title: Marie de France

text: Lauren Groff's 2021 novel, "Matrix" is about the "seventeen-year-old Marie de France... sent to England to be the new prioress of an impoverished abbey, its nuns on the brink of starvation and beset by disease."


title: Diffusion equation

text: The diffusion equation is a parabolic partial differential equation. In physics, it describes the macroscopic behavior of many micro-particles in Brownian motion, resulting from the random movements and collisions of the particles (see Fick's laws of diffusion). In mathematics, it is related to Markov processes, such as random walks, and applied in many other fields, such as materials science, information theory, and biophysics. The diffusion equation is a special case of the convection–diffusion equation, when bulk velocity is zero. It is equivalent to the heat equation under some circumstances.


title: Diffusion equation

text: where is the density of the diffusing material at location and time and is the collective diffusion coefficient for density at location ; and represents the vector differential operator del. If the diffusion coefficient depends on the density then the equation is nonlinear, otherwise it is linear.


title: Diffusion equation

text: The equation above applies when the diffusion coefficient is isotropic; in the case of anisotropic diffusion, is a symmetric positive definite matrix, and the equation is written (for three dimensional diffusion) as:


title: Diffusion equation

text: The diffusion equation can be trivially derived from the continuity equation, which states that a change in density in any part of the system is due to inflow and outflow of material into and out of that part of the system. Effectively, no material is created or destroyed:


title: Diffusion equation

text: where j is the flux of the diffusing material. The diffusion equation can be obtained easily from this when combined with the phenomenological Fick's first law, which states that the flux of the diffusing material in any part of the system is proportional to the local density gradient:


title: Diffusion equation

text: If drift must be taken into account, the Fokker–Planck equation provides an appropriate generalization.


title: Diffusion equation

text: The diffusion equation is continuous in both space and time. One may discretize space, time, or both space and time, which arise in application. Discretizing time alone just corresponds to taking time slices of the continuous system, and no new phenomena arise.


title: Diffusion equation

text: In discretizing space alone, the Green's function becomes the discrete Gaussian kernel, rather than the continuous Gaussian kernel. In discretizing both time and space, one obtains the random walk.


title: Diffusion equation

text: The product rule is used to rewrite the anisotropic tensor diffusion equation, in standard discretization schemes, because direct discretization of the diffusion equation with only first order spatial central differences leads to checkerboard artifacts. The rewritten diffusion equation used in image filtering:


title: Diffusion equation

text: where "tr" denotes the trace of the 2nd rank tensor, and superscript ""T"" denotes transpose, in which in image filtering "D"("ϕ", r) are symmetric matrices constructed from the eigenvectors of the image structure tensors. The spatial derivatives can then be approximated by two first order and a second order central finite differences. The resulting diffusion algorithm can be written as an image convolution with a varying kernel (stencil) of size 3 × 3 in 2D and 3 × 3 × 3 in 3D.


title: Charlotte Amalie, U.S. Virgin Islands

text: Charlotte Amalie ( ), located on St. Thomas, is the capital and the largest city of the United States Virgin Islands. It was founded in 1666 as Taphus (meaning 'beer house' or 'beer hall' in Danish). In 1691, the town was renamed to Charlotte Amalie after Charlotte Amalie of Hesse-Kassel (1650–1714), queen consort to King Christian V of Denmark-Norway. It has a deep-water harbor that was once a haven for pirates and is now one of the busiest ports of call for cruise ships in the Caribbean, with about 1.5 million-plus cruise ship passengers landing there annually. Protected by Hassel Island, the harbor has docking and fueling facilities, machine shops, and shipyards and was a U.S. submarine base until 1966. The Town has been inhabited for centuries. When Christopher Columbus arrived in 1493, the area was inhabited by Caribs, Arawaks, Ciboney and Taíno native peoples. It is on the southern shore at the head of Saint Thomas Harbor. In 2010 the City had a population of 18,481, which makes it the largest city in the Virgin Islands Archipelago. Hundreds of ferries and yachts pass by the Town each week.


title: Charlotte Amalie, U.S. Virgin Islands

text: The City is known for its Danish colonial architecture, building structure and history. Dozens of streets and places throughout the City have Danish names. Charlotte Amalie has buildings of historical importance including St. Thomas Synagogue, the second oldest synagogue in the United States, and Frederick Lutheran Church. The Town has a long history of pirates, especially myths of Bluebeard, and facts and stories of Blackbeard (Edward Teach). In the 17th century, the Danes built both Blackbeard's Castle and Bluebeard's Castle attributed to the pirates. Blackbeard's Castle is a U.S. National Historic Landmark. Another tourist attraction is Fort Christian, the oldest standing structure in the Virgin Islands Archipelago. A copy of the Liberty Bell and freed slave blowing a conch shell are in Emancipation Park, which is both a source of national pride and a tourist attraction.


title: Charlotte Amalie, U.S. Virgin Islands

text: Before the time of the Danish West Indies (1754–1917), the City was known as Taphus for its many beer halls. Taphus is Danish and directly translates to 'beer house', 'beer hall', or (most literally) 'tap house'. In 1691 the Town received a more respectable name by being named Charlotte Amalie in honor of Danish King Christian V's wife, Charlotte Amalie of Hesse-Kassel (1650–1714). Between 1921 and 1936, the city was called St. Thomas by the United States. In 1936 the capital was recognized as Charlotte Amalie.


title: Charlotte Amalie, U.S. Virgin Islands

text: On his second voyage to the New World, Christopher Columbus encountered Native Americans living in the present-day archipelago of the United States Virgin Islands. Archaeological records indicate that the islands have been home to native american people groups, including the Taíno, Arawak, Kalinago/Carib, and the Ciboney people. Several of them lived in present-day Charlotte Amalie in small fishing communities. As was the case in most of the Americas, the native population died relatively quickly from disease when the Europeans settled. As the Spanish early focused their energy on Puerto Rico and other Caribbean islands, Saint Thomas remained unprotected for a long time, leaving Charlotte Amalie's sheltered coves to be frequented by pirates, like Blackbeard, as well as mariners and European settlers.


title: Charlotte Amalie, U.S. Virgin Islands

text: The Danish West India Company chartered Charlotte Amalie in 1671 after King Christian V decided to secure them for plantations. As early as in 1672, the Danish government began the construction of Fort Christian on Saint Thomas Harbor in Charlotte Amalie. In 1675, the Danes constructed four pubs near the water's edge on the western side of the Fort. The Danish government supplied convicts to work the plantations but soon allowed colonists from neighboring islands to settle there, as well as to permit the importation of slaves from Africa. In 1680, there were more black African slaves than white European settlers. Adjacent Water and Buck Islands served as pasture lands for the City, and Taphus was renamed Charlotte Amalie in 1691 after King Christian V's wife. It was the main port of the Virgin Islands Archipelago and was connected to about 50 plantations by one road, which remains the main highway today.


title: Charlotte Amalie, U.S. Virgin Islands

text: In the early 18th century, more than 3000 white settlers lived in Town, and sugar production and slave trading were the economic mainstay. After the Danish government wanted direct administration of the archipelago in 1754, the capital was moved from Charlotte Amalie to Christiansted on the Island of Saint Croix. That partly made the economy in Town to transition from slave trading and agriculture to general commerce. The slight couldn't hamper the city's growth, as merchants profiteered in arms and rum trades to belligerent countries.


title: Charlotte Amalie, U.S. Virgin Islands

text: In 1764, Charlotte Amalie was declared a free port by King Frederick V, and the Town became the busiest harbor in the Caribbean. The American Revolution in the 1770s was good news for the city, as it was thriving times for the local businessfolk. The Town began to be filled by immigrants from Europe, Africa and the Caribbean, most of them from other islands of the Lesser Antilles. By 1778, the Danish government had strengthened their military position by building Bluebeard's Castle and Blackbeard's Castle, lookout towers on the crests of the two hills by the city. The city prospered as a free port and United States, Danish, Sephardic, German, French, British, Italian and Spanish importing houses operated here. At the end of the 18th century, United States founding father and future architect of the United States Constitution, Alexander Hamilton, decided the Town was so wealthy that "gold moved through the streets in wheel-barrows". At one point, the city of Charlotte Amalie in the Danish West Indies was the second-largest city in the Danish Realm, only smaller than the capital of Copenhagen.


title: Charlotte Amalie, U.S. Virgin Islands

text: A growing share of the West Indian trade passed through the port in the beginning of the 1800s, and the rise of steamships made Charlotte Amalie an ideal coaling station for ships sailing between North- and South America.


title: Charlotte Amalie, U.S. Virgin Islands

text: In 1804, Charlotte Amalie was struck by a horrendous fire that destroyed more than 1200 homes and stores throughout the town. Two more fires came in 1805 and 1806, and the densely settled town lost another thousand buildings. Neighboring islands gradually began importing coal directly from producers, and Charlotte Amalie was sidestepped in trade in the early 1800s. The abolition of slavery in 1848 further diminished Charlotte Amalie's commercial role and the town suffered from a brutal recession, as did most of the Caribbean following abolition.


title: Charlotte Amalie, U.S. Virgin Islands

text: During the American Civil War in the early 1860s, the town evolved into a smuggling center for ships running the federal blockade of ports in the Confederacy. As an acknowledgment of the port's smuggling success, the Danish government decided to move the capital of the archipelago back to Charlotte Amalie in 1871. The latter half of the 1800s was also soon hit by a cholera epidemic that killed thousands. Charlotte Amalie fell into an unsuccessful dormancy until the United States decided to buy the islands from Denmark in 1917.


title: Charlotte Amalie, U.S. Virgin Islands

text: In 1915, the United States became interested in buying the U.S. Virgin Islands. They were concerned over German infiltration in the Lesser Antilles. The U.S. purchased the Danish West Indies in 1917 for $25 million. Charlotte Amalie was under U.S. Navy rule until 1931. The United States decided to make Charlotte Amalie the main headquarters of the renamed United States Virgin Islands.


title: Charlotte Amalie, U.S. Virgin Islands

text: When American tourists were barred from Cuba in 1960, some began visiting Charlotte Amalie instead. As an unincorporated territory of the United States, it's been a haven for mainland United States citizens seeking luxury vacations or a second home in the Caribbean. During the mid 20th century, resorts began to be built and direct flights from the U.S. to Charlotte Amalie increased tourism. During the last half of the century, Charlotte Amalie experienced extraordinary economic growth, largely as a consequence of being a U.S. territory with a growing U.S. tourism. The tourism has not only led to a growing economy, but also to preservation and conversion of historic buildings and homes. Many ancient commercial buildings were made into restaurants and shops. During the 1980s and 90s, many buildings were restored to how they looked 200 years ago.


