title: Güey

text: Güey (; also spelled guey, wey "or we") is a word in colloquial Mexican Spanish which is commonly used to refer to any person without using their name. Though more often, and originally only applied to males, it can be used equally for males and females; although women would more commonly use another slang word to refer to another unnamed female person, such as "chava" (young woman) or "vieja" (old lady). It is used roughly the same way as "dude" is used in modern American English. It is derived from the term buey, which refers to an ox, used for meat, sacrifice, or labor. It was used to insult men as cuckolds, because oxen are slow, castrated bulls. Over time, the initial underwent a consonant mutation to a , often elided; resulting in the modern wey. The word can be used as an insult, like "fool", although, due to its extremely high frequency of use in a multitude of contexts, it has lost much of its offensive character, becoming a colloquialism.


title: Güey

text: In the first case, it is used like the English profanity, "dumbass". In the last two cases, it is used like the American slang term, "dude".


title: Güey

text: Although the word is not always offensive nor an insult between friends, its usage is generally considered uneducated. Thus its usage is limited mostly to friends and trusted acquaintances or among young people. It is considered in poor taste for a teenager or a child to refer to an adult as ""güey"," although among adults it is usually used in a common way. The word is used in any social class, being equally accepted and used in all. It is also used in television and radio in popular entertainment, but not in more formal or objective programs, like in the news.


title: Deborah Read

text: Deborah Read Franklin ( 1708 – December 19, 1774) was the common-law wife of Benjamin Franklin, polymath and one of the Founding Fathers of the United States.


title: Deborah Read

text: Little is known about Read's early life. She was born around 1708, most likely in Birmingham, England (some sources state she was born in Philadelphia) to John and Sarah Read, a well respected Quaker couple. John Read was a moderately prosperous building contractor and carpenter who died in 1724. Read had three siblings: two brothers, John and James, and a sister, Frances. The Read family immigrated to British America in 1711, settling in Philadelphia.


title: Deborah Read

text: In October 1723, Read met then 17-year-old Benjamin Franklin when he walked past the Read home on Market Street one morning. Franklin had just moved to Philadelphia from Boston to find


title: Deborah Read

text: employment as a printer. In his autobiography, Franklin recalled that at the time of their meeting, he was walking while carrying "three great puffy rolls". As he had no pockets, Franklin carried one roll under each arm and was eating the third. Read (whom Franklin called "Debby") was standing in the doorway of her home and was amused by the sight of Franklin's "most awkward ridiculous appearance."


title: Deborah Read

text: A romance between Read and Franklin soon developed. When Franklin was unable to find appropriate living accommodations near his job, Read's father allowed him to rent a room in the family home. Read and Franklin's courtship continued, and in 1724, Franklin proposed marriage. However, Read's mother, Mary, would not consent to the marriage, citing Franklin's pending trip to London and financial instability.


title: Deborah Read

text: Read and Franklin postponed their marriage plans and Franklin traveled to England. Upon arriving in London, Franklin decided to end the relationship. In a terse letter, he informed Read that he had no intention of returning to Philadelphia. Franklin subsequently became stranded in London after Sir William Keith failed to follow through on promises of financial support.


title: Deborah Read

text: In Franklin's absence, Read was persuaded by her mother to marry John Rogers, a British man who has been identified variously as a carpenter or a potter. Read eventually agreed and married Rogers on August 5, 1725 at Christ Church, Philadelphia. The marriage quickly fell apart as the "sweet-talking" Rogers could not hold a job and had incurred a large amount of debt before their marriage. Four months after they were married, Read left Rogers after a friend of Rogers’ visiting from England informed her that Rogers had a wife in his native England. Read refused to live with or recognize Rogers as her husband. While the couple were separated, Rogers spent Read's dowry, incurred more debt, and used the marriage to further his own schemes. In December 1727, Rogers stole a slave and disappeared. Soon afterward, unconfirmed reports circulated that Rogers had made his way to the British West Indies, where he was killed in a fight. In his autobiography, Franklin also claimed that Rogers died in the British West Indies. John Rogers' true fate has never been proven.


title: Deborah Read

text: Despite his previous intention to remain in London, Franklin returned to Philadelphia in October 1727. He and Read eventually resumed their relationship and decided to marry. While Read considered her marriage to her first husband to be over, she was not able to legally remarry. At that time, the law in the Province of Pennsylvania would not grant a divorce on the grounds of desertion; nor could Read claim to be a widow, as there was no proof that Rogers was dead. If Rogers returned after Read legally married Franklin, she faced a charge of bigamy which carried the penalty of thirty-nine lashings on the bare back and life imprisonment with hard labor.


title: Deborah Read

text: To avoid any legal issues, Read and Franklin decided upon a common-law marriage. On September 1, 1730, the couple held a ceremony for friends and family in which they announced they would live as husband and wife. They had two children together: Francis Folger "Franky" (born 1732), who died of smallpox in 1736 at the age of four, and Sarah "Sally" (born 1743). Read also helped to raise Franklin's illegitimate son William, whose mother's identity is still unknown.


title: Deborah Read

text: By the late 1750s, Benjamin Franklin had established himself as a successful printer, publisher, and writer. He was appointed the first postmaster of Philadelphia and was heavily involved in social and political affairs that would eventually lead to the establishment of the United States. In 1757, Franklin embarked on the first of numerous trips to Europe. Read refused to accompany him due to a fear of ocean travel. While Franklin stayed overseas for the next five years, Read remained in Philadelphia where, despite her limited education, she successfully ran her husband's businesses, maintained their home, cared for the couple's children and regularly attended Quaker Meeting.


title: Deborah Read

text: Franklin returned to Philadelphia in November 1762. He tried to persuade Read to accompany him to Europe, but she again refused. Franklin returned to Europe in November 1764 where he would remain for the next ten years. Read would never see Franklin again.


title: Deborah Read

text: In 1768, Read suffered the first of a series of strokes that severely impaired her speech and memory. For the remainder of her life, she suffered from poor health and depression. Despite his wife's condition, Franklin did not return to Philadelphia even though he had completed his diplomatic duties. In November 1769, Read wrote Franklin saying that her stroke, declining health and depressed mental state were a result of her "dissatisfied distress" due to his prolonged absence. Franklin still did not return but continued to write to Read. Read's final surviving letter to Franklin is dated October 29, 1773. Thereafter, she stopped corresponding with her husband. Franklin continued to write to Read, inquiring as to why her letters had ceased, but still did not return home.


title: Deborah Read

text: On December 14, 1774, Read suffered a final stroke and died on December 19. She was buried at Christ Church Burial Ground in Philadelphia. Franklin was buried next to her upon his death in 1790.


title: Robert Schuller

text: Robert Harold Schuller (September 16, 1926 – April 2, 2015) was an American Christian televangelist, pastor, motivational speaker, and author. In his five decades of television, Schuller was principally known for the weekly "Hour of Power" television program, which he began hosting in 1970 until his retirement in 2010. His grandson, Bobby Schuller, carries on the "Hour of Power" now airing for over fifty years. Schuller began broadcasting the program from the Neutra Sanctuary, with the encouragement of longtime friend Billy Graham after Schuller visited him in 1969. He was also the founder of the Crystal Cathedral in Garden Grove, California, where the "Hour of Power" program was later broadcast.


title: Robert Schuller

text: Robert Harold Schuller was born on September 16, 1926, near Alton, Iowa, the second son of Jennie (née Beltman; 1891–1970) and Anthony Schuller (1882–1964). He was the youngest of five children. All of his grandparents were Dutch immigrants, and he was raised on his parents' farm nearby in a small, close-knit community of Dutch-Americans, without running water. As a six month old infant, Schuller wore the gown on the day of his baptism at a Reformed Church, in Newkirk, Iowa, where he was raised. In 1931, just weeks before his fifth birthday, a visiting uncle, who was a minister, told him to be an evangelist. Schuller called it the "single most defining moment of my early life." After graduating from Newkirk High School in Newkirk, Iowa, in 1944, Schuller studied at Hope College, located in Holland, Michigan, and, in 1950, received a Master of Divinity degree from Western Theological Seminary, which follows the theological tradition and Christian practice of John Calvin. He was ordained as a minister in the Reformed Church in America. He worked at Ivanhoe Reformed Church in Riverdale, Illinois, before moving to Garden Grove, California. There, he opened the Garden Grove Community Church, in 1955, in a drive-in movie theater. He also rented a 300-seat former Baptist church, about four miles (6 km) from the drive-in theater. Schuller presided at a service in the chapel at 9:30 on Sunday mornings and then drove his organ to the drive-in to preside at another service.


title: Robert Schuller

text: As the size of the congregations grew, Schuller purchased of land at 12141 Lewis Street in Garden Grove for a "walk-in, drive-in" church, serving both congregations. Ground was broken September 10, 1958, for construction of the new church designed by international architect Richard Neutra. The church was completed in 1961, at a cost of $3 million (equivalent to $ million in ). The dedication service was held November 5, 1961.


title: Robert Schuller

text: The design of the new church building enabled Schuller to preach his sermons to worshipers in 500 cars, as well as to members of the congregation inside the church.


title: Robert Schuller

text: A "Tower of Hope" building was added on the north side of the drive-in church building in 1968; the Tower of Hope rose 13 stories (approximately in the air, the tallest structure in Orange County at that time, and was topped by a cross. The illuminated cross that stood atop the Tower of Hope was tall. That same year, Schuller purchased the walnut grove that bordered the north side of the Garden Grove Community Church for the construction of the much larger Crystal Cathedral, designed by architect Philip Johnson. The church, which has glass walls and ceiling, was dedicated on September 14, 1980.


title: Robert Schuller

text: Schuller emphasized what he believed are the positive aspects of the Christian faith. He deliberately avoided condemning people for sin, believing that Jesus "met needs before touting creeds". Once in a relationship with God, Schuller emphasized, someone who is sowing positive faith in his heart and actions will discover that the by-product is a reduction of sin. He was known to say, "Sin is a condition before it is an action." Schuller encouraged Christians and non-Christians to achieve great things through God and to believe in their dreams. He wrote, "If you can dream it, you can do it!"


title: Robert Schuller

text: As the Crystal Cathedral's founding pastor, Schuller was seen and heard internationally on Sundays on the world's most widely watched hour-long church service, the "Hour of Power", 1,500 of which were recorded.


