title: Macalester College

text: In April 2003, Macalester installed a 10 kW Urban Wind Turbine on campus thanks to that year's senior class gift donating the installation cost and Xcel Energy donating the tower and turbine. MacCARES is developing a proposal for Macalester to invest in a Utility-Scale Wind Turbine in the range of 2MW. Other projects include the Eco-House, a student residence with a range of green features and research opportunities; a rain garden that prevents stormwater from running off into groundwater, a bike share program, and a veggie co-op. The Class of 2008 designated its senior class gift to a Sustainability Fund to support initiatives to improve environmental sustainability on campus and in the greater community. On January 1, 2013, Macalester started campus composting.


title: Macalester College

text: In September 2009, Macalester set a goal to become carbon-neutral by 2025 and Zero-Waste by 2020. The school is a signatory to the Talloires Declaration and the American College and University President's Climate Commitment, the latter obligating the college to work toward carbon neutrality. On April 18, 2012, President Brian Rosenberg signed the “Commitment to Sustainable Practices of Higher Education Institutions on the Occasion of the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development”.


title: Macalester College

text: In 2009, Macalester opened Markim Hall, a LEED Platinum building that houses the school's Institute for Global Citizenship. The building uses 45% less water and 75% less energy than a typical Minnesota building. Macalester is planning to remodel its Music, Theater, and Art buildings and is designing them to Minnesota B3 Guidelines.


title: Macalester College

text: Recent sustainability efforts have highlighted the intersection of social justice and climate change at Macalester as well as the potential conflict between its on-campus sustainability and its investments. Since 2012, students have criticized the college for making significant endowment investments in fossil fuel companies, including direct investments in oil and gas private partnerships. The student organization Fossil Free Mac has led a campaign urging the college to divest from fossil fuel companies. The campaign initially proposed full endowment divestment from the top 200 publicly traded fossil fuel companies, which Macalester's Social Responsibility Committee rejected in 2015. In 2018, the Social Responsibility Committee unanimously approved a revised Fossil Free Mac proposal advocating a moratorium on the college's direct investment partnerships with oil and gas companies, which the board of trustees is considering. The divestment campaign has received significant support from the student body, student government, faculty, staff, and alumni.


title: Verisign

text: Verisign Inc. is an American company based in Reston, Virginia, United States that operates a diverse array of network infrastructure, including two of the Internet's thirteen root nameservers, the authoritative registry for the , , and generic top-level domains and the and country-code top-level domains, and the back-end systems for the , , and sponsored top-level domains.


title: Verisign

text: In 2010, Verisign sold its authentication business unit – which included Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) certificate, public key infrastructure (PKI), Verisign Trust Seal, and Verisign Identity Protection (VIP) services – to Symantec for $1.28 billion. The deal capped a multi-year effort by Verisign to narrow its focus to its core infrastructure and security business units. Symantec later sold this unit to DigiCert in 2017. On October 25, 2018, NeuStar, Inc. acquired VeriSign’s Security Service Customer Contracts. The acquisition effectively transferred Verisign Inc.’s Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) protection, Managed DNS, DNS Firewall and fee-based Recursive DNS services customer contracts.


title: Verisign

text: Verisign's former chief financial officer (CFO) Brian Robins announced in August 2010 that the company would move from its original location of Mountain View, California, to Dulles in Northern Virginia by 2011 due to 95% of the company's business being on the East Coast. The company is incorporated in Delaware.


title: Verisign

text: Verisign was founded in 1995 as a spin-off of the RSA Security certification services business. The new company received licenses to key cryptographic patents held by RSA (set to expire in 2000) and a time-limited non-compete agreement. The new company served as a certificate authority (CA) and its initial mission was "providing trust for the Internet and Electronic Commerce through our Digital Authentication services and products". Prior to selling its certificate business to Symantec in 2010, Verisign had more than 3 million certificates in operation for everything from military to financial services and retail applications, making it the largest CA in the world.


title: Verisign

text: In 2000, Verisign acquired Network Solutions, which operated the , and TLDs under agreements with the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) and the United States Department of Commerce. Those core registry functions formed the basis for Verisign's naming division, which by then had become the company's largest and most significant business unit. In 2002, Verisign was charged with violation of the Securities Exchange Act. Verisign divested the Network Solutions retail (domain name registrar) business in 2003, retaining the domain name registry (wholesale) function as its core Internet addressing business.


title: Verisign

text: For the year ended December 31, 2010, Verisign reported revenue of $681 million, up 10% from $616 million in 2009. Verisign operates two businesses, Naming Services, which encompasses the operation of top-level domains and critical Internet infrastructure, and Network Intelligence and Availability (NIA) Services, which encompasses DDoS mitigation, managed DNS and threat intelligence.


title: Verisign

text: On August 9, 2010, Symantec completed its approximately $1.28 billion acquisition of Verisign's authentication business, including the Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) Certificate Services, the Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) Services, the Verisign Trust Services, the Verisign Identity Protection (VIP) Authentication Service, and the majority stake in Verisign Japan. The deal capped a multi-year effort by Verisign to narrow its focus to its core infrastructure and security business units. Following ongoing controversies regarding Symantec's handling of certificate validation, which culminated in Google untrusting Symantec-issued certificates in its Chrome web browser, Symantec sold this unit to DigiCert in 2017 for $950 Million.


title: Verisign

text: Verisign's share price tumbled in early 2014, hastened by the U.S. government's announcement that it would "relinquish oversight of the Internet's domain-naming system to a non-government entity". Ultimately ICANN chose to continue VeriSign's role as the root zone maintainer and the two entered into a new contract in 2016.


title: Verisign

text: Verisign's core business is its naming services division. The division operates the authoritative domain name registries for two of the Internet's most important top-level domains, and . It is also the contracted registry operator for the .name and .gov top-level domains as well as the country code top-level domains (Cocos Islands) and (Tuvalu). In addition, Verisign is the primary technical subcontractor for the , and top-level domains for their respective registry operators, which are non-profit organizations; in this role Verisign maintains the zone files for these particular domains and hosts the domains from their domain servers. Registry operators are the "wholesalers" of Internet domain names, while domain name registrars act as the “retailers”, working directly with consumers to register a domain name address.


title: Verisign

text: Verisign also operates two of the Internet's thirteen "root servers" which are identified by the letters A-M (Verisign operates the “A” and “J” root servers). The root servers form the top of the hierarchical Domain Name System that supports most modern Internet communication. Verisign also generates the globally recognized root zone file and is also responsible for processing changes to that file once they are ordered by ICANN via IANA and approved by the U.S. Department of Commerce. Changes to the root zone were originally distributed via the A root server, but now they are distributed to all thirteen servers via a separate distribution system which Verisign maintains. Verisign is the only one of the 12 root server operators to operate more than one of the thirteen root nameservers. The A and J root servers are "anycasted” and are no longer operated from any of the company's own datacenters as a means to increase redundancy and availability and mitigate the threat of a single point of failure. In 2016 the Department of Commerce ended its role in managing the Internet's DNS and transferred full control to ICANN. While this initially negatively impacted VeriSign's stock, ICANN eventually chose to contract with Verisign to continue its role as the root zone maintainer.


title: Verisign

text: VeriSign's naming services division dates back to 1993 when Network Solutions was awarded a contract by the National Science Foundation to manage and operate the civilian side of the Internet's domain name registrations. Network Solutions was the sole registrar for all of the Internet's non governmental generic top-level domains until 1998 when ICANN was established and the new system of competitive registrars was implemented. As a result of these new policies, Network Solutions divided itself into two divisions. The NSI Registry division was established to manage the authoritative registries that the company would still operate and was separated from the customer-facing registrar business that would have to compete with other registrars. The divisions were even geographically split with the NSI Registry moving from the corporate headquarters in Herndon, Virginia, to nearby Dulles, Virginia. In 2000, VeriSign purchased Network Solutions taking over its role in the Internet DNS. The NSI Registry division eventually became VeriSign's naming services division while the remainder of Network Solutions was later sold by Verisign in 2003 to Pivotal Equity Group.


title: Verisign

text: Following the sale of its authentication services division in 2010, Verisign relocated from its former headquarters in Mountain View, California, to the headquarters of the naming division in Sterling, Virginia (originally NSI Registry's headquarters). Verisign began shopping that year for a new permanent home shortly after moving. They signed a lease for 12061 Bluemont Way in Reston, the former Sallie Mae headquarters, in 2010 and decided to purchase the building in September 2011. They have since terminated their lease of their current space in two buildings at Lakeside@Loudoun Technology Center. The company completed its move at the end of November 2011. The new headquarters is located in the Reston Town Center development which has become a major commercial and business hub for the region. In addition to its Reston headquarters, Verisign owns three data center properties. One at 22340 Dresden Street in Dulles, Virginia not far from its corporate headquarters (within the large Broad Run Technology Park), one at 21 Boulden Circle in New Castle, Delaware, and a third in Fribourg, Switzerland. Their three data centers are mirrored so that a disaster at one data center has a minimal impact on operations. Verisign also leases an office suite in downtown Washington, D.C., on K street where its government relations office is located. It also has leased server space in numerous internet data centers around the world where the DNS constellation resolution sites are located, mostly at major internet peering facilities. One such facility is at the Equinix Ashburn Datacenter in Ashburn, Virginia, one of the world's largest datacenters and internet transit hubs.


title: Verisign

text: In January 2001, Verisign mistakenly issued two Class 3 code signing certificates to an individual claiming to be an employee of Microsoft. The mistake was not discovered and the certificates were not revoked until two weeks later during a routine audit. Because Verisign code-signing certificates do not specify a Certificate Revocation List Distribution Point, there was no way for them to be automatically detected as having been revoked, placing Microsoft's customers at risk. Microsoft had to later release a special security patch in order to revoke the certificates and mark them as being fraudulent.


title: Verisign

text: In 2002, Verisign was sued for domain slamming – transferring domains from other registrars to themselves by making the registrants believe they were merely renewing their domain name. Although they were found not to have broken the law, they were barred from suggesting that a domain was about to expire or claim that a transfer was actually a renewal.


