title: History of weapons

text: The Trebuchet, capable of throwing huge stones and piles of rocks was said to have been invented in the Middle East by the Muslim engineers. The Trebuchet was probably copied from the Chinese huo-pa’o, which had been adopted by the Mongols and carried west by them. Some Trebuchets were used to throw dead horses into a besieged city to spread disease. The Muslims had adopted the technology and traditions of those whom they conquered. Like the Syrians, the Iranians and later the Byzantines, the Muslims had also attacked Byzantine using the most advanced siege weapons. In the mid-8th century, Caliph Marwan II of Syria had more than 80 stone-throwing machines stored with him. The Abbasid Caliphate who had set their capital in Baghdad rather than Syria had specialized in mangonel operations and stationed these devastation military geniuses in all their fortresses.


title: History of weapons

text: Chinese people had witnessed conflicts and constant warfare all across China. Fifty years after the fall of the Tang Dynasty, China witnessed five successive dynasties in the north along with a dozen small nations in the south in a short timespan. The quick rise and fall of these countries and the fragmented nature is a result of the rise of warlords towards the later half of the Tang dynasty.


title: History of weapons

text: In 960, Zhao Kuangyin staged a coup of his own to take over the dominant northern dynasty of the later Zhou, and founded the Song dynasty. He was able to finally reunite all the fragmented states of the south and put an end to the problem of military coups that had plagued China for the last century. The Song established its capital at Kaifeng on the Yellow river. It was during the reign of this dynasty that the Chinese started to produce gunpowder using saltpeter, sulfur and carbon. Some historians believe that the Chinese did not consider gunpowder a particularly important weapon, though in fact they were the first people to systematically use gunpowder as weapons on a wide scale. Even the Arabs, who had probably been using gunpowder much earlier than the Europeans, referred to potassium nitrate as 'Snow from China' and the Persians referred to it as "Chinese salt" or "salt from Chinese salt marshes" ( ). From about 1000 AD it had been mostly used in the form of firecrackers, and was used to improve existing weapons (for example), attached on spears for a shock burst upon engagement, or on arrows so they can fly faster mid air or be shot off in large salvos without the need of bows. In the 12th century, the Chinese were using crude hand grenades and were starting to use the earliest forms of rockets and cannons in addition to the aforementioned firecracker weapons.


title: History of weapons

text: The Norman knights that invaded England, and defeated the Saxons at Hastings in 1066, dressed in chainmail and swinging swords from horseback, made history. William the Conqueror had successfully landed with his army of Normans consisting of an infantry composed of spearmen, swordsmen, and archers in Britain to claim his authority over the throne of England, Norman cavalry was well equipped with maces, axes, swords and boiled leather armours.


title: History of weapons

text: Western Europe by this time had already reached a level of military sophistication, the Arabs had even started to adopt "manjaniq ifranji" or "manjaniq firanji", the Frankish or European trebuchet, a stone-throwing engine. The Europeans were by all means trying to outclass the Byzantines, the Indians and the Arabs in siege technology. The Mongols on the other hand had brought about a revolution in siege warfare. They had learned the art of making siege weapons while conquering northern China, recovering some mangonels, trebuchets and rams from Chinese engineers.


title: History of weapons

text: The Normans and the Byzantines were successful in driving out the Muslim invaders from the Greek Islands, Southern Italy and Sicily. Though these were little military operations the Europans, assuming that the Muslims were vulnerable, embarked on a mission to recapture the holy land lost by them centuries before. However, a powerful tribe from the mid-Asian steppes, the Seljuk Turks emerged and started to massacre the Christian pilgrims in Syria. Responding to these attacks, the Byzantines fought a battle against the Seljuk Turks, the battle of Manzikert, where they were defeated resulting in the Byzantines pulling back all their armies from Asia Minor. Byzantine emperor Alexius I Comnenus, requested for aid from Christians, he petitioned Pope Urban II to aid the Byzantines in regaining their lost territories. Pope Urban II summoned the Christian armies in 1095 and sent them to recapture the holy Land from the hands of the Muslims.


title: History of weapons

text: Not much is known about the weapons that were being produced in Western Europe at the time of Crusades, but it is evident that their cavalry used lances. The Europeans armies also used crossbows excessively, it was said to be the best known infantry weapon used by the Europeans. By the late 13th century, the power of crossbows increased, infantry weapons of the Crusaders varied in shape, sizes and quality. Apart from spears, swords and daggers, foot soldiers were equipped with an extraordinary array of pole-arms, often reflecting their place of origin. The double edged sword was extensively used by both foot knights and mounted knights.


title: History of weapons

text: The Islamic armies too had a sophisticated military organization, their armies consisted of the Central Asian Turkish Mamluk or the Ghulam infantry. Further, local Turks, Kurds, Arabs, Armenians, Persians, were also recruited from all over the Mediterranean. Their weapons were no different from the crusaders, using daggers, axes, spears, bows and arrows. The bows were differently crafted, using multiple strips of different kinds of wood glued together to maximize the range and penetration power of said bow. Their swords also had a slightly different design, Muslim cavalry used swords for close combat and their armour was often worn beneath their cloths, to protect themselves from the sun overheating the iron pieces. Muslim troops also carried with them round and kite shaped shields.


title: History of weapons

text: The Hundred Years' War was a series of big and small wars fought between France and England from 1337 to 1453. In the year 1337, the French King Philip VI demanded that the provinces under the English rule, Gascony and Guyenne be given back to the French. However, English king, Edward III denied this demand which led to a war between the two. The English had their eyes on the wool industry in Flanders, moreover they had a stable government and efficient soldiers ready to fight the French.


title: History of weapons

text: During this period, most of the Europeans armies relied mainly on infantry, the infantry dominated armies were taking a toll on cavalry dominated armies. Digging ditches, constructing wagon fortresses, or flooding already marshy ground, so that the enemy could attack from only one direction, were some of the methods employed by both the armies during the Hundred Years' War. In the final phase of the war, gunpowder was also used for the first time in Western Europe. Jean and Gaspard Bureau's effective organization of artillery weapons enabled the French army in open battlefields as well as siege warfare. At Castillon, the French army annihilated the English, effectively using cannons, handguns and heavy cavalry.


title: History of weapons

text: The English longbow was greatly responsible for making England a major military power in the late medieval period, the English had introduced this deadly longbow during the Battle of Crecy. King Edward III was ravaging the countryside during the invasion of France, King Philip VI of France intercepted the English near the town of Crecy. The French had easily outnumbered the English. Apart from armoured knights the French army also had nearly 4,000 Genoese crossbowmen. But the English archers outnumbered the Genoese and rained arrows, the English could shoot five times faster than the Genoese crossbowmen. When the French mounted knights tried to infiltrate into the English lines, the longbowmen turned their attention to them and started to shoot, resulting in chaos. The horses started to crash into each other, cavalry was destroyed and the French army annihilated. The longbow was made of a simple piece of wood, but its design was fairly sophisticated. The bow's back, the part facing away from the archer, was the more flexible sapwood, that allowed the bow to be bent more sharply without breaking or causing any further damage.


title: History of weapons

text: The basic objective of a cavalry knight was to charge into enemy lines and create chaos. At this time, the old shields and armours were replaced by more sophisticated and advanced shields and armour. Lances were used by the mounted knights for initial charge, after the initial charge and annihilation of the enemy front lines, the lances were discarded and swords, axes or war hammer were used for close combat.


title: History of weapons

text: The invention of gunpowder weapons revolutionized siege warfare, Gunpowder is said to have been conceived in China. It was when the Mongols, after invading China, went on to subdue Japan. Their ships sunk from being hit by a typhoon, resulting in half of their army drowning at sea. Marine archaeology has revealed that the Mongols were carrying gunpowder in ceramic pots, similar pots with ignited fuses had been shot from mechanical artillery against the Japanese defenders. Even the old Japanese paintings show the Japanese samurai defending themselves against bombs and rockets hurled by the invaders.


title: History of weapons

text: Some historians have observed that only 14 percent of men in Europe owned guns, and over half of those guns were unusable during the later Middle Ages. The invention of gunpowder weapons replaced only catapults and onagers; the change was slow. Buying guns in those days was a costly affair: the cost of one gun was the equivalent of two months' pay for a skilled artisan. By 1450, inventors improved the make of the gun and introduced the matchlock gun. Though inventors came with new technology, the process of reloading after every shot was very time-consuming; by the time they were reloading the gun, the cavalry would charge and annihilate the entire unit of shooters.


title: History of weapons

text: Medieval weapons continued to be used during the Renaissance, such as in the Islamic gunpowder empires and the English Civil War. These weapons included the guisarme, halberd, sword, mace, and partisan. The halberd was a traditional weapon used by the Swiss, consisting of an axe-blade topped with a spike, with a hook or pick on the back, on top of a long pole. This weapon was mostly used by foot soldiers against cavalry. Halberds became obsolete when improved pikes started to be produced in huge numbers. Meanwhile, the partisan was introduced in England in the 14th century and was used excessively and extensively in Europe and especially in France. The original partisan was spear with small wings added below it.


title: History of weapons

text: The sword remained the most popular weapon during Renaissance, however it underwent many changes. Various extensions were added designed to protect the hands of its owner. The two-handed sword was widely used in Western Europe, being employed both by the rich and the poor. The armies during this period were usually equipped with double edged swords, halberd, arquebus, crossbows and improvised axes. The Spanish tercio used pike, javelins, bucklers, arquebus and muskets. Swords were the secondary weapons for close range assaults.


title: History of weapons

text: Leonardo da Vinci journeyed to Mantua, he resided there for a while and then went from there to Venice. The danger from Turkish fleet was looming on the city, which inspired him to come up with another invention, something like a submarine and a snorkel and diving suit for underwater saboteurs. But the Venetians thought it was not required. So he went back to Florence, and in the year 1502, Valentino chose Leonardo da Vinci as his engineer general. Leonardo sketched new devices for war, something like pointed artillery projectile, bearing very close resemblance to an aerial bomb.


title: History of weapons

text: China was the first place where cannons were used for battle. Metal cannons were manufactured and mounted on the Great Wall of China to protect it from the Mongolian hordes, the Mongols learned this technology and made cannons to invade Korea. In 1593 cannons were used most effectively in the Siege of Pyongyang, Ming warriors made cannons to fight the Japanese, the battle was won by the Ming warriors because the Japanese lacked cannons or any sort of gunpowder weapons.