title: Robert Schuller

text: On June 15, 1950, Schuller married Arvella De Haan (1929–2014), a church organist, who became instrumental in developing the music department at the Crystal Cathedral and was the creator and producer of the "Hour of Power" for over 40 years. The Schullers had five children: Sheila, Robert, Jeanne, Carol, and Gretchen.


title: Robert Schuller

text: On January 22, 2006, Schuller's son, Robert A. Schuller, assumed the role of senior pastor of the Crystal Cathedral. On October 25, 2008, however, he resigned. His father cited "a lack of shared vision" as the cause. Schuller stated that "different ideas as to the direction and the vision for this ministry" with his son "made it necessary ... to part ways in the "Hour of Power" television ministry". Schuller also said "I love my son and am proud of my son" and that the long-term survival of his ministry was dependent on expanding its imprint beyond the Schuller name. "The real minister's name that we honor is Jesus, not Schuller", he said. The ministry then opened the pulpit to a variety of notable Christian speakers.


title: Robert Schuller

text: On June 11, 2009, Schuller announced that the church's leadership would pass to his eldest daughter, Sheila Schuller Coleman. On July 11, 2010, he announced that he was retiring as principal pastor of the Crystal Cathedral and would become chairman of the church's board of directors. After a year as interim senior pastor, Sheila Schuller Coleman was elevated to senior pastor in July 2010.


title: Robert Schuller

text: On October 18, 2010, Coleman announced that the Crystal Cathedral was seeking bankruptcy protection, in the midst of what became known as the Great Recession.


title: Robert Schuller

text: In May 2011, the senior Schullers, along with their daughter Carol and her husband Tim, were dismissed from the ministry at the Crystal Cathedral. They filed for bankruptcy. The court would eventually allow them approximately 20 percent of what they were owed. The creditors would be paid in full plus interest. In July 2011, it was reported in the "Orange County Register" that Schuller had been ousted from the Crystal Cathedral board. In July 2011, Coleman attempted to reverse the decision that had been made in her absence, saying, "Dad will continue to provide leadership for this ministry through me for as long as possible" and, "I have and will continue to defer to his wisdom and honor him for his unprecedented accomplishments."


title: Robert Schuller

text: On March 11, 2012, after months of attempting to change the attitude of the ministry's board, Coleman told the Crystal Cathedral congregation that she was leaving to start a new church because of "a hostile work environment". The "International Business Times" reported that this came following "a bitter fallout between the ministry and its founding family". According to the Religion News Service, the founders were left with little to no assets; their home was fully mortgaged.


title: Robert Schuller

text: On January 24, 2013, the Crystal Cathedral's board of directors voted to make Bobby Schuller, Schuller's grandson (son of Robert Anthony Schuller), the new pastor for the "Hour of Power" television program as well as a non-voting member of the board.


title: Robert Schuller

text: In late August 2013, Schuller was diagnosed with esophageal cancer that had spread to the lymph nodes. A follow-up examination in September 2013 presented Schuller with the possibility of undergoing chemotherapy and radiation therapy that could extend his life.


title: Robert Schuller

text: Schuller died early on the morning of April 2, 2015, at a nursing facility in Artesia, California, aged 88. His funeral was held at Christ Cathedral, the former campus of the Crystal Cathedral. He was interred next to his wife at the Christ Cathedral Memorial Gardens Cemetery in Garden Grove, California.


title: Robert Schuller

text: Schuller authored over 30 hardcover books, 6 of which made "The New York Times" and Publishers Weekly bestseller lists,


title: American folk music

text: The term American folk music encompasses numerous music genres, variously known as "traditional music", "traditional folk music", "contemporary folk music", "vernacular music," or "roots music". Many traditional songs have been sung within the same family or folk group for generations, and sometimes trace back to such origins as the British Isles, Mainland Europe, or Africa. Musician Mike Seeger once famously commented that the definition of American folk music is "...all the music that fits between the cracks."


title: American folk music

text: American folk music is a broad category of music including bluegrass, gospel, old time music, jug bands, Appalachian folk, blues, Cajun and Native American music. The music is considered American either because it is native to the United States or because it developed there, out of foreign origins, to such a degree that it struck musicologists as something distinctly new. It is considered "roots music" because it served as the basis of music later developed in the United States, including rock and roll, rhythm and blues, and jazz.


title: American folk music

text: Most songs of the Colonial and Revolutionary periods originated in England, Scotland and Ireland and were brought over by early settlers. According to ethnomusicologist Bruno Nettl, American folk music is notable because it "At its roots is an English folk song tradition that has been modified to suit the specific requirements of America." Therefore many American folk songs, such as those documented by the American Folklorist Francis James Child in his catalogue of ballads known as the Child Ballads, can be traced back to their pre-colonial origins in the British Isles. For example, "Barbara Allen" remains a popular traditional ballad originating in England and Scotland, which immigrants introduced to the United States. The murder ballad "Pretty Polly", indexed by another scholar of American folk music, George Malcolm Laws, is an American version of an earlier British song, "The Gosport Tragedy". The oldest surviving folk song of local Anglo-American origin is the ballad "Springfield Mountain" dating back to 1761 in Connecticut.


title: American folk music

text: The typical instruments played in early American folk music were the fiddle, the guitar, the mandolin, the mouth organ, the fife, and the dulcimer, although guitars went through a significant change as the previously popular English guitar was replaced around the 1830s by the Spanish guitar.


title: American folk music

text: In addition to ballads, American colonials also imported numerous English country dance tunes, mainly jigs, reels, and hornpipes, which were played during community dances or contra dances. Some dance tunes as well as dances themselves were also adapted from Irish and Scottish sources. The musical collections "Howe's 1000 Jigs and Reels", "Ryan's Mammoth Collection", and "1000 Fiddle Tunes" contain many of the dance tunes Americans and their colonial predecessors danced to for nearly two centuries. Popular dances that rose to prominence in America in the nineteenth century, which could be set to traditional dance tunes, were quadrilles, mazurkas, barn dances, redowas, marches, and polkas. "Soldier's Joy" is an example of a typical British fiddle tune.


title: American folk music

text: In New England, one of the areas with the earliest history of colonization as well as the highest percentage of settlement by ethnic English people, numerous English ballads survived within American folk music into the twentieth century. These include older popular ballads such as "Lord Randall" , "The Golden Vanity" , The Elfin Knight , The Gypsy Davy, "Lady Isabel and the Elf-Knight", "Barbara Allen", Lord Bateman, The House Carpenter, The Farmer's Curst Wife, Lord Lovel, and Henry Martin. Later broadside ballads imported into New England from the British Isles include "The Yorkshire Bite", "The Bold Soldier", "Butcher Boy", "Katie Morey", "The Half Hitch", and "The Boston Burglar". Locally composed, traditional New England folk songs include "Springfield Mountain", "The Jam on Gerry's Rock", "Young Charlotte", "Peter Amberly", "Jack Haggarty, and "The Jealous Lover". The folk music of the rest of Northeastern United States, including Pennsylvania, New York, and New Jersey, was similar to that of New England, aside from a marked influence from the high numbers of non-British immigrants, such as the Germans, Dutch, and Swiss.


title: American folk music

text: In the Southeastern United States, popular local folk songs included "Sourwood Mountain", "Charming Betsy", "Fly Around My Pretty Little Miss", "Buffalo Gals", "Arkansas Traveler", "Turkey in the Straw", "Old Joe Clark", "Going Down the Road Feeling Bad", "Shady Grove", "Katy Cline", "Ida Red", and "Cindy". The southern murder ballad "Poor Ellen Smith", which recorded a murder so inflammatory its public performance had to be outlawed, was most likely written in Winston, North Carolina by one of the murder's cellmates. Unlike the Northeast and New England, the Southeast had significant influence from African-American music and as a result instruments such as the banjo were widely adopted. However, English traditional music was still present in the Southeast with older Child ballads such as "Lord Thomas and Fair Eleanor", "The Maid Freed from the Gallows", "Fair Margaret and Sweet William", "The Wife of Usher's Well", "The Two Sisters", and "Matty Groves" surviving alongside some English ballads also played in the Northeast like "Barbara Allen".. Popular broadside ballads in the Southeast were "Pretty Polly", "Pretty Little Miss in the Garden", "Knoxville Girl", "Jack Monroe", "The Sailor Boy", "Awake, Awake You Drowsy Sleeper", "Rich Irish Lady", "The Nightingale", "The Girl I Left Behind", and "The Miller's Will". Notable songs written in Appalachia include "Little Mohea", "John Hardy", and "Omie Wise". Unlike in the Northeast, Southeastern ballads of English origins tend to be appreciably altered with their lyrics shortened and smoothed out, reducing the number of stresses per stanza.


title: American folk music

text: Folk songs in the Midwest largely reflected the tastes of New England and the Mid-Atlantic states. However, there were some ballads uniquely popular to the Midwest such as the broadside ballad "Mary of the Wild Moor" and the locally produced ballads namely "The Little Brown Bulls", "Fuller and Warren", "Charles Guiteau", "Canady-I-O", and "Paul Jones." Many folk songs were also produced that were unique specifically to the Great Lakes region, evoking the area's nautical culture. These include "It's me for the Inland Lakes", "Loss of the "Persian"", and "The Buffalo Whore". Farther west in states like Iowa, Kansas, the Dakotas, and Nebraska regional songs included "The Little Old Sod Shanty on the Claim", "The Lane County Bachelor", "Comin' Back to Kansas", "The Dreary Black Hills", and "Dakota Land". The famous "Ballad of Jesse James", which celebrated the titular bankrobber's life, first appeared in Springfield, Missouri.


title: American folk music

text: Few Child or broadside ballads have been found in the Northwestern United States as the documented folk songs in the area are usually work songs connected to relatively recent folk experiences within the mining, lumber, and other industries of the nineteenth and twentieth century.


title: American folk music

text: Similar to the Northwest, older traditional ballads were far less common in the Southwest, with only "Barbara Allen" and "Lord Randal" being regional favorites. Popular local songs and ballads were, among others, "Texas Rangers", "The Yellow Rose of Texas", "Joe Bowers", "Sweet Betsy from Pike", "Ho for California!", and "Buffalo Skinners".


title: American folk music

text: Some songs entered the folk tradition through the flourishing American popular music industry. One such popular song that became a folk tune was "Old Dan Tucker" written by Dan Emmett.