title: Verisign

text: In September 2003, Verisign introduced a service called Site Finder, which redirected Web browsers to a search service when users attempted to go to non-existent or domain names. ICANN asserted that Verisign had overstepped the terms of its contract with the U.S. Department of Commerce, which in essence grants Verisign the right to operate the DNS for and , and Verisign shut down the service. Subsequently, Verisign filed a lawsuit against ICANN in February 2004, seeking to gain clarity over what services it could offer in the context of its contract with ICANN. The claim was moved from federal to California state court in August 2004. In late 2005 Verisign and ICANN announced a proposed settlement which defined a process for the introduction of new registry services in the registry. The documents concerning these settlements are available at ICANN.org. The ICANN comments mailing list archive documents some of the criticisms that have been raised regarding the settlement. Additionally Verisign was involved in the matter decided by the Ninth Circuit.


title: Verisign

text: In keeping with ICANN's charter to introduce competition to the domain name marketplace, Verisign agreed to give up its operation of top-level domain in 2003 in exchange for a continuation of its contract to operate , which, at the time had more than 34 million registered addresses.


title: Verisign

text: In mid-2005, the existing contract for the operation of expired and five companies, including Verisign, bid for management of it. Verisign enlisted numerous IT and telecom heavyweights including Microsoft, IBM, Sun Microsystems, MCI, and others, to assert that Verisign had a perfect record operating . They proposed Verisign continue to manage the DNS due to its critical importance as the domain underlying numerous "backbone" network services. Verisign was also aided by the fact that several of the other bidders were based outside the United States, which raised concerns in national security circles. On June 8, 2005, ICANN announced that Verisign had been approved to operate until 2011. More information on the bidding process is available at ICANN. On July 1, 2011, ICANN announced that VeriSign's approval to operate .net was extended another six years, until 2017.


title: Verisign

text: In February 2012 Verisign revealed that their network security had been repeatedly breached in 2010. Verisign stated that the breach did not impact the Domain Name System (DNS) that they maintain, but would not provide details about the loss of data. Verisign was widely criticized for not disclosing the breach earlier and apparently attempting to hide the news in an October 2011 SEC filing.


title: Verisign

text: Because of the lack of details provided by Verisign, it was not clear whether the breach impacted the certificate signing business, acquired by Symantec in late 2010. Some, such as Oliver Lavery, the Director of Security and Research for nCircle, doubted whether sites using Verisign SSL certificates could be trusted.


title: Verisign

text: On November 29, 2010, the U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (U.S. ICE) issued seizure orders against 82 web sites with Internet addresses that were reported to be involved in the illegal sale and distribution of counterfeit goods. As registry operator for , Verisign performed the required takedowns of the 82 sites under order from law enforcement. "InformationWeek" reported that "Verisign will say only that it received sealed court orders directing certain actions to be taken with respect to specific domain names". The removal of the 82 websites was cited as an impetus for the launch of "the Dot-P2P Project" in order to create a decentralized DNS service without centralized registry operators. Following the disappearance of WikiLeaks during the following week and its forced move to wikileaks.ch, a Swiss domain, the Electronic Frontier Foundation warned of the dangers of having key pieces of Internet infrastructure such as DNS name translation under corporate control.


title: Verisign

text: In March 2012, the US government declared that it has the right to seize domains ending in .com, .net, .cc, .tv, .name and .org if the companies administering the domains are based in the US. The US government can seize the domains ending in .com, .net, .cc, .tv and .name by serving a court-order on Verisign, which manages those domains. The .org domain is managed by the Virginia based non-profit Public Interest Registry. In March 2012, Verisign shut down the sports-betting site Bodog.com after receiving a court order, even though the domain name was registered to a Canadian company.


title: Hip dysplasia

text: Hip dysplasia is an abnormality of the hip joint where the socket portion does not fully cover the ball portion, resulting in an increased risk for joint dislocation. Hip dysplasia may occur at birth or develop in early life. Regardless, it does not typically produce symptoms in babies less than a year old. Occasionally one leg may be shorter than the other. The left hip is more often affected than the right. Complications without treatment can include arthritis, limping, and low back pain. Females are affected more often than males. Hip dysplasia was described at least as early as the 300s BC by Hippocrates.


title: Hip dysplasia

text: Risk factors for hip dysplasia include female sex, family history, certain swaddling practices, and breech presentation whether an infant is delivered vaginally or by cesarean section. If one identical twin is affected, there is a 40% risk the other will also be affected. Screening all babies for the condition by physical examination is recommended. Ultrasonography may also be useful.


title: Hip dysplasia

text: Many of those with mild instability resolve without specific treatment. In more significant cases, if detected early, bracing may be all that is required. In cases that are detected later, surgery and casting may be needed. About 7.5% of hip replacements are done to treat problems which have arisen from hip dysplasia.


title: Hip dysplasia

text: About 1 in 1,000 babies have hip dysplasia. Hip instability of meaningful importance occurs in one to two percent of babies born at term. Females are affected more often than males. Hip dysplasia was described at least as early as the 300s BC by Hippocrates.


title: Hip dysplasia

text: The congenital form, teratologic or non-reducible dislocation occurs as part of more complex conditions.


title: Hip dysplasia

text: If the joint is fully dislocated a false acetabulum often forms (often higher up on the pelvis) opposite the dislocated femoral head position.


title: Hip dysplasia

text: In acetabular dysplasia, the acetabulum (socket) is too shallow or deformed. The center-edge angle is measured as described by Wiberg. Two forms of femoral dysplasia are coxa vara, in which the femur head grows at too narrow an angle to the shaft, and coxa valga, in which the angle is too wide.


title: Hip dysplasia

text: A rare type, the "Beukes familial hip dysplasia" is found among Afrikaners that are members of the Beukes family. The femur head is flat and irregular. People develop osteoarthritis at an early age.


title: Hip dysplasia

text: Hip dysplasia is considered to be a multifactorial condition. That means that several factors are involved in causing the condition to manifest.


title: Hip dysplasia

text: The cause of the condition is unknown; however, some factors of congenital hip dislocation are through heredity and racial background. It is also thought that the higher rates in some ethnic groups (such as some Native American groups) is due to the practice of swaddling of infants, which is known to be a potential risk factor for developing dysplasia. It also has a low risk in African Americans and southern Chinese.


title: Hip dysplasia

text: Female sex, alone without other known risk factors, accounts for 75%. A genetic factor is indicated since the trait runs in families and there is an increased occurrence in some ethnic populations (e.g., Native Americans, Lapps / Sami people). A locus has been described on chromosome 13. Beukes familial dysplasia, on the other hand, was found to map to an 11-cM region on chromosome 4q35, with nonpenetrant carriers not affected.Further risk factors include , gender, genetics (family history), and firstborns.


title: Hip dysplasia

text: In the breech position the femoral head tends to get pushed out of the socket and the breech position is probably the most important single risk factor, whether an infant is delivered vaginally or by cesarean section.


title: Hip dysplasia

text: As an acquired condition it has been linked to traditions of swaddling infants, use of overly restrictive baby seats, carriers and other methods of transporting babies, or use of a cradle board which locks the hip joint in an "adducted" position (pulling the knees together tends to pull the heads of the femur bone out of the sockets or acetabulae) for extended periods. Modern swaddling techniques, such as the 'hip healthy swaddle' have been developed to relieve stress on hip joints caused by traditional swaddling methods.


title: Hip dysplasia

text: Sometimes during an exam a "click" or more precisely "clunk" in the hip may be detected (although not all clicks indicate hip dysplasia). When a hip click (also known as "clicky hips" in the UK) is detected, the child's hips are tracked with additional screenings to determine if developmental dysplasia of the hip is caused.


title: Hip dysplasia

text: Two maneuvers commonly employed for diagnosis in neonatal exams are the Ortolani maneuver and the Barlow maneuver.


title: Hip dysplasia

text: In order to do the Ortolani maneuver it is recommended that the examiner put the newborn baby in a position in which the opposite hip is held still while the thigh of the hip being tested is abducted and gently pulled anteriorly. If a "clunk" is heard (the sound of the femoral head moving over the acetabulum), the joint is normal, but absence of the "clunk" sound indicates that the acetabulum is not fully developed. The next method that can be used is called the Barlow maneuver. It is done by adducting the hip while pushing the thigh posteriorly. If the hip goes out of the socket it means it is dislocated, and the newborn has a congenital hip dislocation. The baby is laid on its back for examination by separation of its legs. If a clicking sound can be heard, it indicates that the baby may have a dislocated hip. It is highly recommended that these maneuvers be done when the baby is not fussing, because the baby may inhibit hip movement.


title: Hip dysplasia

text: Most vexingly, many newborn hips show a certain ligamentous laxity, on the other hand severely malformed joints can appear stable. That is one reason why follow-up exams and developmental monitoring are important. Physical examination of newborns followed by appropriate use of hip ultrasound is widely accepted.


title: Hip dysplasia

text: The Harris hip score (developed by William H. Harris MD, an orthopedist from Massachusetts) is one way to evaluate hip function following surgery. Other scoring methods are based on patients' evaluation like e.g. the Oxford hip score, HOOS and WOMAC score. Children's Hospital Oakland Hip Evaluation Scale (CHOHES) is a modification of the Harris hip score that is currently being evaluated.


title: Hip dysplasia

text: Hip dysplasia can develop in older age. Adolescents and adults with hip dysplasia may present with a waddling gait, Trendelenburg´s sign, decreased hip abduction, hip pain and in some cases hip labral tears. X-rays are used to confirm a diagnosis of hip dysplasia. CT scans and MRI scans are occasionally used too.


title: Hip dysplasia

text: Some sources prefer "developmental dysplasia of the hip" (DDH) to "congenital dislocation of the hip" (CDH), finding the latter term insufficiently flexible in describing the diversity of potential complications.


title: Hip dysplasia

text: The use of the word congenital can also imply that the condition already exists at birth. This terminology introduces challenges, because the joint in a newborn is formed from cartilage and is still malleable, making the onset difficult to ascertain. The newer term DDH also encompasses occult dysplasia (e.g. an underdeveloped joint) without dislocation and a dislocation developing after the "newborn" phase.


title: Hip dysplasia

text: The term is not used consistently. In pediatric/neonatal orthopedics it is used to describe unstable/dislocatable hips and poorly developed acetabula. For adults it describes hips showing abnormal femur head or acetabular x-rays.