title: History of weapons

text: During the siege of Constantinople in 1453, Mehmed the Conqueror, sultan of Turkey, ordered his Hungarian engineer, Urban to develop the biggest guns ever seen. Once these huge guns, cannons or bombards were in position, the walls of Constantinople came tumbling down. The introduction of such bombards had a profound effect on the European society, engineers started to design their walls keeping in mind the danger the walls could have when facing the newly introduced bombards.


title: History of weapons

text: The use of the bayonet, beginning in the 17th century, allowed soldiers to use muskets as pikes in close combat. The flintlock, invented slightly earlier, made firearms more reliable. Cartridges were also invented around this time, and made existing firearms easier to load.


title: History of weapons

text: Submarine technology gradually advanced during the 17th and 18th centuries. Early submarines were mounted with spars and powered by hand cranks. By the mid-19th century, self-propelled torpedoes started to be used. They were largely ineffective until the end of the 19th century, when electricity and internal combustion engines could make them more powerful.


title: History of weapons

text: The ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore's based in South India, Tipu Sultan pioneered a number of advanced weapons, including the rocket artillery and the Mysorean rockets, which were later used by Napoleone Bonaparte and the British Empire.


title: History of weapons

text: As well as these advances in firearms and artillery technology, new repeating firearms began to emerge on the battlefield. As soon as matchlocks appeared, there were attempts to create non-muzzleloading firearms. Early attempts such as the Ferguson rifle proved to be too complicated for regular soldiers. By 1836 a German gunsmith Johann Nicolaus von Dreyse invented the Dreyse needle rifle, the first bolt-action rifle, which the Prussian Army adopted for service in 1848. In 1866 during the Austro-Prussian War after the decisive Prussian victory at the Battle of Königgrätz it was obvious that muzzle-loading rifles were ineffective in battle. Soon after, nations all around Europe began adopting breech-loaders and converting their existing service rifles to breech-loaders. Such rifles include the British Snider Rifle and the French Chassepot Rifle. These new rifles, along with the invention of the revolver (patented in 1836) and the advent of machine in the 1860s, displayed the need for the way battles were fought to change. However, it was only until the First World War that military leaders around the world adapted new tactics to employ these weapons.


title: History of weapons

text: This century saw a large increase in weapons innovation, but also their ability to adversely affect the entire planet.


title: History of weapons

text: Chemical weapons were first used on a large scale on the battlefield in World War I, starting from 1914, despite existing international conventions that prohibited the use of such weapons.


title: History of weapons

text: In 1915, the first propeller plane that could safely fire a machine gun through the propeller blades was invented. This led to later dogfights during World War I. Tanks were also used for the first time during World War I, but they were often slow and unreliable at first. However, they did allow more mobility in the war. Early tanks were mounted with machine guns and light artillery. Armored vehicles with wheels had been used earlier, but they could not cross trenches. Tanks were used a lot more and in greater numbers in World War II.


title: History of weapons

text: The first weapon designed to be guided to target is the German Fritz-X anti-ship bomb. Ever since, more and more armed forces adopted weapons that are guided by electronics, human assistance or inertial guidance for wide range of purposes, including UCAVs.


title: History of weapons

text: The first weapon confirmed to reach outer space were the German V-2 rockets in 1944, which were also among the first long-range ballistic missiles. V-2 rockets also led to the Space Race and eventually the Apollo 11 moon landing.


title: History of weapons

text: The first atomic bombs were tested and used in warfare in 1945. No nuclear weapons have been used in warfare since, due to the added risk of Nuclear holocaust. They remain the most powerful man-made weapons ever built.


title: History of weapons

text: The first weapons designed to attack targets in space were developed by both the Soviet Union and the United States during the Cold War, particularly with their respective anti-satellite missiles.


title: History of weapons

text: This century saw increased use of guided weapons, to reduce the risk of soldier fatalities and to increase effectiveness.


title: History of weapons

text: The first practical laser weapon, called the Laser Weapon System, was built by the United States Navy and installed on the USS Ponce. It is designed to destroy fast and small targets such as simple incoming missiles, primitive fast attack craft and drones at very short distance.


title: History of weapons

text: There are new physical principles weapons being created using emerging technologies such as super-high frequencies or psychophysics.


title: Khufu ship

text: The Khufu ship is an intact full-size solar barque from ancient Egypt. It was sealed into a pit at the foot of the Great Pyramid of pharaoh Khufu around 2500 BC, during the Fourth Dynasty of the ancient Egyptian Old Kingdom. Like other buried Ancient Egyptian ships, it was apparently part of the extensive grave goods intended for use in the afterlife. The Khufu ship is one of the oldest, largest and best-preserved vessels from antiquity. It is long and wide, and has been identified as the world's oldest intact ship, and described as "a masterpiece of woodcraft" that could sail today if put into a lake or a river.


title: Khufu ship

text: The ship was preserved in the Giza Solar boat museum, but was relocated to the Grand Egyptian Museum in August 2021.


title: Khufu ship

text: The history and function of the ship is not precisely known. It is of the type known as a "solar barge", a ritual vessel believed by ancient Egyptians to carry the resurrected king across the heavens with the sun god Ra. However, it bears some signs of having been used in water, and it is possible that the ship was either a funerary "barge" used to carry the king's embalmed body from Memphis to Giza, or even that Khufu himself used it as a "pilgrimage ship" to visit holy places and that it was then buried for him to use in the afterlife. It contained no bodies, unlike northern European ship burials.


title: Khufu ship

text: The ship was one of two rediscovered in 1954 by Kamal el-Mallakh—undisturbed since it was sealed into a pit carved out of the Giza bedrock. It was built largely of Lebanon cedar planking in the "shell-first" construction technique, using unpegged tenons of Christ's thorn. The ship was built with a flat bottom composed of several planks, but no actual keel, with the planks and frames lashed together with Halfah grass, and has been reconstructed from 1,224 pieces which had been laid in a logical, disassembled order in the pit beside the pyramid. It measures long and wide. It was thus identified as the world's oldest intact ship and has been described as "a masterpiece of woodcraft" that could sail today if put into a lake, or a river. However, the vessel may not have been designed for sailing, as there is no rigging, or for rowing, as there is no room. Its discovery was described as one of the greatest Ancient Egyptian discoveries in Zahi Hawass's documentary "Egypt's Ten Greatest Discoveries".


title: Khufu ship

text: It took years for the boat to be reassembled, primarily by the Egyptian Department of Antiquities' chief restorer, Ahmed Youssef Moustafa. Before reconstructing the boat, Moustafa had to gain enough experience on Ancient Egyptian boat-building. He studied the reliefs carved on walls and tombs as well as many of the small wooden models of ships and boats found in tombs. Moustafa visited the Nile boatyards of Old Cairo and Maadi and went to Alexandria, where wooden river boats were still being made. He hoped that modern Egyptian shipwrights had retained ship-building methods that would suggest how Ancient Egyptians built their ships. Then he investigated the work of shipwrights who built in a different tradition.


title: Khufu ship

text: The Khufu ship was put on public display in a specially built museum at the Giza pyramid complex in 1982; the museum was a small modern facility resting alongside the Great Pyramid. The first floor of the museum took the visitor through visuals, photographs and writings on the process of excavating and restoring the boat. The ditch where the main boat was found was incorporated into the museum ground floor design. To see the restored boat, the visitor ascended a staircase leading to the second floor. Floor to ceiling windows allowed for much sunlight and the wooden walkway took the visitor around the boat where the visitor could get a closer view of its impressive size.


title: Saint Marie (fictional island)

text: Saint Marie is a fictional island in the Lesser Antilles which serves as the setting for the BBC crime drama television series "Death in Paradise".


title: Saint Marie (fictional island)

text: Saint Marie is described in Episode 3.3 as a "pretty island" that is "situated in the Eastern Caribbean Sea" and "one-tenth the size of its north-west neighbour Guadeloupe", which would make Saint Marie about in size. It is described in Episode 4.5 as being from Martinique.


title: Saint Marie (fictional island)

text: The island is a British Overseas Territory, but was handed over to the British from the French only in the 1970s, so that about 30% of its people are French citizens, with the French language still widely spoken.


title: Saint Marie (fictional island)

text: The back-story appears to be a blend of two real-world islands near to Guadeloupe, with size and location aligning with Marie-Galante (in real-life politically affiliated with Guadeloupe, not independent of it), and history and language aligning with Dominica. Another possible basis is Îlet Sainte Marie "The is an island located on the northeast coast of Martinique, right in front of the small town of Sainte-Marie, known in the North Atlantic region. Very popular with tourists, it is a geological curiosity of nature, as connected to the rest of the island by a tombolo."


title: Saint Marie (fictional island)

text: In episode 4.5, it is mentioned that Martinique is "a good 70 miles." In Episode 5.2 a map can be seen with Puerto Rico in the northwest and Dominica in the southeast of the map, Saint Marie, in addition to another fictional island, Saint Robert, are present on the map, it would appear that there is significantly more distance between Guadelope and Dominica in the "Death in Paradise" universe, Saint Robert appears similar in shape, and slightly smaller in size than Dominica, although rotated by about 100-110 degrees anti-clockwise; although inconsistent with other in-universe statements Saint Marie appears about the same size as Dominica, and much larger than Marie-Galante. Marie-Galante, Saint-Marie, Spinner's Rock (a small islet relevant to this episode), and Saint Robert can be described as being on a straight line between Guadelope and Dominica in that order from the most northern to the most southern. Both Marie-Galante and Dominica are present, thus ruling out the possibilities of these two as candidates for Saint-Marie.


title: Saint Marie (fictional island)

text: The island drives on the right hand side of the road, and vehicles, including the police Land Rover Defender 110, have number plates in the same format as France, and are left-hand drive.


title: Saint Marie (fictional island)

text: Saint Marie's population is assumed to be around 10,000. However, in series 10, episode 1, an audience figure of 85,000 is quoted for a programme on the Saint Marie Broadcasting Corporation (although this may include viewers outside of the island).


title: Saint Marie (fictional island)

text: In the series, Saint Marie has a volcano, rainforest, sugar and coffee plantations, a fishing harbour, an airport, a university, a convent, multiple hotels, approximately one hundred public beaches, and a Crown Court. It also has its own newspaper, "The Saint Marie Times." Honoré, the main town, has a leisure/commercial marina, market, bars, and restaurants as well as the police station. The neighbouring town to Honoré is named as Port Royal. Its main economic ties are to Guadeloupe, the UK, and France, but it uses the East Caribbean dollar as its unit of currency, as opposed to the pound or the euro. The island's main religions are Catholicism and Voodoo, with several religious festivals featuring in the programme, including the Saint Ursula Festival (in reality, a major festival of the Virgin Islands) and some Voodoo festivals.