title: American folk music

text: Spirituals have their origins in white American ministers appropriating European folk melodies and setting them to religious lyrics, creating uniquely American folk hymns. African Americans adopted this religious folk music, adding their own style and themes such as slavery and emancipation. "Sacred music, both a Capella and instrumentally accompanied, is at the heart of the tradition. Early spirituals framed Christian beliefs within native practices and were heavily influenced by the music and rhythms of Africa." Spirituals are prominent, and often use a call and response pattern. "Gospel developed after the Civil War (1861-65). It relied on biblical text for much of its direction, and the use of metaphors and imagery was common. Gospel is a "joyful noise," sometimes accompanied by instrumentation and almost always punctuated by hand clapping, toe tapping, and body movement."


title: American folk music

text: Sea shanties functioned to lighten the burden of routine tasks and provide a rhythm that helped workers perform as a team. One of the oldest sea shanties sung in America may have been "Haul in the Bowline" which could date back as far as the rule of Henry VIII in the sixteenth century. Other popular shanties include "Blow the Man Down", "Blow, Boys, Blow", "Reuben Ranzo", "Shenandoah" and "The Greenland Whale" as well as African-American shanties such as "Mobile Bay" and "I'm Goin' up the River".


title: American folk music

text: Cowboys songs are typically ballads that cowboys sang in the West and Southwest. The familiar “Streets of Laredo" (or "Cowboys Lament") derives from an Irish folk song of the late 18th century called "The Unfortunate Rake", which in turn appears to have descended from the even earlier "The Bard of Armagh". While "Streets of Laredo" uses the same melody as "The Unfortunate Rake", "St. James Infirmary Blues" adapts the story to a different tune. This illustrates how folk songs can change in the retelling and appear in a variety of versions. Similarly the popular cowboy song "Bury Me Not on the Lone Prairie, about a dying cowboy begging not to be buried alone in the wilderness, is based on an earlier poem, "The Ocean Burial". Similarly, the popular song "Buffalo Skinners" is based on the earlier lumberjack tune "Canaday-I-O".


title: American folk music

text: Other songs originated wholly on the frontier such as the famous "Home on the Range" written in Kansas in 1873 by Dr. Brewster Higley and Dan Kelly. "The Old Chisholm Trail" too was a distinctly American ballad tied to the experiences of cowboys on the long treks on the Chisholm Trail.


title: American folk music

text: Following the Civil War, cowboys became popular as characters in novels and in Wild West shows. The first movie western was "The Great Train Robbery", filmed in 1903. At the height of this romanticizing of the American cowboy, John Lomax published his preeminent work, "Cowboy Songs and Other Frontier Ballads." This work was acclaimed in both academic and popular readership and helped to expand the scope of what constituted folk music, as previous scholarship focused on songs with European ballad ancestry, such as with the Child Ballads. While "Cowboy Songs" may have opened the door to legitimizing a wider range of vernacular music in the field of American folk music scholarship, in later years it has been criticized for not being a strictly scientific historical endeavor. Lomax himself admitted, "I have violated the ethics of ballad-gatherers, in a few instances, by selecting and putting together what seems to be the best lines from different versions, all telling the same story...Frankly the volume is meant to be popular."


title: American folk music

text: One of the most popular railroad folk songs in American history was The Ballad of Casey Jones, a song about a train conductor who sacrificed himself to prevent a collision. The "Ballad of John Henry (folklore)" is about an African-American folk hero said to have worked as a "steel-driving man".


title: American folk music

text: The earliest known coal mine was in Richmond Virginia in 1750. Coal became the primary source of fuel in the United States by the 1880s, beating out wood, with usage peaking in 1910. Coal camps were made up of a largely Irish and Welsh demographic, which is evident in the structure of coal mining songs. Coal mining was fraught with danger that was unmitigated by morally indifferent mining companies. Explosions and cave-ins were a constant fear, as were black lung disease and pneumoconiosis. Songs such as "Don't Go Down in the Mine," "The Dying Mine Brakeman," and "A Miner's Prayer" gave voice to these fears. Efforts to unionize began in the 1930s, creating tunes such as "We Shall Not Be Moved," which was a rewriting of the gospel hymn "I Shall Not Be Moved." The use of familiar hymns made the songs easy for organizers to sing along with, and also imbued the cause with an air of righteousness.


title: American folk music

text: "Sixteen Tons" was written in 1946 by Merle Travis about the plight of coal miners and life in company towns. Travis also penned "Dark as a Dungeon," which was most notably performed by Johnny Cash.


title: American folk music

text: While American colonists had long spun and wove homemade textiles, a burgeoning industry began to appear at the end of the eighteenth century in New England and later in the southern states. Working conditions in textile mills were bleak, with extremely long hours and meager pay for the men, women, and children employed within. Strikes began in the 1830s and 1840s, led by the young women who made up three-quarters of the work force, and earned about half of their male coworkers. The song "A Factory Girl" tells of a young woman, dissatisfied with her occupation, leaving the mill to become a wife. Dave McCarn wrote songs in protest of the textile mill such as "Cotton Mill Colic," which lamented the insufficient and inequitable pay scale and poverty that ensued.


title: American folk music

text: The logging industry began in New England to satisfy the needs of ship building. Later, the advent of the transcontinental railroad made it possible to harvest the forests of the Pacific Northwest, with the industry reaching a peak from 1870-1900. The hardships for loggers included a struggle with natural forces, unpredictable outdoor working conditions, and the danger of precarious stacks of logs stories high that could topple. "The Jam on Gerry's Rocks" was one such song that described this terrifying phenomenon. "The Lumberjack's Alphabet" was a high spirited song and favorite of these workers.


title: American folk music

text: "The Lineman's Hymn" is told from the perspective of a dying lineman who fell from a pole, and warns the listener to be careful lest he suffer the same fate.


title: American folk music

text: Many roots musicians do not consider themselves folk musicians. The main difference between the American folk music revival and American "roots music" is that roots music seems to cover a broader range, including blues and country.


title: American folk music

text: Roots music developed its most expressive and varied forms in the first three decades of the 20th century. The Great Depression and the Dust Bowl were extremely important in disseminating these musical styles to the rest of the country, as Delta blues masters, itinerant honky tonk singers, Cajun musicians spread to cities like Chicago, Los Angeles, and New York. The growth of the recording industry in the same period was also important; higher potential profits from music placed pressure on artists, songwriters, and label executives to replicate previous hit songs. This meant that musical fads, such as Hawaiian slack-key guitar, never died out completely, since a broad range of rhythms, instruments, and vocal stylings were incorporated into disparate popular genres.


title: American folk music

text: By the 1950s, forms of roots music had led to pop-oriented forms. Folk musicians like the Kingston Trio, blues-derived rock and roll and rockabilly, pop-gospel, doo wop and R&B (later secularized further as soul music) and the Nashville sound in country music all modernized and expanded the musical palette of the country.


title: American folk music

text: The roots approach to music emphasizes the diversity of American musical traditions, the genealogy of creative lineages and communities, and the innovative contributions of musicians working in these traditions today. In recent years roots music has been the focus of popular media programs such as Garrison Keillor's public radio program, "A Prairie Home Companion" and the feature film by the same name.


title: American folk music

text: American traditional music is also called roots music. Roots music is a broad category of music including bluegrass, country music, gospel, old time music, jug bands, Appalachian folk, blues, Cajun and Native American music. The music is considered American either because it is native to the United States or because it developed there, out of foreign origins, to such a degree that it struck musicologists as something distinctly new. It is considered "roots music" because it served as the basis of music later developed in the United States, including rock and roll, contemporary folk music, rhythm and blues, and jazz.


title: American folk music

text: Appalachian music is the traditional music of the region of Appalachia in the Eastern United States. It derives from various European and African influences—including English ballads, Irish and Scottish traditional music (especially fiddle music), hymns, and African-American blues. First recorded in the 1920s, Appalachian musicians were a key influence on the early development of Old-time music, country music, and bluegrass, and were an important part of the American folk music revival.


title: American folk music

text: Instruments typically used to perform Appalachian music include the banjo, American fiddle, fretted dulcimer, and guitar.


title: American folk music

text: Early recorded Appalachian musicians include Fiddlin' John Carson, Henry Whitter, Bascom Lamar Lunsford, the Carter Family, Clarence Ashley, Frank Proffitt, and Dock Boggs, all of whom were initially recorded in the 1920s and 1930s. Several Appalachian musicians obtained renown during the folk revival of the 1950s and 1960s, including Jean Ritchie, Roscoe Holcomb, Ola Belle Reed, Lily May Ledford, and Doc Watson.


title: American folk music

text: The Carter Family was a traditional American folk music group that recorded between 1927 and 1956. Their music had a profound impact on bluegrass, country, Southern Gospel, pop and rock musicians. They were the first vocal group to become country music stars; a beginning of the divergence of country music from traditional folk music. Their recordings of such songs as "Wabash Cannonball" (1932), "Will the Circle Be Unbroken" (1935), "Wildwood Flower" (1928), and "Keep on the Sunny Side" (1928) made them country standards.


title: American folk music

text: Country and bluegrass artists such as Loretta Lynn, Roy Acuff, Dolly Parton, Earl Scruggs, Chet Atkins, and Don Reno were heavily influenced by traditional Appalachian music. Artists such as Bob Dylan, Jerry Garcia, and Bruce Springsteen have performed Appalachian songs or rewritten versions of Appalachian songs.


title: American folk music

text: Cajun music, an emblematic music of Louisiana, is rooted in the ballads of the French-speaking Acadians of Canada. Cajun music is often mentioned in tandem with the Creole-based, Cajun-influenced zydeco form, both of Acadiana origin. These French Louisiana sounds have influenced American popular music for many decades, especially country music, and have influenced pop culture through mass media, such as television commercials.


title: American folk music

text: Before recorded history American Indians in this area used songs and instrumentation; music and dance remain the core of ceremonial and social activities. "Stomp dance" remains at its core, a "call and response" form; instrumentation is provided by rattles or shackles worn on the legs of women. "Other southeastern nations have their own complexes of sacred and social songs, including those for animal dances and friendship dances, and songs that accompany stickball games.


title: American folk music

text: Central to the music of the southern Plains Indians is the drum, which has been called the heartbeat of Plains Indian music. Most of that genre traces back to the hunting and warfare that was a strong part of plains culture. During the reservation period, they frequently used music to relieve boredom and despair. Neighbors gathered, exchanged and created songs and dances. This is a part of the roots of the modern intertribal powwow. Another common instrument is the courting flute.


