title: Rambler American

text: One of the muscle-car era's "most visually arresting examples" was a special model that was produced during 1969 in collaboration with Hurst Performance, the Hurst SC/Rambler. The objective of AMC was more than to "just build these cars for the street and claim they performed – they took the cars racing." "Likely the most outrageous muscle car from AMC" with 1,512 built, it was probably the only production model made and promoted for a specific drag racing class, the National Hot Rod Association (NHRA) F/Stock class.


title: Rambler American

text: The SC/Rambler was a competent performer with quarter-mile times in the low 14-second range." A true muscle car with zero options and a suggested retail price of less than , it would take down some much more vaunted cars. The marketing brochures suggested that owners check the current NHRA rule book as to racing classification and whether any modifications are allowed. As one of the most underrated muscle cars ever produced, most were used very much in racing with owners acheving the quarter-mile 12.07 seconds at in full street trim using street tires.


title: Rambler American

text: Each Hurst SC/Rambler came equipped with the AMC V8 engine from the AMX that translated into 10.03 pounds per horsepower. No factory options were available for this package. Standard clutch was a with a three-finger, long-style Borg and Beck pressure plate. The 390 engine was mated to a four-speed manual BorgWarner T-10 with close gear ratios. A Hurst shifter came with a large metal "T" handle. The rear end was an AMC 3.54:1 "Twin-Grip" limited slip differential using Dana internals, with outer wheel hubs attached through a spline and keyway system.


title: Rambler American

text: Factory cast-iron manifolds exited to a true dual exhaust with Thrush (a Tenneco brand) two-chamber oval mufflers with Woodpecker logos. These were baffled mufflers, not glasspacks. Minimal baffling gave a deep throaty sound, similar to modern Flowmasters. The exhaust exited through chrome tips attached with hose clamps.


title: Rambler American

text: While similar Rogue and American models had standard drum brakes, the SC package came with front discs, a heavier sway bar, and a strengthened drive train and body components. These included connectors between the front and rear subframes. The rear end used fore-and-aft staggered rear shock absorbers to eliminate wheel hop (axle wrap) under extreme acceleration conditions with leaf spring suspensions. The staggered shocks required a special plate riveted in the trunk pan, as well as brackets for the subframe end of upper torque links. Other body modifications differentiating Hurst SC Ramblers from regular hardtop Ramblers included rolled-back front and rear wheel openings to allow for larger tires. American Motors called on Hurst to help develop a vehicle for the racing market. Stock class rules required a minimum of 500 identical vehicles to be produced and sold. This led to the Hurst SC/Rambler, SC meaning "Super Car". This model is commonly referred to as a "Scrambler", although Jeeps later used the Scrambler name.


title: Rambler American

text: Available only as a two-door hardtop, the interior came in standard gray charcoal vinyl-upholstered reclining seats with a headliner embossed with small squares. The front seats reclined, and the new safety-mandated head restraints were upholstered in red, white, and blue stripes. The SC/Rambler included a standard 90-degree-arc dial Sun tachometer. It was attached to the right side or top of the steering column with a stainless hose clamp. The only factory option was an AM radio.


title: Rambler American

text: The SC/Ramblers came with wild factory paint jobs. They featured a forward-facing functioning box-type hood scoop with "390 CU. IN." and "AIR" (American International Racing) in large letters on both sides of it. The hood scoop air flapper was vacuum operated, allowing higher pressure cool air to pressurize a Carter AFB carburetor. A blue arrow on the hood pointed towards the air intake. The Scrambler came in only two red, white, and blue color schemes, "A" or "B". These schemes appeared randomly through early production.


title: Rambler American

text: Some AMC historians claim American Motors built a batch of 500 "A" scheme SC/Ramblers before switching to the "B" scheme, with 500 "B" models built before a switch to the final lot of 512 SC/Ramblers in "A" pattern. However, some "B" scheme cars in the Hurst SC/Rambler registry have very early build dates, putting their manufacture among the "A" scheme versions. AMC used the same paint codes for all special paint schemes, so it cannot be used to determine exactly how the 1512 cars rolled out of the factory. The paint codes “SPEC”, “SPECIAL”, “88A”, and "OOA" can appear with either the A scheme or B scheme. American Motors contracted Paul Hatton to paint the cars. He did 1,215 in the "A" scheme and that would mean a total of 297 "B" scheme SC/Ramblers.


title: Rambler American

text: Some of the other unique standard items on this model included racing mirrors, antihop rear axle links, and blue painted "Magnum 500" 14x6-inch styled steel wheels with chrome beauty rings and AMC hub centers. Tires were E-70-14 fiberglass-belted, four-ply tires with red-stripe Goodyear Polyglas tires. American Motors priced the SC/Rambler at just $2,998, a real bargain for a serious dragstrip contender, capable of quarter miles in the low 14-second range at about right off the dealer's lot. For example, "Road Test" magazine reported 14.4 at 100.44 mph and reached without topping out. With a few simple bolt-on modifications, they would run low 12s. Modified SC/Ramblers have run the quarter mile in the 9-second bracket.


title: Rambler American

text: The automaker provided AMC dealers with numerous "Group 19" parts and upgrades to make customer's SC/Ramblers even quicker. Well-tuned legal stock S/Cs with allowable changes have run in the 12-second range.


title: Rambler American

text: Charles Rauch set a D/S quarter-mile record of 12.54 seconds at Detroit Dragway. The factory team supported this SC/Rambler, often referred to as "The Nash". Modifications included a special cast-iron manifold, advanced camshaft timing, heavier valve springs, factory-supplied carburetor, six-cylinder front springs with factory-supplied bottom shims to restore stock height, 90/10 front shocks, lightened chassis components, exhaust-system modifications, Chevrolet 10.5-inch diaphragm pressure plate, wide-ratio transmission gear set, 4.44 rear-axle ratio, and larger, softer, G70-15 rear tires on identical-design "Magnum 500" 15-inch Ford wheels painted AMC blue. The manifold and some other parts were specially selected factory components for the stock 1970 Rebel Machine engine, but legal for use in the big-bore, short-stroke 1969 AMC 390 engine.


title: Rambler American

text: The compact Rambler American was exported from the U.S. and Canada and produced in other markets by AMC subsidiaries or assembled under license. It was manufactured in Australia, Iran, Mexico, Argentina, and South Africa. The Rambler American was also shipped in CKD from the USA and assembled at the Haren factory in Belgium to be sold as the Renault Rambler in France, Belgium, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and Austria starting with the 1962 model.


title: Rambler American

text: From 1966 through 1982, Industrias Kaiser Argentina (IKA) produced in Argentina a hybrid of the second-generation Rambler American and Classic platforms. The car was called IKA Torino, later Renault Torino, and featured AMC's automobile platform with a facelifted front and rear design and instrument panel by Pininfarina to create a new car. The Torino was received by journalists and the public as "the" Argentinean car. It was available in two-door hardtop and four-door sedan body styles, and all came with luxurious interior appointments.


title: Rambler American

text: The Torino's engine, transmission, and upgraded interior fittings were unique to Argentina and were not used on any of the U.S.-market Ramblers. The engine was the Tornado Interceptor overhead cam (OHC) six originally developed for the new 1963 Jeeps. The car was actually a 1963-1964 Rambler Classic passenger compartment with 1964-1965 Rambler American front and rear sections. The front suspension sills extended all the way under the floor to meet the rear suspension sills, a feature that made the Torino much stiffer than its U.S.-produced cousins (The Rambler Marlin also used these long sills, but other models did not). The Torino handled the roads of the interior of the country very well, while its engine acquired fame for being robust and reliable. The car was successful in Argentina. It was also entered in races against famous sports cars, including the "84 hours of Nürburgring" endurance race in 1969, where a Torino finished with the most laps, but was classified in fourth place due to penalties.


title: Rambler American

text: The Rambler American was introduced to the Australian market in 1964. It was built by Australian Motor Industries (AMI) in Port Melbourne from semiknock-down kits shipped from the U.S. The kits were received in right-hand drive and were assembled with a percentage of local content as required by Australian law to gain tariff concessions. Also differences and overlaps existed in the Australian production and equipment compared to U.S. model years. The 1965 model Ramblers were produced through 1966, mostly in 440 trim and with the smaller engine. Because AMI assembled other automobile brands at its facility (including Toyotas and Triumphs), some sharing of colors, options, and interior trims occurred. By 1967, the local content of the Rambler Americans had been progressively raised to 53%. Importantly for the Australian market, the Rambler was considered reliable, with the mechanicals being generally solid and trouble-free. AMI stopped assembling the American in 1967, replacing it with the Toyota Corolla and Corona, the new Rambler Rebel, and the Triumph 2.5.


title: Rambler American

text: AMI distributed Ramblers from Melbourne for the state of Victoria. Grenville Motors in Sydney distributed vehicles for New South Wales. Betterview Pty Ltd in Canberra distributed vehicles for Australian Capital Territory. Annand & Thompson Pty Ltd in Brisbane distributed vehicles for Queensland. Champions Pty Ltd in Adelaide distributed vehicles for South Australia. Premier Motors Pty Ltd in Perth distributed Ramblers for Western Australia, and Heathco Motors in Launceston distributed Rambler vehicles for Tasmania.


title: Rambler American

text: Rambler vehicles were imported into Finland during the 1950s and 1960s by two major Finnish automotive importers, Oy Voimavaunu Ab and Suomen Maanvilelijäin Kauppa Oy (SMK Group.) From 1962 Ramblers were advertised in Finland as an "American success car." From the mid 1960s, Wihuri Group, a large multi-sector family business, took over import operations using it's shipping operation, Autola Oy. Along with the Rambler Classic, the Rambler American was popular as a taxi cab. Autola Oy continued to import AMC vehicles until 1975.


title: Rambler American

text: From 1967 through 1974, the 1966 version of the AMC Rambler American was assembled by the Sherkate Sahami Jeep company in Iran. The American was offered in two trim levels as Aria (sometimes spelled "Arya") and Shahin. Aria means "Aryan", and Shahin "Falcon". The Aria was a more luxurious version that came with a three-speed automatic, as well as manual transmission, while the Shahin was the base model with a manual transmission. The engine used was AMC's inline-six producing . The cars were available with factory air conditioning, a unique feature for the Iranian market during that time.