title: Saint Marie (fictional island)

text: As a British Overseas Territory, Saint Marie's Head of State is the Monarch of the United Kingdom and as such the British government also has responsibility for the island via the Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office. On the island itself, there is a Governor who represents the monarch and the British government in matters of state. Caroline Bamber served in this role from 2012 until 2016, when she was murdered shortly before she was due to retire from the position.


title: Saint Marie (fictional island)

text: Saint-Marie also has its own island government, led by a Prime Minister and supported by a Cabinet of ministers. The full extent of ministerial positions is unknown, though at least one position is a Minister of Commerce, a role held by Jacob Doran until his murder in 2014. The government is headquartered in a building named 'Government House' within Honoré itself.


title: Saint Marie (fictional island)

text: Law enforcement on the island is overseen by the Commissioner of the Saint Marie police force, a role held by Selwyn Patterson throughout the duration of the show. Whilst the bulk of the Commissioner's time focuses on the investigations of the Honoré police unit, he also has wider responsibilities across the island, such as in towns like Port Royal.


title: Saint Marie (fictional island)

text: Honoré is led by a Mayor and town council, with by-elections being held if a Mayor leaves office before the end of their elected term. Mayor Joseph Richards resigned in 2017 following a corruption scandal, and was replaced by Catherine Bordey in the subsequent by-election.


title: Kars4Kids

text: Kars4Kids is a nonprofit car donation organization based in Lakewood, New Jersey. Kars4Kids is a United States-based 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization that states that its mission is "to fund educational, developmental and recreational programs for low-income youth" through programs largely facilitated by its sister charity Oorah, which focuses on Jewish children and families. It was founded in 1994 and is currently headed by Eliyohu Mintz.


title: Kars4Kids

text: Nationwide locations in which the organization hosts coat and clothing giveaways for the needy include Newark, New Jersey, Harlem and Washington, D.C.


title: Kars4Kids

text: Kars4Kids is a nonprofit organization with 501(c)(3) status, operating in the United States and Canada. Kars4Kids takes donations of cars, boats, yachts and real estate, accepting over 40,000 cars annually.


title: Kars4Kids

text: Donations to Kars4Kids benefit Oorah, a national nonprofit organization whose stated mission is "to give Jewish children and their families opportunities to become active and productive members of their communities".


title: Kars4Kids

text: Kars4Kids offers financial assistance to students to help pay for private school tuition and GED testing. The organization also sponsors a youth program known as Chillzone, an after-school program teaching Jewish culture and moral values. Additionally, they sponsor the summer camp TheZone, which operates Jewish sleepaway camps in the upper Catskills region of New York State. They also offer small grants to other nonprofit organizations, and in 2016 Kars4Kids awarded $5,000 to Girls on the Run International.


title: Kars4Kids

text: The organization hosts regular coat and clothing giveaways for the needy nationwide, including in Harlem, New York, Washington, D.C., and in Newark, New Jersey, where they held a give-away together with then-Newark Mayor (and current U.S. Senator) Cory Booker.


title: Kars4Kids

text: Prior to the start of the 2012 school year, the Chairman of the New York City Housing Authority in partnership with Kars4Kids distributed school supplies and backpacks to more than 3,000 children in Queens housing projects. Around that same time period with New York City Councilman James Vacca, they distributed free backpacks in the Bronx as part of a "back-to-school initiative aimed at helping struggling families with the rising expenses of school supplies." In Brooklyn, Congressman Ed Towns and Kars4Kids distributed winter jackets to underprivileged children, including at the Marcy Avenue Houses.


title: Kars4Kids

text: The organization saw a boom in donated cars following Hurricane Sandy, with owners donating cars totaled by hurricane damage.


title: Kars4Kids

text: After being contacted by the New York Police Department, the charity auctioned off a 2003 Ford Explorer in which two children drowned after being swept from their mother's arms during Hurricane Sandy. The auction proceeds went to raise money for coats for the needy. Kars 4 Kids worked with United States Representative Michael Grimm to distribute over 1,000 children's coats and other assorted clothing items to Staten Island residents affected by the hurricane.


title: Kars4Kids

text: In 2014, Kars4Kids released an app for Android, Kars4Kids Safety, which aims to prevent accidental deaths of children left in hot cars, by providing reminders to their parents. The app syncs with the car's Bluetooth technology, to set off an automatic alert when the phone's Bluetooth disconnects from the car's.


title: Kars4Kids

text: The group's director of public relations stated that the song was written in the late 1990s by a volunteer, with music adapted from Country Yossi's song "Little Kinderlach". The jingle was first used in radio commercials broadcast in the New York City area, by 2004 the ads began to play in other markets such as Chicago, and later nationally as part of radio network ad time.


title: Kars4Kids

text: The jingle has become the subject of public ridicule, as critics have considered it to be an annoyance; it was described by "San Francisco Chronicle" journalist Peter Hartlaub as an "assault on [the] senses". On November 4, 2010, Don Imus was caught on a hot mic mocking a Kars4Kids ad during a commercial break of his radio show "Imus in the Morning", telling the group to "go to hell" and jokingly blurting "I'll give you my Bentley, you moron." Imus later apologized. "Vulture" jokingly declared that the television version of the ad would bring end times.


title: Kars4Kids

text: In 2014, Kars4Kids introduced a television commercial featuring the jingle. In September 2017, the "New York Post" interviewed the children who starred in the Kars4Kids TV commercial.


title: Kars4Kids

text: The jingle has been referenced and parodied by multiple television series; in a December 2014 "Saturday Night Live" sketch satirizing the Senate Intelligence Committee report on CIA torture, James Elmer Mitchell and Bruce Jessen told Charlie Rose that the Kars4Kids jingle was one of the CIA's other torture methods, alongside Time Warner Cable customer service and airport security screenings.


title: Kars4Kids

text: A 2018 episode of "Last Week Tonight" presented a song promoting China's Belt and Road Initiative performed by children, which host John Oliver likened to a "Kommunist Kars4Kids". After moving to a temporary studio in 2020 with a solid white backdrop, Oliver described the new set as being either "the place movie characters go when they've just died, or where they shot the Kars4Kids commercial". He also said the commercial was "the coronavirus of commercials, in that it is horrifically infectious and ruins people's lives."


title: Kars4Kids

text: The 2018 "Will & Grace" episode "Friends and Lover" featured a parody of the charity known as "Trucks4Tykes", which was portrayed as having a similarly annoying jingle. In the season four premiere episode of "The Good Place", "A Girl From Arizona", the jingle is sung by several demons as the anthem of "The Bad Place."


title: Kars4Kids

text: The organization has been criticized for inadequately disclosing its Jewish educational work. In 2009, Joy for Our Youth paid $65,000 in fines in Pennsylvania; while Kars4Kids paid $65,000 in fines in Oregon in settlements reached with the respective state attorneys general as a result of their contention that the organization had to state clearly that the beneficiaries were of a "certain religious affiliation." In Oregon, the attorney general added that Kars4Kids failed to disclose that its offer of a "free vacation" for vehicle donors was designed to recruit people to attend timeshare presentations.


title: Kars4Kids

text: In 2017, the Minnesota Attorney General conducted a compliance review and submitted a 300-page report to the Internal Revenue Service. The report found that 44% of funds raised by Kars4Kids went to program expenses, and most of that money had gone to its sister organization Oorah, whose concentration in New York and New Jersey meant only one Minnesota child was believed to have benefited from one of its programs in the years 2012–2014. The report also mentioned the charity had lost money in real estate investments in the financial crisis of 2008 and may have been a victim of losses from a Ponzi scheme.


title: Kars4Kids

text: On November 3, 2018, Bob Diachenko, a cyber security researcher, discovered a publicly accessible MongoDB database that contained the emails and personal details of 21,612 Kars4Kids donors/customers plus super administrator password/login details. The database also contained a ransomware note that the files had been stolen and would be returned for bitcoin.


title: Tea leaf grading

text: In the tea industry, tea leaf grading is the process of evaluating products based on the quality and condition of the tea leaves themselves.


title: Tea leaf grading

text: The highest grades for Western and South Asian teas are referred to as "orange pekoe", and the lowest as "fannings" or "dust". Pekoe tea grades are classified into various qualities, each determined by how many of the adjacent young leaves (two, one, or none) were picked along with the leaf buds. Top-quality pekoe grades consist of only the leaf buds, which are picked using the balls of the fingertips. Fingernails and mechanical tools are not used, to avoid bruising. Certain grades of leaf are better suited to certain varieties of tea. For example, most white tea is processed from the buds or shoots of the tea plant.


title: Tea leaf grading

text: When crushed to make bagged teas, the tea is referred to as "broken", as in "broken orange pekoe" ("BOP"). These lower grades include fannings and dust, which are tiny remnants created in the sorting and crushing processes.


title: Tea leaf grading

text: Orange pekoe is referred to as "OP". The grading scheme also contains categories higher than OP, which are determined primarily by leaf wholeness and size.


title: Tea leaf grading

text: Broken, fannings and dust orthodox teas have slightly different grades. CTC teas, which consist of leaves mechanically rendered to uniform fannings, have yet another grading system.


title: Tea leaf grading

text: Although grading systems vary, the size of the leaf or broken pieces is an essential quality. Size is an important factor how tea is prepared as a beverage. In general, larger leaves or pieces require a longer steeping time. Also, if measured by volume, the larger sizes need more tea to produce the same strength beverage.


title: Tea leaf grading

text: Some teas are graded by their appearance. Whole leaves are easier to grade by appearance than broken pieces.


title: Tea leaf grading

text: Orange pekoe (), also spelled pecco, or OP is a term used in the Western tea trade to describe a particular genre of black teas (orange pekoe grading). Despite a purported Chinese origin, these grading terms are typically used for teas from Sri Lanka, India and countries other than China; they are not generally known within Chinese-speaking countries. The grading system is based upon the size of processed and dried black tea leaves.