title: American folk music

text: Shape-note or sacred harp singing developed in the early nineteenth century as a way for itinerant singing instructors to teach church songs in rural communities. They taught using song books that represented musical notation of tones by geometric shapes that associated a shape with a pitch. Sacred harp singing became popular in many Oklahoma rural communities, regardless of ethnicity.


title: American folk music

text: Later, the blues tradition developed, with roots in and parallels to sacred music. By the early 20th century, jazz developed, born from a "blend of ragtime, gospel, and blues" "Anglo-Scots-Irish music traditions gained a place in Oklahoma after the Land Run of 1889. Because of its size and portability, the fiddle was the core of early Oklahoma Anglo music, but other instruments such as the guitar, mandolin, banjo, and steel guitar were added later. Various Oklahoma music traditions trace their roots to the British Isles, including cowboy ballads, western swing, and contemporary country and western." "Mexican immigrants began to reach Oklahoma in the 1870s, bringing beautiful canciones and corridos love songs, waltzes, and ballads along with them. Like American Indian communities, each rite of passage in Hispanic communities is accompanied by traditional music.


title: American folk music

text: The acoustic guitar, string bass, and violin provide the basic instrumentation for Mexican music, with maracas, flute, horns, or sometimes accordion filling out the sound." Other Europeans (such as Bohemians and Germans) settled in the late nineteenth century. Their social activities centered on community halls, "where local musicians played polkas and waltzes on the accordion, piano, and brass instruments."


title: American folk music

text: Later Asians contributed to the musical mix. "Ancient music and dance traditions from the temples and courts of China, India, and Indonesia are preserved in Asian communities throughout the state, and popular song genres are continually layered on to these classical music forms"


title: American folk music

text: Tejano and New Mexico music, heard throughout the American Southwest and South Texas, is rooted in the musics of the Native American and Hispanic/Latino communities of the regions. Tejano music is also heavily influenced by Regional Mexican and Country music, while New Mexico music is much more influenced by Hispano folk and Western music. Both styles have influenced one another over the years, and incorporated American popular music styles.


title: American folk music

text: Folk composer and musician Robert Schmertz composed and wrote pieces related to historical events in Western Pennsylvania.


title: American folk music

text: Starting in the mid-20th century a phenomenon termed the folk music revival began, forming a new contemporary type of folk music. It was somewhat centered on but not limited to the United States. While sometimes termed the American Folk Music Revival, it was somewhat international and does not fit some narrower definitions of American folk music even when the artists were American. Prominent artists from this movement include Pete Seeger, Woody Guthrie, The Weavers, Burl Ives, and others. A more commercially oriented version of folk music emerged in the 1960s, including performers such as The Kingston Trio, The Limeliters, The Brothers Four, Peter, Paul and Mary, Joan Baez, The Highwaymen, Judy Collins, The New Christy Minstrels, and Gordon Lightfoot, as well as counterculture and folk rock performers including Bob Dylan, The Byrds, Arlo Guthrie, and Buffy Sainte-Marie.


title: American folk music

text: Series: "Greenwood Guides to American Roots Music," edited by Norm Cohen. Titles include, Folk Music, Country, Blues, Jazz, and Ethnic and Border Music.


title: American folk music

text: Fiona Ritchie and Doug Orr, "Wayfaring Strangers: The Musical Voyage from Scotland and Ulster to Appalachia" (University of North Carolina Press, 2014). Includes a forward by Dolly Parton and 20 track CD.


title: American folk music

text: Benjamin Filene, "Romancing the Folk: Public Memory and American Roots Music" (Chapel Hill and London: University of North Carolina Press, 2000)


title: American folk music

text: Rachel Clare Donaldson, ""I Hear American Singing": Folk Music and National Identity" (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2014)


title: American folk music

text: Kip Lornell, "Exploring American Folk Music: Ethnic, Grassroots, and Regional Traditions in the United States" (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2012)


title: American folk music

text: Robert Santelli, "American Roots Music--Based on the PBS Television Series" (Abrams, 2001), foreward by Bonnie Raitt


title: American folk music

text: In 2004, NPR published the book titled "The NPR Curious Listener's Guide to American Folk Music", Linda Ronstadt wrote the foreword.


title: American folk music

text: The Never-Ending Revival: Rounder Records and the Folk Alliance by Michael F. Scully (University of Illinois Press, 2008)


title: American folk music

text: In 2007, James P. Leary published "Polkabilly: How the Goose Island Ramblers Redefined American Folk Music", which proposes a redefinition of traditional American folk music and identifies a new genre of music from the Upper Midwest known as "Polkabilly", which blends ethnic music, old-time country music, and polka. The book was awarded the American Folklore Society’s Chicago Folklore Prize for the best book in the field of folklore scholarship.


title: American folk music

text: Nettl, Bruno. "An Introduction to Folk Music in the United States". Rev. ed. Detroit, Mich.: Wayne State University Press, 1962.


title: American folk music

text: "Hootenanny", a weekly musical variety show broadcast on the ABC network in the U.S. in 1963–1964, primarily featured folk musicians.


title: American folk music

text: The soundtrack of the 2000 film "O Brother, Where Art Thou?" is exclusively roots music, performed by Alison Krauss, The Fairfield Four, Emmylou Harris, Norman Blake and others.


title: American folk music

text: In 2001, PBS broadcast a 4-part documentary series, "American Roots Music," that explored the historical roots of American roots music through footage and performances by the creators of the movement.


title: American folk music

text: The 2003 film "A Mighty Wind" is a tribute to (and parody of) the folk-pop musicians of the early 1960s.


title: American folk music

text: A six-hour public television series, "The Music of America: History Through Musical Traditions," appeared in 2010.


title: American folk music

text: PBS series "Country Music" by Ken Burns, 8 episodes. "Explore the remarkable stories of the people and places behind a true American art form." Gives insight into the folk heritage of what would become country music.


title: American folk music

text: BBC radio program "Black Roots," Grammy-Award winning musician Rhiannon Giddens explores the history of African American roots music through the stories of forgotten black pioneers.


title: Cubic function

text: where the coefficients , , , and are complex numbers, and the variable takes real values, and formula_2. In other words, it is both a polynomial function of degree three, and a real function. In particular, the domain and the codomain are the set of the real numbers.


title: Cubic function

text: A cubic function has either one or three real roots (which may not be distinct); all odd-degree polynomials have at least one real root.


title: Cubic function

text: The graph of a cubic function always has a single inflection point. It may have two critical points, a local minimum and a local maximum. Otherwise, a cubic function is monotonic. The graph of a cubic function is symmetric with respect to its inflection point; that is, it is invariant under a rotation of a half turn around this point. Up to an affine transformation, there are only three possible graphs for cubic functions.


title: Cubic function

text: The critical points of a cubic function are its stationary points, that is the points where the slope of the function is zero. Thus the critical points of a cubic function defined by


title: Cubic function

text: The solutions of this equation are the -values of the critical points and are given, using the quadratic formula, by


title: Cubic function

text: The sign of the expression inside the square root determines the number of critical points. If it is positive, then there are two critical points, one is a local maximum, and the other is a local minimum. If , then there is only one critical point, which is an inflection point. If , then there are no (real) critical points. In the two latter cases, that is, if is nonpositive, the cubic function is strictly monotonic. See the figure for an example of the case .


title: Cubic function

text: The inflection point of a function is where that function changes concavity. An inflection point occurs when the second derivative formula_6 is zero, and the third derivative is nonzero. Thus a cubic function has always a single inflection point, which occurs at


title: Cubic function

text: The graph of a cubic function is a cubic curve, though many cubic curves are not graphs of functions.


title: Cubic function

text: Although cubic functions depend on four parameters, their graph can have only very few shapes. In fact, the graph of a cubic function is always similar to the graph of a function of the form


title: Cubic function

text: This similarity can be built as the composition of translations parallel to the coordinates axes, a homothecy (uniform scaling), and, possibly, a reflection (mirror image) with respect to the -axis. A further non-uniform scaling can transform the graph into the graph of one among the three cubic functions


title: Cubic function

text: The above geometric transformations can be built in the following way, when starting from a general cubic function


title: Cubic function

text: Firstly, if , the change of variable allows supposing . After this change of variable, the new graph is the mirror image of the previous one, with respect of the -axis.


title: Cubic function

text: The change of variable corresponds to a translation with respect to the -axis, and gives a function of the form


title: Cubic function

text: The change of variable formula_13 corresponds to a uniform scaling, and give, after multiplication by formula_14 a function of the form


title: Cubic function

text: where formula_19 has the value 1 or –1, depending on the sign of . If one defines formula_20 the latter form of the function applies to all cases (with formula_21 and formula_22).


title: Cubic function

text: For a cubic function of the form formula_23 the inflection point is thus the origin. As such a function is an odd function, its graph is symmetric with respect to the inflection point, and invariant under a rotation of a half turn around the inflection point. As these properties are invariant by similarity, the following is true for all cubic functions.


title: Cubic function

text: "The graph of a cubic function is symmetric with respect to its inflection point, and is invariant under a rotation of a half turn around the inflection point."


title: Cubic function

text: The tangent lines to the graph of a cubic function at three collinear points intercept the cubic again at collinear points. This can be seen as follows.


title: Cubic function

text: So, the intersection point between this line and the graph of can be obtained solving the equation , that is


title: Cubic function

text: So, the function that maps a point of the graph to the other point where the tangent intercepts the graph is


title: Cubic function

text: This is an affine transformation that transforms collinear points into collinear points. This proves the claimed result.


title: Cubic function

text: Given the values of a function and its derivative at two points, there is exactly one cubic function that has the same four values, which is called a cubic Hermite spline.


title: Cubic function

text: There are two standard ways for using this fact. Firstly, if one knows, for example by physical measurement, the values of a function and its derivative at some sampling points, one can "interpolate" the function with a continuously differentiable function, which is a piecewise cubic function.


title: Cubic function

text: If the value of a function is known at several points, cubic interpolation consists in approximating the function by a continuously differentiable function, which is piecewise cubic. For having a uniquely defined interpolation, two more constraints must be added, such as the values of the derivatives at the endpoints, or a zero curvature at the endpoints.