title: Rambler American

text: The Aria and Shahin were assembled under AMC's license by Pars Khodro starting in 1967. The factory in Tehran was dedicated by the last Shah of Iran. Five-year projections called for the Pars Khodro plant to build 75,000 Rambler Americans. The target was the upper and middle classes that had grown prosperous under the Shah. The Arya and Shahin versions of the Rambler American, as well as the Jeep Aho (Grand Wagoneer), "were among the best domestically produced vehicles."


title: Rambler American

text: Production continued by the Iran Jeep Company in a Tehran factory. Iran Jeep (Sherkate Sahami) had been cooperating with General Motors for over 15 years and in June 1972 purchased enough shares to change the name to General Motors Iran. Production of Rambler Americans ended in early 1974, but assembly of some Opel Rekord, Chevrolet Nova and Pickup, Buick Skylark, and Cadillac Seville models from 1974 until 1987.


title: Rambler American

text: The Rambler American was introduced to the Mexican market in 1958 through direct importation from the U.S. Looking to replace importation with local assembly, American Motors early in the year signed an agreement with Planta REO, an assembly plant based in Monterrey, Nuevo León, that produced a number of vehicles for different makes and had its own dealership network. The entire Rambler line was available, but production and sales volumes were low and the agreement was terminated in late 1959. American Motors resumed the importation of its products into the country until a new partner was located. Early in 1960, the company signed a new agreement with Willys Mexicana S.A. de C.V., and the first model produced was none other than the Rambler American, becoming the first American Motors product made and sold by the company that would become Vehículos Automotores Mexicanos S.A. (VAM) in 1963.


title: Rambler American

text: The 1960 Rambler American produced under Willys Mexicana was available in two-door sedan, four-door sedan, and two-door station wagon body styles. They were powered by a L-head I6 with 8.0:1 compression ratio and single-barrel carburetor coupled to a three-speed manual transmission with column shift. It featured built-in flow-through ventilation, four-wheel drum brakes, regular suspension, regular cooling system, manual steering, pull-handle parking brake, bench seats, four-side armrests, vacuum wipers, cigarette lighter, front ashtray, hood ornament, glove box, driver's side remote mirror, and hubcaps over standard steel wheels. Among the factory options were the one-barrel OHV version of the 195.6 engine and an automatic transmission.


title: Rambler American

text: For 1961, the Rambler American for Mexico was available as the new second generation of the line, growing from three to four body styles with the introduction of the four-door station wagon. Wipers and washers changed to electric units, a Motorola AM radio with an antenna, and twin-circuit brakes became standard.


title: Rambler American

text: The line continued with minor cosmetic changes for the 1962 model year. The Mexican automobile industry integration decree was also issued in 1962 by the government of President Adolfo López Mateos. Among its statutes was a ban on fully finished vehicle imports and called for a reduction of body styles and engines as well as a new requirement of a minimum of 60% of components and equipment to be produced locally. Automakers responded by reducing the number of car lines, trim levels, options, and variants in all product lines, Willys Mexicana being no exception. Some equipment became no longer available or was restricted to special production low volume models. Rambler Americans were no longer available with an automatic transmission, being restricted to a three-speed manual from 1962.


title: Rambler American

text: In 1963 Willys Mexicana was reorganized as a new company, Vehículos Automotores Mexicanos (VAM), with direct investments by American Motors, Kaiser Willys, and the Mexican government. A fifth body style, a two-door hardtop, was introduced. Named the Rambler American Hardtop, it was the Mexican equivalent to the Rambler American 440H model marketed in the US and Canada. This made the 1963 Rambler American line the broadest in the history of VAM, lacking only a convertible. The car became VAM's first sporty compact, its first high-end luxury model (even above the also-new regular-production Rambler Classic), and its first limited edition. A feature was the standard I6 with two-barrel carburetor and OHV configuration. A total of 90 units of this version were made.


title: Rambler American

text: For 1964, the third-generation Rambler American debuted in Mexico and was available in two-door and four-door sedans as well as a four-door station wagon. At first standard with the L-head I6 as in the previous four years, it was replaced by the one-barrel OHV version as the standard engine early in the year. A two-barrel version of this engine became an option. The only transmission available was still the three-speed manual with a steering column-mounted shifter on all body styles.


title: Rambler American

text: VAM's engine plant was inaugurated in November 1964, fulfilling another requirement of the 1962 decree. The domestic-made engines were introduced in 1965 model year VAM cars. The Rambler American line switched to AMC's new one-barrel I6 as the standard engine. At the mid-year it was also replaced by the new version that became available at midyear. The reason for this was that the 232 engine series was already being produced in Mexico, while both versions of the 195.6 engine were imported from the U.S. To achieve consolidation and standardized production, the 195.6 engine was dropped and both the Rambler Classic and Rambler American lines came with the 232 engines until the 199 was available for the latter. The VAM Rambler American had the same design features as its AMC equivalent, including a partially redesigned grille design with four vertical lines and new tail lights with a flat internal side and a curved external one.


title: Rambler American

text: Along with the new engines, the Rambler American Hardtop model was reintroduced. It featured the same luxury and sporty touches of the original 1963 model alongside new ones and was once again a low-volume, limited edition. The cars came standard with the two-barrel version of the 232 engine coupled to a Borg-Warner "Flash-o-Matic" three-speed automatic transmission with floor shift, which was last available in regular production models in 1961. Other standards included a luxury steering wheel, individually adjustable and reclining front seats, high-trim upholstery, a center console with a locking compartment, custom wheel covers, a full bright molding package (including 440H emblems), and an under-dash tissue holder. Options included seat belts, power steering, power brakes, and a heater. A total of 320 top-of-line models were produced.


title: Rambler American

text: The Mexican Rambler American for 1966 received similar design changes as its U.S. counterparts that included the more squared external lines, squared headlight bezels, and redesigned taillights. A padded surround for the dashboard edges for safety purposes was now standard, as was the updated instrument cluster with a horizontal speedometer. The hardtop model was dropped and the line was restricted to the I6 engine with three-speed manual transmission and the shifter on the column.


title: Rambler American

text: The 1967 models received a new semi-concave, squared taillight design, and a new five-dial instrument cluster with a round speedometer at the center. A fully synchronized 150-T model three-speed manual transmission was now standard equipment, meaning the end of non-synchromesh units in VAM cars. The new transmission was joined by a 3.73:1 rear differential gear ratio. Hazard lights were added to the standard equipment list.


title: Rambler American

text: The 1968 model changes were in the form of the engine as standard equipment in the station wagon, while becoming optional equipment in both of the sedan models. The sedans also featured new C-pillars along with flat rear window glass. The interiors included new larger side armrests. Front two-point seatbelts became standard for the first time. The rear differential was changed to a 3.54:1 gear ratio.


title: Rambler American

text: The 1969 model year cars were almost the same as their immediate predecessors. VAM developed a performance model, the Rambler American Rally, that consisted of an optional package for the two-door sedan. It was inspired by VAM's successful 1965 racing season using Rambler American sedans and hardtops, as well as growing domestic market demand for muscle and performance cars. The package included a two-barrel I6 engine, power drum brakes, fender-mounted "232 SIX" rectangular emblems, and individually adjustable reclining front seats with a center folding armrest. The transmission was still the three-speed manual with a column-mounted shifter with a floor-mounted gearshift as a dealership option. Other dealership options included front disc brakes, a front sway bar, stiffer shock absorbers, and a Hurst-linked four-speed manual transmission. Factory options included a dash-mounted 8,000 rpm tachometer and the sport steering wheel used in the Javelin models.


title: Rambler American

text: The Rambler American line was discontinued in 1969 to make way for the all-new AMC Hornet models. Unlike in the U.S., the "Rambler American" name was continued on the new Mexican-made compact as the "Hornet" name had no connotation in VAM's market. The Rambler maintained a highly positive image among Mexican buyers. Because the 1970 model year Hornet line did not include a station-wagon body style (AMC had the larger-sized Rebel wagon for the U.S. market) the VAM Rambler American four-door station wagon was carried over for one more year. The 1970 VAM Camioneta Rambler American became available with a three-speed automatic transmission as a regular-production option - a feature last seen on the 1968 VAM Javelin since automatics were last available in 1961. An optional bright molding package included "440" emblems, though no other trim levels or versions were offered.


title: Rambler American

text: The Hornet-based Rambler American model continued as a "fourth generation" until it was replaced with an updated and expanded new VAM American line for 1975.


title: Rambler American

text: Ramblers were imported into Norway during the 1950s and 1960s by Norwegian importer Kolberg & Caspary (K&C) located at Ås, Norway. Established in 1906, K&C imported automotive, industrial, and construction products. The Rambler American was imported from 1963 until 1969, peaking in 1965. A total of 260 cars were brought in to Norway by production end. K&C also imported the Rambler Ambassador, Classic, and Rebel.


title: Rambler American

text: Ramblers were assembled in Peru by Rambler Del Peru and sold throughout the country by a network of 13 dealers.


title: Rambler American

text: While the Philippines was almost exclusively an American car market until 1941, the post-World War II years had an influx of European cars. Despite a saturation of international brands, American Motors Corporation established a presence, and the Rambler Classic and Rambler American were locally assembled by Luzon Machineries in Manila during the 1960s. Because of its because of their rugged construction and the relatively powerful 232 cubic inch I6 engine, Rambler Americans quickly became the favorite of the Manila Police Department.


title: Rambler American

text: Rambler Americans were assembled in South Africa by National Motor Assemblers (NMA), in Natalspruit (Gauteng) beginning in 1961. The Rambler American was available in sedan, station wagon, and hardtop until 1970, after which it was replaced by the locally assembled AMC Hornet. The American sedan was marketed as the "Rambler Rogue" and the station wagon was marketed as the "Rambler 440 Super Stationwagon".


title: Rambler American

text: NMA had existed as a motor assembly plant since the 1920s, and assembled numerous automobile marques, including Hudson, throughout the years before it was sold to the Rootes Group in 1964. Thereafter, NMA assembled Hillman, Humber, and Sunbeam, alongside Peugeot and Rambler. Rambler assembly at NMA ceased in 1967 after Chrysler in the U.S. acquired Rootes Group. Between January 1968 and January 1969, Rambler production was moved to the Datsun assembly plant, Rosslyn Motor Assemblers. In 1969, Rambler production was moved to the former GM plant, Motor Assemblies Limited in Durban, which had come under the control of Toyota South Africa in 1964.