title: Tea leaf grading

text: The tea industry uses the term orange pekoe to describe a basic, medium-grade black tea consisting of many whole tea leaves of a specific size; however, it is popular in some regions (such as North America) to use the term as a description of any generic black tea (though it is often described to the consumer as a specific variety of black tea). Within this system, the teas that receive the highest grades are obtained from new flushes (pickings). This includes the terminal leaf bud along with a few of the youngest leaves. Grading is based on the "size" of the individual leaves and flushes, which is determined by their ability to fall through the screens of special meshes ranging from 8–30 mesh. This also determines the "wholeness", or level of breakage, of each leaf, which is also part of the grading system. Although these are not the only factors used to determine quality, the size and wholeness of the leaves will have the greatest influence on the taste, clarity, and brewing time of the tea.


title: Tea leaf grading

text: When used outside the context of black-tea grading, the term "pekoe" (or, occasionally, orange pekoe) describes the unopened terminal leaf bud (tips) in tea flushes. As such, the phrases "a bud and a leaf" or "a bud and two leaves" are used to describe the "leafiness" of a flush; they are also used interchangeably with pekoe and a leaf or pekoe and two leaves.


title: Tea leaf grading

text: The origin of the word "pekoe" is uncertain. One explanation is that it is derived from the transliterated mispronunciation of the Amoy (Xiamen) dialect word for a Chinese tea known as "white down/hair" (白毫; ). This is how "pekoe" is listed by Rev. Robert Morrison (1782–1834) in his Chinese dictionary (1819) as one of the seven sorts of black tea "commonly known by Europeans". This refers to the down-like white "hairs" on the leaf and also to the youngest leaf buds. Another hypothesis is that the term derives from the Chinese "báihuā" "white flower" (), and refers to the bud content of pekoe tea.


title: Tea leaf grading

text: Sir Thomas Lipton, the 19th-century British tea magnate, is widely credited with popularizing, if not inventing, the term "orange pekoe", which seems to have no Chinese precedent, for Western markets. The "orange" in orange pekoe is sometimes mistaken to mean the tea has been flavoured with orange, orange oils, or is otherwise associated with oranges. However, the word "orange" is unrelated to the tea's flavor. There are two explanations for its meaning, though neither is definitive:


title: Tea leaf grading

text: Fannings are small pieces of tea that are left over after higher grades of teas are gathered to be sold. Traditionally these were treated as the rejects of the manufacturing process in making high-quality leaf tea like the orange pekoe. Fannings with extremely small particles are sometimes called dusts. Fannings and dusts are considered the lowest grades of tea, separated from broken-leaf teas which have larger pieces of the leaves. However, the fannings of expensive teas can still be more expensive and more flavourful than whole leaves of cheaper teas.


title: Tea leaf grading

text: This traditionally low-quality tea has, however, experienced a huge demand in the developing world in the last century as the practice of tea drinking became popular. Tea stalls in India and the South Asian sub-continent and Africa prefer dust tea because it is cheap and also produces a very strong brew; consequently, more cups are obtained per measure of tea dust.


title: Tea leaf grading

text: Because of the small size of the particles, a tea infuser is typically used to brew fannings. Fannings are also typically used in most tea bags, although some companies sell tea bags containing whole-leaf tea.


title: Tea leaf grading

text: Choppy contains many leaves of various sizes. Fannings are small particles of tea leaves used almost exclusively in tea bags. Flowery consists of large leaves, typically plucked in the second or third flush with an abundance of tips. Golden flowery includes very young tips or buds (usually golden in colour) that were picked early in the season. Tippy includes an abundance of tips.


title: Lancia Delta S4

text: The Lancia Delta S4 is a Group B rally car manufactured by the Italian car company Lancia. The Delta S4 competed in the World Rally Championship in 1985 and 1986, until Group B class was disbanded and the cars were eventually banned from competition completely by European sanctioning body FIA. The car replaced, and was an evolution of the 037. The S4 took full advantage of the Group B regulations, and featured a midship-mounted engine and all-wheel drive for superior traction on loose surfaces.


title: Lancia Delta S4

text: The car's Inline-four engine combined supercharging and turbocharging to reduce turbo lag at low engine speeds (rpm). The engine generated a maximum output of but some sources even claim that the engine was capable of generating . In 1985, when Lancia engineers tested an S4 engine under extreme conditions, it developed around at 5 bars of boost pressure. An engine capacity multiple of 1.4 was applied to forced induction engines by the FIA and the choice of put the S4 in the under 2,500 cc class, which allowed for a minimum weight of . The combined super/turbocharger system (often referred to as twincharging) was a development of the 037 engine that generated with a supercharger only.


title: Lancia Delta S4

text: Like Peugeot's earlier 205 T16, the mid-engine Lancia Delta S4 was a silhouette race car (for marketing purposes), and shared virtually nothing in terms of construction with the production front-engine Delta. The chassis was a tubular space frame construction much like the 037. It featured long travel double wishbone suspension front and rear, with a single large coil over at the front along with a separate spring and twin shock absorbers at the rear. The bodywork was made of a carbon fibre composite with front and rear bodywork fully detachable for fast replacement due to accident damage, allowing ease of access during on-event servicing. The bodywork featured several aerodynamic aids including bonnet opening behind the front-mounted water radiator with Gurney flap, front splitter and winglets moulded into the front bumper panel, flexible front skirt, and rear deck lid wing that featured both a full aerofoil wind section twinned with a deflection spoiler. The door construction style was brought from the 037 with a hollow shell all-Kevlar construction that had no inner door skin, no door handle or window winder. The door was opened with a small loop and the windows were fixed perspex with small sliding panels to allow ventilation and passing of time cards.


title: Lancia Delta S4

text: The all-wheel drive system, developed in cooperation with English company Hewland, featured a centre differential which allowed for 60-75% of the torque to go to the rear wheels. The transmission was a 5-speed also developed by Hewland.


title: Lancia Delta S4

text: The Group S Lancia ECV was to replace the Delta S4 in the 1987 season but the Group S was scrapped along with Group B and Lancia used the production-derived Delta for the 1987 season.


title: Lancia Delta S4

text: The method of turbocharging and supercharging an engine is referred to as twincharging. The Delta S4 was the first example of this technology. The Delta S4 had a comparatively large Kühnle, Kopp & Kausch 27 turbocharger with a boost threshold of 4500 rpm. The turbo technology of the time had quite marked boost thresholds, with little or no response below this. Some people mistake this for turbo lag. This phenomenon, known as boost threshold, negatively affects driveability, an important aspect of any car. The Abarth Volumex R18 supercharger was the twin of the turbo, providing low to mid range boost and improving engine response and driveability of the S4. Superchargers do not suffer from lag as they are powered directly from the engine's crankshaft, rather than by the exhaust gases. However, because of this direct mechanical connection, the supercharger presents a significant parasitic load to the engine at higher engine speeds. Lancia designed their twincharger system so the supercharger provides instantaneous boost in the lower range, switching to the turbocharger for more efficient operation at higher engine speeds.


title: Lancia Delta S4

text: Between October 1985 and 1986 Lancia, in keeping with Group B racing regulations, was to have built 200 of a road-going version of the Delta S4, officially named Lancia Delta S4 but widely known as "Stradale", for the purpose of homologation in Group B, but it is more likely that fewer than 100 were actually built. In Italy, the car was priced at about 100 million Lira: five times the price of the most expensive Delta of the time, the HF Turbo.


title: Lancia Delta S4

text: The Stradale's chassis was a space frame, similar to its rally counterpart, built out of CrMo steel tubes and aluminium alloy for the crash structures; it was covered by epoxy and fiberglass body panels. Like the rally car, the 1.8-litre four-cylinder engine was longitudinally mid-mounted, equipped with Weber-Marelli IAW integrated electronic ignition and fuel injection, a supercharger, a turbocharger and two intercoolers. In road tune the 1.8 produced at 6750 rpm and of torque at 4500 rpm. The "Stradale" kept a three differential four-wheel-drive system from the rally car; the centre differential sent 30% of the engine torque to the front open differential, and 70% to the rear limited slip. The transmission remained a 5-speed but was a fully-synchronized unit built by CIMA.


title: Lancia Delta S4

text: Lancia claimed the car could reach a top speed of and accelerate from standstill to in 6.0 seconds. In contrast to its bare bones racing sister, the S4 Stradale featured an Alcantara-upholstered interior, sound deadening, a suede steering wheel, and was equipped with power steering, trip computer and air conditioning. While racing versions were built by Abarth, the Stradales were built by Torinese coachbuilders .


title: Lancia Delta S4

text: In competition, the car won its first event, the 1985 RAC Rally in the hands of Henri Toivonen and carried Markku Alén to second in the drivers' championship the following year. For two weeks after the end of the 1986 season Alen was champion until the FIA annulled the results of the Sanremo Rally due to irregular technical scrutineering. Alén had won that event and the loss of points handed the title to Peugeot's Juha Kankkunen. All told, in 1986 there were three wins for the Delta S4 (San Remo not included). The Monte Carlo Rally by Toivonen, Rally Argentina by Massimo Biasion and the Olympus Rally by Alén. The car also won the 1986 European Rally Championship with Italian driver Fabrizio Tabaton, whose car was run by Italian team HF GRIFONE in ESSO livery. The factory supported Jolly Club team also ran cars in livery, one of which was for Dario Cerrato. The car competed at every rally that year except for the extremely demanding and gruelling Safari Rally in Kenya, where Lancia decided that the Delta S4 was not developed enough for that event, so they decided to use the older 037 for Alen, Biasion and three local drivers who were regulars in the event.


title: Lancia Delta S4

text: The car's legacy was tainted by the fatal crash of Toivonen and co-driver Sergio Cresto on the 1986 Tour de Corse, where the Finnish driver inexplicably missed a tight left-hand hairpin bend and plunged into a ravine. The car burst into flames immediately, killing both of the crew. The accident led directly to the abolition of Group B.


title: Sam Houston State University

text: Sam Houston State University (SHSU or Sam) is a public university in Huntsville, Texas. It was founded in 1879 and is the third-oldest public college or university in Texas. It is one of the first normal schools west of the Mississippi River and the first in Texas. It is named for Sam Houston, who made his home in the city and is buried there.


title: Sam Houston State University

text: SHSU is a member of the Texas State University System and has an enrollment of more than 20,000 students across over 80 undergraduate, 59 master's, and 10 doctoral degree programs. The university also offers more than 20 online bachelor's and graduate degrees.


