title: Bentley Arnage

text: Wheelbases ranged from (or only slightly longer than the standard Arnage) to , and even , the latter two including a increase in the height of the roof. The wheelbase version is stretched between the front and rear doors (rather than at the C-pillar and at the rear doors). The suspension was retuned for the added weight, allowing the larger car to still handle well.


title: Bentley Arnage

text: RL models were available with armoured elements, reflecting the car's clientele. A full B6 package was available for $243,000 to $300,000, offering protection from assault weapons and grenades.


title: Bentley Arnage

text: Though not particularly well advertised for reasons stated above, the LWB&RL's introduction saw the introduction of an entirely reworked version of the 6.75-litre V8 engine. Where the engine used in the Red Label was a quickly and less-than-completely-satisfactorily modified version of the Turbo R's unit, the RL featured an entirely reworked version of the old 6.75-litre V8. More than half of the engine's parts were completely new, with Bosch Motronic ME7.1.1 engine management replacing the old Zytek system, and two small Garrett T3 turbochargers replacing the single large T4. This new engine was rated at and of torque and was said to be capable of meeting all future emissions requirements. The Arnage was now powered by a modern twin-turbocharged unit with state-of-the-art electronic management system similar to the original Cosworth-BMW unit developed for the model in 1998.


title: Bentley Arnage

text: In 2002, Bentley updated the Red Label as the series two Arnage R. This model was launched to contrast the Arnage T, which was developed to be a more sporty variant. The Arnage R features two Garrett T3 turbochargers fitted to the engine as with the RL.


title: Bentley Arnage

text: The Arnage T, also from 2002, was claimed to be the most powerful roadgoing Bentley at its launch at the Detroit Motor Show. As with the Arnage R, there were twin-turbochargers, but the engine was tuned and rated at a higher power output of and of torque. The Arnage T's 0–97 km/h (60 mph) time is 5.5 seconds and it has a claimed top speed of .


title: Bentley Arnage

text: All Arnage R and T models share the same wheelbase. The Arnage range was facelifted in 2005, with a front end resembling that of the new Continental GT and old Continental R.


title: Bentley Arnage

text: The Bentley State Limousine is an official state car developed by Bentley Motors Limited for Queen Elizabeth II on the occasion of her Golden Jubilee in 2002. Two were built. The car's twin-turbocharged, 6.75-litre V8 engine was modified and rated at and of torque.


title: Bentley Arnage

text: For the 2007 model year, the Garrett turbochargers were replaced with low-inertia Mitsubishi units designed to improve engine response. The engine was mated to a 6-speed ZF 6HP26 transmission also found in the Continental GT range. The new power output for the Arnage T was and of torque, while the milder Arnage R was and of torque. For the Arnage T, the factory stated a 0–97 km/h (60 mph) acceleration time of 5.2 seconds, and a top speed of .


title: Bentley Arnage

text: Bentley launched two limited Le Mans edition models to celebrate the occasion of Bentley's return after 71 years to racing at Le Mans. Production was planned of 50 Le Mans editions of the Continental R Mulliner and 150 of the Bentley Arnage Red label. Actually 46 copies were manufactured of the Continental R Le Mans and 153 of the Arnage Le Mans. Besides those planned models also 5 Le Mans editions were manufactured of the Continental T Le Mans and 4 of the Bentley Azure Le Mans.


title: Bentley Arnage

text: The Le Mans editions didn't replace any other model but were special editions of existing models. The Arnage Le Mans was a specially enhanced edition of the Arnage Red label.


title: Bentley Arnage

text: The Bentley Arnage Le Mans chassis number follows the same identification as the Bentley Arnage Red label model:


title: Bentley Arnage

text: Bentley marked its 60 years of production at the Crewe factory with a special Diamond Series Arnage model in 2006. 60 cars were planned, the majority for the United States, with diamond wood inlays, diamond quilted leather seats, a stainless steel front bumper, special 19 inch alloy wheels, and Union Jack badges on the front wings.