title: Rambler American

text: Rambler Americans (along with Rambler Classics) were first imported into the UK by London company Nash Concessionaires Ltd. They had previously been the UK importer of Nash vehicles. The UK vehicles were imported with right-hand drive from AMC's facility in Peel Village near Brampton, Canada. Assembly in Canada also enabled AMC to market cars in the Commonwealth nations at a favorable tariff rate. Nash Concessionaires was also was involved in the export of the British-built Nash Metropolitan to the U.S.


title: Rambler American

text: Rambler Motors (AMC) Ltd of Chiswick in West London had assembled Hudson motor vehicles for the UK market since 1926. The operation became a subsidiary of AMC in 1961 and changed its name to Rambler Motors (AMC) Ltd in 1966. Rambler Motors went on to import factory right-hand-drive AMC vehicles from 1961 and into the 1970s. Parts and spares were supplied locally out of the Chiswick service center located on Great West Road for the whole of the United Kingdom, Europe, and the Middle East. In addition to Rambler parts, the stock of spares also covered Hudson, Nash, and Austin Metropolitan parts.


title: Rambler American

text: The Rambler American also served as the basis for the Rambler Tarpon, a sporty 2+2 "youth-oriented" concept car. The semiboat-tail-roofed fastback hardtop coupe was developed in 1963 from the tooling that was already set for the 1964 model year Rambler Americans. Shown before the introduction of Ford's compact Falcon-based Mustang, AMC's show car was "an instant success" with 60% of surveyed potential buyers stating they would buy one. The Tarpon was aimed at the Plymouth Valiant, and anticipated a new market segment that later became known as the pony cars; however, AMC executives introduced the Rambler Marlin, a larger personal luxury car. The automaker waited until the 1968 model year to introduce the Javelin, a small fastback aimed directly at the market segment that was created by the Ford Mustang.


title: Rambler American

text: The American was introduced as the North American economy was in a recession and buyers were looking for smaller and more economical cars, and the Rambler brand was known as a fuel miser. The Rambler American was a yearly winner of the best fuel economy in the Mobil Economy Run and the Pure Oil Company Economy Trials, even during later years when fuel efficiency was not a major factor in the purchase of automobiles.


title: Rambler American

text: For example, the five-day event in 1959 covered . A Rambler American Deluxe topped the 47-car Mobilgas Economy Run field with an average . The 1959 Pure Oil Trials were conducted from Los Angeles to Miami, featuring covering over all types of terrain and driving types, where a Rambler American with overdrive set the all-time NASCAR-supervised coast-to-coast average economy record of .


title: Rambler American

text: In the 1960 Mobilgas Economy Run, a Custom two-door sedan returned over a route of more than , finishing first in the compact class. Further proof of the American's exceptional fuel economy came when an overdrive-equipped car driven coast to coast under NASCAR's watchful eyes averaged . However, the most astounding demonstration was the record set in the Pure Oil Economy Trials, another NASCAR-supervised event: , which AMC sagely noted, "No car owner should expect to approach in everyday driving."


title: Rambler American

text: In the 1964 run, a six-cylinder Rambler American 440 sedan averaged , once again the best of all the cars that year.


title: Rambler American

text: Economy claims for stock cars could be confirmed by these open and sanctioned trials. American Motors (and its original equipment manufacturer suppliers, such as the print advertisement for Champion spark plugs) promoted the results of this popular event in its advertising as a marketing technique that further emphasized the thriftiness of the Rambler Americans.


title: Rambler American

text: Rambler's emphasis on economy over performance can be observed through the example of automatic transmission use in a Rambler American where the 1959 owner's handbook describes leaving the gear selector in the D-2 position (1.47:1 gear ratio) blocks access to low gear (2.40 ratio) when starting out from a stop; therefore, given the car's 3.31 axle, this yields an initial 4.86:1 final drive ratio reducing crankshaft revolutions for maximum fuel economy.


title: Rambler American

text: In 1958, the Playmates recorded a novelty song called "Beep Beep" about a duel between a Cadillac driver who just cannot shake a "little Nash Rambler" following him. The song uses an accelerating (accelerando) tempo and ends with the Rambler passing the Cadillac "...in second gear!" The song was on "Billboard" Top 40 charts for 12 weeks while also selling over a million copies, and it was awarded a gold disc. Concurrently with the popularity of this song, AMC was setting production and sales records for the Rambler models. This was also the same year the old Rambler reappeared as the new American, with the song popularizing the re-released car and making AMC the only automaker have increased sales during the recession of 1958.


title: Rambler American

text: American Motors was not actively involved in auto racing during the early 1960s as not to glamorize corporate sponsorship of activities that promote dangerous speeds and driving. It continued to support the 1957 Automobile Manufacturers Association prohibition on automobile racing. The automaker ran national advertisements: "Why don't we enter high-performance Rambler V-8s in racing? Because the only race Rambler cares about is the human race."


title: Rambler American

text: However, independent AMC dealerships began sponsoring cars in drag-racing events. Preston Honea achieved fame with the 1964 "Bill Kraft Rambler" American from Norwalk, California. The car had a transplanted AMC V8 engine that was bored out to with four carburetors on a special intake manifold, and featured a transistorized ignition system and an Isky 505-A camshaft. The big engine from an Ambassador added only more than the venerable straight six normally found in the small two-door American. However, with its 8200-rpm redline, the Rambler ran at the Fontana dragstrip.


title: Rambler American

text: After the departure of Roy Abernethy, AMC eagerly embraced automobile competition and its effect on car sales. It sponsored Rambler Americans in various motorsport venues and produced a factory-ready Rambler American for drag racing – as noted above with the 1969 SC/Rambler.


title: Rambler American

text: Mexico hosted a grueling mostly off-road race, the Baja 500. In July 1967, a Rambler American, in the passenger-car category, driven by Spencer Murray and Ralph Poole finished the run in a record 31 hours.


title: Rambler American

text: American Motors then focused attention on this type of racing and signed up James Garner's American International Racers (AIR) team to a three-year contract. Garner's shops prepared ten 1969 SC/Ramblers that were provided by AMC. The cars were modified for the punishing Baja 500 race. Raising the suspension and using Goodyear tires on 10x15-inch wheels increased ground clearance. All window glass was removed and roll cages were installed. The cars had fuel tanks. Two cars were further modified with four-wheel drive. The AIR team built AMC's V8 engines to blueprint tolerances, thus increasing horsepower to at the flywheel. The cars were capable of runs along smooth straights at about 7000 rpm in fourth gear. The finished weight of the race cars was "identical to original stock-form shipping weight - despite the mammoth 44-gallon fuel tank amidships, the steel-lined undersides and 10x15 Goodyear earthmover-like tires."


title: Rambler American

text: On 11 June 1969, eight of the Ramblers were entered into the passenger-car category and the two 4WD versions were in the experimental class. Garner did not drive in the race because of a film commitment in Spain. Seven of the Ramblers finished the grueling race, taking three of the top five places in the passenger-car class. One of the 4WD came in fourth in its class. The AIR team included a car with Bob Bondurant and Tony Murphy that took the first place. For one of the winning Rambler drivers, this was his first race and the experience launched the career of Walker Evans.


title: Rambler American

text: Rambler Americans competed with good results in the Shell 4000 Rally that was held in Canada. In 1968, the grueling rally was from 31 May until 8 June over the often-tortuous muddy road from Calgary to Halifax. The AMC team finished second, third, and fifth, winning the manufacturers' team award.


title: Rambler American

text: The cars were built in AMC's Brampton Assembly in Canada. Three were painted white with black hoods and one was finished in blue. Their competition equipment included AMC's new V8s, 16:1 steering boxes, four-piston disc-brake calipers, bigger rear brakes, and twin-grip rear differentials. The cars continued to be campaigned in Canada during the early 1970s.


title: Rambler American

text: One of the three historically significant rally-prepared 1968 Rambler Americans was available in 2021.


title: Rambler American

text: In 1959, AMC and Sonotone Corporation announced work on a car to be powered by a "self-charging" battery. It was to have sintered plate nickel-cadmium batteries. During the 1960s, AMC partnered with Gulton Industries to develop a new battery based on lithium and to use an advanced speed controller designed by Victor Wouk. However, the actual running prototype was a 1969 Rambler American station wagon converted from V8 to an all-electric car using nickel–cadmium batteries. Power consisted of 160 cells, each rated at 75 ampere hours (Gulton KO-75), arranged in two banks of 80 cells each, and connected in parallel. The equipment Wouk designed "gave it good acceleration, but there was still a problem with the car's range."


title: Rambler American

text: In 1967, AMC and Gulton built the Amitron, an purpose EV rather than installing batteries and an electric motor in an existing production model, and later the similar Electron concept city car.


title: Rambler American

text: American Motors used the compact Rambler American chassis as the basis for the 1968 Javelin, a two-door hardtop marketed as a "hip", dashing, and affordable pony car, available in several muscle car performance versions. This followed the pattern that Ford used to develop the Mustang by using the basic platform and components of the compact Ford Falcon. Built on the Rambler American chassis, the Javelin was introduced for the 1968 model year and "immediately established itself as a threat to the established pony car order." The Richard Teague designed "clean-lined Javelin was still in the shadow of the old Rambler" so AMC entered racing series for production-based cars and achieved numerous wins.


title: Rambler American

text: In 1988, Ben Vaughn, a musician and a longtime Rambler automobile fan, released "El Rambler Dorado" on his "Blows Your Mind" album. He later recorded an entire album in his 1965 Rambler American. Released in 1997 by Rhino Records and titled "Rambler '65", Vaughn turned his car into a makeshift studio. The list of equipment used in recording the songs includes "2 Quarts Quaker State Oil" that typically is not used in making music. Putting the recording equipment inside his Rambler was a gimmick or an act of showmanship, but according to most reviews, the music he created inside his car is "timeless" rock 'n' roll. The "Rambler '65" full 24-minute music video also includes vintage AMC TV advertising clips.


title: Rambler American

text: Vaughn also achieved success in Hollywood as the composer for the hit NBC television series "3rd Rock from the Sun", in which the main characters use a 1962 Rambler American convertible. The car is featured in posters and in the 100th episode (during season five) entitled "The Fifth Solomon", the space aliens "learn that it's possible to get emotionally attached to a car" after they crash their Rambler and have no insurance. Vaughn promoted his new "Rambler '65" album while serving as a composer on the NBC sitcom by appearing on programs such as "KTLA Morning News" together with his associates.