title: War on Everyone

text: War on Everyone is a 2016 British black comedy buddy cop film written and directed by John Michael McDonagh. The film stars Alexander Skarsgård, Michael Peña, and Theo James. Set and filmed in Albuquerque, New Mexico, it was screened in the Panorama section of the 66th Berlin International Film Festival. The film was released in the United Kingdom and Ireland on 7 October 2016 through Icon Film Distribution.


title: War on Everyone

text: Terry Monroe and Bob Bolaño, two corrupt cops, return to the Albuquerque police force after being suspended for assaulting a racist coworker. Bolaño and Monroe regularly assault, rob and extort criminals, accept bribes, and take drugs. While surveilling small time thieves, the two come to believe Jimmy Harris, a local criminal, is planning a heist. They contact one of Harris' former associates, Reggie, and coerce him into revealing information by threatening to falsely arrest him. Reggie and his friend, Irishman Pádraic Power, identify Clifford Reynard, a getaway driver, and tell them Harris' girlfriend, Jackie Hollis, used to dance at a strip club owned by Russell Birdwell. Birdwell, though suspicious, reveals Hollis' address. After bursting into Harris' house and knocking him out, they extort several expensive possessions.


title: War on Everyone

text: Meanwhile, Birdwell tells his boss, James Mangan, a knighted British businessman who is in charge of the heist, the cops have been asking about Hollis. Mangan tells Birdwell to intimidate both Hollis and the cops. Monroe returns to Hollis and gives her a replacement television. After flirting with each other, they have sex and begin seeing each other. While staking out Reynard's house to extort him, too, they hear a scream. In the house, they find that Reynard's wife has murdered him, though she is too hysterical to explain why. Irritated, the cops attempt to quiet her while they consider their next step. Reynard's teenage son flees, but they are unable to catch him. After a nightmare, Monroe becomes concerned and searches the city for the missing boy. As he does this, Birdwell scares Bolaño's wife by smashing the window of her shop as she talks to Hollis.


title: War on Everyone

text: With Reynard dead, Reggie takes his place in the heist, though he misleads Bolaño and Monroe into believing it will be taking place elsewhere. When the cops finally catch on to him, they discover Harris and his cohorts dead. Not knowing Mangan's involvement, they assume Reggie is responsible. Before going after Reggie, they learn about Birdwell's harassment and beat him so badly that he loses an eye. Knowing they have numerous enemies and believing themselves untouchable anyway, they do not bother asking who sent him. Reggie's friend Power, when offered a bribe, tells them Reggie fled to Iceland. Though they know nothing more than that, they leave for Iceland, reasoning that an African American man will stick out. To Monroe's amazement, the plan works, and they spontaneously find him in a crowd. Under pressure, Reggie reveals Mangan's involvement and agrees to split his take from the heist with them.


title: War on Everyone

text: Back in Albuquerque, Lieutenant Stanton says Birdwell has filed charges against them. Monroe and Bolaño assure him that their investigation is nearing completion and will implicate Birdwell. As Monroe and Bolaño search for Mangan, they chance upon Reynard's child, who is living homeless on the streets. Monroe insists on becoming the boy's foster parent over the protests of Bolaño, who, as a parent, believes Monroe unprepared for the responsibility. Hollis, who has temporarily moved in with Monroe after Birdwell's attack, also voices her skepticism, but the three eventually come to care for each other. Although Mangan's thugs kidnap and beat Monroe, he laughs off their attempt to intimidate him, saying he has already been raped. Not wanting to kill a cop, they release him. However, after Monroe and Bolaño harass Mangan during a business meeting, Lieutenant Stanton finally fires them.


title: War on Everyone

text: Mangan beheads Power and contacts the cops, hoping to entrap them with an offer of sharing the money. Reynard's son, however, tells Monroe that his mother killed Reynard because she found out he was part of a child pornography ring run by Mangan. Enraged, Monroe enlists Bolaño to help kill Mangan, having lost interest in the money. In the resulting shootout, Bolaño is apparently killed but reveals he was wearing a bulletproof vest. Monroe shoots Birdwell as he begs for his life. Bolaño then kills Mangan as he attempts to bribe them. Monroe, Hollis, Reynard's son, Bolaño and his family, Reggie and Reggie's transgender girlfriend are all shown together on holiday in Iceland at the Blue Lagoon.


title: War on Everyone

text: The film was produced by Chris Clark and Flora Fernandez-Marengo, and co-produced by Elizabeth Eves for Reprisal Films. Phil Hunt and Compton Ross also produced for Head Gear Films, with the support of the BFI Film Fund.


title: War on Everyone

text: McDonagh said the film's influences were mainly films from the 1970s, describing it as "a buddy-buddy black comedy with a 70s feel to it, outlandish visual and verbal humour, left-field narrative turns, and the music of Glen Campbell", and also describing it as ""The French Connection" meets "Hellzapoppin'"" and of the location for the film, Albuquerque, New Mexico, as "William Eggleston meets René Magritte".


title: War on Everyone

text: The film was scheduled to be released in Ireland and the United Kingdom on 30 September 2016, before being pushed back to 7 October to avoid competition with "Deepwater Horizon" and "Miss Peregrine's Home for Peculiar Children", and was then set to compete against the UK release of "Blood Father". It had a limited release in the United States on 3 February 2017.


title: War on Everyone

text: On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 61% based on 97 reviews and an average rating of 5.4/10. The site's critical consensus reads, ""War on Everyone" boasts just enough dark humor and infectious energy to make this somewhat middling entry from writer-director John Michael McDonagh an entertaining diversion." On Metacritic the film has a score of 50 out of 100, based on 21 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: War on Everyone

text: Demetrios Matheou from Indiewire wrote, "I’m not sure if any bad cops in the whole genre of bad cop comedy have paid so little lip service to actual policing as the pair in John Michael McDonagh’s "War on Everyone." And I’m not sure that the genre has produced such an irresistibly funny film." Peter Debruge, "Variety" chief international film critic said, "McDonagh writes his clever, coal-black heart out, delivering another firecracker script, whose explosively entertaining execution boasts considerably more commercial potential than his previous two indies, "Calvary" and "The Guard"."


title: War on Everyone

text: "Vanity Fair" wrote: "The opening sequences of "War on Everyone" are so furiously fast and funny it's nearly unimaginable that McDonagh can sustain the pace. And yet he does. When the script eases up on the rapid-fire quips, segueing into hilarious music cues (all that Campbell!) and slapstick violence, it brings its best game. Because these flawed but funny characters have dimension, depth, deep desires and, damn it, cry out for a franchise.’"


title: Princess Margriet of the Netherlands

text: Princess Margriet Francisca of the Netherlands (born 19 January 1943) is the third daughter of Queen Juliana and Prince Bernhard. As an aunt of the reigning monarch, King Willem-Alexander, she is a member of the Dutch Royal House and currently eighth and last in the line of succession to the throne.


title: Princess Margriet of the Netherlands

text: Princess Margriet has often represented the monarch at official or semi-official events. Some of these functions have taken her back to Canada, the country where she was born "de facto", and to events organised by the Dutch merchant navy of which she is a patron.


title: Princess Margriet of the Netherlands

text: Margriet was born to Princess Juliana of the Netherlands and Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld. Her mother was heir presumptive to Queen Wilhelmina.


title: Princess Margriet of the Netherlands

text: The Dutch royal family went into exile when the Netherlands was occupied by Nazi Germany in 1940, and went to live in Canada. Margriet was born in Ottawa Civic Hospital, Ottawa. The maternity ward of the hospital was temporarily declared to be extraterritorial by the Canadian government. This ensured that the newborn would not be born in Canada, and not be a British subject under the rule of "jus soli". Instead the child would only inherit Dutch citizenship from her mother under the principle of "jus sanguinis", which is followed in Dutch nationality law. Thus the child would be eligible to succeed to the throne of the Netherlands. This would have applied if the child had been male, and therefore heir apparent to Juliana, or if her two older sisters died without eligible children.


title: Princess Margriet of the Netherlands

text: It is a common misconception that the Canadian government declared the maternity ward to be Dutch territory. That was not necessary, as Canada follows "jus soli", while the Netherlands follows "jus sanguinis". It was sufficient for Canada to disclaim the territory temporarily.


title: Princess Margriet of the Netherlands

text: Princess Margriet was named after the "marguerite", the flower worn during the war as a symbol of the resistance to Nazi Germany. She was christened at St. Andrew's Presbyterian Church, Ottawa, on 29 June 1943. Her godparents included US President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Queen Mary (Queen dowager of the United Kingdom), Märtha, Crown Princess of Norway, and Martine Roell (lady-in-waiting to Princess Juliana in Canada).


title: Princess Margriet of the Netherlands

text: Princess Margriet has continued to visit Canada over the years in an official capacity, as recently as 2017 (Stratford, Ontario and Goderich, Ontario) and 2022 (Ottawa).


title: Princess Margriet of the Netherlands

text: It was not until August 1945, when the Netherlands had been liberated, that Princess Margriet first set foot on Dutch soil. Princess Juliana and Prince Bernhard returned to Soestdijk Palace in Baarn, where the family had lived before the war.


title: Princess Margriet of the Netherlands

text: It was while she was studying at Leiden University that Princess Margriet met her future husband, Pieter van Vollenhoven. Their engagement was announced on 10 March 1965, and they were married on 10 January 1967 in The Hague, in the St. James Church. It was decreed that any children from the marriage would be titled Prince/Princess of Orange-Nassau, van Vollenhoven, with the style of "Highness", titles that would not be held by their descendants. Together, they had four children: Princes Maurits (born 17 April 1968), Bernhard (born 25 December 1969), Pieter-Christiaan (born 22 March 1972), and Floris (born 10 April 1975).


title: Princess Margriet of the Netherlands

text: The Princess and her husband took up residence in the right wing of Het Loo Palace in Apeldoorn. In 1975 the family moved to their present home, Het Loo, which they had built on the Palace grounds.


title: Princess Margriet of the Netherlands

text: Princess Margriet is particularly interested in health care and cultural causes. From 1987 to 2011 she was vice-president of the Dutch Red Cross, who set up the "Princess Margriet Fund" in her honour. She is a member of the board of the International Federation of National Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies.


title: Princess Margriet of the Netherlands

text: From 1984 to 2007, Princess Margriet was president of the European Cultural Foundation, who set up the "Princess Margriet Award for Cultural Diversity" in acknowledgement of her work.