title: Charlotte Amalie, U.S. Virgin Islands

text: The tourist industry has thrived on the Island. Tourism in the Town now drives the economy of the U.S. Virgin Islands, but limited flatlands in the mountainous terrain will constrain Charlotte Amalie's economic and population growth. The spread of hilltop homes overlooking the Caribbean crystal blue waters began trending in the 1960s as well.


title: Charlotte Amalie, U.S. Virgin Islands

text: Located mid-island on the south shore of the mountainous Island of Saint Thomas, Charlotte Amalie stretches about 1.5 miles around Saint Thomas Harbor from the Havensight district where the cruise ships dock in the east, to Frenchtown and the Sub Base neighborhoods on the west. The red walls of the Danish Fort Christian and the open space of Emancipation Garden and the Vendor's Market are the center of Old Town. Many of the City's historic buildings and businesses stand on the slopes of Government Hill just north of Emancipation Garden. This is "Kongens Quarter". To the west, spanning the area between Waterfront Dr and Dronningens Gade (Main Street), are a score of alleys, each lined with colonial warehouse buildings that have been turned into stores and urban malls. Protected by the peaks of Water Island and Hassel Island, Saint Thomas Harbor makes a deep indentation in the Island. The bay affords vistas from lookout points as high as , including for instance Drake's Seat.


title: Charlotte Amalie, U.S. Virgin Islands

text: Charlotte Amalie is built on three low volcanic spurs called Frenchman Hill (Foretop Hill), Berg Hill (Maintop), and Government Hill (Mizzentop). Charlotte Amalie is located at coordinates 18°21' north and 64°57' west.


title: Charlotte Amalie, U.S. Virgin Islands

text: Charlotte Amalie's average year round temperatures range from and the climate is classified as a tropical savanna climate (Köppen "Aw"). The city has a short dry season that runs from January through March and a wet season that covers the remaining nine months, though technically June, with a monthly average precipitation of could be considered a dry season month. While Charlotte Amalie does have a lengthy wet season, outside the months of September through November, the city generally does not see the heavy precipitation that is prevalent in many other cities with a tropical climate. The City is generally very warm and humid. Average temperatures in Charlotte Amalie are at a near constant, with average high temperatures at about and average low temperatures at about .


title: Charlotte Amalie, U.S. Virgin Islands

text: A 76.2% majority are Afro-Caribbean, while a minority of 13.1% are white. About one percent is of Asian descent.


title: Charlotte Amalie, U.S. Virgin Islands

text: According to the CIA "World Factbook", more than 95 percent of the people describe themselves as Christians. 42% are Baptist, 34% Catholic and 17% Episcopalian. There are also Jewish, Hindu and Muslim populations of European, Middle Eastern and Caribbean origin.


title: Charlotte Amalie, U.S. Virgin Islands

text: The city's Saints Peter and Paul Cathedral is the episcopal see of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Saint Thomas, which covers the American Virgin Islands and is the sole suffragan of the Metropolitan Archdiocese of Washington (D.C.).


title: Charlotte Amalie, U.S. Virgin Islands

text: Saint Thomas is home to one of the oldest Jewish communities in the Western Hemisphere as Sephardic Jews began to settle the island in the 18th century as traders and merchants. The St. Thomas Synagogue in Charlotte Amalie is the second oldest synagogue in the United States.


title: Charlotte Amalie, U.S. Virgin Islands

text: Although English is the official language, most people speak a dialect called Virgin Islands Creole, which differs from standard English in many ways. Virgin Islands Creole is used informally and standard United States English (spoken with a uniquely Virgin Islands accent) is usually preferred in school, at work and in more formal conversations. Most older children and adults can quickly switch between Virgin Islands Creole and United States English. Spanish is spoken by 16.8% and French Patois is spoken by 6.6% of the city's population. While Spanish is spoken by migrants from Puerto Rico (US) and immigrants from the Dominican Republic, creoles are spoken by immigrants from St. Barthelemy, Dominica and Haiti; Dutch and Papiamento are spoken by immigrants from Saba, Aruba, St. Maarten and Curacao.


title: Charlotte Amalie, U.S. Virgin Islands

text: The economy is based on tourism, handicrafts, jewelry, and the production of rum, bay rum, and jams. As well as being the USVI's political capital, the city is the port capital of the U.S. Virgin Islands. Charlotte Amalie is the third most popular cruise ship destination in the Caribbean Sea. Up to eleven cruise ships can occupy the harbor on any given day, though usually there are about five.


title: Charlotte Amalie, U.S. Virgin Islands

text: Tourist attractions include Blackbeard's Castle which is one of the most visited attractions in the Town, Bluebeard's Castle, 17th-century Fort Christian, the green and distinctive Legislature Building, the 99 Steps Stairway, Emancipation Garden, Market Square, Seven Arches Museum, St. Thomas Synagogue, Frederick Lutheran Church, and the Weibel Museum. Tourists usually either arrive by airplane at the Cyril E. King International Airport, approximately west of downtown Charlotte Amalie, or by docking at the cruise ship port in Havensight. In the 21st century, Charlotte Amalie has benefited from proximity to San Juan, Puerto Rico, where passengers from larger aircraft can transfer to smaller aircraft for a 30-minute flight to Charlotte Amalie. The City has also become a jumping-off place for other islands in the U.S. and British Virgin Islands. In this century, there have been more high-speed ferries each year leaving Charlotte Amalie for St. Croix, St. John and Tortola. A seaplane wharf is near the west end of the inner harbor; the planes take passengers to St. Croix.


title: Charlotte Amalie, U.S. Virgin Islands

text: Because of its duty-free policies, the Territory is sometimes referred to as "the duty-free capital of the world". Charlotte Amalie has more jewelry shops and perfume vendors than anywhere else in the Caribbean and is known for its outdoor shopping Vendors' Plaza. On Main Street (Dronningens Gade) there are many major shops, including Tiffany, Breitling, Rolex, and Fresh Produce.


title: Charlotte Amalie, U.S. Virgin Islands

text: Havensight and Crown Bay docks are other shopping areas, with a number of stores adjacent to the cruise ship docks. Along Dronningens Gade are more than 400 shops, most of them selling jewelry and in the Havensight Mall. The western end (near the intersection with Strand Gade) is called "Market Square." Once the site of the biggest slave market auctions in the Caribbean Basin, today it is an open-air cluster of stalls where resident farmers and gardeners gather occasionally to sell their produce.


title: Charlotte Amalie, U.S. Virgin Islands

text: The culture is a mixture of American (US) socio-economic activities- and Afro/Latino-Caribbean culture, with an influence from Danish colonial history. There are American fast food chains in the City, as well as local restaurants serving only Caribbean cuisine. Grocery stores contain items from the US mainland, and local items such as rum. Seafood and local produce can be found at open-air markets.


title: Charlotte Amalie, U.S. Virgin Islands

text: Named Charlotte Amalie in honor of the wife of Danish King Christian V, the Danish influence is strong. The heritage is predominant in several ways in Charlotte Amalie today. The Danes left castles, cemeteries, churches, forts, town homes, sugar mills and plantation houses that are still standing. Many geographical names are kept in Danish and many locals have Danish heritage. The most widely spoken language, Virgin Islands Creole, has many words and expressions left from the Danish language. For instance, Danish words like "skål" (toast), "berg" (mountain) and "frikadeller" (meatballs) are commonly used. Much of the historic colonial architecture is still standing and words like "street" are more commonly referred to by the Danish translation "gade".


title: Charlotte Amalie, U.S. Virgin Islands

text: Charlotte Amalie has the largest collection of colonial buildings in the Caribbean. Most of the buildings are classic Caribbean adaptions of English Georgian architecture built by the Danes, dating to the 1830s.


title: Charlotte Amalie, U.S. Virgin Islands

text: There are three main roads in Charlotte Amalie. Waterfront Drive, also called Veteran's Drive, fronts the harbor and extends from Havensight Mall to Frenchtown. This four-lane road is best navigated by car or taxi. Main Street, also called Dronningen's Gade and Norre Gade, run parallel to the waterfront. Back Street, also called Wimmelskafts Gade, is one block farther inland, parallel to the shoreline. Street names in the Town are remnants of the Island's Danish past.


title: Charlotte Amalie, U.S. Virgin Islands

text: Charlotte Amalie is notable for being the only U.S. capital city (either of a territory or state) where traffic drives on the left side of the road – this despite a previous fourteen-year period of attempting to conform to the United States' right side principle, which was abandoned and reverted to left side by popular demand. The United States Virgin Islands (USVI) is the only United States jurisdiction of any kind where the rule of the road is to drive on the left. However, virtually all passenger vehicles are left hand drive due to imports of U.S. vehicles. making the driving experience in the USVI very similar to the situation in The Bahamas, and for largely the same vehicle import reasons.


title: Charlotte Amalie, U.S. Virgin Islands

text: Highway 30 (Veterans Drive) passes through Charlotte Amalie. Additionally, Charlotte Amalie holds one of the two airports in the US Virgin Islands. Cyril E. King Airport (IATA: STT ICAO: TIST) offers regular nonstop service to destinations to Atlanta, Chicago and along the east coast of the United States.


title: Charlotte Amalie, U.S. Virgin Islands

text: St. Thomas-St. John School District serves the community. Addelita Cancryn Junior High School and Charlotte Amalie High School serve the area. The University of the Virgin Islands, located in Charlotte Amalie, was founded in 1962.


title: Douglas A2D Skyshark

text: The Douglas A2D Skyshark was an American turboprop-powered attack aircraft built by the Douglas Aircraft Company for the United States Navy. The program was substantially delayed by engine reliability problems, and was canceled because more promising jet attack aircraft had entered development and the smaller escort carriers the A2D was intended to utilize were being phased out.


title: Douglas A2D Skyshark

text: On 25 June 1945, the Bureau of Aeronautics (BuAer) asked Douglas Aircraft for a turboprop-driven aircraft. Three proposals were put forth in the next year and a half: the D-557A, to use two General Electric TG-100s (T31s) in wing nacelles; the D-557B, the same engine, with counter-rotating propellers; and the D-557C, to use the Westinghouse 25D. These were canceled due to engine development difficulties, but BuAer continued to seek an answer to the high fuel-consumption of jet aircraft.


title: Douglas A2D Skyshark

text: On 11 June 1947 Douglas received the Navy's letter of intent for a carrier-based turboprop. The need to operate from "Casablanca"-class escort carriers dictated the use of a turboprop instead of jet power.