title: Rambler American

text: Mitt Romney launched his 2006 campaign for U.S. president at The Henry Ford museum while next to an old Rambler. During his 2006–2007 campaign, he sat in a Rambler American at fund-raising events as a way to emphasize the need for more efficient cars. He also stated that his father (George W. Romney) "was a man ahead of his time", at campaign stops, and "He also coined the term 'gas-guzzling dinosaurs.' That's what we're driving today and that's got to change." During his campaign, Mitt Romney was even described as "The Rambler American" by a journalist in an analysis of his prospects among voters in Michigan "where he was reared and where his father was the chief of American Motors and a successful governor."


title: Rambler American

text: More than 50 years after it was produced, the mission of the first-generation Rambler American as "an affordable, stylish people mover hasn't changed - though now it's rolling stingily down the road as a collector's item rather than a daily beater." The economical car "that put Detroit on notice is one of today's most affordable, fun collectibles."


title: Rambler American

text: Benefiting from network television exposure, the 1962 Rambler American convertible became "a hot ticket item" for collectors after it began to appear regularly on "3rd Rock from the Sun" with owners of rusty cars asking high prices and prime examples commanding upward of $14,000. A fully restored 1962 convertible was given to Mitt Romney on his 60th birthday by his son, Tagg, in 2008.


title: Rambler American

text: While some sedans may not be particularly sought after because they were "just basic, reliable, unpretentious transportation for practical people," but examples like a 1968 Rambler American two-door with three-on-the-tree transmission that are "shockingly original" can become quite appealing.


title: Rambler American

text: The "outlandishly adorned" limited-edition, midyear addition to the Rambler line "built under the aegis of the Hurst shifter people" is unique. The SC/Rambler has a strong collector following, with websites, clubs, and a registry.


title: Rambler American

text: The SC/Rambler has become a popular muscle car to replicate because of the ease of installing a powerful AMC V8 drivetrain into one of the large number of inexpensive 1966 through 1969 Rambler Americans. To identify a true SC/Rambler, it must be a hardtop and the vehicle identification number must have the letter M in the third digit and the engine code of X as the seventh digit. Additionally, there is a stamped number hidden behind the steering box that has the letter X (indicating a factory 390 car) followed by the last 6 digits of the VIN which should match the numbers on the dash tag.


title: Rambler American

text: Most SC/Ramblers took extensive abuse, as they were raced hard, and stories are told of cars being sold with their time slips passing along with the vehicle. According to "Old Cars Weekly" magazine, "a No. 1 condition example can still be had for mid-five figures. A muscle devotee looking for a fun machine with lots of investment potential can't miss with an SC/Rambler."


title: Brothers in Arms (video game series)

text: Brothers in Arms is a tactical shooter video game series by Gearbox Software, consisting of ten individual games. The core series consists of the first-person shooters "" (2005), "" (2005), and "" (2008). The storyline is set against the backdrop of the liberation of Western Europe during World War II. It has mainly been released for Windows and MacOS platforms as well as sixth and seventh generation consoles and some mobile devices.


title: Brothers in Arms (video game series)

text: Developed using Unreal Engine 2, "Road to Hill 30" was Gearbox's first game after a series of expansions and ports to other games, such as "Half-Life". It received highly positive reviews from critics.


title: Brothers in Arms (video game series)

text: The second installment in the series, released about seven months after "Road to Hill 30". Like the first game, "Earned in Blood" earned positive reviews, while the PlayStation 2 version received average to positive reviews.


title: Brothers in Arms (video game series)

text: "Brothers in Arms DS" is a third-person shooter video game developed by Gearbox Software and published by Ubisoft for the Nintendo DS.


title: Brothers in Arms (video game series)

text: The third installment in the series was made using Unreal Engine 3, developed for PC, Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3. It also earned positive reviews.


title: Brothers in Arms (video game series)

text: "Art of War" is chiefly a top-down shooter, featuring 13 missions in three campaigns, including Operation Market Garden.


title: Brothers in Arms (video game series)

text: "Brothers in Arms" is a game developed and published by Gameloft for the N-Gage mobile gaming service, and is a port of "Brothers in Arms DS". The game is a full 3D third-person shooter.


title: Brothers in Arms (video game series)

text: "Brothers in Arms: Double Time" is a compilation for the Wii and OS X platforms. The title is a compilation of the first two "Brothers in Arms" games, "Road to Hill 30" and "Earned in Blood" and was developed by Gearbox Software and published by Ubisoft. It features 31 levels set during the Battle of Normandy.


title: Brothers in Arms (video game series)

text: "Hour of Heroes" was the series' first game released for iOS mobile devices. It was published by Gameloft.


title: Brothers in Arms (video game series)

text: "Brothers in Arms 2: Global Front" is a first-person shooter released for iOS and Android, with the game's events occurring in World War II.


title: Brothers in Arms (video game series)

text: "Brothers in Arms 3: Sons of War" is a third-person shooter created for iOS, Android and Windows Phone.


title: Brothers in Arms (video game series)

text: Originally intended to become the part of the series, it became a separate intellectual property after negative fan feedback. It was canceled in July 2015 and many elements were pushed into Gearbox's "Battleborn".


title: Brothers in Arms (video game series)

text: Gearbox's CEO Randy Pitchford affirmed that the company is working on a new "Brothers in Arms" game in September 2021, but as per company policy, they will not show any details of it until they are far closer to completion.


title: Brothers in Arms (video game series)

text: Gearbox announced in April 2020 that the "Brothers in Arms" series was being developed into a television program. Scott Rosenbaum is set to be the showrunner, with Gearbox's Randy Pitchford, Ubisoft Pictures CEO Jean-Julien Baronnet, Richard Whelan and Sean Haran as producers. The first season is planned to be developed around Exercise Tiger, a disastrous training exercise during WWII.


title: Smoking ban

text: Smoking bans, or smoke-free laws, are public policies, including criminal laws and occupational safety and health regulations, that prohibit tobacco smoking in certain spaces. The spaces most commonly affected by smoking bans are indoor workplaces and buildings open to the public such as restaurants, bars, office buildings, schools, retail stores, hospitals, libraries, transport facilities, and government buildings, in addition to public transport vehicles such as aircraft, buses, watercraft, and trains. However, laws may also prohibit smoking in outdoor areas such as parks, beaches, pedestrian plazas, college and hospital campuses, and within a certain distance from the entrance to a building, and in some cases, private vehicles and multi-unit residences.


title: Smoking ban

text: The most common rationale cited for restrictions on smoking is the negative health effects associated with secondhand smoke (SHS), or the inhalation of tobacco smoke by persons who are not smoking. These include diseases such as heart disease, cancer, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. The number of smoking bans around the world increased substantially in the late 20th century and early 21st century due to increased knowledge about these health risks. Many early smoking restrictions merely required the designation of non-smoking areas in buildings, but policies of this type became less common following evidence that they did not eliminate the health concerns associated with SHS.


title: Smoking ban

text: Opinions on smoking bans vary. Many individuals and organizations such as the World Health Organization (WHO) support smoking bans on the basis that they improve health outcomes by reducing exposure to SHS and possibly decreasing the number of people who smoke, while others oppose smoking bans and assert that they violate individual and property rights and cause economic hardship, among other issues.


title: Smoking ban

text: Smoking bans are usually enacted in an attempt to protect non-smokers from the effects of secondhand smoke, which include an increased risk of heart disease, cancer, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and other diseases. Laws implementing bans on indoor smoking have been introduced by many countries and other jurisdictions as public knowledge about these health risks increased.


title: Smoking ban

text: Additional rationales for smoking restrictions include reduced risk of fire in areas with explosive hazards; cleanliness in places where food, pharmaceuticals, semiconductors, or precision instruments and machinery are produced; decreased legal liability; potentially reduced energy use via decreased ventilation needs; reduced quantities of litter; healthier environments; and giving smokers incentive to quit.


title: Smoking ban

text: Research has generated evidence that secondhand smoke causes the same problems as direct smoking, including lung cancer, cardiovascular disease, and lung ailments such as emphysema, bronchitis, and asthma. Specifically, meta-analyses show that lifelong non-smokers with partners who smoke in the home have a 20–30% greater risk of lung cancer than non-smokers who live with non-smokers. Non-smokers exposed to cigarette smoke in the workplace have an increased lung cancer risk of 16–19%. An epidemiology report by the Institute of Medicine (IOM), convened by the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), says that the risk of coronary heart disease is increased by around 25–30% when one is exposed to secondhand smoke. The data shows that even at low levels of exposure, there is risk and the risk increases with more exposure.


title: Smoking ban

text: A study issued in 2002 by the International Agency for Research on Cancer of the World Health Organization concluded that non-smokers are exposed to the same carcinogens on account of tobacco smoke as active smokers. Sidestream smoke emitted from the burning ends of tobacco products contains 69 known carcinogens, particularly benzopyrene and other polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons, and radioactive decay products, such as polonium-210. Several well-established carcinogens have been shown by the tobacco companies' own research to be present at higher concentrations in secondhand smoke than in mainstream smoke.


title: Smoking ban

text: Scientific organisations confirming the effects of secondhand smoke include the U.S. National Cancer Institute, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the U.S. National Institutes of Health, the Surgeon General of the United States, and the World Health Organization.


title: Smoking ban

text: Restrictions upon smoking in bars and restaurants can substantially improve the air quality in such establishments. For example, one study listed on the website of the CDC states that New York's statewide law to eliminate smoking in enclosed workplaces and public places substantially reduced RSP (respirable suspended particles) levels in western New York hospitality venues. RSP levels were reduced in every venue that permitted smoking before the law was implemented, including venues in which only smoke from an adjacent room was observed at baseline. The CDC concluded that their results were similar to other studies which also showed substantially improved indoor air quality after smoking bans were instituted.


title: Smoking ban

text: A 2004 study showed New Jersey bars and restaurants had more than nine times the levels of indoor air pollution of neighbouring New York City, which had already enacted its smoking ban.


title: Smoking ban

text: Research has also shown that improved air quality translates to decreased toxin exposure among employees. For example, among employees of the Norwegian establishments that enacted smoking restrictions, tests showed decreased levels of nicotine in the urine of both smoking and non-smoking workers (as compared with measurements prior to going smoke-free).


title: Smoking ban

text: In 2009, the Public Health Law Research Program, a national program office of the US-based Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, published an evidence brief summarising the research assessing the effect of a specific law or policy on public health. They stated that "There is strong evidence supporting smoking bans and restrictions as effective public health interventions aimed at decreasing exposure to secondhand smoke."