title: Sam Houston State University

text: The Sam Houston State University campus was originally home to Austin College, the Presbyterian institution that relocated to Sherman, Texas, in 1876. Austin Hall was constructed in 1851 and is the oldest university building west of the Mississippi still in operation. It was renovated in 2012 and is used today for special meetings and events. Notably, Sam Houston himself attended and participated in the original dedication of the building.


title: Sam Houston State University

text: Created by legislation signed by Governor Oran M. Roberts on San Jacinto Day, April 21, 1879, Sam Houston Normal Institute's dedicated goal was to train teachers for the public schools of Texas. It was the first teacher-training school in the southwestern United States. On October 10 of the same year, the first class of 110 students and four faculty commenced instruction. The first president of the school, Bernard Mallon, died eleven days after the institute opened.


title: Sam Houston State University

text: The one-room Peabody Memorial Library was the first free-standing campus library in Texas; it was constructed in 1901 with funds provided by the George Peabody Foundation. According to the Normal Institute's catalogue, the library was "a very handsome structure, and especially designed for the purpose for which it is to be used. It is said that no school of this kind in the South has a Building equal to it." Fully restored, it is now used as a venue for special university events.


title: Sam Houston State University

text: When the university first opened, students received a certification to teach in the state's elementary and secondary schools. After 1919, the university began to award bachelor's degrees. In 1936, the school awarded its first postbaccalaureate degree.


title: Sam Houston State University

text: The university launched its first capital campaign in March 2016 with a $50 million goal and closed the campaign's books on August 31, 2010, with $61.2 million in commitments. The university has 110,000 living, addressable alumni and an active Alumni Association with 10,000 members, holding 200 meetings and events annually.


title: Sam Houston State University

text: On 30 May 2012, SHSU-The Woodlands Center opened on the Lone Star College-Montgomery campus. The facility includes and has a five-story parking garage. The university also operates SHSU-University Park on the property of Lone Star College-University Park in unincorporated Harris County near Tomball.


title: Sam Houston State University

text: In April 2007, Texas House Bill 1418 passed without objection in the Texas Legislature, preventing The Texas State University System's Board of Regents from changing the university's name to Texas State-Sam Houston.


title: Sam Houston State University

text: Contrary to a popular joke—repeated by alumnus Dan Rather in his 1978 autobiography, "The Camera Never Blinks"—the school was never known as "Sam Houston Institute of Teaching" or "Sam Houston Institute of Technology." This joke was expanded in 2006 into an entire feature film, "Accepted", which takes place on the campus of the fictional South Harmon Institute of Technology.


title: Sam Houston State University

text: The oak-studded rural main campus sits on in the central area of Huntsville. Two large agricultural complexes feature a teaching and research farm and a rodeo arena. The campus also features a planetarium, an observatory, a body farm, and an 18-hole golf course named The Bearkat Course. The mall area of the main campus includes Blatchley Bell Tower and Clock and a fountain.


title: Sam Houston State University

text: The campus stood in for the fictional Austin University in the motion picture "The Life of David Gale".


title: Sam Houston State University

text: Additionally, the university enrolls more than 350 high achieving undergraduate students in the selective Elliott T. Bowers Honors College.


title: Sam Houston State University

text: Programs within the college of Criminal Justice were recently ranked by the "Journal of Criminal Justice" in the top five nationally. The theater and dance programs were ranked by "Dance Spectrum Magazine" in the top 25 nationally, and according to the National Dance Association, SHSU is home to quality athletic dance team. The university offers the only Professional Golf Management program in Texas, one of 20 in the country. SHSU also has one of the oldest speech and debate programs in the nation.


title: Sam Houston State University

text: SHSU's College of Criminal Justice is the largest and one of the oldest criminal justice programs in the nation. Huntsville has long been associated with criminal justice, being the co-headquarters of the Texas Department of Criminal Justice and the home of several prisons, including the Walls Unit which houses the state's execution chamber, located about two blocks north of the campus.


title: Sam Houston State University

text: In 1970, the college became one of the first programs in the U.S. to offer the Ph.D. in criminal justice, and it was the first institution in the State of Texas to offer the Masters of Science in Forensic Science. SHSU's PhD in Clinical Science with a Forensic emphasis is one of seven such accredited programs in the U.S. The college faculty were recently recognized as the 4th most productive nationally in their field in terms of research, and their areas of expertise range from serial murder, hate crime, and terrorism to policing, law, corrections, and security.


title: Sam Houston State University

text: The College of Criminal Justice includes the headquarters of the Texas Forensic Science Commission. It also houses the Bill Blackwood Law Enforcement Management Institute of Texas, which specializes in training for local, state, and federal law enforcement officers in the area of management and supervision. The college also houses a working courtroom where students can observe and analyze real trials.


title: Sam Houston State University

text: The university has been commended as of late for offering courses that encourage the study of the lore, the lure, and the history of the Lone Star State. In 2012, digital archivists at the university library worked with officials at a local veterans museum to launch the Texas Military Veterans Oral History collection.


title: Sam Houston State University

text: Sam Houston State's colors are bright orange and white and their nickname is the Bearkats. Sam Houston State sports teams participate in NCAA Division I (Championship Subdivision for football) in the Western Athletic Conference. The Sam Houston Bearkats won the 2020 NCAA Division I Football Championship over South Dakota State by a score of 23-21 and finished with a perfect 10–0 season record. The victory was the first Bearkat football National Championship since winning the 1964 NAIA Championship. The 2020 season also marked Sam Houston's third trip to the championship game in ten seasons.


title: Sam Houston State University

text: SHSU's athletic teams have been nicknamed "The Bearkats" since 1923 when the university's name was changed by the Texas State Legislature from Sam Houston Normal Institute to Sam Houston State Teachers College. Prior to 1923, the varsity sports teams were nicknamed "The Normals".


title: Sam Houston State University

text: It is doubtful those who coined the "Bearkat" nickname had a particular animal in mind. More likely, the name came from a popular local saying of the time, "tough as a Bearkat!" The late Reed Lindsey, who was a student/athlete in the 1920s and later retired as University registrar, once said that "it was a good fighting name of the time." Since the animal in the saying was thought more mythical than real, the spelling settled upon was "Bearkat." However, there are some arguments that the Sam Houston Bearkat is modeled after either a Binturong or a Kinkajou.


title: Sam Houston State University

text: In the late 1940s, then SHSU president Harmon Lowman attempted to change the SHSU mascot from Bearkats to "Ravens" (after General Sam Houston's Cherokee nickname). Mrs. Vernon Schuder reported that the alumni were polled and she voted for the raven but that "all those old Bearkats beat us out!"


title: Sam Houston State University

text: A Sammy Bearkat mascot character, with the later addition of a Samantha, began appearing at SHSU sports events in 1959. Samantha has since been retired.


title: Sam Houston State University

text: SHSU's primary rival is Stephen F. Austin State University (SFA) and tensions between the two schools can run high before major sporting events that pit one against the other. The annual football game between SHSU and SFA, named the Battle of the Piney Woods, dates back to 1923. Since 2010, the series has been played at NRG Stadium in Houston, Texas.


title: Sam Houston State University

text: Sam Houston's Bearkat is represented by Sammy Bearkat, a costumed mascot, who has entertained and led crowds in cheers during sporting events since 1959.


title: Sam Houston State University

text: Club sports are very popular at SHSU. Some available to students include: Powerlifting, Ultimate Frisbee, lacrosse, rugby, martial arts, trap and skeet, inline hockey, basketball, volleyball, soccer, tennis, and baseball. The Sam Houston Quidditch team won in 2013 the IQA World Cup VI Division 2 championship. The Spirit Programs, cheer, dance, and mascots, of Sam Houston hold the most National titles out of all of the sports and recreational activities at Sam Houston. The coed team is the reigning champions from NCA this past April. The All Girl team made school history by winning their first National Championship in April 2014.


title: Sam Houston State University

text: The SHSU School of Mass Communication operates KSHU, a student-run radio (90.5 FM) and television (cable channel 7) station, broadcasting news, sports, and entertainment programming for the campus and community. "The Houstonian" is the student-published twice-weekly campus newspaper. Broadcast studios and offices for all three media are located within the Dan Rather Communication Building.


title: Sam Houston State University

text: The "Alcalde" was the university's annual yearbook, published from 1910 to 1998 and 2003 to 2006; it was named in honor of Texas Governor Oran Roberts, whose nickname was "The Old Alcalde".


title: Sam Houston State University

text: The university operates a charter school network: the administrative offices are on the university grounds in Huntsville, but all of the charter schools are in Greater Houston. The network began in 2017 as laboratory schools. The university chose to use space in daycare facilities to host its charter campuses.


title: Old Irish

text: Old Irish, also called Old Gaelic (, : ᚌᚑᚔᚇᚓᚂᚉ; ; ; or ), is the oldest form of the Goidelic/Gaelic language for which there are extensive written texts. It was used from 600 to 900. The main contemporary texts are dated 700–850; by 900 the language had already transitioned into early Middle Irish. Some Old Irish texts date from the 10th century, although these are presumably copies of texts written at an earlier time. Old Irish is thus forebear to Modern Irish, Manx, and Scottish Gaelic.


title: Old Irish

text: Old Irish is known for having a particularly complex system of morphology and especially of allomorphy (more or less unpredictable variations in stems and suffixes in differing circumstances) as well as a complex sound system involving grammatically significant consonant mutations to the initial consonant of a word. Apparently, neither characteristic was present in the preceding Primitive Irish period, though initial mutations likely existed in a non-grammaticalized form in the prehistoric era. Much of the complex allomorphy was subsequently lost, but the sound system has been maintained with little change in the modern languages.


title: Old Irish

text: Contemporary Old Irish scholarship is still greatly influenced by the works of a small number of scholars active in the late 19th and early 20th centuries such as Rudolf Thurneysen (1857–1940) and Osborn Bergin (1873–1950).


title: Old Irish

text: Old Irish also preserves most aspects of the complicated Proto-Indo-European (PIE) system of morphology. Nouns and adjectives are declined in three genders (masculine, feminine, neuter); three numbers (singular, dual, plural); and five cases (nominative, vocative, accusative, dative and genitive). Most PIE noun stem classes are maintained ("o"-, "yo"-, "ā"-, "yā"-, "i"-, "u"-, "r"-, "n"-, "s"-, and consonant stems). Most of the complexities of PIE verbal conjugation are also maintained, and there are new complexities introduced by various sound changes (see below).