title: Bentley Arnage

text: In September 2008, Bentley announced that Arnage production would cease in 2009, with a final run of 150 "Final Series" models.


title: Bentley Arnage

text: The Arnage Final Series used the Arnage T powertrain, including the twin-turbo 6.75-litre V8 engine that is rated at and approximately of torque. The Arnage delivers power to the rear-wheels via the same ZF automatic transmission as used on the other Arnage models.


title: Bentley Arnage

text: On the exterior, the Final Series features unique 20 inch alloy wheels, a retractable 'Flying B' hood ornament, body-coloured headlamp bezels, dark tint mesh upper and lower grilles, lower front wing vents, a 'Jewel-style' fuel filler cap and special badging.


title: Bentley Arnage

text: The interior, designed by Mulliner, features Final Series kick plates, drilled alloy pedals, unique chrome trim, a rear cocktail cabinet and two picnic tables. The model also comes with four special umbrellas and a premium 1,000 watt audio system manufactured by Naim Audio.


title: Bentley Arnage

text: The model is offered with 42 exterior colour choices, 25 interior hides and three wood veneers. It could also be selected with the bespoke colour-matching offered by Bentley.


title: Bentley Arnage

text: The Final Series also marked the 50th anniversary of Bentley's V8 engine. The 2009 variant of the engine was still loosely based on the same design that was introduced in the 1959 Bentley S2. However, the updated engine in 2008 shares no interchangeable parts with the 1950 model, the last common item having been replaced in 2005. When the engine was first unveiled promotional literature described power and torque as 'adequate'. Now twin-turbocharged, the all-aluminium alloy engine delivered a 0–97 km/h (60 mph) in 5.3 seconds in a car weighing 2.5 tonnes. Fuel consumption was heavy, with Bentley stating that the model averages less than 10 mpg in the city and just over 20 on the highway in European testing.


title: Bentley Arnage

text: A replacement model, which was called the Bentley Mulsanne was launched in August 2009, at the Pebble Beach Concours d'Elegance, in Monterey, California.


title: Bentley Arnage

text: The Arnage was well received by the motoring press, with most critics admiring the unimpeachable image but criticising the price and running cost.


title: Bentley Arnage

text: The Bentley Arnage was replaced by the Bentley Mulsanne. The design of the car is now completely independent from Rolls-Royce cars, because of separate parent companies, Bentley being held by the Volkswagen Group, Rolls-Royce by BMW.


title: Guðmundur Gunnarsson

text: Guðmundur Gunnarsson (born 29 October 1945) is an Icelandic electrician who served as the leader of the Icelandic Electricians' Union, Rafiðnaðarsamband Íslands (RSÍ) from 1993 until 2011. He is the father of the singer Björk (Björk Guðmundsdóttir).


title: Guðmundur Gunnarsson

text: Guðmundur's parents were Gunnar Guðmundsson and Hallfríður Guðmundsdóttir. He qualified as a journeyman electrician in 1966. He graduated from the Technical College of Iceland in 1969.


title: Guðmundur Gunnarsson

text: He was a municipal representative of the Sjálfstæðisflokkurinn (Independence Party) in Reykjavík from 1994 to 1998 and Chairman of the Nordic Federation of Electricians' Unions from 1994 to 1996 and from 2004 to 2006.


title: Rod McKuen

text: Rodney Marvin McKuen (; April 29, 1933 – January 29, 2015) was an American poet, singer-songwriter, and actor. He was one of the best-selling poets in the United States during the late 1960s. Throughout his career, McKuen produced a wide range of recordings, which included popular music, spoken word poetry, film soundtracks and classical music. He earned two Academy Award nominations for his music compositions. McKuen's translations and adaptations of the songs of Jacques Brel were instrumental in bringing the Belgian songwriter to prominence in the English-speaking world. His poetry deals with themes of love, the natural world and spirituality. McKuen's songs sold over 100 million recordings worldwide, and 60 million books of his poetry were sold as well.