title: Douglas A2D Skyshark

text: While it resembled the AD Skyraider, the A2D was different in a number of unseen ways. The 5,100-equivalent shaft horsepower (3,800 kW) Allison XT40-A2 engine had more than double the horsepower of the Skyraider's R-3350. The XT40 installation on the Skyshark used contra-rotating propellers to harness all the available power. Wing root thickness decreased from 17% to 12%, while both the height of the tail and its area grew.


title: Douglas A2D Skyshark

text: Engine development problems delayed the first flight until 26 May 1950, made at Edwards Air Force Base by George Jansen.


title: Douglas A2D Skyshark

text: Navy test pilot Cdr. Hugh Wood was killed attempting to land the first prototype XA2D-1, BuNo "122988", on 19 December 1950, on its 15th flight. He was unable to check the rate of descent, resulting in a high-impact crash on the runway. The investigation found the starboard power section of the coupled Allison XT40A turboprop engine had failed and did not declutch. This meant the surviving engine was powering the failed engine's compressor, using up much of its available power. Additionally, the propellers failed to feather. As the wings' lift disappeared, a fatal sink rate was induced.


title: Douglas A2D Skyshark

text: Additional instrumentation and an automatic decoupler was added to the second prototype, but by the time it was ready to fly on 3 April 1952, sixteen months had passed, and with all-jet designs being developed, the A2D program was essentially dead. Total flight time on the lost airframe was barely 20 hours.


title: Douglas A2D Skyshark

text: Allison failed to deliver a "production" engine until 1953, and while testing an XA2D with that engine, test pilot C. G. "Doc" Livingston pulled out of a dive and was surprised by a loud noise and pitch up. His windscreen was covered with oil and the chase pilot told Livingston that the propellers were gone. The gearbox had failed, but Livingston successfully landed the airplane. The A4D was ready to fly by the summer of 1954, but the escort carriers were being mothballed, so time had run out for the troubled A2D program.


title: Douglas A2D Skyshark

text: Twelve Skysharks were built, two prototypes and ten pre-production aircraft. Most were scrapped or destroyed in accidents, and only one has survived.


title: Kathryn Grayson

text: Kathryn Grayson (born Zelma Kathryn Elisabeth Hedrick; February 9, 1922 – February 17, 2010) was an American actress and coloratura soprano.


title: Kathryn Grayson

text: From the age of twelve, Grayson trained as an opera singer. She was under contract to Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer by the early 1940s, soon establishing a career principally through her work in musicals. After several supporting roles, she was a lead performer in such films as "Thousands Cheer" (1943), "Anchors Aweigh" (1945) with Frank Sinatra and Gene Kelly, and "Show Boat" (1951) and "Kiss Me Kate" (1953), both with Howard Keel.


title: Kathryn Grayson

text: When film musical production declined, she worked in theatre, appearing in "Camelot" (1962–1964). Later in the decade she performed in several operas, including "La bohème", "Madama Butterfly", "Orpheus in the Underworld" and "La traviata".


title: Kathryn Grayson

text: Zelma Kathryn Elisabeth Hedrick was born on February 9, 1922, in Winston-Salem, North Carolina, one of four children of Charles Hedrick, a building contractor-realtor, and Lillian Hedrick (née Grayson).


title: Kathryn Grayson

text: The Hedrick family later moved to Kirkwood, Missouri, outside St. Louis, where Grayson was discovered singing on the empty stage of the St. Louis Municipal Opera House by a janitor, who introduced her to Frances Marshall of the Chicago Civic Opera, who gave the twelve-year-old girl voice lessons. Grayson's sister, Frances Raeburn (born Mildred Hedrick) was also an actress and singer, appearing alongside her in the film "Seven Sweethearts". She had two brothers, Clarence "Bud" E. Hedrick, and Harold. The family moved to California when Grayson was 15 years old.


title: Kathryn Grayson

text: In 1940, an MGM talent scout saw Grayson performing at a music festival. Metro hoped to find a replacement for Deanna Durbin, who left the studio for Universal Pictures. For the next 18 months, Grayson went through voice lessons, drama coaching, diction, diets and exercise. Within a year, Grayson had her first screen test. However, the studio executives were not satisfied, and she went through a further six months of lessons until she made her first film appearance in 1941's "Andy Hardy's Private Secretary" as the character's secretary Kathryn Land. In the film, she takes part in three musical numbers.


title: Kathryn Grayson

text: Two further films were planned for Grayson in 1941; "White House Girl", which was later made in 1948 with Durbin, and "Very Warm for May", from the Jerome Kern and Oscar Hammerstein musical of the same name. Ann Sothern was also slated to appear, however, this fell through as well. The film eventually was made in 1944 as "Broadway Rhythm".


title: Kathryn Grayson

text: She appeared in three films in 1942: "The Vanishing Virginian", "Rio Rita" and "Seven Sweethearts". In the first, Grayson plays the teenage daughter, Rebecca, of the eccentric Yancey family from Lynchburg, Virginia. Set in 1913, the film was based on Rebecca Yancey Williams's own family.


title: Kathryn Grayson

text: Grayson co-starred in "Rio Rita" with Abbott and Costello. Grayson portrayed the title character, Rita Winslow. The film was originally meant to be an adaptation of the 1927 Broadway musical; however, only two songs were retained for the film, the title song, and "The Ranger Song", which was performed by Grayson.


title: Kathryn Grayson

text: Co-starring Van Heflin, "Seven Sweethearts" cast Grayson as the youngest of seven daughters from Holland, Michigan, who is hired by reporter-photographer Heflin to serve as a model and secretary while he covers the town's tulip festival, and with whom he falls in love.


title: Kathryn Grayson

text: In 1943, Grayson appeared in the film "Thousands Cheer", (originally titled "Private Miss Jones"), along with Gene Kelly, Mickey Rooney, Eleanor Powell, June Allyson and others. The film was intended as a morale booster for American troops and their families. Grayson starred as the singing daughter of an Army commander.


title: Kathryn Grayson

text: It was announced in 1942 that Grayson would appear in "An American Symphony" with Judy Garland. Garland was replaced by June Allyson, and the film was retitled as ""Two Sisters from Boston"" and released in 1946.


title: Kathryn Grayson

text: Grayson did not appear in any films for nearly two years (from 1943 to 1945), but instead worked at entertaining troops during the war and performing on radio programs. Notably, it is reported that she would only perform under the condition that the audience was integrated, as troops were segregated at the time.


title: Kathryn Grayson

text: She returned to films in "Anchors Aweigh", a musical romantic-comedy set in Los Angeles and co-starring Kelly and Frank Sinatra. "Anchors Aweigh" was the fifth-highest grossing film of 1945, earning over $4.779 million.


title: Kathryn Grayson

text: This was followed by "Two Sisters from Boston" and guest appearances in "Ziegfeld Follies" and "Till the Clouds Roll By". Her performance in "Till the Clouds Roll By" included "Make Believe" in a capsule version of the musical "Show Boat", which would be remade five years later, with Grayson in the starring role.


title: Kathryn Grayson

text: MGM re-paired Grayson and Sinatra for two movies in 1947 and 1948, "It Happened in Brooklyn" and "The Kissing Bandit". Both films performed poorly at the box office, and audiences thought the plots absurd. After the setbacks of "Brooklyn" and "Bandit", Grayson was partnered with tenor Mario Lanza in "That Midnight Kiss" in 1949.


title: Kathryn Grayson

text: In 1950, Grayson was once again partnered with Lanza, and portrayed an opera singer in "The Toast of New Orleans", and performed the Academy-Award-nominated song "Be My Love". While shooting the "Madama Butterfly" scene in the film, Lanza kept attempting to french kiss Grayson, which Grayson claimed was made even worse by the fact that Lanza would constantly eat garlic before shooting. Grayson went to costume designer Helen Rose, who sewed pieces of brass into Grayson's gloves. Any time Lanza attempted to french kiss her after that, she hit him with the brass-filled glove.


title: Kathryn Grayson

text: For the premiere of the film in New Orleans, she was a guest at an auction selling the film's costumes.


title: Kathryn Grayson

text: Grayson replaced June Allyson in the role of Ina Massine in 1951's "Grounds for Marriage". She portrayed an opera singer with laryngitis, alongside Van Johnson who played her doctor and love interest. This was also her first non-singing role at MGM. Grayson's musical performances do appear in the film, but in the form of recordings.


title: Kathryn Grayson

text: Grayson was next cast as Magnolia Hawks in the 1951 remake of the 1927 Hammerstein and Kern musical, "Show Boat", alongside Howard Keel and Judy Garland who dropped out of production, and the role went to Ava Gardner. "Show Boat" was the third-highest-grossing film of 1951, earning over $5.533 million.


title: Kathryn Grayson

text: Grayson teamed again with Keel in the 1952 Technicolor musical "Lovely to Look At", a remake of the 1935 Astaire and Rogers film "Roberta".


title: Kathryn Grayson

text: She was released to the Warner Brothers studio in January 1953, with the stipulation that she return to MGM for one more film. She returned to co-star for a third time with Howard Keel in her most acclaimed role, as Lilli Vanessi/Katharina in "Kiss Me Kate", released in November 1953. The film was lavishly produced (the only musical other than "Those Redheads from Seattle (1953)" to be filmed in 3-D), with songs by Cole Porter, choreography by Hermes Pan, and musical direction by André Previn.


title: Kathryn Grayson

text: While on loan to Warner Bros, her first musical release was "The Desert Song", May 1953, alongside Gordon MacRae. She was asked to perform "La Bohème" at the Central City Opera House in Central City, Colorado, but due to her filming obligations for "The Desert Song", she had to turn it down. Warner Bros. starred her in a second musical that year, "So This Is Love".


title: Kathryn Grayson

text: Grayson appeared on television occasionally, having guest starred in the CBS anthology series, "General Electric Theater" in the episode, "Shadow on the Heart", with John Ericson, and on "Playhouse 90" in the title role of the "Lone Woman", with Raymond Burr and Scott Brady in the historical roles of the brothers Charles and William Bent, respectively. In the 1980s, Grayson guest starred in three episodes as recurring character Ideal Molloy on "Murder, She Wrote".


title: Kathryn Grayson

text: Grayson appeared on stage in numerous productions including "Show Boat", "Rosalinda", "Kiss Me, Kate", "Naughty Marietta", and "The Merry Widow", for which she was nominated for Chicago's Sarah Siddons Award. In 1953, Grayson optioned the story "It's Greek to Me", written by Helen Deutsch, to be accompanied by a score from Cole Porter. The story was a mythical love story about Hercules and Hippolyte, and Grayson hoped to be reunited with Howard Keel and take the show on the road. However, the project fell apart.