title: Hip dysplasia

text: Some sources prefer the term "hip dysplasia" over DDH, considering it to be "simpler and more accurate", partly because of the redundancy created by the use of the terms developmental and dysplasia. Types of DDH include subluxation, dysplasia, and dislocation. The main types are the result of either laxity of the supporting capsule or an abnormal acetabulum.


title: Hip dysplasia

text: Hip dysplasia can be diagnosed by ultrasound and projectional radiography ("X-ray"). Ultrasound imaging is generally preferred at up to 4 months due to limited ossification of the femoral head up until then, and is the most accurate method for imaging of the hip during the first few months after birth. However, in most instances, ultrasound screening should not be performed before 3 to 4 weeks of age because of the normal physiologic laxity. When universal with targeted ultrasound screening was compared, the former results in an insignificant reduction in the late diagnosis of hip dysplasia, which is why universal ultrasonographic screening of newborn infants is not recommended by the American Academy of Pediatrics.


title: Hip dysplasia

text: Despite the widespread use of ultrasound, pelvis X-ray is still frequently used to diagnose or monitor hip dysplasia or for assessing other congenital conditions or bone tumors.


title: Hip dysplasia

text: The most useful lines and angles that can be drawn in the pediatric pelvis assessing hip dysplasia are as follows: Different measurements are used in adults.


title: Hip dysplasia

text: Hip dysplasia presents a nearly perfect equilibrium between the arthritis, movement/mobility problems and pain associated with the developmental malformation, and the arthritis, movement/mobility problems and pain that are, as often as not in moderate to severe cases, inflicted by the treatment itself.


title: Hip dysplasia

text: However, given the very real possibility of a limp, constant and/or debilitating pain, complicated treatment and impaired mobility later in life, careful developmental monitoring is indicated and early intervention is often the best result. The worst possible consequence of non treatment is developing early arthritis, sometimes even during teenage years. All treatment aims to delay the onset of arthritis, but no treatment is fully successful in avoiding it; and, all available treatments bear the risk of inflicting equivalent damage. Most unfortunately, studies have as yet been unable to find a method of predicting outcomes in either the surgical/orthopedic treatment of the condition in infants and young children, or the surgical treatment of these early treatments' negative outcomes later in life (such as arthritis, avascular necrosis, trochanteric bursitis, and bone spurs of up to 3.5 cm just medial of the gluteus maximus insertion point on the greater trochanter due to excessive friction).


title: Hip dysplasia

text: Early hip dysplasia can often be treated using a Pavlik harness (see photograph) or the Frejka pillow/splint in the first year of life with usually normal results. Complications can occur when using the Pavlik harness. Cases of femoral nerve palsy and avascular necrosis of the femoral head have been reported with the use of the Pavlik harness, but whether these cases were due to improper application of the device or a complication encountered in the course of the disorder remains unresolved. Complications arise mainly because the sheet of the iliopsoas muscle pushes the circumflex artery against the neck of the femur and decreases blood flow to the femoral head, so the Frejka pillow is not indicated in all the forms of the developmental dysplasia of the hip.


title: Hip dysplasia

text: Other devices employed include the spica cast, particularly following surgical closed reduction, open reduction, or osteotomy in babies and young children. Traction is sometimes used in the weeks leading up to a surgery to help stretch ligaments in the hip joint, although its use is controversial and varies amongst physicians.


title: Hip dysplasia

text: In older children the adductor and iliopsoas muscles may have to be treated surgically because they adapt to the dislocated joint position (contracture).


title: Hip dysplasia

text: Although some children "outgrow" untreated mild hip dysplasia and some forms of untreated dysplasia cause little or no impairment of quality of life, studies have as yet been unable to find a method of predicting outcomes. On the other hand, it has often been documented that starting treatment late leads to complications and ends in poor results.


title: Hip dysplasia

text: Hip dysplasia is often cited as causing osteoarthritis of the hip at a comparatively young age. Dislocated load bearing surfaces lead to increased and unusual wear, although there are studies that contradict these findings (see). Peri-acetabular osteotomy (PAO) surgery can be used to realign the hip joint in some adolescents and adults. Subsequent treatment with total hip arthroplasty (hip replacement) is complicated by a need for revision surgery (replacing the artificial joint) owing to skeletal changes as the body matures, loosening/wear or bone resorption. Hip resurfacing is another option for correcting hip dysplasia in adults. It is a type of hip replacement that preserves more bone, and may work for younger hip dysplasia patients.


title: Hip dysplasia

text: Osteotomies are either used in conjunction with arthroplasty or by themselves to correct misalignment.


title: Hip dysplasia

text: Determining the incidence can be difficult. In addition there is a wide margin in diagnostic results. A German study comparing two methods resulted in twice the usual rate for one method. The condition is eight times more frequent in females than in males.


title: Hip dysplasia

text: Native Americans are more likely to have congenital hip dislocation than any of the other races. The risk for Native Americans is about 25–50 in 1000. The overall frequency of developmental dysplasia of the hip is approximately 1 case per 1000 individuals; however, Barlow believed that the incidence of hip instability in newborns can be as high as 1 case for every 60 newborns, with the rate dropping to 1:240 at one week.


title: Hip dysplasia

text: The Frejka pillow splint was named after Dr. Bedrich Frejka (1890-1972), a Czech orthopedic surgeon. The Pavlik harness was named after Dr. Arnold Pavlik (1902-1962), also a Czech orthopedic surgeon.


title: Hip dysplasia

text: In the television program "ER", Kerry Weaver uses a crutch owing to congenital hip dysplasia. In season 12, she undergoes a hip replacement to cure her dysplasia when her previously untreated joint worsens.


title: Hip dysplasia

text: One avenue of research is using stem cells. They are applied in grafting (bone grafting) or by seeding porous arthroplasty prosthesis with autologous fibroblasts or chondrocyte progenitor cells to assist in firmly anchoring the artificial material in the bone bed.


title: Hip dysplasia

text: In dogs, hip dysplasia is an abnormal formation of the hip socket that, in its more severe form, can eventually cause crippling lameness and painful arthritis of the joints. It is a genetic (polygenic) trait that is affected by environmental factors. It is common in many dog breeds, particularly the larger breeds.


title: Hip dysplasia

text: Hip dysplasia is one of the most studied veterinary conditions in dogs, and the most common single cause of arthritis of the hips. Cats are also known to have this condition, especially Siamese.


title: Damini

text: Damini () is a 1993 Indian Hindi-language crime drama film directed and co-written by Rajkumar Santoshi. It stars Meenakshi Seshadri in the titular role with Sunny Deol, Rishi Kapoor and Amrish Puri. Aamir Khan makes a special appearance. The story revolves around Damini who witnesses her housemaid being raped by her brother-in-law and his friends. Despite facing many obstacles, she strives to get justice for her with the help of her husband and Govind, a lawyer. The film is considered to be one of the best woman-centric films ever made in Bollywood.


title: Damini

text: Besides being critically acclaimed, the film also became the sixth highest grossing of the year and was declared a "hit" at Box Office India. "Damini – Lightning" is mostly remembered for Meenakshi Seshadri's career best performance that was highly acclaimed.


title: Damini

text: It is considered a cult feminist film and is still regarded as an all-time classic female oriented film and important for portraying women empowerment in cinema The pathbreaking film was praised for breaking social taboos and handling the subject of rape with sensitivity; a rarity in Bollywood at the time.


title: Damini

text: It is equally memorable for Sunny Deol's brilliant portrayal of an alcoholic lawyer and the role gained him a Filmfare as well as National Film Award for Best Supporting Actor for 1993. It strengthened his Bollywood he-man image. His dialogues in the film ""Tarikh Pe Tarikh"" ("date after date") and ""Dhai Kilo ka Haath"" ('Two-and-a-half kilogram hand') became iconic and a pop-culture reference. The film was a milestone in the careers of Sunny Deol, Meenakshi Sheshadri and Amrish Puri, who gave some great hits like "Ghayal" (1990) and "" (1996) together. Aamir Khan acted in a special appearance in the stage show dance song. He also promotes his upcoming film "Andaz Apna Apna" (1994) which was also directed by Rajkumar Santoshi.


title: Damini

text: "Damini" is the recipient of a number of accolades. At the 40th National Film Awards, Deol won Best Supporting Actor. In addition to other awards, the film received seven nominations at the 39th Filmfare Awards including Best Film, Best Actress for Seshadri, and Best Villain for Puri. It won a 4 leading awards — Best Director for Santoshi, Best Supporting Actor for Deol, Best Story for Sutanu Gupta, and Best Sound for Rakesh Ranjan.


title: Damini

text: Shekhar Gupta (Rishi Kapoor), a rich businessman, falls in love at first sight with Damini (Meenakshi Seshadri). They get married and Damini moves into his luxurious bungalow. On Holi day, she witnesses Shekhar's younger brother, Rakesh (Ashwin Kaushal), and his friends, gangraping the maid-servant Urmi (Prajakta) and rushes to tell Shekhar. Shekhar rushes over to prevent sexual assault but is too late. The Gupta family conspires to cover up this shameful incident. But Damini decides to inform the police. The matter is taken up in court and Damini is asked to testify. Damini is portrayed as a mentally unstable person and confined in a mental institution for two weeks by judicial order. Unable to bear the mental torture in the institution, she escapes and runs into a down-and-out alcoholic lawyer, Govind (Sunny Deol), who has the rape case re-opened. Urmi dies in hospital and the police write her death off as a suicide. But Govind is able to prove otherwise. It is up to Damini, Govind and Shekhar to provide justice to the victimized girl.


title: Damini

text: The soundtrack of this movie was composed by the music duo Nadeem Shravan and the lyrics were penned by Sameer . The soundtrack was released in 1993 on Audio Cassette and Audio CD in RPG-HMV Music Made in India and EMI Made in England, Which consist 5 Songs. The full album is recorded by Kumar Sanu, Alka Yagnik, and Sadhna Sargam


title: Damini

text: The lyrics were written The song "Gawah Hain Chand Taare Gawah Hai" is based on the Swahili folk song "Malaika".


title: Damini

text: Film reviewer Pranay Bhagat wrote: "If there is one modern film which signifies the importance of truth it has to be "Damini". Though the movie is more remembered for the dialogues of Sunny Deol and his confrontational scenes with Amrish Puri, I feel the movie should also be appreciated for a tight bound script, the wonderfully directed courtroom scenes, good background music as well as a career best performance from Meenakshi."