title: Smoking ban

text: One of the world's earliest smoking bans was a 1575 Roman Catholic Church regulation which forbade the use of tobacco in any church in Mexico. In 1590, Pope Urban VII moved against smoking in church buildings. He threatened to excommunicate anyone who "took tobacco in the porchway of or inside a church, whether it be by chewing it, smoking it with a pipe or sniffing it in powdered form through the nose". Pope Urban VIII imposed similar restrictions in 1624. In 1604 King James VI and I published an anti-smoking treatise, "A Counterblaste to Tobacco", that had the effect of raising taxes on tobacco. Russia banned tobacco for 70 years from 1627.


title: Smoking ban

text: The Ottoman Sultan Murad IV prohibited smoking in his empire in 1633 and had smokers executed. The earliest citywide European smoking bans were enacted shortly thereafter. Such bans were enacted in Bavaria, Kursachsen, and certain parts of Austria in the late 17th century. Smoking was banned in Berlin in 1723, in Königsberg in 1742, and in Stettin in 1744. These bans were repealed in the revolutions of 1848. Prior to 1865 Russia had a ban on smoking in the streets.


title: Smoking ban

text: The first building in the world to ban smoking was the Old Government Building in Wellington, New Zealand in 1876. The ban related to concerns about the threat of fire, as it is the second largest wooden building in the world.


title: Smoking ban

text: The first modern attempt at restricting smoking saw Nazi Germany banning smoking in every university, post office, military hospital, and Nazi Party office, under the auspices of Karl Astel's Institute for Tobacco Hazards Research, established in 1941 under orders from Adolf Hitler. The Nazis conducted major anti-tobacco campaigns until the demise of their regime in 1945.


title: Smoking ban

text: In the latter part of the 20th century, as research on the risks of secondhand tobacco smoke became public, the tobacco industry launched "courtesy awareness" campaigns. Fearing reduced sales, the industry began a media and legislative programme that focused upon "accommodation". Tolerance and courtesy were encouraged as a way to ease heightened tensions between smokers and those around them, while avoiding smoking bans. In the US, states were encouraged to pass laws providing separate smoking sections.


title: Smoking ban

text: In 1975 the U.S. state of Minnesota enacted the "Minnesota Clean Indoor Air Act", making it the first state to restrict smoking in most public spaces. At first restaurants were required to have "No Smoking" sections, and bars were exempt from the Act. As of 1 October 2007 Minnesota enacted a ban on smoking in all restaurants and bars statewide, called the Freedom to Breathe Act of 2007.


title: Smoking ban

text: The resort town of Aspen, Colorado, became the first city in the US to restrict smoking in restaurants, in 1985, though it allowed smoking in areas that were separately ventilated.


title: Smoking ban

text: On 3 April 1987 the city of Beverly Hills, California, initiated an ordinance to restrict smoking in most restaurants, in retail stores and at public meetings. It exempted restaurants in hotels – City Council members reasoned that hotel restaurants catered to large numbers of visitors from abroad, where smoking is more acceptable than in the United States.


title: Smoking ban

text: In 1990 the city of San Luis Obispo, California, became the first city in the world to restrict indoor smoking in bars as well as in restaurants. The ban did not include workplaces, but covered all other indoor public spaces and its enforcement was somewhat limited.


title: Smoking ban

text: In the United States, California's 1998 smoking ban encouraged other states such as New York to implement similar regulations. California's ban included a controversial restriction upon smoking in bars, extending the statewide ban enacted in 1994. As of April 2009, there were 37 states with some form of smoking ban. Some areas in California began banning smoking across whole cities, including every place except residential homes. More than 20 cities in California enacted park- and beach-smoking restrictions. In May 2011, New York City expanded its previously implemented smoking ban by banning smoking in parks, beaches and boardwalks, public golf courses and other areas controlled by the New York City Parks Department. In recent years New York City has passed administrative codes §17-502 and §17-508 forcing landlords of privately owned buildings, cooperatives, and condominiums to adopt a smoking policy into all leases. These codes oblige landlords to enact provisions telling tenants the exact locations where they can or can not smoke. In January 2010, the mayor of Boston, Massachusetts, Thomas Menino, proposed a restriction upon smoking inside public housing apartments under the jurisdiction of the Boston Housing Authority.


title: Smoking ban

text: From December 1993, in Peru, it became illegal to smoke in any public enclosed place and any public transport vehicle (according to Law 25357 issued on 27 November 1991 and its regulations issued on 25 November 1993 by decree D.S.983-93-PCM). There is also legislation restricting publicity, and it is also illegal (Law 26957 21 May 1998) to sell tobacco to minors or directly to advertise tobacco within 500m of schools (Law 26849 9 Jul 1997).


title: Smoking ban

text: On 11 November 1975 Italy banned smoking on public transit vehicles (except for smokers' rail carriages) and in some public buildings (hospitals, cinemas, theatres, museums, universities and libraries). After an unsuccessful attempt in 1986, on 16 January 2003 the Italian parliament passed the "Legge Sirchia", which would ban smoking in all indoor public places, including bars, restaurants, discotheques and offices from 10 January 2005.


title: Smoking ban

text: On 3 December 2003, New Zealand passed legislation to progressively implement a smoking ban in schools, school grounds, and workplaces by December 2004.


title: Smoking ban

text: On 29 March 2004, the Republic of Ireland implemented a nationwide ban on smoking in all workplaces. In Norway, similar legislation came into force on 1 June the same year.


title: Smoking ban

text: In Scotland, Andy Kerr, the Minister for Health and Community Care, introduced a ban on smoking in public areas on 26 March 2006. Smoking was banned in all public places in the whole of the United Kingdom in 2007, when England became the final region to have the legislation come into effect (the age limit for buying tobacco also increased from 16 to 18 on 1 October 2007).


title: Smoking ban

text: On 12 July 1999 a Division Bench of the Kerala High Court in India banned smoking in public places by declaring "public smoking as illegal first time in the history of whole world, unconstitutional and violative of Article 21 of the Constitution". The Bench, headed by Dr. Justice K. Narayana Kurup, held that "tobacco smoking" in public places (in the form of cigarettes, cigars, beedies or otherwise) "falls within the mischief of the penal provisions relating to public nuisance as contained in the Indian Penal Code and also the definition of air pollution as contained in the statutes dealing with the protection and preservation of the environment, in particular, the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution), Act 1981."


title: Smoking ban

text: In 2003 India introduced a law that banned smoking in public places like restaurants, public transport or schools. The same law also made it illegal to advertise cigarettes or other tobacco products.


title: Smoking ban

text: In 2010 Nepal planned to enact a new anti-smoking bill that would ban smoking in public places and outlaw all tobacco advertising to prevent young people from smoking.


title: Smoking ban

text: On 31 May 2011 Venezuela introduced a restriction upon smoking in enclosed public and commercial spaces.


title: Smoking ban

text: Smoking was first restricted in schools, hospitals, trains, buses and train stations in Turkey in 1996. In 2008 a more comprehensive smoking ban was implemented, covering all public indoor venues.


title: Smoking ban

text: Smoking has been restricted at a French beach – the Plage Lumière in La Ciotat, France, became the first beach in Europe


title: Smoking ban

text: In 2012, smoking in Costa Rica became subject to some of the most restrictive regulations in the world, with the practice being banned from many outdoor recreational and educational areas as well as in public buildings and vehicles.


title: Smoking ban

text: In December 2022, as part of an effort to become smoke-free by 2025, New Zealand passed a bill that prohibits the sale of cigarettes to anyone born on or after 1 January 2009, and imposes major restrictions on availability and nicotine content. The bill was described as creating a "smoke-free generation" by effectively raising the minimum smoking age annually.


title: Smoking ban

text: In 2004, Bhutan became the first country to completely outlaw the cultivation, harvesting, production, and sale of tobacco products. Penalties for violating the ban increased under the 'Tobacco Control Act of Bhutan 2010'. However, small allowances for personal possession were permitted as long as the possessor could prove that they have paid import duties.


title: Smoking ban

text: This was reversed in 2021 with the new Tobacco Control Rules and Regulations (TCRR) 2021 allowing the import, sales and consumption of tobacco products in order to stamp out cross-border smuggling.


title: Smoking ban

text: In January 2016, Turkmenistan president Gurbanguly Berdymukhammedov reportedly banned all tobacco sales in the country. The Pitcairn Islands had previously banned the sale of cigarettes; however, it now permits sales from a government-run store. A proposal in Iceland would ban tobacco sales from shops, making it prescription-only and therefore dispensable only in pharmacies on doctor's orders.


title: Smoking ban

text: In March 2012, Brazil became the world's first country to ban all flavored tobacco, including the menthol-flavored kind. It also banned the majority of the estimated 600 additives used, permitting only eight. This regulation applies to domestic and internationally imported cigarettes. Tobacco manufacturers had 18 months to remove the non-compliant cigarettes, and 24 months to remove the other forms of non-compliant tobacco.


title: Smoking ban

text: A 2007 Gallup poll found that 54% of Americans favoured completely smoke-free restaurants, 34% favoured completely smoke-free hotel rooms, and 29% favoured completely smoke-free bars.


title: Smoking ban

text: Another Gallup poll, of over 26,500 Europeans, conducted in December 2008, found that "a majority of EU citizens support smoking bans in public places, such as offices, restaurants and bars." The poll further found that "support for workplace smoking restrictions is slightly higher than support for such restrictions in restaurants (84% vs. 79%). Two-thirds support smoke-free bars, pubs and clubs." The support is highest in countries which have implemented clear smoking bans: "Citizens in Italy are the most prone to accept smoking restrictions in bars, pubs and clubs (93% – 87% "totally in favour"). Sweden and Ireland join Italy at the higher end of the scale with approximately 80% of respondents supporting smoke-free bars, pubs and clubs (70% in both countries is totally in favor)."


title: Smoking ban

text: Several studies have documented health and economic benefits related to smoking bans. A 2009 report by the Institute of Medicine concluded that smoking bans reduced the risk of coronary heart disease and heart attacks, but the report's authors were unable to identify the magnitude of this reduction. Also in 2009, a systematic review and meta-analysis found that bans on smoking in public places were associated with a significant reduction of incidence of heart attacks. The lead author of this meta-analysis, David Meyers, said that this review suggested that a nationwide ban on smoking in public places could prevent between 100,000 and 225,000 heart attacks in the United States each year.