title: Kathryn Grayson

text: Her casting in "The Merry Widow" led to her replacing Julie Andrews in 1962 as Queen Guinevere in "Camelot". She then continued the role for over sixteen months in the national tour of the United States before leaving for health reasons.


title: Kathryn Grayson

text: Grayson had a lifelong dream of being an opera star, and she appeared in a number of operas in the 1960s, such as "La bohème", "Madama Butterfly", "Orpheus in the Underworld" and "La traviata". Her dramatic and comedy stage roles included "Night Watch", "Noises Off", "Love Letters" and "Something's Afoot" as Dottie Otterling.


title: Kathryn Grayson

text: While appearing in her film roles, Grayson also performed on the radio. Grayson performed on concert tours throughout the 1950s. In May 1951, Grayson had to postpone a concert tour due to being unknowingly cast in "Lovely to Look At". "My concert bookings were all set. So when I read in New York that I was to do this film, I said 'How silly!', then boom! The next day I got my studio telegram asking me to return for the picture!"


title: Kathryn Grayson

text: In 1952, Grayson was offered more than $10,000 to perform for a week at the Riviera night club in New Jersey before making "The Desert Song". After filming "The Desert Song", Grayson created a recording of the musical with Tony Martin.


title: Kathryn Grayson

text: Grayson gave nightclub and concert tours in Australia a few times. On one of those trips to the Far East, Grayson also gave a concert in Manila, the Philippines, in 1969, where she performed at the New Frontier theater.


title: Kathryn Grayson

text: Grayson married twice, first to actor John Shelton and then to the actor/singer Johnnie Johnston. She was a Republican. Grayson adhered to Roman Catholicism.


title: Kathryn Grayson

text: Shelton and Grayson eloped to Las Vegas, where they were married on July 11, 1941. The two had courted for 18 months, after meeting while making screen tests. In July 1942, Shelton moved out of their Brentwood home and into his own apartment. This came after a month of reconciliation after a judge dismissed their divorce suit. Grayson charged Shelton with mental cruelty. They divorced on June 17, 1946.


title: Kathryn Grayson

text: Grayson wed singer/actor Johnnie Johnston on August 22, 1947, in Carmel, California. On October 7, 1948, Grayson's only child, daughter Patricia "Patty Kate" Kathryn Johnston was born. Patricia married Robert Towers and had two children, Kristin and Jordan. Jordy Towers became the lead singer of the band SomeKindaWonderful.


title: Kathryn Grayson

text: Grayson and Johnston separated on November 15, 1950. On October 3, 1951, Grayson was granted a divorce from Johnston on the grounds of mental cruelty.


title: Kathryn Grayson

text: Johnston's "This Time for Keeps" co-star, Esther Williams, claimed in her 1999 autobiography that while making the film, Johnston would read Grayson's intimate letters aloud to the girls in his fan club, including the "all-too-graphic details concerning what she liked about his love-making."


title: Kathryn Grayson

text: According to her secretary, Grayson died in her sleep at her home in Los Angeles on February 17, 2010, aged 88.


title: Kathryn Grayson

text: On February 9, 2022, in honor of the 100th anniversary of Grayson's birth, Turner Classic Movies TV network showed five of Grayson's films.


title: Airline seat

text: An airline seat is a seat on an airliner in which passengers are accommodated for the duration of the journey. Such seats are usually arranged in rows running across the airplane's fuselage. A diagram of such seats in an aircraft is called an aircraft seat map.


title: Airline seat

text: Seats are attached to rails underneath the floor which run along the aircraft fuselage. If the airline wants to reconfigure the seating, this is a minor operation. For passenger safety, all airline seats are equipped with seatbelts.


title: Airline seat

text: Seats are frequently equipped with further amenities. Airline seats may be equipped with a reclining mechanism for increased passenger comfort, either reclining mechanically (usually in economy class and short-haul first and business class) or electrically (usually in long-haul first class and business class). Most aircraft also feature trays for eating and reading, either in the seatback which folds down to form a small table in most economy class seats, or inside the armrest which folds out in most first class, business class, bulkhead, and exit row seats. Most airline seats also feature a pocket which may contain an in-flight magazine and safety instructions.


title: Airline seat

text: On small and short-haul aircraft, or on low-cost carriers, some of these amenities may not be installed. For instance, on several aircraft, Ryanair has installed non-reclining seats without seat pockets with the safety manuals stitched to the seat back instead. Even on airliners with reclining seats, some seats may have a restricted recline or no recline. Typically this will be the rear row of the cabin where a rear bulkhead blocks the recline, or seats immediately in front of the emergency exit where a reclined seat might restrict access to the emergency exit, creating a potential safety hazard. Independent seat review sites such as SeatGuru often warn passengers against these seats. During take-off and landing the crew ask passengers to put their seats in an "upright" (unreclined) position and to lift and stow their tray tables.


title: Airline seat

text: Seats may be equipped with power ports (either EmPower, AC, DC, or USB power-only sockets) for small electrical appliances and ports for headphones for the audio entertainment. Most full service airlines also include personal video screens as part of the in-flight entertainment system on long-haul aircraft - but some aircraft use a bring-your-own-device system where passengers use their own devices. The screens are often touchscreens or can be controlled by remote handsets. In economy and premium economy the screen is normally in a seatback, but in a front row seat or premium cabin they may need to be pulled out from a special compartment after takeoff, and then returned there for landing.


title: Airline seat

text: Most long-haul aircraft (and short-haul aircraft on some airlines) feature seats with adjustable headrests in all classes, allowing the passenger to adjust the headrest for comfort.


title: Airline seat

text: Electrically adjustable lumbar support is found on most long-haul first class and business class seats. Rarely, economy class may also include a mechanically adjustable lumbar support on some long-haul aircraft. However, with the trend towards slimline seats in economy class, this amenity has mostly vanished from most new economy class seat installations.


title: Airline seat

text: Some business class cabins feature seats that recline to a sloped flat position. These "lie flat at an angle" seats allow for greater comfort than traditional recliner seats, but are less comfortable than fully horizontal flat bed seating.


title: Airline seat

text: Most international first-class and a growing number of international business-class cabins feature seats which recline to a full-horizontal flat position, forming a bed.


title: Airline seat

text: Some airlines are introducing new "slimline" seats in economy class. While "slimline" is not a defined term, slimline seats have less padding in the back. Seat pitch and width in economy class have also been decreasing, In 1985 none of the main four US carriers offered a seat less than 19 inches wide. Since the beginning of the 21st Century until 2018 average seat width decreased from 18.5 to 17 inches, and sometimes as low as 16.1 inches.


title: Airline seat

text: Slimline seats weigh less than full-size seats, and are claimed to allow airlines to increase capacity without significantly affecting passenger comfort. Many passengers however, have expressed displeasure with these seats. Moreover, the US Department of Transportation (DOT) has begun to explore the safety issues associated with increased aircraft capacity and reduced seat pitch that results from the installation of "slimline" seats. In an 14 April 2015 hearing of the DOT's Advisory Committee for Aviation Consumer Protection, Cynthia Corbett, an investigator for the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) Civil Aerospace Medical Institute, discussed concerns regarding the emergency evacuation of higher capacity aircraft. The citizens' group "Flyers Rights" brought a case against the FAA in 2017, arguing that the agency had a responsibility to prevent seats from becoming so cramped as to become a safety issue in an emergency.


title: Airline seat

text: This type of seat was pioneered by Recaro, but several other manufacturers (such as Weber Aircraft LLC and B/E Aerospace) have introduced their own slimline seats as well. These seats may or may not feature moveable headrests, and generally do not feature adjustable lumbar support.


title: Airline seat

text: A newer innovation by Zodiac Seats U.S. (formerly Weber Aircraft LLC) is an articulating seat bottom, where the seat bottom moves forward in addition to the seat back tilting backwards. Such seats have been installed in some of the aircraft of Aer Lingus, Delta Air Lines, Emirates, American Airlines, and Avianca, amongst others. This seating was eventually adopted by competitors such as B/E Aerospace and Recaro.


title: Airline seat

text: Airline cabins are frequently classified as "narrow-body" if there is a single aisle with seats on either side, or "wide-body" if there are two aisles with a block of seats between them in addition to the seats on the side.


title: Airline seat

text: The number of seats abreast is affected by the aircraft width. On very small aircraft such as the Beechcraft 1900 there are only individual seats on each side of the aisle (1+1 seating). The widest narrow body aircraft such as the Airbus A320 family and Boeing 737 aircraft have six abreast seating in a 3+3 layout. Asymmetrical layouts also exist, examples including the Embraer Regional Jet which has 1+2 seating while the Douglas DC-9, Sukhoi Superjet 100 and Airbus A220 aircraft typically feature 2+3 seating.


title: Airline seat

text: On wide body-aircraft the center block of seats between the aisles can have as many as 5 seats on planes like the layout on most McDonnell Douglas DC-10 and some Boeing 777 aircraft, although Boeing recommends the 3+3+3 over the 2+5+2 layout. Very wide planes such as the Boeing 747 or the Airbus A380 have ten seats abreast, typically in a 3+4+3 layout, although this layout is also sometimes used as a high density layout on aircraft normally seating nine abreast, such as the 777 or DC-10. Recently, airlines have been adopting ten abreast seating on the Boeing 777-300 aircraft.


title: Airline seat

text: While there are some exceptions, most commercial aircraft seats are forward-facing and on military aircraft seats are frequently rearward-facing. Southwest Airlines previously offered a few rearward-facings seats on some aircraft but that scheme has now ended. Rearward-facing seats are also common on business jets, to provide a conference-type layout. British Airways, United Airlines and American Airlines also have rearward-facing seats in their Club World (except in the A350), domestic 777-200 United First and (select) Business Class Cabins, respectively. It has been argued that rearward-facing seats are safer because in the event of a crash, the sudden deceleration will propel the passenger into a rearward-facing seat instead of out of it, meaning the force is distributed over the entire seat back, instead of the straps of the seat belt. The argument against such seats has been based on passenger comfort, safety and cost. It could be argued that passengers who desire the natural layout of forward-facing seats may be uncomfortable with a rearward layout. On the safety aspect, the argument has been that during a plane crash, debris, such as luggage, will fly forward in the cabin, quite possibly into the passengers in rearward-facing seats. On the cost aspect, rearward-facing seats need additional strengthening which adds extra weight and therefore higher fuel costs.