title: Damini

text: Critic Vineeta Sinha in her review praises the film for its tight bound script, courtroom scenes, music and above all the career best performance of Meenakshi.


title: Damini

text: Film critic Sulagana Biswas for the "Telegraph India"; states the film despite being dated is still "eminently watchable" and also praising Sheshadri's portrayal of the title role states "the film still holds its own due to the earnestness of Meenakshi Sheshadri's performance".


title: Damini

text: Simantini Dey writing for "News18" hails the film as a "cult feminist film" and states ""Damini" -- released in 1993 -- is perhaps one of the most misunderstood films in Bollywood history. Despite receiving instant critical acclaim upon its release and having a successful run at the box-office, we as an audience have celebrated this film for all the wrong reasons. Yes, Sunny Deol's punchy dialogues like, "Tarikh par Tarikh milti rahi hai, lekin insaaf nahi mila, my lord!" deserved all the claps and whistles it received, and the theatrics of the courtroom drama, wherein two lawyers Govind (Sunny Deol) and Mr. Indrajit Chaddha (Amrish Puri) exchange angry words and stares indeed make for a great Bollywood entertainer. But the real reason why "Damini" was such an iconic film and deserves a cult status is the protagonist of the film --- Damini (played brilliantly by Meenakshi Seshadri). Till date, Bollywood has not given us such a strong and beautifully written female character as Damini, who not only has a mind of her own, but also a conscience. Long before films like "Raazi "and "Pink" were made in Bollywood, Rajkumar Santoshi's "Damini" gave us a HIT feminist movie with a female central character, who fights against all odds to bring justice to another woman."


title: Damini

text: "Damini – Lightning" was remade into Oriya as "Nari Nuhne Tu Narayani", starring Sidhanta Mohapatra and Rachana Banarjee, in Tamil as "Priyanka", starring Revathi as the title character, in Telugu as "Urmila", starring Suman and Malashri, and in Bangladesh as "Sottyer Bijoy", starring Manna and Moushumi, directed by F.I. Manik. "Box Office India" declared the film a super hit. The rights of the movie were owned by Shah Rukh Khan's Red Chillies Entertainment, which were transferred to Sunny Deol who plans to remake the film with his son Karan Deol.


title: Nur Muhammad Taraki

text: Nur Muhammad Taraki (; 14 July 1917 – 9 October 1979) was an Afghan revolutionary communist politician, journalist and writer. He was a founding member of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) who served as its General Secretary from 1965 to 1979 and Chairman of the Revolutionary Council from 1978 to 1979.


title: Nur Muhammad Taraki

text: Taraki was born in Nawa, Ghazni Province, and graduated from Kabul University, after which he started his political career as a journalist. From the 1940s onward Taraki also wrote novels and short stories in the socialist realism style. Forming the PDPA at his residence in Kabul along with Babrak Karmal, he was elected as the party's General Secretary at its first congress. He ran as a candidate in the 1965 Afghan parliamentary election but failed to win a seat. In 1966 he published the "Khalq", a party newspaper advocating for class struggle, but the government closed it down shortly afterward. In 1978 he, Hafizullah Amin and Babrak Karmal initiated the Saur Revolution and established the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan.


title: Nur Muhammad Taraki

text: Taraki's leadership was short-lived and marked by controversies. The government was divided between two PDPA factions: the Khalqists (led by Taraki), the majority, and the Parchamites, the minority. Taraki along with his "protégé" Amin started a purge of the government and party that led to several high-ranking Parchamite members being sent into de facto exile by being assigned to serve overseas as ambassadors, and later started jailing domestic Parchamites. His regime locked up dissidents and oversaw massacres of villagers, citing the necessity of Red Terror by the Bolsheviks in Soviet Russia, that opponents of the Saur Revolution had to be eliminated. These factors, among others, led to a popular backlash that initiated a rebellion. Despite repeated attempts, Taraki was unable to persuade the Soviet Union to intervene in support of the restoration of civil order. Amin initiated most of these policies behind the scenes.


title: Nur Muhammad Taraki

text: Taraki's reign was marked by a cult of personality centered around him that Amin had cultivated. The state press and subsequent propaganda started to refer to him as the "Great Leader" and "Great Teacher", and his portrait became a common sight throughout the country. His relationship with Amin turned sour during his rule, ultimately resulting in Taraki's overthrow on 14 September 1979 and subsequent murder on 8 October, on Amin's orders, with Kabul press reporting that he died of illness. His death was a factor that led to the Soviet intervention in December 1979.


title: Nur Muhammad Taraki

text: Taraki was born on 14 July 1917 to a Khilji Pashtun peasant family in the Nawa District of Ghazni Province, part of what was then the Emirate of Afghanistan. He was the oldest of three children and attended a village school in Nawa, before leaving in 1932 what had become the Kingdom of Afghanistan, at the age of 15, to work in the port city of Bombay, India. There he met a Kandahari merchant family who employed him as a clerk for the Pashtun Trading Company. Taraki's first encounter with communism was during his night courses, where he met several Communist Party of India members who impressed him with their discussions on social justice and communist values. Another important event was his encounter with Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, a Pashtun nationalist and leader of the Red Shirt Movement in neighbouring India, who was an admirer of the works of Vladimir Lenin.


title: Nur Muhammad Taraki

text: In 1937, Taraki started working for Abdul Majid Zabuli, the Minister of Economics, who introduced him to several Russians. Later Taraki became Deputy Head of the Bakhtar News Agency and became known throughout the country as an author and poet. His best known book, the "De Bang Mosaferi", highlights the socio-economic difficulties facing Afghan workers and peasants. His works were translated into Russian language in the Soviet Union, where his work was viewed as embodying scientific socialist themes. He was hailed by the Soviet Government as "Afghanistan's Maxim Gorky". On his visit to the Soviet Union Taraki was greeted by Boris Ponomarev, the Head of the International Department of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, and other Communist Party of the Soviet Union members.


title: Nur Muhammad Taraki

text: Under "Sardar" Mohammad Daoud Khan's prime ministership, suppression of radicals was common. However, because of his language skills, Taraki was sent to the Afghan Embassy in the United States in 1952. Within several months, Taraki began denouncing the Royal Afghan Government under King Zahir, and accused it of being autocratic and dictatorial. His denunciation of the Royal Afghan Government earned him much publicity in the United States. It also attracted unfavourable attention from authorities back home, who relieved him of his post and ordered him repatriated but stopped short of placing him under arrest. After a short period of unemployment, Taraki started working for the United States Overseas Mission in Kabul as an interpreter. He quit that job in 1958 and established his own translation company, the Noor Translation Bureau. Four years later, he started working for the U.S. Embassy in Kabul, but quit in 1963 to focus on the establishment of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA), a communist political party.


title: Nur Muhammad Taraki

text: At the founding congress of the PDPA, held in his own home in Kabul's Karte Char district, Taraki won a competitive election against Babrak Karmal to the post of general secretary on 1 January 1965. Karmal became second secretary. Taraki ran as a candidate for the PDPA during the September 1965 parliamentary election but did not win a seat. Shortly after the election, he launched "Khalq", the first major left-wing newspaper in Afghanistan. The paper was banned within one month of its first printing. In 1967, less than two years after its founding, the PDPA split into several factions. The largest of these included Khalq ("Masses") led by Taraki, and Parcham ("Banner") led by Karmal. The main differences between the factions were ideological, with Taraki supporting the creation of a Leninist-like state, while Karmal wanted to establish a "broad democratic front".


title: Nur Muhammad Taraki

text: On 19 April 1978, a prominent leftist named Mir Akbar Khyber was assassinated and the murder was blamed on Mohammed Daoud Khan's Republic of Afghanistan. His death served as a rallying point for the pro-communist Afghans. Fearing a communist coup d'état, Daoud ordered the arrest of certain PDPA leaders, including Taraki and Karmal, while placing others such as Hafizullah Amin under house arrest. On 27 April 1978, the Saur Revolution was initiated, reportedly by Amin while still under house arrest. Khan was killed the next day along with most of his family. The PDPA rapidly gained control and on 1 May Taraki became Chairman of the Revolutionary Council, a role which subsumed the responsibilities of both president and Chairman of the Council of Ministers (literally prime minister in Western parlance). The country was then renamed the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan (DRA), installing a regime that would last until April 1992.


title: Nur Muhammad Taraki

text: Taraki was appointed Chairman of the Revolutionary Council (head of state) and Chairman of the Council of Ministers (head of government) while retaining his post as PDPA general secretary (supreme leader). He initially formed a government which consisted of both Khalqists and Parchamites; Karmal became Deputy Chairman of the Presidium of the Revolutionary Council while Amin became Minister of Foreign Affairs and Deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers. Internal problems soon arose and several prominent Khalqists accused the Parcham faction of conspiring against the Taraki government. A Khalqi purge of the Parcham then began with the faction's most prominent members being sent out of the country: Karmal became Afghan Ambassador to Czechoslovakia and Mohammad Najibullah became Afghan Ambassador to Iran. Internal struggle was not only to be found between the Khalqist and Parchamites; tense rivalry between Taraki and Amin had begun in the Khalq faction with both vying for control.


title: Nur Muhammad Taraki

text: Karmal was recalled from Czechoslovakia but rather than returning to Afghanistan he went into hiding with Anahita Ratebzad, his friend and former Afghan ambassador to Yugoslavia, as he feared execution if he returned. Muhammad Najibullah followed them. Taraki consequently stripped them of all official titles and political authority.


title: Nur Muhammad Taraki

text: The new government, under Taraki, launched a campaign of repression against opponents of the Saur Revolution, which killed thousands, mostly at Pul-e-Charkhi prison. Estimates for the number executed at the prison, between April 1978 and December 1979, are as high as 27,000.


title: Nur Muhammad Taraki

text: Taraki's Government initiated a land reform on 1 January 1979 which attempted to limit the amount of land a family could own. Those whose landholdings exceeded the limit saw their property requisitioned by the government without compensation. The Afghan leadership believed the reform would be met with popular approval amongst the rural population while weakening the power of the bourgeoisie. The reform was declared complete in mid-1979 and the government proclaimed that 665,000 hectares (approximately 1,632,500 acres) had been redistributed. The government also declared that only 40,000 families, or 4 percent of the population, had been negatively affected by the land reform.