title: Jean Baptiste Charbonneau

text: Jean Baptiste Charbonneau (February 11, 1805 – May 16, 1866) was a Native American-French Canadian explorer, guide, fur trapper, trader, military scout during the Mexican–American War, "alcalde" (mayor) of Mission San Luis Rey de Francia and a gold digger and hotel operator in Northern California. His mother was Sacagawea, a Shoshone Native who worked as a guide and interpreter for the Lewis and Clark Expedition. Charbonneau spoke French and English and learned German and Spanish during his six years in Europe from 1823 to 1829. He spoke Shoshone and other western Native American languages, which he picked up during his years of trapping and guiding.


title: Jean Baptiste Charbonneau

text: Jean Baptiste's father was also a member of the Lewis and Clark expedition, a French Canadian explorer and trader named Toussaint Charbonneau. Jean Baptiste was born at Fort Mandan in North Dakota. In his early childhood, he accompanied his parents as they traveled across the country. The expedition co-leader William Clark nicknamed the boy Pompey ("Pomp" or "Little Pomp"). After the death of his mother, he lived with Clark in St. Louis, Missouri, where he attended St. Louis Academy. Clark paid for his education. Sacagawea and Toussaint Charbonneau also had a second child, a daughter named Lizette Charbonneau; however, because she receives only occasional mention in Clark's papers, her life remains unclear beyond her third birthday.


title: Jean Baptiste Charbonneau

text: Jean Baptiste and Sacagawea appear on the United States Sacagawea dollar coin. He is the second child depicted on United States currency. Pompeys Pillar on the Yellowstone River in Montana and the community of Charbonneau, Oregon are named for him.


title: Jean Baptiste Charbonneau

text: Jean Baptiste Charbonneau was born to Sacagawea, a Shoshone, and her husband, the French Canadian trapper Toussaint Charbonneau, in early 1805 at Fort Mandan in North Dakota. This was during the Lewis and Clark Expedition, which wintered there in 1804–05. The senior Charbonneau had been hired by the expedition as an interpreter and, learning that his pregnant wife was Shoshone, the captains Lewis and Clark agreed to bring her along. They knew they would need to negotiate with the Shoshone for horses at the headwaters of the Missouri River. Meriwether Lewis noted the boy's birth in his journal:


title: Jean Baptiste Charbonneau

text: The infant traveled from North Dakota to the Pacific Ocean and back, carried along in the expedition's boats or upon his mother's back. His presence is often credited by historians with assuring native tribes of the expedition's peaceful intentions, as they believed that no war party would travel with a woman and child.


title: Jean Baptiste Charbonneau

text: In April 1807, about a year after the end of the expedition, the Charbonneau family moved to St. Louis, at Clark's invitation. Toussaint Charbonneau and Sacagawea departed for the Mandan villages in April 1809 and left the boy to live with Clark. In November 1809, the parents returned to St. Louis to try farming, but left again in April 1811. Jean Baptiste continued to reside with Clark.


title: Jean Baptiste Charbonneau

text: Clark's two-story home, built in 1818, contained an illuminated museum long by wide. Its walls were decorated with national flags and life-size portraits of George Washington and the Marquis de Lafayette, Native artifacts, and mounted animal heads. Upon visiting the museum, Henry Rowe Schoolcraft, a geologist and ethnographer, wrote:


title: Jean Baptiste Charbonneau

text: Clark paid for Charbonneau's education at St. Louis Academy, a Jesuit Catholic school (now called St. Louis University High School), although the expense was considerable for the time. The school's single classroom was then located in the storehouse of Clark's friend, the trader Joseph Robidoux. Brothers James and George Kennerly paid for Charbonneau's supplies for 1820 and were reimbursed by Clark.


title: Jean Baptiste Charbonneau

text: From June through September 1820 and in 1822, Jean Baptiste boarded with Louis Tesson Honoré, a Clark family friend and member of his church, Christ Episcopal. The general had helped organize the church in 1819. They lived in St. Ferdinand Township in St. Louis County, Missouri near Charbonneau's father's of land.


title: Jean Baptiste Charbonneau

text: On June 21, 1823, at age eighteen, Charbonneau met Duke Friedrich Paul Wilhelm of Württemberg, the nephew of King Friedrich I Wilhelm Karl of Württemberg. Charbonneau was working at a Kaw trading post on the Kansas River near present-day Kansas City, Kansas. Wilhelm was traveling in America on a natural history expedition to the northern plains with Jean Baptiste's father as his guide. On October 9, 1823, he invited the younger Charbonneau to return to Europe with him, which was agreed upon.


title: Jean Baptiste Charbonneau

text: The two set sail on the "Smyrna" from St. Louis in December 1823. Jean Baptiste lived at the duke's palace in Württemberg for nearly six years, where he learned German and Spanish and improved his English and French. The latter was still the dominant language of St. Louis, which had first enabled his conversations with the Duke. According to a 1932 translation of Wilhelm's journal by the historian Louis C. Butscher, Wilhelm wrote that Charbonneau was "…a companion on all my travels over Europe and northern Africa until 1829." In 2001, Albert Furtwangler, PhD, questioned the accuracy of Butscher's German translation, noting two more recent translations of the duke's journals, and suggests that Charbonneau's role in Wilhelm's court may have been less intimate than Butscher's perhaps romanticized account implied. Charbonneau may have been hired as a servant, rather than invited as a companion. As support, he notes the apparent lack of further contact between the two men after Charbonneau's return to America. However, lack of contact in itself does not mean Charbonneau was a hired hand. Such an act may have been an insult to Clark, which the duke likely would have avoided. As with many aspects of his life, little is known for certain about Charbonneau's time in Europe.


title: Jean Baptiste Charbonneau

text: Parish records in Wuerttemberg show that while there, Charbonneau fathered a child with Anastasia Katharina Fries, a soldier's daughter. The baby, Anton Fries, died about three months after his birth.


title: Jean Baptiste Charbonneau

text: Nearly two decades later, while in California as an alcalde or magistrate, Charbonneau was recorded as being the father of another child. On May 4, 1848, Maria Catarina Charguana was born to Margarita Sobin, a Luiseño people woman, and Charbonneau. Sobin, 23 at the time, traveled to Mission San Fernando Rey de España near Los Angeles for the infant girl's baptism, performed on May 28, 1848, and recorded by Father Blas Ordaz as entry #1884. Margarita Sobin later married Gregory Trujillo, and some of their descendants may be members of the La Jolla Band of Mission Natives.


title: Jean Baptiste Charbonneau

text: In November 1829, Charbonneau returned to St. Louis, where he was hired by Joseph Robidoux as a fur trapper for the American Fur Company, to work in Idaho and Utah. He attended the 1832 Pierre's Hole rendezvous while working for the Rocky Mountain Fur Company. There he fought in the bloodiest non-military conflict that preceded the Plains Indian wars, which began in 1854.


title: Jean Baptiste Charbonneau

text: From 1833–1840 Charbonneau worked in the fur trade in the Rocky Mountain Trapping System with other mountain men, such as Jim Bridger, James Beckwourth and Joe Meek.


title: Jean Baptiste Charbonneau

text: From 1840–42 he worked from Fort Saint Vrain, floating bison hides and tongues down the South Platte River to St. Louis. On one of the voyages, he camped with Captain John C. Frémont on his cartographic expedition. In 1843, he guided Sir William Drummond Stewart, a Scottish baronet, on his second long trip to the American West, which was a lavish hunting expedition.


title: Jean Baptiste Charbonneau

text: Seeking employment again, in 1844 Charbonneau went to Bent's Fort in Colorado, where he was a chief hunter, and worked also as a trader with southern Plains Indians. William Boggs, a traveler who met him, wrote that Charbonneau "…wore his hair long, [and] was…very high strung…" He reported, "…it was said Charbonneau (sic) was the best man on foot on the plains or in the Rocky Mountains."


title: Jean Baptiste Charbonneau

text: In October 1846, Charbonneau, Antoine Leroux and Pauline Weaver were hired as scouts by General Stephen W. Kearny. Charbonneau's experience with military marches, such as with James William Abert in August 1845, along the Canadian River, and his fluency in Native languages qualified him for the position. Kearny directed him to join Colonel Philip St. George Cooke on an arduous march from Santa Fe, New Mexico, to San Diego, California, a distance of . Their mission was to build the first wagon road to Southern California and to guide some 20 huge Murphy supply wagons to the west coast for the military during the Mexican–American War.


title: Jean Baptiste Charbonneau

text: A contingent of soldiers made up of some 339 Mormon men and six Mormon women, known as the Mormon Battalion, were the builders of that new road over the uncharted southwest from Santa Fe to San Diego and Los Angeles. A memorial to the historic trek of the Mormon Battalion and their guide Charbonneau has been erected at the San Pedro River, north of the U.S.–Mexico border near the present-day town of Palominas, Arizona. Other monuments or historic markers are in Tucson, Arizona and in California at Box Canyon near Warner Springs, at Temecula, at Old Town San Diego and at Fort Moore in Los Angeles. Colonel Cooke's diary mentions Charbonneau some 29 times from November 16, 1846, to January 21, 1847. Eight of the twenty wagons reached Mission San Luis Rey de Francia, from today's Oceanside, California, and the leaders counted the expedition as a success.


title: Jean Baptiste Charbonneau

text: Cooke wrote of the Mormon Battalion, "History may be searched in vain for an equal march of infantry." Known as Cooke's Road or the Gila Trail but more currently known as the Mormon Battalion Trail, the wagon road was used by settlers, miners, stagecoaches of the Butterfield Stage line and cattlemen driving longhorns to feed the gold camps. Parts of the route became the Southern Pacific Railroad and U.S. Route 66. Currently, the Boy Scouts of America gives an award for those who hike sections of this historic trail. In February 1848, knowledge gained about the region was used as the basis of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which established the United States-Mexico border in December 1853, following the Mexican-American War.


title: Jean Baptiste Charbonneau

text: In November 1847, Charbonneau accepted an appointment from Colonel John D. Stevenson as "alcalde" (mayor) at Mission San Luis Rey de Francia. This position made him the only civilian authority, a combined sheriff, lawyer and magistrate, in a post-war region covering about . From 1834–50, the lands were owned by rancheros through legally questionable land grants.