title: Airline seat

text: For airlines who don't have seat maps, websites like SeatGuru show seat maps for the aforementioned airlines.


title: Airline seat

text: Window seats are located at the sides of the aircraft, and usually next to a window, although some aircraft have seat rows where there is a window missing. Window seats are preferred by passengers who want to have a view, or a wall which they can lean against. Passengers in seats adjacent to the aisle have the advantage of being able to leave the seat without having to clamber over the other passengers, and having an aisle they can stretch their legs into. If a seat block has three or more seats, there will also be middle seats which are unpopular because the passenger is sandwiched between two other passengers without advantages of either window or aisle seats. Middle seats are typically booked last.


title: Airline seat

text: It was reported in 2016 that the average distance between seat rows (pitch) had declined to , from over , while the average seat width had shrunk to from in the previous two decades.


title: Airline seat

text: Seat pitch is defined as the space between a point on one seat and the same point on the seat in front of it. In almost all cases, seat pitch increases with class of travel (economy, business, first, etc.) For many carriers, the pitch in economy class is . Legroom depends upon seat pitch and the thickness of the seat back. Airlines have claimed that a reduction of seat pitch can be compensated for by a thinner seat-back design.


title: Airline seat

text: American Airlines' business class seat pitches in their former Boeing 767-200s were , the largest in any short-haul business class. US Airways, now merged with American Airlines, have first-class flatbed seats in their Airbus A330-300s with a seat pitch of 94 inches (2 inches short of 8 feet) or 240 cm (2.4 meters)


title: Airline seat

text: In 2010 the seat pitch on low-cost carriers could be as low as in the case of Spirit Airlines but was typically or .


title: Airline seat

text: There is some ambiguity about the meaning of "seat width". It can be taken as the width enclosed by the armrests on each side, i.e., the width available to sit in, or as the distance from the midpoint of one armrest to the midpoint of the next, a larger figure by the width of an armrest, and the width available for the shoulders (it is also one-third of the width of a block of three identical seats). It is thought that most airlines use the first of these figures. In Economy class this width was typically in 2003.


title: Airline seat

text: In 2013, Airbus said, for long haul flights, there should be an industry standard for a minimum seat width of 18 inches in economy cabins, but its rival Boeing argued it was up for airlines to decide. People have been getting wider: the weight of the average American male in his 40s had increased by 10 percent in the 30 years from the 1970 introduction of the Boeing 747. The narrower 17-inch-wide seat favoured by Boeing is a legacy from the 1950s when passenger jets were first introduced. In the 1970s and 1980s with the introduction of the Boeing 747 and the first Airbus jets, 18 inches become standard for long-haul flights. Seats were widened to 18.5 inches with the Boeing 777 in the 1990s and A380 superjumbo in the 2000s. Many airlines are adopting lighter 17-inch-wide seats on their Boeing 777 and 787 and 18-inch seats for A350s. Although for almost 20 years, the standard setup in the back of a Boeing 777 was nine seats per row, in 2012 nearly 70% of the biggest version of that plane were delivered with 10-abreast seating. When Airbus introduced its A380, it offered 10-abreast seating, giving each passenger up to 19 inches of hip space. In 2013, ten airlines fly Airbus A330 with nine 16.7-inch seats in each row, rather than the eight it was designed for. A research report commissioned by Airbus concluded that an extra inch in seat width improves sleep quality by 53 percent.


title: Airline seat

text: There has been a decided trend to increase economy seating density in the twenty-first century. In 1985 none of the main four US carriers offered a seat less than 19 inches wide. Since the beginning of the twenty-first century until 2018 average seat width decreased from 18.5 to 17 inches, and sometimes as low as 16.1 inches.


title: Airline seat

text: An airplane "aisle chair" is a mobile seat provided by airlines for passengers who require the use of a wheelchair. While most trains, buses and other forms of public transportation have space for a passenger's own wheelchair for seating and a ramp or lift assist for boarding, airplane aisles are too narrow for conventional wheelchairs. The aisle chair affords the wheelchair passenger assisted mobility in boarding and disembarking, and in-flight moving within the cabin such as to the lavatory.


title: Airline seat

text: Airline seats are designed to be lightweight, but at the same time strong and fire resistant, while also taking into account passenger comfort. A typical design is an aluminium frame with blocks of polyurethane foam attached to it. In some cases a layer of fire-resistant fabric, for instance Kevlar or Nomex goes over this, and at the top is a layer of cloth or leather.


title: Airline seat

text: Leather seats are more costly than traditional cloth seats. Even so, several airlines, including low-cost carriers, choose leather not only to present a more "luxurious" product, but also because such seats are easier to clean and prevent spilt liquids from soaking through to the padding for reduced turnaround issues.


title: Airline seat

text: In the fairly early days of aviation, airline seats were typically of soft, earthy colors such as light browns and gray, which were intended to calm the passengers. During the 1970s, brighter colors such as red and orange became more commonplace. After this, shades of blue and gray, with a more business-like tone, became the most common choice. However, certain airlines such as Austrian Airlines, Emirates and Singapore Airlines still use soft colours on seats.


title: Airline seat

text: Generally, every individual seat position (except for the last ones at the rear of the cabin) has a small set of auxiliary controls built into the seat back for the passenger directly behind the seat. The seat itself normally contains a small flip-out, extendable tray table (which must be folded away during takeoff and landing), and, on most wide-body international aircraft, an LCD video screen directly above the tray table (earlier aircraft had a single large projection screen at the front of each cabin). Directly above the seat (on the cabin ceiling) is a console for the passenger service unit. The controls on the PSU console may include:


title: Airline seat

text: At window seats there are window shades for protection from sunlight. Regulations require them to be open during landings and takeoffs, to provide visibility into and out of the aircraft in emergencies. Some airlines request passengers to keep the window shades down, in addition to muting cabin lighting, during times when most passengers will want to sleep. The Boeing 787 Dreamliner uses electrochromic windows instead of window covers. Many armrests provide devices for reclining the chair, control handsets for in-flight entertainment systems. Ashtrays, universally provided when smoking was permitted, are still sometimes provided for small detritus.


title: Cashmere goat

text: A cashmere goat is a type of goat that produces cashmere wool, the goat's fine, soft, downy, winter undercoat, in commercial quality and quantity. This undercoat grows as the day length shortens and is associated with an outer coat of coarse hair, which is present all the year and is called guard hair. Most common goat breeds, including dairy goats, grow this two-coated fleece.


title: Cashmere goat

text: In 1994, China had an estimated population of 123 million goats and is the largest producer of cashmere down. Local breeds are dominant. In the past decades, breeding programs have been started to develop productive breeds. The cashmere goat is a fiber goat along with the Pygora goat, Nigora goat, and the Angora goat.


title: Cashmere goat

text: The goats take their name from their origin in the Himalayan region of Kashmir region with the word "cashmere" deriving from an anglicisation of Kashmir.


title: Cashmere goat

text: The foundation stock for the Australian Cashmere Goat was taken from northern and western Australia from the local bush goat population in the late 1970s. The production varies from herd to herd, with the most productive herds averaging 250 grams at a diameter of 15 μm. There is a breed and fleece standard, and active development of the breed continues with the University of Western Australia running a sire referencing scheme.


title: Cashmere goat

text: The Changthangi or Pashmina goat is found in China (Tibet), Mongolia, Myanmar, Bhutan, Nepal, UT of Ladakh. They are raised for cashmere production and used as pack animals. The breed is most often white, but black, gray and brown animals also occur. They have large, twisting horns. This bloodline produces the finest Cashmere with an average diameter between 12-13 μm and average fiber length between 55-60mm. It is very rare and constitutes less than 0.1% of global cashmere production.


title: Cashmere goat

text: The Hexi Cashmere has a long history in desert and semidesert regions of Gansu Province, China. About 60% of the goats are white. The Hexi cashmere can be found in the Gansu, Qinghai and Ningxia provinces. A typical adult doe produces 184 grams of down at 15.7 μm diameter.


title: Cashmere goat

text: The Inner Mongolia cashmere goat is a local dual-purpose breed with a long history. It adapts well to desert and semidesert pastures. The goats can be divided into five strains, Alasan (Alashanzuoqi), Arbus, Erlangshan, Hanshan and Wuzhumuqin. The first three strains produce quality cashmere; the last two have been developed for high production. The average down yield is about 240 grams, with an average down diameter between 14.3 and 15.8 μm. The cashmere length is between 41 and 47 mm. In 1994, the total Inner Mongolian goat population was approximately 2.3 million goats.


title: Cashmere goat

text: Breeding animals were selected in the 1960s from six counties in the eastern mountain area of Liaoning Province. The herd has been continually developed since then, and used to improve the cashmere herd throughout China. The Liaoning goat is mainly found in the Buyun mountains in the Liaodong Peninsula. The breed was formally named the Liaoning cashmere goat by the Chinese Ministry of Agriculture in 1984. By 1994, selected Liaoning does were producing 326 g of down at 15 μm diameter. The selection work emphasizes size, length of body, quantity and quality of cashmere, the ability to climb, sturdiness, conformation and growth.


title: Cashmere goat

text: The Licheng Daqing goat is a dual-purpose breed from the Shanxi Province, China. The down is usually brown, but the color can vary. The average doe down yield is 115 g at 14 μm diameter.


title: Cashmere goat

text: In 1994, there were more than 7 million Tibetan Plateau and Valley goats in Tibetan Plateau regions of People's Republic of China. Five million were in Tibet Autonomous Region, 1 million in Tibetan Autonomous Prefectures in Sichuan, half a million in Qinghai and about 100,000 in Gansu. There are also a small number of Tibetan goats in India and Nepal. The Tibetan plateau goats are kept for down production. In 1994, an adult doe's average down production was 197 g, while the average adult buck's down production was 261 g.


title: Cashmere goat

text: This Inner Mongolian strain is a new breed, recognized in 1994, and is distributed mainly in Xilingele Meng. The development of the breed started in 1980. By 1994, the breed had 372 nucleus herds and 681 selection herds. The bucks have thick, long horns and 85% of the does are horned. Ninety eight percent of the herd is white. The developers of the breed claim the lustre of the fleece is better than the Liaoning goat. The average production of a Wuzhumuqin adult does in 1994 was 285 g at 15.6 μm diameter; the average down length was 46 mm.