title: Smoking ban

text: A 2012 meta-analysis found that smoke-free legislation was associated with a lower rate of hospitalizations for cardiac, cerebrovascular, and respiratory diseases, and that "More comprehensive laws were associated with larger changes in risk." The senior author of this meta-analysis, Stanton Glantz, told "USA Today" that, with respect to exemptions for certain facilities from smoking bans, "The politicians who put those exemptions in are condemning people to be put into the emergency room." A 2013 review found that smoking bans were associated with "significant reduction in acute MI [myocardial infarction] risk", but noted that "studies with smaller population in the United States usually reported larger reductions, while larger studies reported relatively modest reductions".


title: Smoking ban

text: A 2014 systematic review and meta-analysis found that smoke-free legislation was associated with approximately 10% reductions in preterm births and hospital attendance for asthma, but not with a decrease in low birth weight. A 2016 Cochrane review found that since the previous version of that review was published in 2010, the evidence that smoking bans improved health outcomes had become more robust, especially with respect to acute coronary syndrome admissions.


title: Smoking ban

text: However, other studies came to the conclusion that smoking bans have little or no short-term effect on myocardial infarction rates and other diseases. A 2010 study from the US used huge nationally representative databases to compare smoking-restricted areas with control areas and found no associations between smoking bans and short-term declines in heart attack rates. The authors have also analyzed smaller studies using subsamples and revealed that large short-term increases in myocardial infarction incidence following a smoking ban are as common as the large decreases.


title: Smoking ban

text: Smoking bans are generally acknowledged to reduce rates of smoking; smoke-free workplaces reduce smoking rates among workers, and restrictions upon smoking in public places reduce general smoking rates through a combination of stigmatisation and reduction in the social cues for smoking. The World Health Organization considers smoking bans to have an influence on reducing demand for tobacco by producing an environment where smoking becomes increasingly more difficult and to help shift social norms away from the acceptance of smoking in everyday life. Along with tax measures, cessation measures, and education, smoking bans are viewed by public health experts as an important element in reducing smoking rates and promoting positive health outcomes. When effectively implemented, they are seen as an important element of policy to support behaviour change in favour of a healthy lifestyle. However, reports in the popular press after smoking bans have been enacted often present conflicting accounts as regards perceptions of effectiveness.


title: Smoking ban

text: One report stated that cigarette sales in Ireland and Scotland increased after their smoking bans were implemented. In contrast, another report states that in Ireland, cigarette sales fell by 16% in the six months after implementation of the ban. In the UK, cigarette sales fell by 11% during July 2007, the first month of the nationwide smoking ban, compared with July 2006.


title: Smoking ban

text: A 1992 document from Phillip Morris summarised the tobacco industry's concern about the effects of smoking bans: "Total prohibition of smoking in the workplace strongly effects tobacco industry volume. Smokers facing these restrictions consume 11%–15% less than average and quit at a rate that is 84% higher than average."


title: Smoking ban

text: In the United States, the CDC reported a levelling-off of smoking rates in recent years despite a large number of ever more comprehensive smoking bans and large tax increases. It has also been suggested that a "backstop" of hardcore smokers has been reached: those unmotivated and increasingly defiant in the face of further legislation. The smoking ban in New York City was credited with the reduction in adult smoking rates at nearly twice the rate as in the rest of the country, "and life expectancy has climbed three years in a decade".


title: Smoking ban

text: In Sweden, use of snus, as an alternative to smoking, has risen steadily since that nation's smoking ban.


title: Smoking ban

text: Smoking restrictions may make it easier for smokers to quit. A survey suggests 22% of UK smokers may have considered quitting in response to that nation's smoking ban.


title: Smoking ban

text: Restaurant smoking restrictions may help to stop young people from becoming habitual smokers. A study of Massachusetts youths, found that those in towns with smoking bans were 35 percent less likely to be habitual smokers.


title: Smoking ban

text: Many studies have been published in the health industry literature on the economic effect of smoking bans. The majority of these government and academic studies have found that there is no negative economic impact associated with smoking restrictions and many have found that there may be a positive effect on local businesses. A 2003 review of 97 such studies of the economic effects of a smoking ban on the hospitality industry found that the "best-designed" studies concluded that smoking bans did not harm businesses. Similarly, a 2014 meta-analysis found no significant gains or losses in revenue in restaurants and bars affected by smoking bans. In addition, such laws may reduce health care costs, improve work productivity, and lower the overall cost of labour in the community thus protected, making that workforce more attractive for employers.


title: Smoking ban

text: Studies funded by the bar and restaurant associations have sometimes claimed that smoking bans have a negative effect on restaurant and bar profits. Such associations have also criticised studies which found that such legislation had no impact. Many bar and restaurant associations have relationships with the tobacco industry and are sponsored by them.


title: Smoking ban

text: A government survey in Sydney found that the proportion of the population attending pubs and clubs rose after smoking was banned inside them. However, a ClubsNSW report in August 2008 blamed the smoking ban for New South Wales clubs suffering their worst fall in income ever, amounting to a decline of $385 million. Income for clubs was down 11% in New South Wales. Sydney CBD club income fell 21.7% and western Sydney clubs lost 15.5%.


title: Smoking ban

text: Some smoking restrictions were introduced in German hotels, restaurants, and bars in 2008 and early 2009. The restaurant industry has claimed that some businesses in the states which restricted smoking in late 2007 (Lower Saxony, Baden-Württemberg, and Hessen) experienced reduced profits. The German Hotel and Restaurant Association (DEHOGA) claimed that the smoking ban deterred people from going out for a drink or meal, stating that 15% of establishments that adopted a ban in 2007 saw turnover fall by around 50%. However, a study by the University of Hamburg (Ahlfeldt and Maennig 2010) finds negative impacts on revenues, if any, only in the very short run. In the medium and long run, a recovery of revenues took place. These results suggest either, that the consumption in bars and restaurants is not affected by smoking bans in the long run, or, that negative revenue impacts by smokers are compensated by increasing revenues through non-smokers.


title: Smoking ban

text: The Republic of Ireland was the first country to introduce fully smoke-free workplaces (March 2004). The Irish workplace smoke-free law was introduced with the intention of protecting workers from secondhand smoke and to discourage smoking in a nation with a high percentage of smokers. In Ireland, the main opposition to the ban came from publicans. Many pubs introduced "outdoor" arrangements (generally heated areas with shelters). It was speculated by opponents that the smoke-free workplaces law would increase the amount of drinking and smoking in the home, but recent studies showed this was not the case.


title: Smoking ban

text: Ireland's Office of Tobacco Control website indicates that "an evaluation of the official hospitality sector data shows there has been no adverse economic effect from the introduction of this measure (the March 2004 national smoking ban in bars, restaurants, etc), despite claims that the smoke-free law was a significant contributing factor to the closure of hundreds of small rural pubs, with almost 440 fewer licences renewed in 2006 than in 2005."


title: Smoking ban

text: Smoking bans were enacted in Scotland on 26 March 2006, in Wales on 2 April 2007, in Northern Ireland on 30 April 2007, and in England on 1 July 2007. The legislation was cited as an example of good regulation which has had a favourable impact on the UK economy by the Department for Business, Innovation and Skills, and a review of the impact of smoke-free legislation carried out for the Department of Health concluded that there was no clear adverse impact on the hospitality industry despite initial criticism from some voices within the pub trade.


title: Smoking ban

text: Six months after implementation in Wales, the Licensed Victuallers Association (LVA), which represents pub operators across Wales, claimed that pubs had lost up to 20% of their trade. The LVA said some businesses were on the brink of closure, others had already closed down, and there was little optimism trade would eventually return to previous levels.


title: Smoking ban

text: The British Beer and Pub Association (BBPA), which represents some pubs and breweries across the UK claimed that beer sales were at their lowest level since the 1930s, ascribing a fall in sales of 7% during 2007 to the smoke-free regulations.


title: Smoking ban

text: According to a survey conducted by pub and bar trade magazine "The Publican", the anticipated increase in sales of food following introduction of smoke-free workplaces did not immediately occur. The trade magazine's survey of 303 pubs in the United Kingdom found the average customer spent £14.86 on food and drink at dinner in 2007, virtually identical to 2006.


title: Smoking ban

text: A survey conducted by BII (formerly British Institute of Innkeeping) and the Federation of Licensed Victuallers' Associations (FLVA) concluded that sales had decreased by 7.3% in the 5 months since the introduction of smoke-free workplaces on 1 July 2007. Of the 2,708 responses to the survey, 58% of licensees said they had seen smokers visiting less regularly, while 73% had seen their smoking customers spending less time at the pub.


title: Smoking ban

text: In the US, smokers and hospitality businesses initially argued that businesses would suffer from no-smoking laws. However, a 2006 review by the U.S. Surgeon General found that smoking restrictions were unlikely to harm businesses in practice, and that many restaurants and bars might see increased business.


title: Smoking ban

text: In 2003, New York City amended its smoke-free law to include virtually all restaurants and bars, including those in private clubs, making it, along with the California smoke-free law, one of the toughest in the United States. The city's Department of Health found in a 2004 study that air pollution levels had decreased sixfold in bars and restaurants after the restrictions went into effect, and that New Yorkers had reported less secondhand smoke in the workplace. The study also found the city's restaurants and bars prospered despite the smoke-free law, with increases in jobs, liquor licenses, and business tax payments. The president of the New York Nightlife Association remarked that the study was not wholly representative, as by not differentiating between restaurants and nightclubs, the reform may have caused businesses like nightclubs and bars to suffer instead. A 2006 study by the New York State Department of Health found that "the CIAA has not had any significant negative financial effect on restaurants and bars in either the short or the long term".


title: Smoking ban

text: In Wauwatosa, Wisconsin, three restaurants received short-term exemptions from a local smoke-free ordinance in restaurants when they managed to demonstrate financial suffering because of it.


title: Smoking ban

text: Bellows-driven instruments – such as the accordion, concertina, melodeon and (Irish) Uilleann bagpipes – reportedly need less frequent cleaning and maintenance as a result of the Irish smoke-free law. "Third-hand smoke", solid particulates from secondhand smoke that are adsorbed onto surfaces and later re-emitted as gases or transferred through touch, are a particular problem for musicians. After playing in smoky bars, instruments can emit nicotine, 3-ethenylpyridine (3-EP), phenol, cresols, naphthalene, formaldehyde, and tobacco-specific nitrosamines (including some not found in freshly-emitted tobacco smoke), which can enter musicians' bodies through the skin, or be re-emitted as gases after they have left the smoky environment. Concern about third-hand smoke on instruments is one of the reasons many musicians, represented by the New Orleans Musicians' Clinic, supported the smoking ban there.