title: Old Irish

text: Old Irish was the only member of the Goidelic branch of the Celtic languages, which is, in turn, a subfamily of the wider Indo-European language family that also includes the Slavonic, Italic/Romance, Indo-Aryan and Germanic subfamilies, along with several others. Old Irish is the ancestor of all modern Goidelic languages: Modern Irish, Scottish Gaelic and Manx.


title: Old Irish

text: A still older form of Irish is known as Primitive Irish. Fragments of Primitive Irish, mainly personal names, are known from inscriptions on stone written in the Ogham alphabet. The inscriptions date from about the 4th to the 6th centuries. Primitive Irish appears to have been very close to Common Celtic, the ancestor of all Celtic languages, and it had a lot of the characteristics of other archaic Indo-European languages.


title: Old Irish

text: Relatively little survives in the way of strictly contemporary sources. They are represented mainly by shorter or longer glosses on the margins or between the lines of religious Latin manuscripts, most of them preserved in monasteries in Germany, Italy, Switzerland, France and Austria, having been taken there by early Irish missionaries. Whereas in Ireland, many of the older manuscripts appear to have been worn out through extended and heavy use, their counterparts on the Continent were much less prone to the same risk because once they ceased to be understood, they were rarely consulted.


title: Old Irish

text: The earliest Old Irish passages may be the transcripts found in the Cambrai Homily, which is thought to belong to the early 8th century. The Book of Armagh contains texts from the early 9th century. Important Continental collections of glosses from the 8th and 9th century include the Würzburg Glosses (mainly) on the Pauline Epistles, the Milan Glosses on a commentary to the Psalms and the St Gall Glosses on Priscian's Grammar.


title: Old Irish

text: Further examples are found at Karlsruhe (Germany), Paris (France), Milan, Florence and Turin (Italy). A late 9th-century manuscript from the abbey of Reichenau, now in St. Paul in Carinthia (Austria), contains a spell and four Old Irish poems. The "Liber Hymnorum" and the "Stowe Missal" date from about 900 to 1050.


title: Old Irish

text: In addition to contemporary witnesses, the vast majority of Old Irish texts are attested in manuscripts of a variety of later dates. Manuscripts of the later Middle Irish period, such as the Lebor na hUidre and the Book of Leinster, contain texts which are thought to derive from written exemplars in Old Irish now lost and retain enough of their original form to merit classification as Old Irish.


title: Old Irish

text: The preservation of certain linguistic forms current in the Old Irish period may provide reason to assume that an Old Irish original directly or indirectly underlies the transmitted text or texts.


title: Old Irish

text: The consonant inventory of Old Irish is shown in the chart below. The complexity of Old Irish phonology is from a four-way split of phonemes inherited from Primitive Irish, with both a fortis–lenis and a "broad–slender" (velarised vs. palatalised) distinction arising from historical changes. The sounds are the broad lenis equivalents of broad fortis ; likewise for the slender (palatalised) equivalents. (However, most sounds actually derive historically from .)


title: Old Irish

text: Some details of Old Irish phonetics are not known. may have been pronounced or , as in Modern Irish. may have been the same sound as or . The precise articulation of the fortis sonorants is unknown, but they were probably longer, tenser and generally more strongly articulated than their lenis counterparts , as in the Modern Irish and Scottish dialects that still possess a four-way distinction in the coronal nasals and laterals. and may have been pronounced and respectively. The difference between and may have been that the former were trills while the latter were flaps. and were derived from an original fortis–lenis pair.


title: Old Irish

text: Old Irish had distinctive vowel length in both monophthongs and diphthongs. Short diphthongs were monomoraic, taking up the same amount of time as short vowels, while long diphthongs were bimoraic, the same as long vowels. (This is much like the situation in Old English but different from Ancient Greek whose shorter and longer diphthongs were bimoraic and trimoraic, respectively: vs. .) The inventory of Old Irish long vowels changed significantly over the Old Irish period, but the short vowels changed much less.


title: Old Irish

text: The short diphthong likely existed very early in the Old Irish period, but merged with /u/ later on and in many instances was replaced with /o/ due to paradigmatic levelling. It is attested once in the phrase by the "prima manus" of the Würzburg Glosses.


title: Old Irish

text: Both and were normally written "é" but must have been pronounced differently because they have different origins and distinct outcomes in later Old Irish. stems from Proto-Celtic *ē (< PIE *ei), or from "ē" in words borrowed from Latin. generally stems from compensatory lengthening of short *e because of loss of the following consonant (in certain clusters) or a directly following vowel in hiatus. It is generally thought that was higher than . Perhaps was while was . They are clearly distinguished in later Old Irish, in which becomes "ía" (but "é" before a palatal consonant). becomes "é" in all circumstances. Furthermore, is subject to "u"-affection, becoming "éu" or "íu", while is not.


title: Old Irish

text: A similar distinction may have existed between and , both written "ó", and stemming respectively from former diphthongs (*eu, *au, *ou) and from compensatory lengthening. However, in later Old Irish both sounds appear usually as "úa", sometimes as "ó", and it is unclear whether existed as a separate sound any time in the Old Irish period.


title: Old Irish

text: Early Old Irish and merged in later Old Irish. It is unclear what the resulting sound was, as scribes continued to use both "aí" and "oí" to indicate the merged sound. The choice of in the table above is somewhat arbitrary.


title: Old Irish

text: The distribution of short vowels in unstressed syllables is a little complicated. All short vowels may appear in absolutely final position (at the very end of a word) after both broad and slender consonants. The front vowels and are often spelled "ae" and "ai" after broad consonants, which might indicate a retracted pronunciation here, perhaps something like and . All ten possibilities are shown in the following examples:


title: Old Irish

text: The distribution of short vowels in unstressed syllables, other than when absolutely final, was quite restricted. It is usually thought that there were only two allowed phonemes: (written "a", "ai", "e" or "i" depending on the quality of surrounding consonants) and (written "u" or "o"). The phoneme tended to occur when the following syllable contained an *ū in Proto-Celtic (for example, "law" (dat.) < PC *"dligedū"), or after a broad labial (for example, "book"; "domun" "world"). The phoneme occurred in other circumstances. The occurrence of the two phonemes was generally unrelated to the nature of the corresponding Proto-Celtic vowel, which could be any monophthong: long or short.


title: Old Irish

text: Long vowels also occur in unstressed syllables. However, they rarely reflect Proto-Celtic long vowels, which were shortened prior to the deletion (syncope) of inner syllables. Rather, they originate in one of the following ways:


title: Old Irish

text: Stress is generally on the first syllable of a word. However, in verbs it occurs on the second syllable when the first syllable is a clitic (the verbal prefix "as-" in "as·beir" "he says"). In such cases, the unstressed prefix is indicated in grammatical works with a following centre dot (·).


title: Old Irish

text: As with most , the orthography of Old Irish is not fixed, so the following statements are to be taken as generalisations only. Individual manuscripts may vary greatly from these guidelines.


title: Old Irish

text: The following table indicates the broad pronunciation of various consonant letters in various environments:


title: Old Irish

text: When the consonants "b, d, g" are eclipsed by the preceding word (always from a word-initial position), their spelling and pronunciation change to: , ,


title: Old Irish

text: Generally, geminating a consonant ensures its unmutated sound. While the letter may be voiced at the end of some words, but when it's written double it's always voiceless in regularised texts; however, even final was often written "cc", as in "bec / becc" "small, little" (Modern Irish and Scottish "beag", Manx "beg").


title: Old Irish

text: In later Irish manuscripts, lenited "f" and "s" are denoted with the letter "h" , , instead of using a superdot , .


title: Old Irish

text: The slender (palatalised) variants of the 13 consonants are denoted with marking the letter. They occur in the following environments:


title: Old Irish

text: Although Old Irish has both a sound and a letter "h", there is no consistent relationship between the two. Vowel-initial words are sometimes written with an unpronounced "h", especially if they are very short (the Old Irish preposition "in" was sometimes written ) or if they need to be emphasised (the name of Ireland, , was sometimes written ). On the other hand, words that begin with the sound are usually written without it: "her gold". If the sound and the spelling co-occur, it is by coincidence, as "it is not".


title: Old Irish

text: The voiceless stops of Old Irish are "c, p, t." They contrast with the voiced stops "g, b, d". Additionally, the letter "m" can behave similarly to a stop following vowels. These seven consonants often mutate when not in the word-initial position.


title: Old Irish

text: In non-initial positions, the single-letter voiceless stops "c, p," and "t" become the voiced stops , , and respectively unless they are written double. Ambiguity in these letters' pronunciations arises when a single consonant follows an "l, n," or "r". The lenited stops "ch, ph," and "th" become , , and respectively.


title: Old Irish

text: The voiced stops "b, d," and "g" become fricative , , and , respectively—identical sounds to their word-initial lenitions.


title: Old Irish

text: In non-initial positions, the letter "m" usually becomes the nasal fricative , but in some cases it becomes a nasal stop, denoted as . In cases in which it becomes a stop, "m" is often written double to avoid ambiguity.


title: Old Irish

text: Ambiguity arises in the pronunciation of the stop consonants ("c, g, t, d, p, b") when they follow "l, n," or "r":


title: Old Irish

text: The letters "l, n, r" are generally written double when they indicate "tense sonorants" and single when they indicate "lax sonorants". Originally, it reflected an actual difference between single and geminate consonants, as tense sonorants in many positions (such as between vowels or word-finally) developed from geminates. As the gemination was lost, the use of written double consonants was repurposed to indicate tense sonorants. Doubly written consonants of this sort do not occur in positions where tense sonorants developed from non-geminated Proto-Celtic sonorants (such as word-initially or before a consonant).


title: Old Irish

text: Geminate consonants appear to have existed since the beginning of the Old Irish period, but they were simplified by the end, as is generally reflected by the spelling. Although, "ll, mm, nn, rr" were eventually repurposed to indicate nonlenited variants of those sounds in certain positions.


title: Old Irish

text: Written vowels "a, ai, e, i" in poststressed syllables (except when absolutely word-final) all seem to represent phonemic . The particular vowel that appears is determined by the quality (broad vs. slender) of the surrounding consonants and has no relation to the etymological vowel quality:


title: Old Irish

text: Old Irish underwent extensive phonological changes from Proto-Celtic in both consonants and vowels. Final syllables were lost or transphonologized as grammatical mutations on the following word. In addition, unstressed syllables faced various reductions and deletions of their vowels.