title: Jean Baptiste Charbonneau

text: The rancheros hired local Luiseño people to do agricultural work. Many functioned in virtual servitude, and some rancheros paid them only with liquor. Trying to correct abuses and also facilitate post-war control, in November 1847, Colonel Richard Barnes Mason, the territorial governor, ordered Charbonneau to force the sale of a large ranch owned by the powerful Jose Antonio Pico, whose family was politically connected. His brother Pio Pico had been the last governor of California under Mexico. On January 1, 1848, Mason banned the sale of liquor to Native Americans. Such ordinances attacked the foundation of ranchero power and ability to do business. Eventually, the changes led to United States civilian control of California. Although Charbonneau was assisted by Captain J. D. Hunter as he negotiated with Pico, he saw that local resistance would make enforcing Mason's orders difficult. Charbonneau resigned his post in August 1848 and was soon followed by Hunter. California statehood on September 9, 1850, ended the post-war difficulties.


title: Jean Baptiste Charbonneau

text: In September 1848, Charbonneau arrived in Placer County, California at the American River, near what is now Auburn. Arriving early in what became known as the California Gold Rush, he joined only a handful of prospectors. Panning was not done during the hard Sierra Nevada] winter or spring runoff, so in June 1849, he joined Jim Beckwourth and two others at a camp on Buckner's Bar to mine the river at the Big Crevice. This claim "…was shallow and paid well". Charbonneau lived at a site known as Secret Ravine, one of 12 ravines around Auburn. A successful miner, he kept working in the area for nearly sixteen years.


title: Jean Baptiste Charbonneau

text: A measure of his success was that Charbonneau could afford the mining region's highly inflated cost of living. For example, at a time when a good wage in the West was $30 per month, it cost $8–16 per day to live in Auburn. Transiency was high but Charbonneau was still there in 1860, working as the hotel manager at the Orleans Hotel in Auburn. By 1858, many miners had left the California fields for other gold rushes. In April 1866, he departed for other opportunities at age 61. He may have headed for Montana to prospect for gold, although sites such as at Silver City and DeLamar in Idaho Territory were much closer.


title: Jean Baptiste Charbonneau

text: It is not clear exactly why Charbonneau left Auburn, California, but the recessionary local economy was certainly a motivation. Before leaving he visited the "Placer Herald" newspaper and visited with an editor, who wrote later in his obituary, "...he was about [his purpose was] returning to familiar scenes". Some of those "familiar scenes" may have been where he had lived and worked as a mountain man east of the Great Basin. His destination also may have been the Owyhee Mountains, where rich placer deposits were discovered in May 1863. Or perhaps he sought to reach Alder Gulch near Virginia City, Montana, because it had produced $31  million in gold by late 1865. Other possible destinations were the Bannock, Montana gold strikes or—as noted above—the mines at Silver City (formerly Ruby City), Delamar or Boonville.


title: Jean Baptiste Charbonneau

text: His route and travel method likely took him on a stagecoach over Donner Summit and east along the well-traveled Humboldt River Trail to Winnemucca, Nevada, then north to the U.S. Army's Camp McDermitt at the Oregon border. Passing the camp in rugged terrain, the men reached an Owyhee River crossing at present-day Rome, Oregon, where an apparent accident occurred and Charbonneau went into the river. The accident's cause is unknown, but there are several possibilities. He may have been on a stagecoach operated by the Boise-Silver City-Winnemucca stage company that began its route in 1866 out of Camp McDermitt and in crossing the river, the coach sank. Or he may have been on horseback and fallen off the river bank or slipped out of the saddle while crossing. The Owyhee River in snow melt may have turned into whitewater. Other possibilities are he was injured on the land journey, inhaled alkali dust, or fell ill from drinking contaminated water.


title: Jean Baptiste Charbonneau

text: The ill Charbonneau was taken to Inskip Station in Danner, Oregon, built in 1865, about from the river and west of Jordan Valley. It is now a ghost town. The former stagecoach, mail stop and general store served travelers to Oregon and the California gold fields. It had its own well, and Charbonneau may have deteriorated from drinking the water. After his death there, his body was taken north and interred at , approximately southwest of Ontario, Oregon.


title: Jean Baptiste Charbonneau

text: Charbonneau died at age 61 on May 16, 1866. A death notice was sent by an unknown writer, likely one of two fellow travelers on the journey east, to the "Owyhee Avalanche" newspaper and it said he died of pneumonia. This is the first documented evidence of his death. The "Placer Herald" obituary writer opined that he succumbed to the infamous "Mountain Fever", to which many illnesses in the West were attributed.


title: Jean Baptiste Charbonneau

text: His gravesite, listed on the National Register of Historic Places, is on of land. (It is near the abandoned Anderson General Store, which is intact and appears to be in 1940s condition.) Now contained within the Ruby Ranch, the site was donated to Malheur County by the owners, and the gravesite has three historical markers. In 1971, the Malheur County Daughters of the American Revolution placed a marker. In 1973, the Oregon Historical Society installed a marker, reading:


title: Jean Baptiste Charbonneau

text: In 2000, a third marker was dedicated by the Lemhi Shoshone tribe. As the son of Sacagawea, a Northern Shoshone who lived in the Lemhi Valley, Charbonneau is considered one of their people.


title: Jean Baptiste Charbonneau

text: Earlier in the twentieth century, Dr Grace Raymond Hebard of the University of Wyoming, a political economist, not a historian or anthropologist, argued that Charbonneau died and was buried at the Shoshone Wind River Indian Reservation. Dr. Charles Eastman, a Santee Sioux and not of the Shoshone language group, did research that attempted to establish that Charbonneau's mother Sacagawea died at the reservation on April 9, 1884. Some believe that Charbonneau died in 1885 and was buried next to her. Memorials in their names were erected in 1933 at Ft. Washakie. Eastman did his research in 1924–25, interpreting oral history. But his translation has been superseded by documentary evidence for both Charbonneau and Sacagawea.


title: Jean Baptiste Charbonneau

text: In 1964, an edited nineteenth-century journal was published stating that Sacagawea died much earlier, on December 20, 1812, of a "putrid fever" (possible following childbirth) at Fort Lisa on the Missouri River. Four 19th-century documents support this earlier date, including a statement by William Clark years after the 1805–07 Lewis and Clark expedition that "Sacajawea was dead."


title: Concealed carry

text: Concealed carry, or carrying a concealed weapon (CCW), is the practice of carrying a weapon (usually a sidearm such as a handgun), either in proximity to or on one's person or in public places in a manner that hides or conceals the weapon's presence from the surrounding observers. The opposite of concealed carry is called open carry.


title: Concealed carry

text: While most law enforcement officers carry their handguns in a visible holster, some officers such as plainclothes detectives or undercover agents carry weapons in concealed holsters. In some countries and jurisdictions, civilians are legally required to obtain a concealed carry permit in order to possess and carry a firearm. In others, a CCW permit is only required if the firearm is not visible to the eye, such as carrying said weapon in one's purse, bag, trunk, etc.


title: Concealed carry

text: Concealed carry in Brazil is generally illegal, with special carry permits granted to police officers allowing them to carry firearms off duty, and in other rare cases.


title: Concealed carry

text: In May 2019, President Jair Bolsonaro signed a decree allowing several people to have license to carry a weapon based on the intrinsic risk of the profession, including lawyers, reporters and politicians.


title: Concealed carry

text: The practice of CCW is generally prohibited in Canada. Section 90 of the Criminal Code prohibits carrying a concealed weapon unless authorized for a lawful occupational purpose under the Firearms Act. Section 20 of the Firearms Act, 1995 allows issuance of an Authorization to Carry (ATC) in limited circumstances. Concealment of the firearm is permitted only if it is specifically stipulated in the conditions of the ATC, as section 58(1) of the Firearms Act, 1995 allows a CFO to attach conditions to an ATC.


title: Concealed carry

text: Provincial chief firearm officers (CFOs) may only issue an authorization in accordance with the regulations. Specifically, SOR 98-207 section 2 requires, for an ATC for protection of life, for an individual to be in imminent danger and for police protection to be insufficient. As such, if the relevant police agency determines its protection is sufficient, the CFO would have difficulty in issuing the ATC over police objections.


title: Concealed carry

text: For issuance of an ATC under 98-207(3) for lawful occupations, provision is made for armored car personnel under subsection a), for wildlife protection (while working) and trapping under subsections b) and c). Unless hunting or other activity is occupational, it would not be possible to issue an ATC under the section. As noted, a CFO can exercise some discretion but must follow the law in considering applications for an ATC.


title: Concealed carry

text: A gun in the Czech Republic is available to anybody subject to acquiring a shall-issue firearms license. Gun licenses may be obtained in a way similar to driving licenses – by passing a gun proficiency exam, medical examination and having a clean criminal record. Unlike in most other European countries, the Czech gun legislation also permits a citizen to carry a concealed weapon for self-defense – 246,715 out of some 303,936 legal gun owners have "E category licenses" which permit them to carry concealed firearms. The vast majority of Czech gun owners possess their firearms for protection, with hunting and sport shooting being less common.


title: Concealed carry

text: Hunters who hold "C category licenses" may carry their hunting firearms openly on the way to and from hunting grounds.


title: Concealed carry

text: Unlike state policemen, members of the municipal police are regarded as civilians and need to obtain "D category licenses" in order to be armed. Municipal policemen while on duty carry their municipality-issued firearms openly. D category license holders who work in private security services can carry their firearms only in a concealed manner.


title: Concealed carry

text: In Mexico, the issuance of a private individual firearms license, despite being guaranteed as a right in Article 10 of the 1917 Constitution, is neither common nor easy to obtain. Article 10 of the Constitution quotes:The inhabitants of the United Mexican States have the right to possess arms in their homes, for their security and legitimate defense, with the exception of federal law and those reserved for the exclusive use of the Army, Navy, Air Force and National Guard. Federal law shall determine the cases, conditions, requirements and places in which inhabitants may be authorized to carry weapons.Even when a carrying permit is granted, it is usually limited to weapons permitted for civilians (also called "non-exclusive military use"). The carrying of arms in Mexico is limited to those detailed in Articles 8 and 9 of the Federal Law on Firearms and Explosives.2 which states   Weapons with the following characteristics may be possessed or carried, under the terms and with the limitations established by this Law:


title: Concealed carry

text: I. I. Semi-automatic pistols of caliber no greater than .380" (9 mm), with the exception of .38" Super and .38" Comando calibers, and also in 9 mm calibers, Mausser, Luger, Parabellum and Comando, as well as similar models of the same caliber of the exempted ones, of other brands.