title: Smoking ban

text: Prisons are increasingly restricting tobacco smoking. In the United States, 24 states prohibit indoor smoking whereas California, Nebraska, Arkansas, and Kentucky prohibit smoking on the entire prison grounds. In July 2004 the Federal Bureau of Prisons adopted a smoke-free policy for its facilities. A 1993 U.S. Supreme Court ruling acknowledged that a prisoner's exposure to secondhand smoke could be regarded as cruel and unusual punishment (which would be in violation of the Eighth Amendment). A 1997 ruling in Massachusetts established that prison smoking bans do not constitute cruel and unusual punishment. Many officials view prison smoking bans as a means of reducing health-care costs.


title: Smoking ban

text: With the exception of Quebec, all Canadian provinces have banned smoking indoors and outdoors in all their prison facilities. Prison officials and guards are sometimes worried due to previous events in other prisons concerning riots, fostering a cigarette black market within the prison, and other problems resulting from total prison smoking restrictions. Prisons have experienced riots when placing smoking restrictions into effect resulting in prisoners setting fires and destroying prison property, and persons being assaulted, injured, and stabbed. One prison in Canada had some guards reporting breathing difficulties from the fumes of prisoners smoking artificial cigarettes made from nicotine patches lit by creating sparks from inserting metal objects into electrical outlets. For example in 2008, the Orsainville Detention Centre near Quebec City, withdrew its smoke-free provision following a riot. But the feared increase in tension and violence expected in association with smoking restrictions has generally not been experienced in practice.


title: Smoking ban

text: Prison smoking bans are also in force in New Zealand, the Isle of Man and the Australian states of Victoria, Queensland, Tasmania, Northern Territory and New South Wales. The New Zealand ban was subsequently successfully challenged in court on two occasions, resulting in a law change to maintain it.


title: Smoking ban

text: Some prisoners are getting around the prison smoking bans by producing and smoking "teabacco", which is nicotine patches or lozenges mixed with tea leaves, and rolled up in Bible paper. A forensic analysis of teabacco made from nicotine lozenges identified some potentially-toxic compounds, but concluded that teabacco made from nicotine lozenges may be less harmful than traditional tobacco cigarettes.


title: Smoking ban

text: The introduction of smoking restrictions occasionally generates protests and predictions of widespread non-compliance, along with the rise of smokeasies, including in New York City, Germany, Illinois, the United Kingdom, Utah, and Washington, D.C.


title: Smoking ban

text: High levels of compliance with smoke-free laws have been reported in most jurisdictions including New York, Ireland, Italy and Scotland. Poor compliance was reported in Calcutta.


title: Smoking ban

text: Critics of smoke-free provisions, including musician Joe Jackson, and political essayist Christopher Hitchens, have claimed that regulation efforts are misguided. Typically, such arguments are based upon an interpretation of John Stuart Mill's harm principle which perceives smoke-free laws as an obstacle to tobacco consumption per se, rather than a bar upon harming other people.


title: Smoking ban

text: Such arguments, which usually refer to the notion of personal liberty, have themselves been criticised by Nobel Prize-winning economist Amartya Sen who defended smoke-free regulations on several grounds. Among other things, Sen argued that while a person may be free to acquire the habit of smoking, they thereby restrict their own freedom in the future given that the habit of smoking is hard to break. Sen also pointed out the heavy costs that smoking inevitably imposes on every society which grants smokers unrestricted access to public services (which, Sen noted, every society that is not "monstrously unforgiving" would do). Arguments which invoke the notion of personal liberty against smoke-free laws are thus incomplete and inadequate, according to Sen.


title: Smoking ban

text: In New Zealand, two psychiatrist patients and a nurse took their local district health board to court, arguing a smoking ban at intensive care units violated "human dignity" as they were there for mental health reasons, not smoking-related illness. They argued it was "cruel" to deny patients cigarettes.


title: Smoking ban

text: Some critics of smoke-free laws emphasise the property rights of business owners, drawing a distinction between nominally public places (such as government buildings) and privately owned establishments (such as bars and restaurants). Citing economic efficiency, some economists suggest that the basic institutions of private property rights and contractual freedom are capable of resolving conflicts between the preferences of smokers and those who seek a smoke-free environment, without government intrusion.


title: Smoking ban

text: Businesses affected by smoke-free regulations have filed lawsuits claiming that these are unconstitutional or otherwise illegal. In the United States, some cite unequal protection under the law while others cite loss of business without compensation, as well as other types of challenges. Some localities where hospitality businesses filed lawsuits against the state or local government include Nevada, Montana, Iowa, Colorado, Kentucky, New York, South Carolina, and Hawaii, though none have succeeded.


title: Smoking ban

text: Restrictions upon smoking in offices and other enclosed public places often result in smokers going outside to smoke, frequently congregating outside doorways. This can result in non-smokers passing through these doorways getting exposed to more secondhand smoke rather than less. Many jurisdictions that have restricted smoking in enclosed public places have extended provisions to cover areas within a fixed distance of entrances to buildings.


title: Smoking ban

text: The former UK Secretary of State for Health John Reid claimed that restrictions upon smoking in public places may lead to more people smoking at home. However, both the House of Commons Health Committee and the Royal College of Physicians disagreed, with the former finding no evidence to support Reid's claim after studying Ireland, and the latter finding that smoke-free households increased from 22% to 37% between 1996 and 2003.


title: Smoking ban

text: In May 2008, research published by Adams and Cotti in the "Journal of Public Economics" examined statistics of drunken-driving fatalities and accidents in areas where smoke-free laws have been implemented in bars and found that fatal drunken-driving accidents increased by about 13%, or about 2.5 such accidents per year for a typical county of 680,000. They speculate this could be caused by smokers driving farther away to jurisdictions without smoke-free laws or where enforcement is lax.


title: Smoking ban

text: As in other areas of research, the effect of funding on research literature has been discussed with respect to smoke-free laws. Most commonly, studies which found few or no positive and/or negative effects of smoke-free laws and which were funded by tobacco companies have been delegitimised because of the obvious conflict of interest.


title: Smoking ban

text: Professor of Economics at the California State Polytechnic University-San Luis Obispo, Michael L. Marlow, defended "tobacco-sponsored" studies arguing that all studies merited "scrutiny and a degree of skepticism", irrespective of their funding. He wished for the basic assumption that every author were "fair minded and trustworthy, and deserves being heard out" and for less attention to research funding when evaluating the results of a study. Marlow suggests that studies funded by tobacco companies are viewed and dismissed as "deceitful", i.e. as being driven by (conscious) bad intention.


title: Smoking ban

text: During the debates over the Washington, DC, smoke-free law, city council member Carol Schwartz proposed legislation that would have enacted either a substantial tax credit for businesses that chose to voluntarily restrict smoking or a quadrupling of the annual business license fee for bars, restaurants and clubs that wished to allow smoking. Additionally, locations allowing smoking would have been required to install specified high-performance ventilation systems.


title: Smoking ban

text: Critics of smoke-free laws have suggested that ventilation is a means of reducing the harmful effects of secondhand smoke. A tobacco industry-funded study conducted by the School of Technology of the University of Glamorgan in Wales, published in the Building Services Journal suggested that "ventilation is effective in controlling the level of contamination", although "ventilation can only dilute or partially displace contaminants and occupational exposure limits are based on the 'as low as reasonably practicable' principle".


title: Smoking ban

text: Some hospitality organisations have claimed that ventilation systems could bring venues into line with smoke-free restaurant ordinances. A study published by the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers and funded by the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation found one establishment with lower air quality in the non-smoking section, due to improperly installed ventilation systems. They also determined that even properly functioning systems "are not substitutes for smoking bans in controlling environmental smoke exposure".


title: Smoking ban

text: The tobacco industry has focused on proposing ventilation as an alternative to smoke-free laws, though this approach has not been widely adopted in the U.S. because "in the end, it is simpler, cheaper, and healthier to end smoking". The Italian smoke-free law permits dedicated smoking rooms with automatic doors and smoke extractors. Nevertheless, few Italian establishments are creating smoking rooms due to the additional cost.


title: Smoking ban

text: A landmark report from the U.S. Surgeon General found that even the use of elaborate ventilation systems and smoking rooms fail to provide protection from the health hazards of secondhand smoke, since there is "no safe level of secondhand smoke".


title: Smoking ban

text: A number of states in the United States have "preemption clauses" within state law which block local communities from passing smoke-free ordinances more strict than the state laws on the books. The rationale is to prevent local communities from passing smoke-free ordinances which are viewed as excessive by that state's legislature. Other states have "anti-preemption clauses" that allow local communities to pass smoking ban ordinances that their legislature found unacceptable.


title: Ezekiel Jackson

text: Rycklon Stephens (born April 22, 1978) is a Guyanese-American retired professional wrestler and bodybuilder. He is best known for his time with WWE under the ring name Ezekiel Jackson, where he was the final ECW Champion under the WWE brand of the same name, and a former Intercontinental Champion.


title: Ezekiel Jackson

text: Stephens made his professional wrestling debut for the California based promotion Ultimate Pro Wrestling in 2007 under the ring name Big Ryck Hytz. He was then signed by the WWE in 2007 and sent to Florida Championship Wrestling under the new ring name Rycklon which was later changed to Ezekiel Jackson after his main-roster debut in 2008. During his time in WWE, Jackson was the final man to win the ECW Championship making him the third African-American to hold the championship, the sixth black world champion (after The Rock, Booker T, Bobby Lashley, Ron Simmons and Mark Henry) and the only South American-born world champion in WWE history, he later joined The Corre but was kicked out, thus starting a feud with the stable's leader Wade Barrett and he would go on to win the WWE Intercontinental Championship. Jackson would leave WWE in 2014 and briefly wrestle for TNA in the same year. He also competed in one season of Lucha Underground as Big Ryck from 2014-2015. Ryck would wrestle his last match for Westside Xtreme Wrestling (wxw) in October, 2015. He is the owner of the Redwood City, California-based professional wrestling promotion and school Bryckhouse Pro Wrestling. In total, Jackson was a one-time world champion in professional wrestling.