title: Rod McKuen

text: McKuen was born as Rodney Marvin Woolever on April 29, 1933, in a Salvation Army hostel in Oakland, California to Clarice Woolever. He never knew his biological father, who had left his mother. Sexually and physically abused by relatives, raised by his mother and stepfather, who was a violent alcoholic, McKuen ran away from home. He drifted along the West Coast, supporting himself as a ranch hand, surveyor, railroad worker, lumberjack, rodeo cowboy, stuntman, and radio disc jockey, always sending money home to his mother.


title: Rod McKuen

text: To compensate for his lack of formal education, McKuen began keeping a journal, which resulted in his first poetry and song lyrics. After dropping out of Oakland Technical High School prior to graduating in 1951, McKuen worked as a newspaper columnist and propaganda script writer during the Korean War. He settled in San Francisco, where he read his poetry in clubs alongside Beat poets like Jack Kerouac and Allen Ginsberg. He began performing as a folk singer at the famed Purple Onion. Over time, he began incorporating his own songs into his act. He was signed to Decca Records and released several pop albums in the late 1950s. McKuen also appeared as an actor in "Rock, Pretty Baby" (1956), "Summer Love" (1958), and the western "Wild Heritage" (1958). He also sang with Lionel Hampton's band. In 1959, McKuen moved to New York City to compose and conduct music for the TV show "The CBS Workshop". McKuen appeared on "To Tell The Truth" on June 18, 1962, as a decoy contestant and described himself as "a published poet and a twist singer."


title: Rod McKuen

text: In the early 1960s, McKuen moved to France, where he first met the Belgian singer-songwriter and chanson singer Jacques Brel. McKuen began to translate the work of this composer into English, which led to the song "If You Go Away" – an international pop-standard – based on Brel's "Ne me quitte pas". McKuen translated Brel's song "Le Moribond" loosely into "Seasons in the Sun", and British folkbeat group The Fortunes charted with the song in the Netherlands in 1969. In 1974, singer Terry Jacks turned McKuen's "Seasons in the Sun" into a best-selling pop hit, and also charted with a cover of "If You Go Away." McKuen also translated songs by other French songwriters, including Georges Moustaki, Gilbert Bécaud, Pierre Delanoé, and Michel Sardou.


title: Rod McKuen

text: In 1978, after hearing of Brel's death, McKuen was quoted as saying, "As friends and as musical collaborators we had traveled, toured and written – together and apart – the events of our lives as if they were songs, and I guess they were. When news of Jacques' death came I stayed locked in my bedroom and drank for a week. That kind of self-pity was something he wouldn't have approved of, but all I could do was replay our songs (our children) and ruminate over our unfinished life together."


title: Rod McKuen

text: In the late 1960s, McKuen began to publish books of poetry, earning a substantial following among young people with collections like "Stanyan Street & Other Sorrows" (1966), "Listen to the Warm" (1967), and "Lonesome Cities" (1968). His "Lonesome Cities" album of readings won a Grammy for Best Spoken Word Recording in 1968. McKuen's poems were translated into eleven languages and his books sold over 1 million copies in 1968 alone. McKuen said that his most romantic poetry was influenced by American poet Walter Benton's two books of poems. McKuen sold over 60 million books worldwide, according to the Associated Press.


title: Rod McKuen

text: McKuen wrote over 1,500 songs and released up to 200 albums which have accounted for the sale of over 100 million records worldwide according to the Associated Press. His songs have been performed by such diverse artists as Robert Goulet, Glenn Yarbrough, Barbra Streisand, Perry Como, Petula Clark, Waylon Jennings, The Boston Pops, Chet Baker, Jimmie Rodgers, Johnny Cash, Pete Fountain, Andy Williams, the Kingston Trio, Percy Faith, the London Philharmonic, Nana Mouskouri, Daliah Lavi, Dusty Springfield, Johnny Mathis, Al Hirt, Greta Keller, Aaron Freeman, and Frank Sinatra.