title: Nur Muhammad Taraki

text: Contrary to government expectations the reform was neither popular nor productive. Agricultural harvests plummeted and the reform itself led to rising discontent amongst Afghans. When Taraki realized the degree of popular dissatisfaction with the reform he quickly abandoned the policy. However, the land reform was gradually implemented under the later Karmal administration, although the proportion of land area impacted by the reform is unclear.


title: Nur Muhammad Taraki

text: In the months following the coup, Taraki and other party leaders initiated other radical Marxist policies that challenged both traditional Afghan values and well-established traditional power structures in rural areas. Taraki introduced women to political life and legislated an end to forced marriage. However, he ruled over a nation with a deep Islamic religious culture and a long history of resistance to any type of strong centralized governmental control, and consequently many of these reforms were not actually implemented nationwide. Popular resentment of Taraki's drastic policy changes triggered surging unrest throughout the country, reducing government control to only a limited area. The strength of this anti-reform backlash would ultimately lead to the Afghan civil war.


title: Nur Muhammad Taraki

text: Traditional practices that were deemed feudal—such as usury, bride price and forced marriage—were banned, and the minimum age of marriage was raised. The government stressed education for both women and men, and launched an ambitious literacy campaign.


title: Nur Muhammad Taraki

text: Under the previous administration of Mohammad Daoud Khan, a literacy programme created by UNESCO had been launched with the objective of eliminating illiteracy within 20 years. The government of Taraki attempted to reduce this time frame from 20 to four years, an unrealistic goal in light of the shortage of teachers and limited government capacity to oversee such an initiative. The duration of the project was later lengthened to seven years by the Soviets in the aftermath of the Soviet intervention. The cultural focus of the UNESCO programme was declared "rubbish" by Taraki, who instead chose to introduce a political orientation by utilizing PDPA leaflets and left-wing pamphlets as basic reading material.


title: Nur Muhammad Taraki

text: On 19 August 1978, Afghan Independence Day, Taraki started the broadcasts of Afghanistan National Television, the first TV channel in the country.


title: Nur Muhammad Taraki

text: Taraki signed a Twenty-Year Treaty of Friendship with the Soviet Union on 5 December 1978 which greatly expanded Soviet aid to his regime. Following the Herat uprising, Taraki contacted Alexei Kosygin, chairman of the USSR Council of Ministers, and asked for "practical and technical assistance with men and armament". Kosygin was unfavorable to the proposal on the basis of the negative political repercussions such an action would have for his country, and he rejected all further attempts by Taraki to solicit Soviet military aid in Afghanistan. Following Kosygin's rejection Taraki requested aid from Leonid Brezhnev, the general secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and Soviet head of state, who warned him that full Soviet intervention "would only play into the hands of our enemies – both yours and ours". Brezhnev also advised Taraki to ease up on the drastic social reforms and to seek broader support for his regime.


title: Nur Muhammad Taraki

text: In 1979, Taraki attended a conference of the Non-Aligned Movement in Havana, Cuba. On his way back he stopped in Moscow on 20 March and met with Brezhnev, foreign minister Andrei Gromyko and other Soviet officials. It was rumoured that Karmal was present at the meeting in an attempt to reconcile Taraki's Khalq faction and the Parcham against Amin and his followers. At the meeting, Taraki was successful in negotiating some Soviet support, including the redeployment of two Soviet armed divisions at the Soviet–Afghan border, the sending of 500 military and civilian advisers and specialists, and the immediate delivery of Soviet armed equipment sold at 25 percent below the original price. However, the Soviets were not pleased about the developments in Afghanistan and Brezhnev impressed upon Taraki the need for party unity. Despite reaching this agreement with Taraki, the Soviets continued to be reluctant to intervene further in Afghanistan and repeatedly refused Soviet military intervention within Afghan borders during Taraki's rule as well as later during Amin's short rule.


title: Nur Muhammad Taraki

text: In the first months after the April 1978 revolution, Hafizullah Amin and Taraki had a very close relationship. Taraki reportedly remarked, "Amin and I are like nail and flesh, not separable". Amin set about constructing a personality cult centered on Taraki. In party and government meetings Amin always referred to Taraki as "The Great Leader", "The Star of the East" or "The Great Thinker" among other titles, while Amin was given such titles as "The True Disciple and Student". Amin would later come to realize he had created a monster when the Kim Il-sung-style personality cult he had created inspired Taraki to become overly confident and believe in his own brilliance. Taraki began discounting Amin's suggestions, fostering in Amin a deep sense of resentment. As their relationship turned increasingly sour, a power struggle developed between them for the control of the Afghan National Army. Their relations came to a head later that year when Taraki accused Amin of nepotism after Amin had appointed several family members to high-ranking positions.


title: Nur Muhammad Taraki

text: On 3 August 1978, a KGB delegation visited Afghanistan, and on first impression of general Oleg Kalugin, Taraki "did not have the physical strength or the backing to continue to lead the country for long", adding that Amin was a "far more impressive figure".


title: Nur Muhammad Taraki

text: Taraki could count on the support of four prominent army officers in his struggle against Amin: Aslam Watanjar, Sayed Mohammad Gulabzoy, Sherjan Mazdoryar and Assadullah Sarwari. These men had joined the PDPA not because of ideological reasons, but instead due to their lofty political ambitions. They also had developed a close relationship with Alexander Puzanov, the Soviet ambassador in Afghanistan, who was eager to use them against Amin. After the Herat city uprising on 17 March 1979, the PDPA Politburo and the Revolutionary Council established the Homeland Higher Defence Council, to which Taraki was elected its chairman while Amin became its deputy. At around the same time, Taraki left his post as Council of Ministers chairman and Amin was elected his successor. Amin's new position offered him little real influence, however; as Chairman of the Council of Ministers, Amin had the power to elect every member of the cabinet, but all of them had to be approved by the head of state, Taraki. In reality, through this maneuver Taraki had effectively reduced Amin's power base by forcing him to relinquish his hold on the Afghan army in order to take on the supposedly heavy responsibilities of his new but ultimately powerless post.


title: Nur Muhammad Taraki

text: During Taraki's foreign visit to the non-aligned conference in Cuba, his Gang of Four had received an intelligence report that Amin was planning to arrest or kill them. This report, it turned out, was incorrect. Nonetheless, the Gang of Four were ordered to assassinate Amin, its leader Sarwari selecting his nephew Aziz Akbari to conduct the assassination. However, Akbari was not informed that he was the chosen assassin or that it was a secret mission, and he confided the information to contacts in the Soviet embassy. The embassy responded by warning Amin of the assassination attempt, thereby saving him from certain death.


title: Nur Muhammad Taraki

text: On 11 September 1979, Chairman Taraki was greeted by Amin at the airport on his return to Kabul from Moscow. The flight was scheduled to land at 2:30, but Amin forced the delay of the landing by an hour as a demonstration to Taraki of his control over the government. Shortly afterward, Taraki, instead of reporting to the cabinet about the Havana Summit, indirectly tried to dismiss Amin from his position as per the plot of the Soviets. He sought to neutralise Amin's power and influence by requesting that he serve overseas as an ambassador, but Amin turned down the proposal, shouting "You are the one who should quit! Because of drink and old age you have taken leave of your senses." The following day, Taraki invited Amin to the Arg (the Presidential palace) for lunch with him and the Gang of Four. Amin turned down the offer, stating he would prefer their resignation rather than lunching with them. Soviet Ambassador Puzanov managed to persuade Amin to make the visit to the palace along with Sayed Daoud Tarun, the Chief of Police, and Nawab Ali (an intelligence officer). Inside the palace on 14 September, bodyguards within the building opened fire on the visitors. Tarun was killed but Amin only sustained injuries and escaped to his car, driving to the Ministry of Defence. Shortly afterwards, Amin placed the Army on high alert, ordered the detainment of Taraki, and telephoned Puzanov about the incident. That evening at 6:30, tanks from the 4th Armoured Corps entered the city and stood at government positions. Amin returned to the Arg with a contingent of Army officers and placed Taraki under arrest. The Gang of Four, however, had "disappeared", taking refuge at the Soviet embassy.


title: Nur Muhammad Taraki

text: The Soviets tried to dissuade Amin from expelling Taraki and his associates from their positions, but Amin refused. On 15 September, a Soviet battalion at Bagram Air Base and the embassy were put in position in an attempt to rescue Taraki, but they were never ordered to make a move as they felt that Amin's forces had the edge. At 8pm on 16 September, Radio Kabul announced that Taraki had informed the PDPA Politburo that he was no longer able to continue his duties, and that the Politburo subsequently elected Amin as the new General Secretary. After Taraki's arrest, Amin reportedly discussed the incident with Leonid Brezhnev in which he said, "Taraki is still around. What should I do with him?" Brezhnev replied that it was his choice. Amin, who now believed he had the full support of the Soviets, ordered the death of Taraki. Taraki's death occurred on 8 October 1979, when he was (according to most accounts) suffocated with pillows by three men under Amin's orders. Taraki did not resist nor did he say anything as he was instructed by the men to lie down on a bed to be suffocated. His body was secretly buried by the men at night. The news shocked Brezhnev, who had vowed to protect Taraki. It was also one of the factors of the Soviet intervention two months later. The Afghan media reported two days later that the ailing Taraki had died of a "serious illness", omitting any mention of his murder.


title: Nur Muhammad Taraki

text: On the day that Taraki was assassinated, 28 men and women from Taraki's extended family (including his wife and brother) were jailed at Pul-e-Charkhi prison. After Karmal came into power, family members including Taraki's widow were released.


title: Nur Muhammad Taraki

text: On 2 January 1980 edition of the "Kabul New Times" (the day of the PDPA's 15th anniversary), the education minister Anahita Ratebzad called Taraki "the martyred son of the country", and denounced Hafizullah Amin as "this savage despot, beastly, lunatic, and recognised spy of the imperialism of America".


title: Ola Englund

text: Ola "The Swede" Englund (born 27 September 1981) is a Swedish guitarist, record producer, YouTuber, and the owner of Solar guitars. He is a founding-member of the band Feared, plays lead guitar in the Swedish metal band The Haunted, and is a former member of the band Six Feet Under. He has also been a part of Scarpoint, Facing Death, Subcyde and Sorcerer.