title: Cashmere goat

text: The Zalaa Jinst White goat is the only entirely white breed of cashmere goat in Mongolia recognized by the Mongolian Wool & Cashmere Association, found in the southwest region of the Gobi Desert, where it has adapted well to Gobi desert nomadic herding. The average cashmere production for males is 380 grams; adult female is 290 grams with fibers averaging 16.0-16.5 microns in diameter


title: Cashmere goat

text: The Zhongwei goat originated in the semidesert and desert area around Zhongwei in Ningxia and Gansu Provinces in China, and are famous for their kid fur and cashmere production. The average fiber production for does is 216 g at 15 μm diameter.


title: Anuradha Sriram

text: Anuradha Sriram (born 9 July 1970) is an Indian carnatic and playback singer and child actress who hails from the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. She has sung more than 700 songs in Tamil, Telugu, Sinhala, Malayalam, Kannada, Bengali and Hindi films.


title: Anuradha Sriram

text: Anuradha was born in Chennai to playback singer Renuka Devi and Meenakshi Sundaram Mohan. She did her schooling (I and II standards) in Coimbatore at the St. Francis Anglo-Indian Girls School, and later at the Padma Seshadri Bala Bhavan, Chennai. She has a B.A and M.A in music from Queen Mary's College in Madras University and secured the university gold medal in both the courses. She was given a fellowship to do her Master of Arts degree in Ethnomusicology from Wesleyan University, Connecticut, US.


title: Anuradha Sriram

text: She was trained by many esteemed gurus like Thanjavur S. Kalyanaraman, Sangeetha Kalanidhi T. Brinda and T. Viswanathan in Carnatic music and has had intensive training under Pandit Mannikbua Thakurdas for Hindustani classical music. She is also an accomplished Western Classical opera singer, having undergone intensive training from Prof. Shirley Meier in New York City.


title: Anuradha Sriram

text: While in Wesleyan, apart from learning and performing western opera and jazz, she also performed in many Indonesian and West African music concerts.


title: Anuradha Sriram

text: Anuradha has performed extensively all over India and the US, and has given many radio and TV programmes since the age of 12. Anuradha Sriram first entered the Tamil Cinema Industry as a child artist in the 1980 Tamil film Kaali. In 1995, she was introduced as a singer by A R Rahman for the song "Malarodu Malaringu" in the movie "Bombay". Her first solo was for A R Rahman in "Indira".


title: Anuradha Sriram

text: Anuradha has several chart-topping Devotional albums to her credit. She also collaborates with her husband Sriram Parasuram on their Classical Music Jugalbandhi concerts and their hit TV programme "Elaame Sangeetham Thaan". She has also presented many music programmes on TV.


title: Anuradha Sriram

text: Having sung more than 2,000 songs in Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, and Malayalam, and six North Indian languages, some of her hits are "Nalam Nalam Ariyaaval" ("Kaadal Kotai"), "Dilruba Dilruba" ("Priyam"), "Meenamma" ("Aasai"), "Acham Acham Illai" ("Indira"), "Phenk Hawa" ("Ram Jaane") and "Pehli Pehli" ("Zor").


title: Anuradha Sriram

text: She has composed music for the film "Five Star" and television series "Sivamayam" produced by Radaan for Sun TV along with her husband. She also worked as a voice actor lending her voice for Kiran for the film "Anbe Sivam" (2003).


title: Anuradha Sriram

text: Anuradha is married to singer Sriram Parasuram (whom she met at Wesleyan University). They have two sons named Jayant and Lokesh.


title: Rayan Aït-Nouri

text: Rayan Aït-Nouri (born 6 June 2001) is a French professional footballer who plays as a left-back for Premier League club Wolverhampton Wanderers.


title: Rayan Aït-Nouri

text: Aït-Nouri is a graduate of the Angers youth academy, which he joined from Paris FC in July 2016, despite interest from Southampton, in return for covering Aït-Nouri's tuition fees of €5,000. He signed his professional contract aged 16 in February 2018 and made his first team debut as a substitute in a 1–3 loss to Paris Saint-Germain on 25 August 2018.


title: Rayan Aït-Nouri

text: After making three appearances in the 2018–19 season, he became the team's first choice left-back in the following season until breaking his jaw in a game against Nice in January 2020. At the conclusion of the French league season, which was ended early due to the coronavirus pandemic, he signed a new contract that was due to keep him at Angers until 2023.


title: Rayan Aït-Nouri

text: On 4 October 2020, Aït-Nouri moved on a season-long loan deal to Premier League club Wolverhampton Wanderers, with the club having an option of a permanent purchase. Twenty-six days later, he scored his first goal in professional football, on his league debut in a 2–0 home win over Crystal Palace.


title: Rayan Aït-Nouri

text: On 9 July 2021, Aït-Nouri had made a permanent move to Wolves for £9.8 million, on a five-year deal with an option for a further year. He scored his second goal for Wolves in his 50th appearance for the club, on 15 May 2022, in a 1–1 home Premier League draw with Norwich City.


title: Rayan Aït-Nouri

text: Born in France, Aït-Nouri is of Algerian descent. He is a youth international for France, but is also eligible to represent Algeria internationally.


title: Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty

text: The Partial Test Ban Treaty (PTBT) is the abbreviated name of the 1963 Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space and Under Water, which prohibited all test detonations of nuclear weapons except for those conducted underground. It is also abbreviated as the Limited Test Ban Treaty (LTBT) and Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (NTBT), though the latter may also refer to the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT), which succeeded the PTBT for ratifying parties.


title: Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty

text: Negotiations initially focused on a comprehensive ban, but that was abandoned because of technical questions surrounding the detection of underground tests and Soviet concerns over the intrusiveness of proposed verification methods. The impetus for the test ban was provided by rising public anxiety over the magnitude of nuclear tests, particularly tests of new thermonuclear weapons (hydrogen bombs), and the resulting nuclear fallout. A test ban was also seen as a means of slowing nuclear proliferation and the nuclear arms race. Though the PTBT did not halt proliferation or the arms race, its enactment did coincide with a substantial decline in the concentration of radioactive particles in the atmosphere.


title: Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty

text: The PTBT was signed by the governments of the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States in Moscow on 5 August 1963 before it was opened for signature by other countries. The treaty formally went into effect on 10 October 1963. Since then, 123 other states have become party to the treaty. Ten states have signed but not ratified the treaty.


title: Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty

text: Much of the stimulus for the treaty was increasing public unease about radioactive fallout as a result of above-ground or underwater nuclear testing, particularly given the increasing power of nuclear devices, as well as concern about the general environmental damage caused by testing. In 1952–53, the US and Soviet Union detonated their first thermonuclear weapons (hydrogen bombs), far more powerful than the atomic bombs tested and deployed since 1945. In 1954, the US Castle Bravo test at Bikini Atoll (part of Operation Castle) had a yield of 15 megatons of TNT, more than doubling the expected yield. The Castle Bravo test resulted in the worst radiological event in US history as radioactive particles spread over more than , affected inhabited areas (including Rongelap Atoll and Utirik Atoll), and sickened Japanese fishermen aboard the "Lucky Dragon" upon whom "ashes of death" had rained. In the same year, a Soviet test sent radioactive particles over Japan. Around the same time, victims of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima visited the US for medical care, which attracted significant public attention. In 1961, the Soviet Union tested the Tsar Bomba, which had a yield of 50 megatons and remains the most powerful man-made explosion in history, though due to a highly efficient detonation fallout was relatively limited. Between 1951 and 1958, the US conducted 166 atmospheric tests, the Soviet Union conducted 82, and Britain conducted 21; only 22 underground tests were conducted in this period (all by the US).


title: Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty

text: In 1945, Britain and Canada made an early call for an international discussion on controlling atomic power. At the time, the US had yet to formulate a cohesive policy or strategy on nuclear weapons. Taking advantage of this was Vannevar Bush, who had initiated and administered the Manhattan Project, but nevertheless had a long-term policy goal of banning on nuclear weapons production. As a first step in this direction, Bush proposed an international agency dedicated to nuclear control. Bush unsuccessfully argued in 1952 that the US pursue a test ban agreement with the Soviet Union before testing its first thermonuclear weapon, but his interest in international controls was echoed in the 1946 Acheson–Lilienthal Report, which had been commissioned by President Harry S. Truman to help construct US nuclear weapons policy. J. Robert Oppenheimer, who had led Los Alamos National Laboratory during the Manhattan Project, exerted significant influence over the report, particularly in its recommendation of an international body that would control production of and research on the world's supply of uranium and thorium. A version of the Acheson-Lilienthal plan was presented to the United Nations Atomic Energy Commission as the Baruch Plan in June 1946. The Baruch Plan proposed that an International Atomic Development Authority would control all research on and material and equipment involved in the production of atomic energy. Though Dwight D. Eisenhower, then the Chief of Staff of the United States Army, was not a significant figure in the Truman administration on nuclear questions, he did support Truman's nuclear control policy, including the Baruch Plan's provision for an international control agency, provided that the control system was accompanied by "a system of free and complete inspection."


title: Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty

text: In 1954, just weeks after the Castle Bravo test, Indian prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru made the first call for a "standstill agreement" on nuclear testing, who saw a testing moratorium as a stepping stone to more comprehensive arms control agreements. In the same year, the British Labour Party, then led by Clement Attlee, called on the UN to ban testing of thermonuclear weapons. 1955 marks the beginning of test-ban negotiations, as Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev first proposed talks on the subject in February 1955. On 10 May 1955, the Soviet Union proposed a test ban before the UN Disarmament Commission's "Committee of Five" (Britain, Canada, France, the Soviet Union, and the US). This proposal, which closely reflected a prior Anglo-French proposal, was initially part of a comprehensive disarmament proposal meant to reduce conventional arms levels and eliminate nuclear weapons. Despite the closeness of the Soviet proposal to earlier Western proposals, the US reversed its position on the provisions and rejected the Soviet offer "in the absence of more general control agreements," including limits on the production of fissionable material and protections against a surprise nuclear strike. The May 1955 proposal is now seen as evidence of Khrushchev's "new approach" to foreign policy, as Khrushchev sought to mend relations with the West. The proposal would serve as the basis of the Soviet negotiating position through 1957.


