requirements of human flourishing. These combined principles have been reiterated by subsequent popes, consistently over the subsequent century and more.


title: Catholic social teaching

text: The publication of Leo XIII's encyclical "Rerum novarum" on 15 May 1891 marked the beginning of the development of a recognizable body of social teaching in the Catholic Church. It was written at a time when the previously agrarian population of Italy and western Europe were undergoing rapid urbanisation in the newly industrialized cities with many living in conditions of squalor and poverty. Similar trends took place in the Americas. Leo's predecessor, Pius IX, had seen the end of the church's control of the lands of the Papal States and had become isolated in the Vatican. Pius had railed against the unification of Italy during the Risorgimento and this cause had consumed his time in the last years of his pontificate; he had lost the faith of the Romans leading to them voting to incorporate into the newly integrated Italy in 1870. Writers have commented that Leo, upon taking up office as pope and shorn of the role as temporal ruler of three million mainly rural subjects, saw that the newly created industrial working class was the responsibility of the church and that "Rerum novarum" was a response to competition of ideas in the communist analysis of the social conditions facing the poor of industrialization through such books as "Das Kapital" and "The Communist Manifesto". The opening phrases of "Rerum novarum" state "that some opportune remedy must be found quickly for the misery and wretchedness pressing so unjustly on the majority of the working class... so that a small number of very rich men have been able to lay upon the teeming masses of the laboring poor a yoke little better than that of slavery itself."


title: Catholic social teaching

text: But Leo wanted to reject the solutions offered by communism in that "those who deny these rights [private ownership] do not perceive that they are defrauding man of what his own labor has produced." He declared a "most sacred law of nature" that humans have the right of private ownership of inheritable property and provision of "all that is needful to enable them to keep themselves decently" for his children. The "main tenet of socialism, community of goods, must be utterly rejected".


title: Catholic social teaching

text: He disputed one of the central ideas of communism that class war was inevitable and that rich and poor classes were inexorably driven to conflict. Instead he stressed the need for justice to be central to the relationship with religion and the church as the most powerful intermediary to achieve that justice and the peace from strife that would accompany it.


title: Catholic social teaching

text: That justice relied on equality between rich and poor and extended throughout all citizens of a country. It embodied but went beyond the principle that "the interests of all, whether high or low, are equal" to include the demand that the "public administration must duly and solicitously provide for the welfare and the comfort of the working classes".


title: Catholic social teaching

text: He went further by elevating the family unit from any idea of serfdom and pure economic interest or collectivism by placing the interests, moral authority and importance of the family as being "at least equal rights with the State". The state, he wrote, would be guilty of a "pernicious error" if it exercised any intimate control of a family unit but that "extreme necessity be met by public aid" when a family was in such need. The pre-eminence of the needs, protection and independence of a family unit was central to the teaching of the encyclical.


title: Catholic social teaching

text: For the working relationship he stressed the equity of the relationship between the employer and employee. There must, he wrote, be balance between "respect in every man his dignity as a person" and proper performance of "the work which has been freely and equitably agreed upon". He concluded that "capital cannot do without labor, nor labor without capital".


title: Catholic social teaching

text: Where the rights of the poor or the working person are in jeopardy, rights including working conditions and over-heavy burdens laced upon them, he wrote, they must be especially protected since the rich and powerful have many other means to protect their interests. The state, he argued, must legislate to protect workers from low pay, over-long working hours or over-taxing work and avail themselves of the protection provided by membership of trade unions.


title: Catholic social teaching

text: The encyclical was followed in areas of Italy with the creation of social movements that expressed and campaigned for the alleviation of social concerns in local areas. Members of the church supported and became involved in campaigns in support of working people including contributions of personal money for those causes. The plight of cotton workers was an example of such causes and financial and moral support for a strike that started on 22 September 1909 in Bergamo (known as he "fifty day strike") was provided by local bishop Giacomo Maria Radini-Tedeschi and Father Angelo Roncalli (future Pope John XXIII) who saw in it the need for "pastoral modernity" in the Church.


title: Catholic social teaching

text: Such support for social movements became unpopular, however, when Pope Pius X replaced Leo in 1903. Catholic involvement in Italian political life had been banned under previous popes and Pius allowed a network of spies to operate which identified and reported on the support for social and political movements and subjected them to questions, apostolic visits and pressure to desist.


title: Catholic social teaching

text: "Rerum novarum" dealt with persons, systems and structures, the three co-ordinates of the modern promotion of justice and peace, now established as integral to the church's mission. In the years which followed there have been numerous encyclicals and messages on social issues; various forms of Catholic action developed in different parts of the world; and social ethics taught in schools and seminaries. To mark the 40th anniversary of "Rerum novarum", Pope Pius XI issued "Quadragesimo anno", which expanded on some of its themes.