title: Old Irish

text: Nouns decline for 5 cases: nominative, accusative, genitive, prepositional, vocative; 3 genders: masculine, feminine, neuter; 3 numbers: singular, dual, plural. Adjectives agree with nouns in case, gender, and number. The prepositional case is called the dative by convention.


title: Old Irish

text: Verbs conjugate for 3 tenses: past, present, future; 3 aspects: simple, perfective, imperfective; 4 moods: indicative, subjunctive, conditional, imperative; 2 voices: active, and passive; independent, and dependent forms; and simple, and complex forms. Verbs display tense, aspect, mood, voice, and sometimes portmanteau forms through suffixes, or stem vowel changes for the former four. Proclitics form a verbal complex with the core verb, and the verbal complex is often preceded by preverbal particles such as (negative marker), (interrogative marker), (perfective marker). Direct object personal pronouns are infixed between the preverb and the verbal stem. Verbs agree with their subject in person and number. A single verb can stand as an entire sentence. Emphatic particles such as -sa and -se are affixed to the end of the verb.


title: Old Irish

text: Prepositions inflect for person and number, and different prepositions govern different cases, sometimes depending on the semantics intended.


title: Sukhoi Su-9

text: The Sukhoi Su-9 (NATO reporting name: Fishpot) was a single-engine, all-weather, missile-armed interceptor aircraft developed by the Soviet Union.


title: Sukhoi Su-9

text: The Su-9 emerged from aerodynamic studies by TsAGI, the Soviet aerodynamic center, during the Korean War, which devised several optimum aerodynamic configurations for jet fighters. The design first flew in 1956 as the T-405 prototype. The Su-9 was developed at the same time as the Su-7 "Fitter", and both were first seen by the West at the Tushino Aviation Day on 24 June 1956, where the Su-9 was dubbed Fitter-B. It entered service in 1959.


title: Sukhoi Su-9

text: Total production of the Su-9 was about 1,100 aircraft. It is believed that at least some Su-9s were upgraded to Su-11 "Fishpot-C" form. None were exported to any of the USSR's client states nor to the Warsaw Pact nations. Remaining Su-9s and later Su-11s were retired during the 1970s. Some were retained as test vehicles or converted to remote-piloted vehicles for use as unmanned aerial vehicles. It was replaced by the upgraded Su-11 and the much-superior Su-15 "Flagon" and MiG-25 "Foxbat".


title: Sukhoi Su-9

text: The combat record of the "Fishpot", if any, is unknown. It is possible that it was involved in the interception (or even shoot-down) of reconnaissance missions whose details remain classified, but nothing is publicly admitted.


title: Sukhoi Su-9

text: It was reported that a Su-9 was involved in the interception of Francis Gary Powers' U-2 on Soviet territory on 1 May 1960. A newly manufactured Su-9 which was in transit flight happened to be near Powers' U-2. The Su-9 was unarmed and was directed to ram the U-2. One ramming attempt was made and the Su-9 missed the U-2, primarily due to large difference in the speed of the two planes. No further ramming attempt was made due to Su-9's lack of fuel.


title: Sukhoi Su-9

text: Its pilot, Captain Igor Mentyukov later claimed that his slipstream had caused the U-2 to break apart. He discounts the official version that the U-2 was shot down by an SA-2 missile, saying that Captain Powers could not have survived such a hit.


title: Sukhoi Su-9

text: On September 4, 1959 a modified Su-9 (designated T-431 by the bureau) piloted by Vladimir Sergeievitch Ilyushin set a new world record for absolute height, at 28,852 m (94,658 ft). In November of the same year Ilyushin set several new sustained speed/altitude records in the same aircraft. This record was later broken on 6 December 1959 by Commander Lawrence E. Flint Jr., who performed a zoom climb to a world record of 98,557 ft (30,040 m) while piloting an F4H-1 Phantom.


title: Sukhoi Su-9

text: The Su-9's fuselage and tail surfaces resembled those of the Su-7, but unlike the swept wing of that aircraft, the "Fishpot" used a 53° delta wing with conventional slab tailplanes. It shared Sukhoi features like the rear-fuselage air brakes as well as the Su-7's Lyulka AL-7 turbojet engine and nose intake. The translating shock cone contains the radar set.


title: Sukhoi Su-9

text: The Su-9 was developed from earlier work on a developmental aircraft designated T-3, to which the Su-9 was very nearly identical. Internally at Sukhoi, the Su-9 was known as the T-43.


title: Sukhoi Su-9

text: The delta wing of the Su-9 was adopted because of its lower drag in the supersonic flight regime. Its greater volume also allowed a very modest increase in fuel capacity compared to the Su-7. The Su-9 was capable of Mach 1.8 at altitude, or about Mach 1.14 with missiles. Its fuel fraction remained minimal, however, and operational radius was limited. Furthermore, rotation speeds were even higher than the Su-7, which was already high at 360 km/h (225 mph). Unlike the Su-7, which had very heavy controls but docile handling characteristics, the "Fishpot" had light and responsive controls, but was very unforgiving of pilot error.


title: Sukhoi Su-9

text: The Su-9 had primitive R1L (NATO reporting name "High Fix") radar in the shock cone and was armed with four K-5 (AA-1 "Alkali") beam-riding air-to-air missiles. Like all beam-riders, the K-5 was so limited as to be nearly useless for air-to-air combat . Unlike the Su-7 and later Su-15, no Su-9 carried cannon armament, although two fuselage pylons were reserved for the carriage of drop tanks.


title: Sukhoi Su-9

text: A two-seat trainer version, designated Su-9U, was also produced in limited numbers (about 50 aircraft). It received the NATO reporting name "Maiden". It had a full armament and radar system with displays in both cockpits, allowing trainees to practice all aspects of the interception mission, but because the second seat further reduced the already meager fuel fraction, it was not truly combat-capable.


title: Sukhoi Su-9

text: The Su-9 has been frequently mistaken for the MiG-21 due to the many similarities in design. The primary distinguishing factors are size and the Su-9's bubble canopy.


title: James J. Corbett

text: James John "Jim" Corbett (September 1, 1866 – February 18, 1933) was an American professional boxer and a World Heavyweight Champion, best known as the only man who ever defeated the great John L. Sullivan (hence the "man who beat the man" concept of the championship boxing lineage.) Despite a career spanning only 20 bouts, Corbett faced the best competition his era had to offer, squaring off with a total of nine fighters who would later be enshrined alongside him in the International Boxing Hall of Fame. Corbett introduced a truly scientific approach to boxing, in which technique triumphed over brute force. He pioneered the daily boxing training routine and regimen, which was adopted by other boxers elsewhere and has survived to modern days almost intact. A "big-money fighter," Corbett was one of the first athletes whose showmanship in and out of the ring was just as good as his boxing abilities. He was also arguably the first sports sex symbol of the modern era after the worldwide airing of his championship prizefight against Robert Fitzsimmons popularized boxing immensely among the female audience. He did so in an era in which prizefighting was illegal in 21 states and was still considered among the most infamous crimes against morality.


title: James J. Corbett

text: He was a son of Patrick Corbett, who emigrated from Ballycusheen, Ballinrobe, County Mayo, Ireland in 1854. James Corbett graduated from Sacred Heart High School in San Francisco, California and was rumored to have a college education. He pursued a career in acting, performing at a variety of theatres, before becoming a boxer. He was also a boxing trainer. His brother, Joe Corbett, would become a Major League Baseball pitcher.


title: James J. Corbett

text: Dubbed Gentleman Jim Corbett by the media, He has been called the "Father of Modern Boxing" for his scientific approach and technical innovations.


title: James J. Corbett

text: On May 21, 1891, Corbett fought Peter "Black Prince" Jackson, a much-heralded bout between crosstown rivals, since they were both boxing instructors at San Francisco's two most prestigious athletic clubs. They fought to a no-contest after 61 rounds.


title: James J. Corbett

text: The fight vaulted Corbett to national prominence and the public clamored for a contest between him and champion John L. Sullivan. Sullivan reluctantly agreed, and a fight date was set.


title: James J. Corbett

text: Corbett went into rigorous training and was confident of his chances after he sparred with Sullivan in a short exhibition match on a San Francisco stage. On September 7, 1892, at the Olympic Club in New Orleans, Louisiana, Corbett won the World Heavyweight Championship by knocking out John L. Sullivan in the 21st round. Corbett's new scientific boxing technique enabled him to dodge Sullivan's rushing attacks and wear him down with jabs.


title: James J. Corbett

text: Corbett did not prove to be a "Fighting Champion" in today's terms, meaning he defended the title very rarely. It was an era before boxing commissions, and regulation of the sport was minimal at best. Boxing was outlawed in most states, so arranging a time and place for a bout was largely a hit-and-miss proposition. Corbett treasured his title and viewed it as the ultimate promotional tool for his two main sources of income, theatrical performances and boxing exhibitions.


title: James J. Corbett

text: In his only successful title defense on January 25, 1894, Corbett knocked out Charley Mitchell of Great Britain in three rounds.


title: James J. Corbett

text: James Corbett also returned to his father's native Ballinrobe in 1894, and among the highlights of his visit were the boxing demonstrations he gave in Ballinrobe Town Hall. The proceeds from the event's entrance fees were donated for the upkeep of the parish church in Ballyovey (now Partry), County Mayo, where his uncle, Rev. James Corbett, was then parish priest. He also donated a stained glass window to the church. He coached boxing at the Olympic Club in San Francisco.


title: James J. Corbett

text: On September 7, 1894, he took part in the production of one of the first recorded boxing events, a fight with Peter Courtney. It was filmed at the Black Maria studio at West Orange, New Jersey, and was produced by William K.L. Dickson. It was only the second boxing match to be recorded.


title: James J. Corbett

text: in 1897 Corbett lost his Heavyweight Championship to the Cornish British boxer Bob "Ruby Robert" Fitzsimmons in Carson City, Nevada. Corbett was dominant for most of the fight and knocked Fitzsimmons to the canvas in the sixth round. Fitzsimmons recovered and, though badly cut, rallied from that point on. When Mrs. Fitzsimmons called out, "Hit him in the slats, Bob!", where "slats" meant the abdominal area, her husband followed her advice. The body blows took their toll, and though Corbett continued to outbox his opponent masterfully, ringsiders could see the champion slowing down. Fitzsimmons put Corbett down in the 14th round with a withering body blow to the solar plexus, and Corbett, despite his best efforts, could not regain his feet by the end of the ten-count. The fight, lasting over an hour and a half, was released to cinemas later that year as "The Corbett-Fitzsimmons Fight", the longest film ever released at the time.