title: Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty

text: Eisenhower had supported nuclear testing after World War II. In 1947, he rejected arguments by Stafford L. Warren, the Manhattan Project's chief physician, concerning the detrimental health effects of atmospheric testing, agreeing instead with James Bryant Conant, a chemist and participant in the Manhattan Project, who was skeptical of Warren's then-theoretical claims. Warren's arguments were lent credence in the scientific community and public by the Castle Bravo test of 1954. Eisenhower, as president, first explicitly expressed interest in a comprehensive test ban that year, arguing before the National Security Council, "We could put [the Russians] on the spot if we accepted a moratorium ... Everybody seems to think that we're skunks, saber-rattlers and warmongers. We ought not miss any chance to make clear our peaceful objectives." Then-Secretary of State John Foster Dulles had responded skeptically to the limited arms-control suggestion of Nehru, whose proposal for a test ban was discarded by the National Security Council for being "not practical." Harold Stassen, Eisenhower's special assistant for disarmament, argued that the US should prioritize a test ban as a first step towards comprehensive arms control, conditional on the Soviet Union accepting on-site inspections, over full disarmament. Stassen's suggestion was dismissed by others in the administration over fears that the Soviet Union would be able to conduct secret tests. On the advice of Dulles, Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) chairman Lewis Strauss, and Secretary of Defense Charles Erwin Wilson, Eisenhower rejected the idea of considering a test ban outside general disarmament efforts. During the 1952 and 1956 presidential elections, Eisenhower fended off challenger Adlai Stevenson, who ran in large part on support for a test ban.


title: Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty

text: The British governments of 1954–58 (under Conservatives Winston Churchill, Anthony Eden, and Harold Macmillan) also quietly resisted a test ban, despite the British public favoring a deal, until the US Congress approved expanded nuclear collaboration in 1958 and until after Britain had tested its first hydrogen bombs. In their view, testing was necessary if the UK nuclear program were to continue to develop. This opposition was tempered by concern that resistance to a test ban might lead the US and Soviet Union to pursue an agreement without Britain having any say in the matter.


title: Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty

text: Members of the Soviet military–industrial complex also opposed a test ban, though some scientists, including Igor Kurchatov, were supportive of antinuclear efforts. France, which was in the midst of developing its own nuclear weapon, also firmly opposed a test ban in the late 1950s.


title: Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty

text: The proliferation of thermonuclear weapons coincided with a rise in public concern about nuclear fallout debris contaminating food sources, particularly the threat of high levels of strontium-90 in milk (see the Baby Tooth Survey). This survey was a scientist and citizen led campaign which used "modern media advocacy techniques to communicate complex issues" to inform public discourse. Its research findings confirmed a significant build-up of strontium-90 in bones of babies and helped galvanise public support for a ban on atmospheric nuclear testing in the US. Lewis Strauss and Edward Teller, dubbed the "father of the hydrogen bomb," both sought to tamp down on these fears, arguing that fallout [at the dose levels of US exposure] were fairly harmless and that a test ban would enable the Soviet Union to surpass the US in nuclear capabilities. Teller also suggested that testing was necessary to develop nuclear weapons that produced less fallout. Support in the US public for a test ban to continue to grow from 20% in 1954 to 63% by 1957. Moreover, widespread antinuclear protests were organized and led by theologian and Nobel Peace Prize laureate Albert Schweitzer, whose appeals were endorsed by Pope Pius XII, and Linus Pauling, the latter of whom organized an anti-test petition signed by more than 9,000 scientists across 43 countries (including the infirm and elderly Albert Einstein).


title: Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty

text: The AEC would eventually concede, as well, that even low levels of radiation were harmful. It was a combination of rising public support for a test ban and the shock of the 1957 Soviet "Sputnik" launch that encouraged Eisenhower to take steps towards a test ban in 1958.


title: Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty

text: There was also increased environmental concern in the Soviet Union. In the mid-1950s, Soviet scientists began taking regular radiation readings near Leningrad, Moscow, and Odessa and collected data on the prevalence of strontium-90, which indicated that strontium-90 levels in western Russia approximately matched those in the eastern US. Rising Soviet concern was punctuated in September 1957 by the Kyshtym disaster, which forced the evacuation of 10,000 people after an explosion at a nuclear plant. Around the same time, 219 Soviet scientists signed Pauling's antinuclear petition. Soviet political elites did not share the concerns of others in the Soviet Union. However; Kurchatov unsuccessfully called on Khrushchev to halt testing in 1958.


title: Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty

text: On 14 June 1957, following Eisenhower's suggestion that existing detection measures were inadequate to ensure compliance, the Soviet Union put forth a plan for a two-to-three-year testing moratorium. The moratorium would be overseen by an international commission reliant on national monitoring stations, but, importantly, would involve no on-the-ground inspections. Eisenhower initially saw the deal as favorable, but eventually came to see otherwise. In particular, Strauss and Teller, as well as Ernest Lawrence and Mark Muir Mills, protested the offer. At a meeting with Eisenhower in the White House, the group argued that testing was necessary for the US to eventually develop bombs that produced no fallout ("clean bombs"). The group repeated the oft-cited fact, which was supported by Freeman Dyson, that the Soviet Union could conduct secret nuclear tests. In 1958, at the request of Igor Kurchatov, Soviet nuclear physicist and weapons designer Andrei Sakharov published a pair of widely circulated academic papers challenging the claim of Teller and others that a clean, fallout-free nuclear bomb could be developed, due to the formation of carbon-14 when nuclear devices are detonated in the air. A one-megaton clean bomb, Sakharov estimated, would cause 6,600 deaths over 8,000 years, figures derived largely from estimates on the quantity of carbon-14 generated from atmospheric nitrogen and the contemporary risk models at the time, along with the assumption that the world population is "thirty billion persons" in a few thousand years. In 1961, Sakharov was part of the design team for a 50 megaton "clean bomb", which has become known as the Tsar Bomba, detonated over the island of Novaya Zemlya.


title: Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty

text: In the spring of 1957, the US National Security Council had explored including a one-year test moratorium and a "cut-off" of fissionable-material production in a "partial" disarmament plan. The British government, then led by Macmillan, had yet to fully endorse a test ban. Accordingly, it pushed the US to demand that the production cut-off be closely timed with the testing moratorium, betting that the Soviet Union would reject this. London also encouraged the US to delay its disarmament plan, in part by moving the start of the moratorium back to November 1958. At the same time, Macmillan linked British support for a test ban to a revision of the Atomic Energy Act of 1946 (McMahon Act), which prohibited sharing of nuclear information with foreign governments. Eisenhower, eager to mend ties with Britain following the Suez Crisis of 1956, was receptive to Macmillan's conditions, but the AEC and the congressional Joint Committee on Atomic Energy were firmly opposed. It was not until after "Sputnik" in late 1957 that Eisenhower quickly moved to expand nuclear collaboration with the UK via presidential directives and the establishment of bilateral committees on nuclear matters. In early 1958, Eisenhower publicly stated that amendments to the McMahon Act were a necessary condition of a test ban, framing the policy shift in the context of US commitment to its NATO allies.


title: Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty

text: In August 1957, the US assented to a two-year testing moratorium proposed by the Soviet Union, but required that it be linked to restrictions on the production of fissionable material with military uses, a condition that the Soviet Union rejected. While Eisenhower insisted on linking a test ban to a broader disarmament effort (e.g., the production cut-off), Moscow insisted on independent consideration of a test ban.


title: Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty

text: On 19 September 1957, the US conducted the first contained underground test at the Nevada Test Site, codenamed "Rainier". The "Rainier" shot complicated the push for a comprehensive test ban, as underground tests could not be as easily identified as atmospheric tests.


title: Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty

text: Despite Eisenhower's interest in a deal, his administration was hamstrung by discord among US scientists, technicians, and politicians. At one point, Eisenhower complained that "statecraft was becoming a prisoner of scientists." Until 1957, Strauss's AEC (including its Los Alamos and Livermore laboratories) was the dominant voice in the administration on nuclear affairs, with Teller's concerns over detection mechanisms also influencing Eisenhower. Unlike some others within the US scientific community, Strauss fervently advocated against a test ban, arguing that the US must maintain a clear nuclear advantage via regular testing and that the negative environmental impacts of such tests were overstated. Furthermore, Strauss repeatedly emphasized the risk of the Soviet Union violating a ban, a fear Eisenhower shared.


title: Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty

text: On 7 November 1957, after "Sputnik" and under pressure to bring on a dedicated science advisor, Eisenhower created the President's Science Advisory Committee (PSAC), which had the effect of eroding the AEC's monopoly over scientific advice. In stark contrast to the AEC, PSAC promoted a test ban and argued against Strauss's claims concerning its strategic implications and technical feasibility. In late 1957, the Soviet Union made a second offer of a three-year moratorium without inspections, but lacking any consensus within his administration, Eisenhower rejected it. In early 1958, the discord within American circles, particularly among scientists, was made clear in hearings before the Senate Subcommittee on Nuclear Disarmament, chaired by Senator Hubert Humphrey. The hearings featured conflicting testimony from the likes of Teller and Linus Pauling, as well as from Harold Stassen, who argued that a test ban could safely be separated from broader disarmament, and AEC members, who argued that a cutoff in nuclear production should precede a test ban.


title: Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty

text: In the summer of 1957, Khrushchev was at acute risk of losing power, as the Anti-Party Group composed of former Stalin allies Lazar Kaganovich, Georgy Malenkov, and Vyacheslav Molotov launched an attempt to replace Khrushchev as General Secretary of the Communist Party (effectively the leader of the Soviet Union) with Nikolai Bulganin, then the Premier of the Soviet Union. The attempted ouster, which was foiled in June, was followed by a series of actions by Khrushchev to consolidate power. In October 1957, still feeling vulnerable from Anti-Party Group's ploy, Khrushchev forced out defense minister Georgy Zhukov, cited as "the nation's most powerful military man." On 27 March 1958, Khrushchev forced Bulganin to resign and succeeded him as Premier. Between 1957 and 1960, Khrushchev had his firmest grip on power, with little real opposition.


title: Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty

text: Khrushchev was personally troubled by the power of nuclear weapons and would later recount that he believed the weapons could never be used. In the mid-1950s, Khrushchev took a keen interest in defense policy and sought to inaugurate an era of détente with the West. Initial efforts to reach accords, such as on disarmament at the 1955 Geneva Summit, proved fruitless, and Khrushchev saw test-ban negotiations as an opportunity to present the Soviet Union as "both powerful and responsible." At the 20th Communist Party Congress in 1956, Khrushchev declared that nuclear war should no longer be seen as "fatalistically inevitable." Simultaneously, however, Khrushchev expanded and advanced the Soviet nuclear arsenal at a cost to conventional Soviet forces (e.g., in early 1960, Khrushchev announced demobilization of 1.2 million troops).