title: Ezekiel Jackson

text: Stephens signed a developmental contract with World Wrestling Entertainment in March 2007 and debuted in Florida Championship Wrestling (FCW) in late June. In his debut match on June 27, he teamed with Keith Walker to defeat Kofi Kingston and Eric Pérez. He continued to compete in the promotion in both tag team and singles matches. On February 8, 2008 he competed in a match with tag partner Bryan Kelly in a losing effort against Steve Lewington and Heath Miller in a mini-tournament to face the WWE Tag Team Champions John Morrison and The Miz. On May 6, 2008, Stephens wrestled his final match in FCW before being called up to WWE's main roster.


title: Ezekiel Jackson

text: After being trained in FCW, Stephens debuted on the July 18, 2008 episode of "SmackDown" under the name Ezekiel, as The Brian Kendrick's bodyguard. On the August 8, 2008 edition of "SmackDown", his ring name was tweaked to Ezekiel Jackson, and he was revealed as being Kendrick's "advisor". He then began interfering in Kendrick's matches against Jeff Hardy, Finlay, and WWE Champion Triple H. On the October 17 episode of "SmackDown", Jackson made his official in-ring debut by quickly defeating Super Crazy, after replacing a supposedly sick Kendrick. In late 2008, Jackson began teaming with Kendrick and both began feuding with the WWE Tag Team Champions The Colóns (Carlito and Primo), although Kendrick and Jackson failed to win the championship. He suffered his first defeat on the February 13, 2009 episode of "SmackDown", when he lost a singles match to R-Truth. Jackson made his final appearance on the SmackDown brand in a losing effort against Jeff Hardy on the April 3, 2009 episode.


title: Ezekiel Jackson

text: On April 15, 2009, Jackson was drafted to the ECW brand as part of the 2009 Supplemental Draft, therefore breaking up the team of himself and Kendrick. He made his ECW debut defeating Jack Meridol on the July 9, 2009 episode. Jackson then began an angle with Vladimir Kozlov in which, week after week, after one of them had squashed a local competitor, the other would come out and hit their finishing move on the fallen opponent in a game of one-upmanship. On the August 18 episode of "ECW", Jackson formed an alliance with Kozlov and William Regal after betraying the ECW Champion, Christian, during a tag team match to side with them, and attacking Christian at Regal's request. Kozlov and Jackson aided Regal in his feud with Christian over the ECW Championship, but Regal was unable to capture the title.


title: Ezekiel Jackson

text: On the November 24 episode of "ECW", Jackson attacked both Regal and Kozlov after Kozlov accused Jackson of costing Regal a match. The following week, Jackson once again betrayed Kozlov and Regal by walking out on Kozlov during a tag team match against Christian and Shelton Benjamin. Jackson, however, realigned himself with Regal, when he was aided by Regal in defeating Kozlov on an episode of "ECW". On the January 12, 2010 episode of "ECW", Jackson won the ECW Homecoming battle royal to earn a match for the ECW Championship. He faced Christian for the ECW championship at the Royal Rumble pay-per-view but was unsuccessful. On the final episode of "ECW" on February 16, Jackson defeated Christian to win the ECW Championship in an Extreme Rules match. Upon winning the title, WWE credits Jackson as the final ECW Champion.


title: Ezekiel Jackson

text: On the February 19 episode of "SmackDown", a video package aired, promoting Jackson's return to the brand. He made his return on the March 5 episode of "SmackDown" without Regal, who instead joined "Raw", and defeated Jimmy Wang Yang. On April 10, 2010 at a house show in Glasgow, Scotland, Jackson suffered a tear in his right quadriceps muscle during a match against Kane, and was expected to be inactive for approximately six months. During his injury, Jackson was drafted to the Raw brand as part of the 2010 WWE Supplemental Draft.


title: Ezekiel Jackson

text: Jackson made his return to the ring on September 13, 2010, defeating Zack Ryder in a dark match prior to the "Raw" tapings. He returned to television on the October 18 episode of "Raw", where he was revealed as a member of Team Raw for the Bragging Rights pay-per-view. At Bragging Rights, Jackson was one of the final two remaining members of Team Raw, but they lost to Team SmackDown. On the November 22 episode of "Raw", Jackson qualified for the 2010 edition of the King of the Ring tournament by defeating Alex Riley, who replaced Jackson's original opponent The Miz. He faced Drew McIntyre in the quarter-finals, but the match ended in a double countout, so neither advanced.


title: Ezekiel Jackson

text: In December 2010, Jackson was traded back to the SmackDown brand. On the January 11, 2011, taping of the January 14 edition of "SmackDown", Jackson joined Wade Barrett, Justin Gabriel and Heath Slater in assaulting The Big Show, appearing to form an alliance with the three. The following week the group was named The Corre. On the May 6 episode of "SmackDown", Jackson defeated Big Show in a singles match, but refused to celebrate with the other members of The Corre afterward. Backstage, the other members of The Corre attacked him in retaliation, turning Jackson face.


title: Ezekiel Jackson

text: Jackson went on to face Barrett for the Intercontinental Championship at Over the Limit, and won by disqualification, which meant that Barrett retained the championship. Jackson continued to feud with the other members of The Corre, winning against Barrett by disqualification and countout respectively.


title: Ezekiel Jackson

text: On June 19, at the Capitol Punishment pay-per-view, Jackson defeated Barrett to win the Intercontinental Championship for the first time. Jackson successfully retained the championship in a rematch against Barrett on the following episode of "SmackDown" and also successfully defended it against Ted DiBiase on the July 15 episode. On August 12 episode of "SmackDown", Jackson lost the Intercontinental Championship to Cody Rhodes, ending his Intercontinental Championship reign at 51 days. He went on to feud with both Rhodes and DiBiase. On the August 19 episode of "SmackDown", he lost a rematch for the championship to Rhodes. Jackson was part of a ten-man battle royal for the Intercontinental Championship, but was eliminated by Rhodes.


title: Ezekiel Jackson

text: On January 29, 2012 at the Royal Rumble pay-per-view, Jackson entered the Royal Rumble match as the thirteenth entrant, but he was eliminated by the returning Great Khali. Jackson started a losing streak losing to the likes of Jinder Mahal, Drew McIntyre, and David Otunga. Jackson finally ended his losing streak by teaming with The Great Khali to defeat the team of Curt Hawkins and Tyler Reks on the May 16 episode of "NXT". However, he lost to the Big Show on the May 26 episode and May 27 episode of Smackdown.


title: Ezekiel Jackson

text: Around mid–2012, Jackson suffered an upper body injury and was inactive for many months. After almost a year of inactivity due to his injury, Jackson returned at a live event for WrestleMania Axxess on April 4, 2013 by teaming up with Yoshi Tatsu to defeat the team of Hunico and Camacho. On January 4, 2014, Jackson announced he was undergoing another surgery. As a result of this, on April 6, 2014, Jackson reported that he had officially parted ways with the WWE.


title: Ezekiel Jackson

text: He made his debut, along with Gene Snitsky, in TNA on the June 25 taping of "Impact Wrestling" (which aired on July 24) using the ringname Rycklon as a heel; attacking Tommy Dreamer, Bully Ray and Devon, and aligning himself with Dixie Carter. It also marked the very first time that the final champion of the original and the new ECW were in the ring at exactly the same time (Rhino and Rycklon) Rycklon and Snitsky were fired by Dixie Carter on the August 7 edition of "Impact Wrestling". Earlier on the show they had competed in an Eight-Man Hardcore War between Team EC3 (EC3, Rhino, Rycklon and Snitsky) in a losing effort against Team Bully (Bully Ray, Devon, Tommy Dreamer and Al Snow).


title: Ezekiel Jackson

text: In September 2014, Stephens worked at Lucha Underground under the ring name Big Ryck, where he was forming a heel trio named The Crenshaw Crew with Cisco, Bael and Cortez Castro. Ryck feuded with Johnny Mundo and Prince Puma. Their feud concluded in a three-way ladder match, which was won by Mundo. On the October 5, 2014 taping, Ryck participated in an Aztec Warfare Battle Royal to crown the first Lucha Underground Champion but was eliminated. On January 21, 2015, Cisco, Castro and Bael attacked Ryck and burned his eye with a cigar, turning face in the process. Ryck returned to action on February 25, 2015, distracting The Crew in a match against Sexy Star, Mascarita Sagrada, and Pimpinela Escarlata. On March 4, 2015, Ryck defeated Star to earn a match against The Crew. Ryck defeated The Crew in a one-on-three handicap match. On February 8, 2015, Ryck, along with Killshot and Willie Mack participated in a tournament for the Lucha Underground Trios Championship, but they were defeated in the finals by the eventual winners Angélico, Son of Havoc and Ivelisse. After their loss, Ryck left Mack and Killshot and was hired by DelAvar Daivari, attacking Texano on May 20, 2015, turning heel in the process. At Ultima Lucha, Daivari ran out and distracted Ryck by firing him, hinting at a face turn. However, nothing came of this due to Stephens departing Lucha Underground in 2015 due to traveling conflicts. It was revealed that Big Ryck was one of five missing people on the April 20 episode of Lucha Underground. In the four issue mini series following that, it explaining what had happened after Ultima Lucha and before season two. It was revealed that Ryck was "killed" by The Disciples of Death, officially writing his character off the show.


title: Ezekiel Jackson

text: On October 17, 2015, Stephens, as Big Ryck, made his debut for the German Westside Xtreme Wrestling (wXw) promotion, in what was also his last match. He unsuccessfully challenged Karsten Beck for the wXw Unified World Wrestling Championship. Stephens retired from professional wrestling on October 18, 2015, and is now working as a trainer as of 2016.


title: Ara Pacis

text: The Ara Pacis Augustae (Latin, "Altar of Augustan Peace"; commonly shortened to Ara Pacis) is an altar in Rome dedicated to Pax, the Roman goddess of Peace. The monument was commissioned by the Roman Senate on July 4, 13 BC to honour the return of Augustus to Rome after three years in Hispania and Gaul and consecrated on January 30, 9 BC. Originally located on the northern outskirts of Rome, a Roman mile from the boundary of the "pomerium" on the west side of the Via Flaminia, the Ara Pacis stood in the northeastern corner of the Campus Martius, the former flood plain of the Tiber River and gradually became buried under of silt deposits. It was reassembled in its current location, now the Museum of the Ara Pacis, in 1938, turned 90° counterclockwise from its original orientation so that the original western side now faces south.