title: James J. Corbett

text: Devastated by the loss of his title, Corbett did everything he could to lure Fitzsimmons back into the ring. He was sure Fitzsimmons's victory was a fluke, believing he (Corbett) had over-trained, leaving him short on stamina in the later rounds. Perhaps Fitzsimmons felt the same way, for not even a $30,000 guaranteed purse posted by Corbett's manager, William A. Brady, could get Ruby Robert back into the ring with Gentleman Jim. It may also have been Fitzsimmon's intense personal dislike of Corbett, who had often publicly insulted him, which ruled out any chance of another fight.


title: James J. Corbett

text: This set the stage for what most boxing experts and ring historians consider to be Corbett's finest fight. Refusing to face Corbett, Ruby Robert chose the hulking James J. Jeffries, a former sparring partner of Corbett's and a big heavyweight even by modern standards, for his title defense.


title: James J. Corbett

text: Jeffries had learned much of his trade training with Corbett and was now handled by Corbett's old manager, William Brady. After Jeffries beat Fitzsimmons, Corbett, who had been sidelined during Fitzsimmons reign, suggested a title fight between the new champion and himself. Brady, liking Corbett and reflecting after a recent poor showing against Tom Sharkey that his old fighter had little left in the tank at age 34, agreed to the match, which was set for the Seaside Arena in Coney Island, New York.


title: James J. Corbett

text: While Jeffries went through the motions in training, Corbett prepared like a Spartan for battle. He knew, with his speed, he could out-box his larger and stronger opponent, but he was giving up size, strength, almost 30 lb. in weight and a seven-year age difference. The key, he felt, was stamina and the ability to last the 25-round fight limit.


title: James J. Corbett

text: The early rounds saw Corbett moving quickly while "Big Jeff" attempted body shots. However, Jeffries could not lay a glove on the "Dancing Master". Round after round, Corbett had his way, darting in to land punches, then dancing away to avoid retaliation. By the 20th round, Jeffries' corner was in a panic. Manager Brady dismissed trainer Tommy Ryan from the corner and took charge himself with the simple but direct order, "Knock him out or lose your title!" Corbett only had to stay upright for the last five rounds to be heavyweight champion once again. Jeffries stalked Corbett around the ring, looking for an opening. Corbett danced away from any threat through the 22nd round.


title: James J. Corbett

text: Midway through the 23rd round, Corbett leaned back to avoid a blow from Jeffries, bounced off the ropes and was put on the canvas by a short right hand. He was counted out. Corbett found himself embraced by the public after this gallant effort. The adoration was short-lived, as his next fight, a five-round knockout over Kid McCoy, was widely believed to be a fix.


title: James J. Corbett

text: Corbett managed to contest for the heavyweight title one last time when he met Jeffries for a second match in San Francisco in 1903. Now 37, and with his reflexes slowing, Corbett survived a withering body blow in the second round and used every trick he knew to hang on until he was knocked out in the tenth.


title: James J. Corbett

text: Following his retirement from boxing, Corbett returned to acting, appearing in low-budget films and giving talks about pugilism. He also performed a minstrel show in skits with Cornelius J. O'Brien.


title: James J. Corbett

text: Corbett was married to Mary Olive Morris Higgins from 1886 until their divorce in 1895. He later married the actress Jessie Taylor, also known by her stage name, Vera. She survived Corbett by more than a quarter century. From 1903 until his death, Corbett lived at 221-04 Corbett Road in a three-story home in the Bayside neighborhood of the borough of Queens in New York City.


title: James J. Corbett

text: In 1924, he had a friendly sparring match with the future champion Gene Tunney, an admirer of Corbett's scientific style. Tunney was amazed at the ability of Corbett to spar, even at the age of about 60, and claimed that Corbett had better defense than Benny Leonard.


title: James J. Corbett

text: Corbett died of liver cancer on February 18, 1933, aged 66. His body was interred in the Cypress Hills Cemetery in Brooklyn, New York. On its creation in 1990, he was elected posthumously to the International Boxing Hall of Fame.


title: James J. Corbett

text: Corbett's great-great-great-nephew, Dan Corbett, was a professional heavyweight boxer from San Antonio, Texas, who won the United States Boxing Federation and International Boxing Organization Intercontinental Heavyweight titles before retiring.


title: James J. Corbett

text: In 1892, the Spalding company, under their own publishing company Spalding Athletic Library, issued “Life and Battles of James J. Corbett”, Volume 1, Number 1. The book includes stories of Corbett's past opponents. The editor Richard K Fox refers to Corbett as the California Wonder and a professor (of boxing).


title: James J. Corbett

text: In 1894, Corbett authored his autobiography under the title "The Roar of the Crowd"; the story was serialized by "The Saturday Evening Post" in six weekly installments during October/November 1894. The following year, G.P. Putnam's Sons published it in book form, marketing it as the "True Tale of the Rise and Fall of a Champion." In 1942, the story was made into a Hollywood motion picture titled "Gentleman Jim", starring Errol Flynn as Corbett.


title: James J. Corbett

text: In 1966, the actor James Davidson played Corbett in the episode "The Fight San Francisco Never Forgot" of the syndicated western television series "Death Valley Days", hosted by Ronald W. Reagan. In the story line, Walter Watson (John McLiam) becomes boxing instructor at the Olympic Club in San Francisco. In this capacity, he fights off a local bully and begins training Corbett to face him in a match vital to the future of Watson and the club.


title: James J. Corbett

text: Corbett is mentioned in a Season 2 episode of "The Simpsons", "Homer vs. Lisa and the 8th Commandment", when Mr. Burns remembers paying a nickel to attend a fight between Corbett and "an Eskimo fellow."


title: James J. Corbett

text: Gentleman Jim Corbett is shown as a character in the 1980 western movie Tom Horn starring Steve McQueen in which Tom Horn offends Jim Corbett who then gives Tom Horn a beating.


title: James J. Corbett

text: Thomas Edison wrote "I remember Jim Corbett very well, for he was a very important part of the first motion picture that we made for public exhibition. Yes, he can justly claim the distinction of being the oldest living film star, and I extend him my hearty congratulations," from a letter in 1930.


title: Standard time

text: Standard time is the synchronisation of clocks within a geographical region to a single time standard, rather than a local mean time standard. Generally, standard time agrees with the local mean time at some meridian that passes through the region, often near the centre of the region. Historically, standard time was established during the 19th century to aid weather forecasting and train travel. Applied globally in the 20th century, the geographical regions became time zones. The standard time in each time zone has come to be defined as an offset from Universal Time. A further offset is applied for part of the year in regions with daylight saving time.


title: Standard time

text: The adoption of standard time, because of the inseparable correspondence between time and longitude, solidified the concept of halving the globe into an eastern and western hemisphere, with one prime meridian replacing the various prime meridians that had previously been used.


title: Standard time

text: During the 19th century, scheduled steamships and trains required time standardisation in the industrialized world.


title: Standard time

text: A standardised time system was first used by British railways on 1 December 1847, when they switched from local mean time, which varied from place to place, to Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). It was also given the name railway time, reflecting the important role the railway companies played in bringing it about. The vast majority of Great Britain's public clocks were standardised to GMT by 1855.


title: Standard time

text: Until 1883, each United States railroad chose its own time standards. The Pennsylvania Railroad used the "Allegheny Time" system, an astronomical timekeeping service which had been developed by Samuel Pierpont Langley at the University of Pittsburgh’s Allegheny Observatory (then known as the Western University of Pennsylvania, located in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania). Instituted in 1869, the Allegheny Observatory's service is believed to have been the first regular and systematic system of time distribution to railroads and cities as well as the origin of the modern standard time system. By 1870 the Allegheny Time service extended over 2,500 miles with 300 telegraph offices receiving time signals.


title: Standard time

text: However, almost all railroads out of New York ran on New York time, and railroads west from Chicago mostly used Chicago time, but between Chicago and Pittsburgh/Buffalo the norm was Columbus time, even on railroads such as the PFtW&C and LS&MS, which did not run through Columbus. The Santa Fe Railroad used Jefferson City (Missouri) time all the way to its west end at Deming, New Mexico, as did the east–west lines across Texas; Central Pacific and Southern Pacific Railroads used San Francisco time all the way to El Paso. The Northern Pacific Railroad had seven time zones between St. Paul and the 1883 west end of the railroad at Wallula Jct; the Union Pacific Railway was at the other extreme, with only two time zones between Omaha and Ogden.


title: Standard time

text: In 1870, Charles F. Dowd proposed four time zones based on the meridian through Washington, DC for North American railroads. In 1872 he revised his proposal to base it on the Greenwich meridian. Sandford Fleming, a Scottish-born Canadian engineer, proposed worldwide Standard Time at a meeting of the Royal Canadian Institute on February 8, 1879. Cleveland Abbe advocated standard time to better coordinate international weather observations and resultant weather forecasts, which had been coordinated using local solar time. In 1879 he recommended four time zones across the contiguous United States, based upon Greenwich Mean Time. The General Time Convention (renamed the American Railway Association in 1891), an organization of US railroads charged with coordinating schedules and operating standards, became increasingly concerned that if the US government adopted a standard time scheme it would be disadvantageous to its member railroads. William F. Allen, the Convention secretary, argued that North American railroads should adopt a five-zone standard, similar to the one in use today, to avoid government action. On October 11, 1883, the heads of the major railroads met in Chicago at the Grand Pacific Hotel and agreed to adopt Allen's proposed system.


title: Standard time

text: The members agreed that on Sunday, November 18, 1883, all United States and Canadian railroads would readjust their clocks and watches to reflect the new five-zone system on a telegraph signal from the Allegheny Observatory in Pittsburgh at exactly noon on the 90th meridian. Although most railroads adopted the new system as scheduled, some did so early on October 7 and others late on December 2. The Intercolonial Railway serving the Canadian maritime provinces of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia just east of Maine decided not to adopt Intercolonial Time based on the 60th meridian west of Greenwich, instead adopting Eastern Time, so only four time zones were actually adopted by U.S./Canadian railroads in 1883. Major American observatories, including the Allegheny Observatory, the United States Naval Observatory, the Harvard College Observatory, and the Yale University Observatory, agreed to provide telegraphic time signals at noon Eastern Time.