title: Ola Englund

text: Little is known about Englund's early life, but he has stated that he did not look into a mirror until the age of 11. This was after a traumatic experience when he saw he was blonde.


title: Ola Englund

text: In 2018 and 2019, "Total Guitar" magazine awarded him as Best Internet Personality. In 2019, he released his first solo-album "Master of the Universe". His second solo-album, "Starzinger", was released on 26 April 2021.


title: Ola Englund

text: Englund has a YouTube-channel under his own name where he makes videos about metal-related topics such as gear-demos, news, artist-interviews, Q&A, and behind-the-scenes-footage of his band-gigs and business. As of August 2022, his channel has 750k subscribers.


title: Ola Englund

text: Englund cites his biggest influences as Pantera, Dream Theater, Nevermore, Sepultura, Testament, Bolt Thrower, Entombed, and Opeth. He is a big fan of former Pantera-guitarist Dimebag Darrell.


title: Ola Englund

text: Englund has had signature-guitar-lines from Strictly 7 (2011–2013) and Washburn (2013–2017), as well as a signature amplifier from Randall known as the Randall Satan (2014-2019). In November 2017, he announced the launch of his own guitar-brand called Solar Guitars.


title: Azimuthal quantum number

text: The azimuthal quantum number is a quantum number for an atomic orbital that determines its orbital angular momentum and describes the shape of the orbital. The azimuthal quantum number is the second of a set of quantum numbers that describe the unique quantum state of an electron (the others being the principal quantum number, the magnetic quantum number, and the spin quantum number). It is also known as the orbital angular momentum quantum number, orbital quantum number or second quantum number, and is symbolized as ℓ (pronounced "ell").


title: Azimuthal quantum number

text: Connected with the energy states of the atom's electrons are four quantum numbers: "n", "ℓ", "m", and "m". These specify the complete, unique quantum state of a single electron in an atom, and make up its wavefunction or "orbital". When solving to obtain the wave function, the Schrödinger equation reduces to three equations that lead to the first three quantum numbers. Therefore, the equations for the first three quantum numbers are all interrelated. The azimuthal quantum number arose in the solution of the polar part of the wave equation as shown below , reliant on the spherical coordinate system, which generally works best with models having some glimpse of spherical symmetry.


title: Azimuthal quantum number

text: An atomic electron's angular momentum, "L", is related to its quantum number "ℓ" by the following equation:


title: Azimuthal quantum number

text: where "ħ" is the reduced Planck's constant, L is the orbital angular momentum operator and formula_2 is the wavefunction of the electron. The quantum number "ℓ" is always a non-negative integer: 0, 1, 2, 3, etc. L has no real meaning except in its use as the angular momentum operator. When referring to angular momentum, it is better to simply use the quantum number "ℓ".


title: Azimuthal quantum number

text: Atomic orbitals have distinctive shapes denoted by letters. In the illustration, the letters s, p, and d (a convention originating in spectroscopy) describe the shape of the atomic orbital.


title: Azimuthal quantum number

text: Their wavefunctions take the form of spherical harmonics, and so are described by Legendre polynomials. The various orbitals relating to different values of "ℓ" are sometimes called sub-shells, and are referred to by lowercase Latin letters (chosen for historical reasons), as follows:


title: Azimuthal quantum number

text: Each of the different angular momentum states can take 2(2"ℓ" + 1) electrons. This is because the third quantum number "m" (which can be thought of loosely as the quantized projection of the angular momentum vector on the z-axis) runs from −"ℓ" to "ℓ" in integer units, and so there are 2"ℓ" + 1 possible states. Each distinct "n", "ℓ", "m" orbital can be occupied by two electrons with opposing spins (given by the quantum number "m" = ±), giving 2(2"ℓ" + 1) electrons overall. Orbitals with higher "ℓ" than given in the table are perfectly permissible, but these values cover all atoms so far discovered.


title: Azimuthal quantum number

text: For a given value of the principal quantum number "n", the possible values of "ℓ" range from 0 to ; therefore, the shell only possesses an s subshell and can only take 2 electrons, the shell possesses an s and a p subshell and can take 8 electrons overall, the shell possesses s, p, and d subshells and has a maximum of 18 electrons, and so on.


title: Azimuthal quantum number

text: A simplistic one-electron model results in energy levels depending on the principal number alone. In more complex atoms these energy levels split for all , placing states of higher "ℓ" above states of lower "ℓ". For example, the energy of 2p is higher than of 2s, 3d occurs higher than 3p, which in turn is above 3s, etc. This effect eventually forms the block structure of the periodic table. No known atom possesses an electron having "ℓ" higher than three (f) in its ground state.


title: Azimuthal quantum number

text: The angular momentum quantum number, "ℓ", governs the number of planar nodes going through the nucleus. A planar node can be described in an electromagnetic wave as the midpoint between crest and trough, which has zero magnitudes. In an s orbital, no nodes go through the nucleus, therefore the corresponding azimuthal quantum number "ℓ" takes the value of 0. In a p orbital, one node traverses the nucleus and therefore "ℓ" has the value of 1. formula_3 has the value formula_4.


title: Azimuthal quantum number

text: Depending on the value of "n", there is an angular momentum quantum number "ℓ" and the following series. The wavelengths listed are for a hydrogen atom:


title: Azimuthal quantum number

text: Given a quantized total angular momentum formula_10 which is the sum of two individual quantized angular momenta formula_11 and formula_12,


title: Azimuthal quantum number

text: the quantum number formula_14 associated with its magnitude can range from formula_15 to formula_16 in integer steps


title: Azimuthal quantum number

text: where formula_17 and formula_18 are quantum numbers corresponding to the magnitudes of the individual angular momenta.


title: Azimuthal quantum number

text: Due to the spin–orbit interaction in the atom, the orbital angular momentum no longer commutes with the Hamiltonian, nor does the spin. These therefore change over time. However the total angular momentum J does commute with the one-electron Hamiltonian and so is constant. J is defined through


title: Azimuthal quantum number

text: L being the orbital angular momentum and S the spin. The total angular momentum satisfies the same commutation relations as orbital angular momentum, namely


title: Azimuthal quantum number

text: The quantum numbers describing the system, which are constant over time, are now "j" and "m", defined through the action of J on the wavefunction formula_2


title: Azimuthal quantum number

text: So that "j" is related to the norm of the total angular momentum and "m" to its projection along a specified axis. The "j" number has a particular importance for relativistic quantum chemistry, often featuring in subscript in electron configuration of superheavy elements.


title: Azimuthal quantum number

text: As with any angular momentum in quantum mechanics, the projection of J along other axes cannot be co-defined with "J", because they do not commute.


title: Azimuthal quantum number

text: "j" and "m", together with the parity of the quantum state, replace the three quantum numbers "ℓ", "m" and "m" (the projection of the spin along the specified axis). The former quantum numbers can be related to the latter.


title: Azimuthal quantum number

text: Furthermore, the eigenvectors of "j", "s", "m" and parity, which are also eigenvectors of the Hamiltonian, are linear combinations of the eigenvectors of "ℓ", "s", "m" and "m".


title: Azimuthal quantum number

text: The azimuthal quantum number was carried over from the Bohr model of the atom, and was posited by Arnold Sommerfeld. The Bohr model was derived from spectroscopic analysis of the atom in combination with the Rutherford atomic model. The lowest quantum level was found to have an angular momentum of zero. Orbits with zero angular momentum were considered as oscillating charges in one dimension and so described as "pendulum" orbits, but were not found in nature. In three-dimensions the orbits become spherical without any nodes crossing the nucleus, similar (in the lowest-energy state) to a skipping rope that oscillates in one large circle.


title: Illusory truth effect

text: The illusory truth effect (also known as the illusion of truth effect, validity effect, truth effect, or the reiteration effect) is the tendency to believe false information to be correct after repeated exposure. This phenomenon was first identified in a 1977 study at Villanova University and Temple University. When truth is assessed, people rely on whether the information is in line with their understanding or if it feels familiar. The first condition is logical, as people compare new information with what they already know to be true. Repetition makes statements easier to process relative to new, unrepeated statements, leading people to believe that the repeated conclusion is more truthful. The illusory truth effect has also been linked to hindsight bias, in which the recollection of confidence is skewed after the truth has been received.


title: Illusory truth effect

text: In a 2015 study, researchers discovered that familiarity can overpower rationality and that repetitively hearing that a certain statement is wrong can paradoxically cause it to feel right. Researchers attributed the illusory truth effect's impact even on participants who knew the correct answer to begin with, but were persuaded to believe otherwise through the repetition of a falsehood, to "processing fluency".


title: Illusory truth effect

text: The illusory truth effect plays a significant role in such fields as advertising, news media, and political propaganda.


title: Illusory truth effect

text: The effect was first named and defined following the results in a study from 1977 at Villanova University and Temple University where participants were asked to rate a series of trivia statements as true or false. On three occasions, Lynn Hasher, David Goldstein, and Thomas Toppino presented the same group of college students with lists of sixty plausible statements, some of them true and some of them false. The second list was distributed two weeks after the first, and the third two weeks after that. Twenty statements appeared on all three lists; the other forty items on each list were unique to that list. Participants were asked how confident they were of the truth or falsity of the statements, which concerned matters about which they were unlikely to know anything. (For example, "The first air force base was launched in New Mexico." Or "Basketball became an Olympic discipline in 1925.") Specifically, the participants were asked to grade their belief in the truth of each statement on a scale of one to seven. While the participants' confidence in the truth of the non-repeated statements remained steady, their confidence in the truth of the repeated statements increased from the first to the second and second to third sessions, with an average score for those items rising from 4.2 to 4.6 to 4.7. The conclusion made by the researchers was that repeating a statement makes it more likely to appear factual.


title: Illusory truth effect

text: In 1989, Hal R. Arkes, Catherine Hackett, and Larry Boehm replicated the original study, with similar results showing that exposure to false information changes the perceived truthfulness and plausibility of that information.


title: Illusory truth effect

text: The effect works because when people assess truth, they rely on whether the information agrees with their understanding or whether it feels familiar. The first condition is logical as people compare new information with what they already know to be true and consider the credibility of both sources. However, researchers discovered that familiarity can overpower rationality—so much so that repetitively hearing that a certain fact is wrong can paradoxically cause it to feel right.