title: Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty

text: On 31 March 1958, the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union approved a decision to halt nuclear testing, conditional on other nuclear powers doing the same. Khrushchev then called on Eisenhower and Macmillan to join the moratorium. Despite the action being met with widespread praise and an argument from Dulles that the US should reciprocate, Eisenhower dismissed the plan as a "gimmick"; the Soviet Union had just completed a testing series and the US was about to begin Operation Hardtack I, a series of atmospheric, surface-level, and underwater nuclear tests. Eisenhower instead insisted that any moratorium be linked to reduced production of nuclear weapons. In April 1958, the US began Operation Hardtack I as planned. The Soviet declaration concerned the British government, which feared that the moratorium might lead to a test ban before its own testing program was completed. Following the Soviet declaration, Eisenhower called for an international meeting of experts to determine proper control and verification measures—an idea first proposed by British Foreign Secretary Selwyn Lloyd.


title: Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty

text: The advocacy of PSAC, including that of its chairmen James Rhyne Killian and George Kistiakowsky, was a key factor in Eisenhower's eventual decision to initiate test-ban negotiations in 1958. In the spring of 1958, chairman Killian and the PSAC staff (namely Hans Bethe and Isidor Isaac Rabi) undertook a review of US test-ban policy, determining that a successful system for detecting underground tests could be created. At the recommendation of Dulles (who had recently come to support a test ban), the review prompted Eisenhower to propose technical negotiations with the Soviet Union, effectively detaching test-ban negotiations from negotiations over a halt to nuclear weapons production (the one-time US demand). In explaining the policy shift, Eisenhower privately said that continued resistance to a test ban would leave the US in a state of "moral isolation."


title: Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty

text: On 8 April 1958, still resisting Khrushchev's call for a moratorium, Eisenhower invited the Soviet Union to join these technical negotiations in the form of a conference on the technical aspects of a test-ban, specifically the technical details of ensuring compliance with a ban. The proposal was, to a degree, a concession to the Soviet Union, as a test ban would be explored independent of the previously demanded cutoff in fissionable-material production. Khrushchev initially declined the invitation, but eventually agreed "in spite of the serious doubts" he had after Eisenhower suggested a technical agreement on verification would be a precursor to a test ban.


title: Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty

text: On 1 July 1958, responding to Eisenhower's call, the nuclear powers convened the Conference of Experts in Geneva, aimed at studying means of detecting nuclear tests. The conference included scientists from the US, Britain, the Soviet Union, Canada, Czechoslovakia, France, Poland, and Romania. The US delegation was led by James Fisk, a member of PSAC, the Soviets by Evgenii Fedorov, and the British delegation by William Penney, who had led the British delegation to the Manhattan Project. Whereas the US approached the conference solely from a technical perspective, Penney was specifically instructed by Macmillan to attempt to achieve a political agreement. This difference in approach was reflected in the broader composition of the US and UK teams. US experts were primarily drawn from academia and industry. Fisk was a vice president at Bell Telephone Laboratories and was joined by Robert Bacher and Ernest Lawrence, both physicists who had worked on the Manhattan Project. Conversely, British delegates largely held government positions. The Soviet delegation was composed primarily of academics, though virtually all of them had some link to the Soviet government. The Soviets shared the British goal of achieving an agreement at the conference.


title: Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty

text: At particular issue was the ability of sensors to differentiate an underground test from an earthquake. There were four techniques examined: measurement of acoustic waves, seismic signals, radio waves, and inspection of radioactive debris. The Soviet delegation expressed confidence in each method, while Western experts argued that a more comprehensive compliance system would be necessary.


title: Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty

text: The Conference of Experts was characterized as "highly professional" and productive. By the end of August 1958, the experts devised an extensive control program, known as the "Geneva System," involving 160–170 land-based monitoring posts, plus 10 additional sea-based monitors and occasional flights over land following a suspicious event (with the inspection plane being provided and controlled by the state under inspection). The experts determined that such a scheme would be able to detect 90% of underground detonations, accurate to 5 kilotons, and atmospheric tests with a minimum yield of 1 kiloton. The US had initially advocated for 650 posts, versus a Soviet proposal of 100–110. The final recommendation was a compromise forged by the British delegation. In a widely publicized and well-received communiqué dated 21 August 1958, the conference declared that it "reached the conclusion that it is technically feasible to set up ... a workable and effective control system for the detection of violations of a possible agreement on the worldwide cessation of nuclear weapons tests."


title: Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty

text: The technical findings, released on 30 August 1958 in a report drafted by the Soviet delegation, were endorsed by the US and UK, which proposed that they serve as the basis for test-ban and international-control negotiations. However, the experts' report failed to address precisely who would do the monitoring and when on-site inspections—a US demand and Soviet concern—would be permitted. The experts also deemed detection of outer-space tests (tests more than above the earth's surface) to be impractical. Additionally, the size of the Geneva System may have rendered it too expensive to be put into effect. The 30 August report, which contained details on these limitations, received significantly less public attention than the 21 August communiqué.


title: Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty

text: Nevertheless, pleased by the findings, the Eisenhower administration proposed negotiations on a permanent test ban and announced it would self-impose a year-long testing moratorium if Britain and the Soviet Union did the same. This decision amounted to a victory for John Foster Dulles, Allen Dulles (then the Director of Central Intelligence), and PSAC, who had argued within the Eisenhower administration for separating a test ban from larger disarmament efforts, and a defeat for the Department of Defense and AEC, which had argued to the contrary.


title: Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty

text: In May 1958, Britain had informed the US that it would be willing to join a testing moratorium on 31 October 1958, by which point it would have finished its hydrogen-bomb testing, conditional on the US providing Britain with nuclear information following amendment of the McMahon Act. The US Congress approved amendments permitting greater collaboration in late June. Following Soviet assent on 30 August 1958 to the one-year moratorium, the three countries conducted a series of tests in September and October. At least 54 tests were conducted by the US and 14 by the Soviet Union in this period. On 31 October 1958 the three countries initiated test-ban negotiations (the Conference on the Discontinuance of Nuclear Tests) and agreed to a temporary moratorium (the Soviet Union joined the moratorium shortly after this date). The moratorium would last for close to three years.


title: Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty

text: The Conference on the Discontinuance of Nuclear Tests convened in Geneva at Moscow's request (the Western participants had proposed New York City). The US delegation was led by James Jeremiah Wadsworth, an envoy to the UN, the British by David Ormsby-Gore, the Minister of State for Foreign Affairs, and the Soviets by Semyon K. Tsarapkin, a disarmament expert with experience dating back to the 1946 Baruch Plan. The Geneva Conference began with a Soviet draft treaty grounded in the Geneva System. The three nuclear weapons states (the "original parties") would abide by a test ban, verified by the Geneva System, and work to prevent testing by potential nuclear states (such as France). This was rejected by Anglo-American negotiators due to fears that the verification provisions were too vague and the Geneva System too weak.


title: Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty

text: Shortly after the Geneva Conference began in the fall of 1958, Eisenhower faced renewed domestic opposition to a comprehensive test ban as Senator Albert Gore Sr. argued in a widely circulated letter that a partial ban would be preferable due to Soviet opposition to strong verification measures.


title: Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty

text: The Gore letter did spur some progress in negotiations, as the Soviet Union allowed in late November 1958 for explicit control measures to be included in the text of the drafted treaty. By March 1959, the negotiators had agreed upon seven treaty articles, but they primarily concerned uncontroversial issues and a number of disputes over verification persisted. First, the Soviet verification proposal was deemed by the West to be too reliant on self-inspection, with control posts primarily staffed by citizens of the country housing the posts and a minimal role for officials from the international supervisory body. The West insisted that half of a control post staff be drawn from another nuclear state and half from neutral parties. Second, the Soviet Union required that the international supervisory body, the Control Commission, require unanimity before acting; the West rejected the idea of giving Moscow a veto over the commission's proceedings. Finally, the Soviet Union preferred temporary inspection teams drawn from citizens of the country under inspection, while the West insisted on permanent teams composed of inspectors from the Control Commission.


title: Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty

text: Additionally, despite the initial positive response to the Geneva experts' report, data gathered from Hardtack operations of 1958 (namely the underground "Rainier" shot) would further complication verification provisions as US scientists, including Hans Bethe (who backed a ban), became convinced that the Geneva findings were too optimistic regarding detection of underground tests, though Macmillan warned that using the data to block progress on a test ban might be perceived in the public as a political ploy. In early 1959, Wadsworth told Tsarapkin of new US skepticism towards the Geneva System. While the Geneva experts believed the system could detect underground tests down to five kilotons, the US now believed that it could only detect tests down to 20 kilotons (in comparison, the Little Boy bomb dropped on Hiroshima had an official yield of 13 kilotons). As a result, the Geneva detection regime and the number of control posts would have to be significantly expanded, including new posts within the Soviet Union. The Soviets dismissed the US argument as a ruse, suggesting that the Hardtack data had been falsified.


title: Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty

text: In early 1959, a roadblock to an agreement was removed as Macmillan and Eisenhower, over opposition from the Department of Defense, agreed to consider a test ban separately from broader disarmament endeavors.


title: Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty

text: On 13 April 1959, facing Soviet opposition to on-site detection systems for underground tests, Eisenhower proposed moving from a single, comprehensive test ban to a graduated agreement where atmospheric tests—those up to 50 km (31 mi) high, a limit Eisenhower would revise upward in May 1959—would be banned first, with negotiations on underground and outer-space tests continuing. This proposal was turned down on 23 April 1959 by Khrushchev, calling it a "dishonest deal." On 26 August 1959, the US announced it would extend its year-long testing moratorium to the end of 1959, and would not conduct tests after that point without prior warning. The Soviet Union reaffirmed that it would not conduct tests if the US and UK continued to observe a moratorium.


title: Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty

text: To break the deadlock over verification, Macmillan proposed a compromise in February 1959 whereby each of the original parties would be subject to a set number of on-site inspections each year. In May 1959, Khrushchev and Eisenhower agreed to explore Macmillan's quota proposal, though Eisenhower made further test-ban negotiations conditional on the Soviet Union dropping its Control Commission veto demand and participating in technical discussions on identification of high-altitude nuclear explosions. Khrushchev agreed to the latter and was noncommittal on the former. A working group in Geneva would eventually devise a costly system of 5–6 satellites orbiting at least above the earth, though it could not say with certainty that such a system would be able to determine the origin of a high-altitude test. US negotiators also questioned whether high-altitude tests could evade detection via radiation shielding. Concerning Macmillan's compromise, the Soviet Union privately suggested it would accept a quota of three inspections per year. The US argued that the quota should be set according to scientific necessity (i.e., be set according to the frequency of seismic events).