title: Concealed carry

text: Ejidatarios, comuneros and rural workers, outside urban areas, may possess and carry with the only demonstration, one of the aforementioned weapons, or a .22" caliber rifle, or a shotgun of any caliber, except those with a barrel length of less than 635 mm. (25"), and those with a caliber greater than 12 (.729" or 18.5 mm.).


title: Concealed carry

text: IV. Those that form part of collections of arms, in the terms of Articles 21 and 22.The issuance of carrying licences in Mexico is similar to the United States "may-issue" model, in which the authorities responsible for issuing such licences (Secretariat of National Defense) reserve the right to issue them at their discretion.


title: Concealed carry

text: Pakistan allows any citizen with a firearm licence to carry a concealed handgun, except in educational institutions, hostels or boarding and lodging houses, fairs, gatherings or processions of a political, religious, ceremonial or sectarian character, and on the premises of courts of law or public offices.


title: Concealed carry

text: Concealed carry in the Philippines requires a Permit To Carry (PTC), which may be issued to licensed firearms owners based on threats to their lives or because of the inherent risk of their profession. The Permit to Carry must be renewed annually.


title: Concealed carry

text: During gun ban, which is the time of election or as declared by the president, no civilian can carry a gun outside residence even with PTC.


title: Concealed carry

text: Polish firearm licences for handguns allow concealed carry, regardless of whether they are given for self defence or sporting reasons. Self defence licences are only for those the police consider at heightened risk of attack, and are rare. Sports shooting licences require active participation in competitions every year.


title: Concealed carry

text: In South Africa, it is legal to carry all licensed firearms and there is no additional permit required to carry firearms open or concealed, as long as it is a licensed firearm that is carried:


title: Concealed carry

text: A firearm contemplated in subsection must be completely covered and the person carrying the firearm must be able to exercise effective control over the firearm (carrying firearms in public is allowed if it is done in that manner).


title: Concealed carry

text: In South Africa, private guns are prohibited in educational institutions, churches, community centres, health facilities, NGOs, taverns, banks, corporate buildings, government buildings and some public spaces, such as sport stadiums.


title: Concealed carry

text: Concealed carry in Slovakia is not common and subject to generally permissive may-issue license(depends on jurisdiction some are essentially shall-issue others don't issue without bribe or verifiable proof to being in danger), only 2% of the population hold a licence allowing concealed carry.


title: Concealed carry

text: Concealed or open carry of any weapon is generally prohibited in Great Britain (i.e. England, Wales, and Scotland), the Prevention of Crime Act 1953 prohibiting this in a "public place". Permission exists only with lawful authority or reasonable excuse. As per Section 1(4) Prevention of Crime Act 1953, the definition of an offensive weapon is: ""offensive weapon" means any article made or adapted for use for "causing injury to the person", or intended by the person having it with him for such use by him or by some other person". Self defence is no longer considered a legitimate reason for the granting of a Firearms Certificate (FAC) in Great Britain.


title: Concealed carry

text: Unlike Great Britain, Northern Ireland still allows the carry of concealed handguns for the purpose of self defence. An FAC for a personal protection weapon will only be authorised where the Police Service of Northern Ireland deems there is a "verifiable specific risk" to the life of an individual, and that the possession of a firearm is a reasonable, proportionate and necessary measure to protect their life. Permits for personal protection also allow the holder to carry their firearms concealed. In reality – aside from off-duty constables – the only individuals who will be granted a permit to carry will be those who are government officials or retirees, such as prison officers, military personnel, or politicians still considered to be at risk from paramilitary attack.


title: Concealed carry

text: Concealed carry is legal in most jurisdictions of the United States. A handful of states and jurisdictions severely restrict or ban it, but all jurisdictions make provision for legal concealed carry via a permit or license, or via constitutional carry. Illinois was the last state to pass a law allowing for concealed carry, with license applications available on January 5, 2014. Most states that require a permit have "shall-issue" statutes, and if a person meets the requirements to obtain a permit, the issuing authority (typically, a state law enforcement office such as the state police) must issue one, with no discretionary power given. Prior to June 2022, a few states enforced "may-issue" statutes, which gave authorities discretionary power in issuing permits to otherwise qualified applicants. However, these laws were found to be unconstitutional by the U.S. Supreme Court in "New York State Rifle & Pistol Association, Inc. v. Bruen". Furthermore, in most states obtaining the permit is required to bring a weapon into public, (e.g. shopping center). If the gun remains in one's vehicle but is not on said person's property, a permit is required in places like New Jersey.


title: Concealed carry

text: Further complicating the status of concealed carry is recognition of state permits under the laws of other states. The Full Faith and Credit Clause of the US Constitution pertains to judgments and other legal pronouncements such as marriage and divorce rather than licenses and permits that authorize individuals to prospectively engage in activities. There are several popular combinations of resident and nonresident permits that allow carry in more states than the original issuing state; for example, a Utah nonresident permit allows carry in 25 states. Some states, however, do not recognize permits issued by other states to nonresidents of the issuing state: Colorado, Florida, Maine, Michigan, New Hampshire, North Dakota and South Carolina. Some other states do not recognize any permit from another state: California, Connecticut, Oregon, Hawaii, Illinois (recognizes permits while in vehicle), Maryland, Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York, or the District of Columbia.


title: Copenhagen Metro

text: The Copenhagen Metro (, ) is a 24/7 rapid transit system in Copenhagen, Denmark, serving the municipalities of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg, and Tårnby.


title: Copenhagen Metro

text: The original system opened in October 2002, serving nine stations on two lines: M1 and M2. In 2003 and 2007, the Metro was extended to Vanløse and Copenhagen Airport (Lufthavnen) respectively, adding an additional six plus five stations to the network. In 2019, seventeen stations on a wholly underground circle line, the M3, was added bringing the number of stations to 37.


title: Copenhagen Metro

text: The driverless light metro supplements the larger S-train rapid transit system, and is integrated with local DSB and regional (Øresundståg) trains and municipal Movia buses. Through the city centre and west to Vanløse, M1 and M2 share a common line. To the southeast, the system serves Amager, with the M1 running through the new neighborhood of Ørestad, and the M2 serving the eastern neighborhoods and Copenhagen Airport. The M3 is a circle line connecting Copenhagen Central Station with Vesterbro, Frederiksberg, Nørrebro, Østerbro and Indre By districts. The metro has 39 stations, 25 of which are underground.


title: Copenhagen Metro

text: The system is owned by "Metroselskabet" (The Metro Company), which is owned by the municipalities of Copenhagen and Frederiksberg, and the Ministry of Transport. The M1 and M2 use 34 trains of the Hitachi Rail Italy Driverless Metro class and stationed at the Control and Maintenance Center at Vestamager. The trains are wide and three cars long; their power output is supplied by a 750-volt third rail. The metro trains were originally planned to be four cars long, but trains were reduced to three cars per set as a savings measure. Platforms are – although shorter than originally planned – built to accommodate trains with four cars, and the automatic doors can be modified accordingly should the need arise.


title: Copenhagen Metro

text: Operation of the system is subcontracted to a private company. For the history of service, this has been "Metro Service A/S". Trains run continually, twenty-four hours a day, with the headway varying from two to four minutes, but with longer intervals (up to twenty minutes) during the night only.


title: Copenhagen Metro

text: Planning of the Metro started in 1992 as part of the redevelopment plans for Ørestad with construction starting in 1996, and stage 1, from Nørreport to Vestamager and Lergravsparken, opened in 2002. Stage 2, from Nørreport to Vanløse, opened in 2003, followed by stage 3, from Lergravsparken to Lufthavnen, in 2007.


title: Copenhagen Metro

text: The City Circle Line (Danish: "Cityringen)" is an entirely underground 15.5 km loop through central Copenhagen and Frederiksberg with 17 stops. It does not share any track with the M1 and M2 lines, but intersect them at Kongens Nytorv and Frederiksberg stations. Before the "Cityringen" opened, the Metro expected that it would cause its ridership should almost double from its 2016 levels to 116 million annual passengers.


title: Copenhagen Metro

text: A fourth line, M4, will be developed into a separate line between 2020 and 2024, as extensions of the "Cityringen" to Nordhavn and Sydhavn open. The two-stop three-kilometre-long line to Nordhavn opened in March 2020. The extension adds an interchange with Nordhavn S-train station. The five-stop, 4.5 km, extension to Sydhavn is also under construction, with planned opening in 2024. The Sydhavn line will terminate at Ny Ellebjerg where it will create a new regional rail transport hub by connecting the metro system to the S-train network, regional trains, and long-distance trains on the current lines and the upcoming high speed Copenhagen-Ringsted railway. Once these extensions are complete, Metro expects the daily ridership to triple from its current level of 200,000 riders per weekday to 600,000 riders per weekday in 2030.


title: Copenhagen Metro

text: The planning of the metro was spurred by the development of the Ørestad area of Copenhagen. The principle of building a rail transit was passed by the Parliament of Denmark on 24 June 1992, with the "Ørestad Act". The responsibility for developing the area, as well as building and operating the metro, was given to the Ørestad Development Corporation, a joint venture between Copenhagen Municipality (45%) and the Ministry of Finance (55%). Initially, three modes were considered: a tramway, a light rail and a rapid transit. In October 1994, the Development Corporation chose a light rapid transit.


title: Copenhagen Metro

text: The tram solution would have been a street tram, without any major infrastructure investments in the city centre, such as a dedicated right-of-way. Through Ørestad it would have had level crossings, except for a grade-separated crossing with the European Route E20 and the Øresund Line. It would have had a driver and have operated at about a 150-second interval—twice the cycle time of the city's traffic lights. Power would have been provided with overhead wires. Stops were to be located about every at street level. The articulated trams would have been about long and have a capacity for 230 passengers.


title: Copenhagen Metro

text: The light rail model would have used the same approach as the tram in Ørestad, but would instead have run through a tunnel in the city centre. The tunnel sections would be shorter, but the diameter larger because it would have to accommodate overhead wires. The system would have the same frequency as the tram, but use double trams and would therefore require larger stations. The metro solution was chosen because it combined the highest average speeds, the highest passenger capacity, the lowest visual and noise impact, and the lowest number of accidents. Despite requiring the highest investment, it had the highest net present value.