title: Illusory truth effect

text: At first, the truth effect was believed to occur only when individuals are highly uncertain about a given statement. Psychologists also assumed that "outlandish" headlines wouldn't produce this effect however, recent research shows the illusory truth effect is indeed at play with false news. This assumption was challenged by the results of a 2015 study by Lisa K. Fazio, Nadia M. Brasier, B. Keith Payne, and Elizabeth J. Marsh. Published in the "Journal of Experimental Psychology"; the study suggested that the truth effect can influence participants who actually knew the correct answer to begin with, but who were swayed to believe otherwise through the repetition of a falsehood. For example, when participants encountered on multiple occasions the statement "A sari is the name of the short plaid skirt worn by Scots," some of them were likely to come to believe it was true, even though these same people were able to correctly answer the question "What is the name of the short pleated skirt worn by Scots?"


title: Illusory truth effect

text: After replicating these results in another experiment, Fazio and her team attributed this curious phenomenon to processing fluency, the facility with which people comprehend statements. "Repetition," explained the researcher, "makes statements easier to process (i.e. fluent) relative to new statements, leading people to the (sometimes) false conclusion that they are more truthful." When an individual hears something for a second or third time, their brain responds faster to it and misattributes that fluency as a signal for truth.


title: Illusory truth effect

text: In a 1997 study, Ralph Hertwig, Gerd Gigerenzer, and Ulrich Hoffrage linked the truth effect to the phenomenon known as "hindsight bias", described as a situation in which the recollection of confidence is skewed after the truth or falsity has been received. They have described the truth effect (which they call "the reiteration effect") as a subset of hindsight bias.


title: Illusory truth effect

text: In a 1979 study, participants were told that repeated statements were no more likely to be true than unrepeated ones. Despite this warning, the participants perceived repeated statements as being more true than unrepeated ones.


title: Illusory truth effect

text: Studies in 1981 and 1983 showed that information deriving from recent experience tends to be viewed as "more fluent and familiar" than new experience. A 2011 study by Jason D. Ozubko and Jonathan Fugelsang built on this finding by demonstrating that, generally speaking, information retrieved from memory is "more fluent or familiar than when it was first learned" and thus produces an illusion of truth. The effect grew even more pronounced when statements were repeated twice and yet more pronounced when they were repeated four times. The researchers thus concluded that memory retrieval is a powerful method for increasing the so-called validity of statements and that the illusion of truth is an effect that can be observed without directly polling the factual statements in question.


title: Illusory truth effect

text: A 1992 study by Ian Maynard Begg, Ann Anas, and Suzanne Farinacci suggested that a statement will seem true if the information seems familiar.


title: Illusory truth effect

text: A 2012 experiment by Danielle C. Polage showed that some participants exposed to false news stories would go on to have false memories. The conclusion was that repetitive false claims increase believability and may also result in errors.


title: Illusory truth effect

text: In a 2014 study, Eryn J. Newman, Mevagh Sanson, Emily K. Miller, Adele Quigley-McBride, Jeffrey L. Foster, Daniel M. Bernstein, and Maryanne Garry asked participants to judge the truth of statements attributed to various people, some of whose names were easier to pronounce than others. Consistently, statements by persons with easily pronounced names were viewed as being more truthful than those with names that were harder to pronounce. The researchers' conclusion was that subjective, tangential properties such as ease of processing can matter when people evaluate sourced information.


title: Illusory truth effect

text: Although the truth effect has been demonstrated scientifically only in recent years, it is a phenomenon with which people have been familiar for millennia. One study notes that the Roman statesman Cato closed each of his speeches with a call to destroy Carthage (""Ceterum censeo Carthaginem esse delendam""), knowing that the repetition would breed agreement. Napoleon reportedly "said that there is only one figure in rhetoric of serious importance, namely, repetition", whereby a repeated affirmation fixes itself in the mind "in such a way that it is accepted in the end as a demonstrated truth". Others who have taken advantage of the truth effect have included Quintilian, Ronald Reagan, Bill Clinton, George W. Bush,


title: Illusory truth effect

text: Advertising that repeats unfounded claims about a product may boost sales because some viewers may come to think that they heard the claims from an objective source. The truth effect is also used in news media and is a staple of political propaganda.


title: Clive Sinclair

text: Sir Clive Marles Sinclair (30 July 1940 – 16 September 2021) was an English entrepreneur and inventor, best known for being a pioneer in the computing industry, and also as the founder of several companies that developed consumer electronics in the 1970s and early 1980s.


title: Clive Sinclair

text: After spending several years as assistant editor of "Instrument Practice", Sinclair founded Sinclair Radionics Ltd in 1961. He produced the world's first slimline electronic pocket calculator (the Sinclair Executive) in 1972. Sinclair then moved into the production of home computers in 1980 with Sinclair Research Ltd, producing the Sinclair ZX80 (the UK's first mass-market home computer for less than £100), and in the early 1980s, the ZX81, ZX Spectrum and the Sinclair QL. Sinclair Research is widely recognised for its importance in the early days of the British and European home computer industry, as well as helping to give rise to the British video game industry.


title: Clive Sinclair

text: Sinclair also had several commercial failures, including the Sinclair Radionics Black Watch wristwatch, the Sinclair Vehicles C5 battery electric vehicle, and the Sinclair Research TV80 flatscreen CRT handheld television set. The failure of the C5 along with a weakened computer market forced Sinclair to sell most of his companies by 1986. Through 2010, Sinclair concentrated on personal transport, including the A-bike, a folding bicycle for commuters which was small enough to fit in a handbag. He also developed the Sinclair X-1, a revised version of the C5 electric vehicle, which never made it to the market.


title: Clive Sinclair

text: Sinclair was appointed Knight Bachelor in the 1983 Birthday Honours for his contributions to the personal computer industry in the UK.


title: Clive Sinclair

text: Sinclair's father and grandfather were engineers; both had been apprentices at the shipbuilders Vickers. His grandfather George Sinclair was a naval architect who got the "paravane", a mine sweeping device, to work. George Sinclair's son, George William "Bill" Sinclair, wanted to take religious orders or become a journalist. His father suggested he train as an engineer first; Bill became a mechanical engineer and remained in the field. At the outbreak of World War II in 1939, he was running his own machine tools business in London, and later worked for the Ministry of Supply.


title: Clive Sinclair

text: Clive Sinclair was born to George Sinclair and Thora Edith Ella Marles in 1940 in Ealing, then in Middlesex (now in west London). He and his mother left London for safety to stay with an aunt in Devon, where they eventually moved to Teignmouth. A telegram arrived shortly afterwards, bringing the news that their home in Ealing had been bombed. Sinclair's father found a house in Bracknell in Berkshire. His brother Iain was born in 1943 and his sister Fiona in 1947.


title: Clive Sinclair

text: Sinclair attended Boxgrove Preparatory School, excelling in mathematics. Sinclair had little interest in sports and found himself out of place at school. By the time he was ten, his father had financial problems. He had branched out from machine tools and planned to import miniature tractors from the U.S.; he had to give up the business. Because of his father's problems, Sinclair had to move school several times. After a time at Reading School, Sinclair took his O-levels at Highgate School in London in 1955, and his A-levels and S-levels in physics, pure maths, and applied maths at St. George's College, Weybridge.


title: Clive Sinclair

text: During his early years, Sinclair earned money mowing lawns and washing up in a café, earning 6d (2½p) more than the permanent staff. Later he went for holiday jobs at electronic companies. At Solartron he inquired about the possibility of electrically propelled personal vehicles. Sinclair applied for a holiday job at Mullard and took one of his circuit designs; he was rejected for precociousness. While still at school he wrote his first article for "Practical Wireless".


title: Clive Sinclair

text: After he left school at the age of 18, he sold miniature electronic kits by mail order to the hobby market.


title: Clive Sinclair

text: Sinclair's Micro Kit was formalised in an exercise book dated 19 June 1958, three weeks before his A-levels. Sinclair drew a radio circuit, Model Mark I, with a components list: cost per set 9/11 (49½p), plus coloured wire and solder, nuts and bolts, plus celluloid chassis (drilled) for nine shillings (45p). Also in the book are the advertisement rates for "Radio Constructor" at the time (9d (3¾p)/word, minimum 6/- (30p)) and "Practical Wireless" (5/6 (27½p) per line or part line). Sinclair estimated producing 1,000 a month, placing orders with suppliers for 10,000 of each component to be delivered.


title: Clive Sinclair

text: Sinclair wrote a book for Bernard's Publishing, "Practical transistor receivers Book 1", which appeared in January 1959. It was re-printed late that year and nine times subsequently. His practical stereo handbook was published in June 1959 and reprinted seven times over 14 years. The last book Sinclair wrote as an employee of Bernard's was "Modern Transistor Circuits for Beginners", published in May 1962. At Bernard Babani, he wrote 13 constructor books.


title: Clive Sinclair

text: In 1961, Sinclair registered Sinclair Radionics Ltd. His original choice, "Sinclair Electronics", had been taken; "Sinclair Radio" was available but did not sound right. Sinclair Radionics was formed on 25 July 1961. Sinclair made two attempts to raise startup capital to advertise his inventions and buy components. He designed PCB kits and licensed some technology. Then he took his design for a miniature transistor pocket radio and sought a backer for its production in kit form. Eventually he found someone who agreed to buy 55% of his company for £3,000, but the deal didn't finalise.


title: Clive Sinclair

text: Sinclair, unable to find capital, joined United Trade Press (UTP) as technical editor of "Instrument Practice". Sinclair appeared in the publication as an assistant editor in March 1962. Sinclair described making silicon planar transistors, their properties and applications and hoped they might be available by the end of 1962. Sinclair undertook a survey of semiconductor devices for "Instrument Practice", which appeared in four sections between September 1962 and January 1963.


title: Clive Sinclair

text: His last appearance as assistant editor was in April 1969. Through UTP, Sinclair had access to thousands of devices from 36 manufacturers. He contacted Semiconductors Ltd (who at that time sold semiconductors made by Plessey) and ordered rejects to repair. He produced a design for a miniature radio powered by a couple of hearing aid cells and made a deal with Semiconductors to buy its micro-alloy transistors at 6d (2½p) each in boxes of 10,000. He then carried out his own quality control tests, and marketed his renamed MAT 100 and 120 at 7s 9d (38¾p) and 101 and 121 at 8s 6d (42½p).


title: Clive Sinclair

text: By the late 1960s and early 1970s, Sinclair Radionics was producing handheld electronic calculators, miniature televisions, and the digital Black Watch wristwatch. The latter product, introduced in 1975, was a significant failure for Sinclair: in addition to being unable to meet demand, the watch itself was found to be inaccurate and difficult to service, and its battery life was too short. Sinclair Radionics suffered its first financial loss in 1975–1976, and Sinclair sought potential investors to help recover the lost funds. He eventually worked with the National Enterprise Board (NEB), which bought a 43% interest in the company in 1976, but this injection of funds was found to be too late as by this point, other companies were starting to make similar products at lower costs on the market. The NEB streamlined Sinclair Radionics' product line, selling off the watch and television lines, and brought in Norman Hewitt as a managing director to assist Sinclair. While Sinclair made efforts to work with Hewitt and the NEB, his relationship with these worsened, as the NEB had little faith in Sinclair's vision. By 1979, the NEB opted to break up Sinclair Radionics, holding its instruments division as Sinclair Electronics, and selling its television division to Binatone and its calculator division to ESL Bristol. Sinclair himself left the company at this point. Effectively NEB wrote off its estimated £7 million investment into Sinclair Radionics as a loss. Sinclair was given a golden handshake and an estimated £10,000 package with the dissolution of his company.


title: Clive Sinclair

text: While Sinclair was dealing with the NEB and had seen problems developing, he had a former employee, Christopher Curry, establish a "lifeboat" company, called Science of Cambridge Ltd, in July 1977, called such as they were located near University of Cambridge, and planned for Curry to develop technology from ideas from the school. An early product from Science of Cambridge was a wrist calculator kit, which helped to keep the company financially afloat.


title: Clive Sinclair

text: By the time that Sinclair had left Radionics and joined Curry at Science of Cambridge, inexpensive microprocessors had started appearing on the market. Sinclair came up with the idea of selling a microprocessor teaching kit, and in June 1978, Science of Cambridge launched the MK14 kit, based on the National SC/MP chip, in June 1978. As Sinclair began working on the MK14's successor, Curry was in discussions with Hermann Hauser, and opted to leave Science of Cambridge to co-found Acorn Computers with Hauser in 1978. Acorn became a direct competitor to Sinclair's products, with the Acorn System 75 as its answer to the MK14, effectively an MK14 chip with a keyboard.


title: Clive Sinclair

text: To follow up on the MK14, Sinclair starting looking to build a personal computer. At around that time (1979), premade systems such as the Commodore PET cost about £700, and Sinclair believed he could get the price of a system to under £100. Keeping the cost low was also essential for Sinclair to avoid his products from becoming outpriced by American or Japanese equivalents as had happened to several of the Sinclair Radionics products. In May 1979, Jim Westwood, a former Sinclair Radionics employee Sinclair hired for this new company, started the ZX80 project at Science of Cambridge; it was launched in February 1980 at £79.95 in kit form and £99.95 ready-built. The ZX80 was immediately successful, and besides sales in the UK, Sinclair also sought to introduce the computer into the United States. Science of Cambridge was subsequently renamed Sinclair Computers Ltd, and then again to Sinclair Research Ltd.


title: Clive Sinclair

text: On hearing that the BBC was preparing to run a television series to teach viewers about computing and programming, both Sinclair and Curry pressured the BBC to choose computers from their respective companies to use as the primary tool. This pushed the development of the Sinclair ZX81 ahead as Sinclair's standard for the BBC. The ZX81 was launched at £49.95 in kit form and £69.95 ready-built, by mail order. Ultimately, the BBC chose Acorn and standardized on a successor to the Acorn Atom—originally named Acorn Proton, but ultimately branded as the BBC Micro. Despite losing out to the BBC, Sinclair's push had established the ZX80 and ZX81 as one of the most-sold brands of computers across the UK and the United States as well as establishing a deal with distribution in Japan with Mitsui. A number of user groups, magazines and third party accessories for both computers started to appear.


title: Clive Sinclair

text: In February 1982, Timex obtained a licence to manufacture and market Sinclair's computers in the United States under the name Timex Sinclair. In April, the ZX Spectrum was launched at £125 for the 16 kB RAM version and £175 for the 48 kB version. It was the first computer in the ZX line to support colour output. The ZX Spectrum remained more affordable than other computers on the market, including the BBC Micro, the VIC-20 or Apple II, and during a time of recession and high unemployment in the UK, was positioned by Sinclair as a low-cost home computer for productivity applications. However, it also proved to be a popular gift for teenagers and young adults that year. This led to a number of these young people learning to program on the ZX Spectrum, using its newfound colour support, to make quirky video games inspired by British humour which they sold through word of mouth and mail order. So-called "bedroom coders" using the ZX Spectrum gave rise to the start of the UK's video game industry. By 1984, over 3,500 games had been released for the ZX Spectrum.


title: Clive Sinclair

text: The popularity of the ZX Spectrum spread to Western Europe. While Sinclair could not import into Eastern European countries still within the Soviet bloc at the time, numerous low-cost clones of the ZX Spectrum sprung up within these countries, further boosting the start of video game development by similar bedroom coders. The ZX Spectrum went on to become the UK's most-sold computer, selling more than 5 million units before it was discontinued in 1992. Sinclair Research computers accounted for 45% of the British market in 1984, including those from British and American companies.


title: Clive Sinclair

text: The continued success of the computer market continued to help boost Sinclair Research's profit. In 1982, the company has a pre-tax profit of £9.2 million on a turnover of £27.6 million. Sinclair himself was estimated to a net value of over £100 million in 1983, two years after launching the first of the ZX computers. With the additional funds, Sinclair converted the Barker & Wadsworth mineral water bottling factory into the company's headquarters in 1982.


title: Clive Sinclair

text: As Sinclair Research continued to be successful, Sinclair launched a new company, Sinclair Vehicles Ltd., in March 1983 to develop electric vehicles, using 10% of the capital generated by Sinclair Research and selling some of his own shares to fund the new venture. Sinclair had an interest in electric vehicles since the 1970s at Sinclair Radionics, and had been working with Tony Wood Rogers, a former Radionics employee, since 1979 to start developing prototypes of a new vehicle for the market. The company's only product was the Sinclair C5 which launched in January 1985. The Sinclair C5 was considered a significant failure, having been developed without any market research. It was widely criticised and widely ridiculed for its high price, its toy-like appearance, lack of safety features and exposure to the elements, and the need for the user to pedal the vehicle up steeper hills. Whilst Sinclair had anticipated 100,000 C5's would be sold in the first year, only 14,000 units were produced and 4,500 sold before the C5 line was terminated in August that same year.


title: Clive Sinclair

text: Another noted misfire for Sinclair was the Sinclair Research TV80, a flatscreen portable mini television utilising a cathode ray tube, which took several years to develop, and by the time the TV80 was ready for market in 1983, the Sony Watchman had been released in Japan in 1982. Furthermore, LCD television technology was already in advanced development to bypass the limitations of CRT. The TV80 was a commercial flop, only 15,000 units being produced. Despite these commercial failures, both the C5 and TV80 have since been considered products ahead of their time, with the C5 a precursor to the modern day electric car and the TV80 comparable to watching videos on smartphones.


title: Clive Sinclair

text: Sinclair continued to direct Sinclair Research as they continued the ZX Spectrum line of computers through 1983 and 1984 as well as launching the Sinclair QL (short for Quantum Leap) brand in 1984 intended to compete with business lines of computers from IBM and Apple but at about half their cost. However, towards the end of 1984, the market for personal computers in the United Kingdom became cautious; Sinclair Research had entered into a small price war with Acorn Computers. The price drops meant that consumers saw these computers as more toys rather than productivity tools, and Sinclair Research missed its planned sales milestones for the 1984 holiday season. Into 1985, Acorn fell under investigation which propagated solvency concerns throughout the computer industry, including Sinclair Research. Robert Maxwell, the owner of "The Daily Mirror" and "Pergamon Press", planned to help Sinclair Research through its £12 million acquisition via Pergamon's Hollis Brothers division, announced in June 1985. However the deal was aborted in August 1985 as Sinclair found an offer with the Dixons Group of only £10 million.


title: Clive Sinclair

text: The lack of funds for Sinclair Research and the failure of the C5 created financial difficulties for Sinclair. Sinclair Vehicles was placed into receivership by October 1985, and in April 1986, Sinclair sold the bulk of Sinclair Research to Amstrad for £5 million. Sinclair Research Ltd. was reduced to an R&D business and holding company, with shareholdings in several spin-off companies, formed to exploit technologies developed by the company. These included Anamartic Ltd. (wafer-scale integration) and Cambridge Computer Ltd. (Z88 portable computer and satellite television receivers).


title: Clive Sinclair

text: By 1990, Sinclair Research consisted of Sinclair and two other employees down from 130 employees at its peak in 1985, and its activities later concentrated on personal transport, including the Zike electric bicycle. By 2003, Sinclair Research was collaborating with Hong Kong-based firm Daka. A laboratory was set up for Daka near Croydon to develop products on a royalty basis. The two firms collaborated on a Sea Scooter and a wheelchair drive. In 1997, he invented the Sinclair XI, which was a radio the size of a 10p coin.


title: Clive Sinclair

text: Sinclair had planned to introduce the Sinclair X-1 through Sinclair Research, another attempt at a personal electric vehicle following the Sinclair C5. The X-1 was first announced in 2010, and incorporated design aspects that the C5 had been panned for, including an open egg-like shell for the rider with a more ergonomic seat, a more powerful motor and larger battery storage, and an effectively lower cost accounting for inflation than the C5. However, the X-1 failed to reach the market.


title: Clive Sinclair

text: Sinclair received several honours for his contributions towards helping establish the personal computer industry in the United Kingdom. In 1983, he was awarded Honorary Degrees of Doctor of Science by the University of Bath, Heriot-Watt University and University of Warwick. He was knighted in the Queen's 1983 Birthday Honours List. In 1984, he was honoured by Imperial College London by being made a fellow. In 1988, London's National Portrait Gallery purchased a portrait of Sinclair by photographer Simon Lewis for its permanent collection.