title: Rod McKuen

text: In 1959, McKuen released his first novelty single with Bob McFadden, under the pseudonym Dor on the Brunswick label, called "The Mummy". The McKuen-written song reached No. 39 on the "Billboard" pop chart. In 1961, he had a hit single titled "Oliver Twist". He co-wrote it along with Gladys Shelley and the Spiral label-issued single reached No. 76 on the "Billboard" pop chart. His hoarse and throaty singing voice on these and other recordings was a result of McKuen straining his vocal cords in 1961 due to too many promotional appearances.


title: Rod McKuen

text: He collaborated with numerous composers, including Henry Mancini, John Williams, and Anita Kerr. His symphonies, concertos, and other orchestral works have been performed by orchestras around the globe. His work as a composer in the film industry garnered him two Academy Award nominations for "The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie" (1969) and "A Boy Named Charlie Brown" (1969), and his other film scores have included "Joanna" (1968), "Me, Natalie" (1969), "Scandalous John" (1971), "The Borrowers" (1973) and "Emily" (1976). McKuen's contribution to "A Boy Named Charlie Brown", the first feature-length animation based on Charles M. Schulz's comic strip "Peanuts" also included him singing the title song. McKuen also earned a mention in the "Peanuts" strip dated October 3, 1969, in which Sally Brown expresses her frustration that she was sent to the principal's office for an outburst in art class, opining that Pablo Picasso and Rod McKuen surely must have had trouble drawing cows' legs when they were young.


title: Rod McKuen

text: In 1967, McKuen began collaborating with arranger Anita Kerr and the San Sebastian Strings for a series of albums featuring McKuen's poetry recited over Kerr's mood music, including "The Sea" (1967), "The Earth" (1967), "The Sky" (1968), "Home to the Sea" (1969), "For Lovers" (1969), and "The Soft Sea" (1970). Jesse Pearson was the narrator of "The Sea" and its follow-ups "Home to the Sea" and "The Soft Sea", while most other albums in the series had McKuen narrating. In 1969, Frank Sinatra commissioned an entire album of poems and songs by McKuen; arranged by Don Costa, it was released under the title "A Man Alone: The Words and Music of Rod McKuen". The album featured the song "Love's Been Good to Me", which became one of McKuen's best-known songs.


title: Rod McKuen

text: McKuen performed solo in a half-hour special broadcast by NBC on May 10, 1969. The program, billed as McKuen's "first television special", featured the songs "The Loner", "The World I Used to Know", "The Complete Madame Butterfly", "I've Been to Town", "Kaleidoscope", "Stanyan Street", "Lonesome Cities", "Listen to the Warm", "Trashy", and "Merci Beaucoup". It was produced by Lee Mendelson, producer of the "Peanuts" specials, and directed by Marty Pasetta. James Trittipo designed a set that was "evocative of waterfront pilings" and Arthur Greenslade conducted the orchestra. In 1971, he hosted a series, "The Rod McKuen Show", on BBC television in the UK.


title: Rod McKuen

text: McKuen's Academy Award-nominated composition "Jean", sung by Oliver, reached No.1 in 1969 on the "Billboard" Adult Contemporary chart and stayed there for four weeks. In 1971, his song "I Think of You" was a major hit for Perry Como. Other popular McKuen compositions included "The World I Used to Know", "Rock Gently", "Doesn't Anybody Know My Name", "The Importance of the Rose", "Without a Worry in the World", and "Soldiers Who Want to Be Heroes".


title: Rod McKuen

text: In 1971, McKuen became popular in the Netherlands, where the singles "Soldiers Who Want to Be Heroes" and "Without a Worry in the World" reached number one in the charts, as did the album "Greatest Hits, Vol. 3". All three discs earned him gold records; in 1971 he was voted the Netherlands' most popular entertainer by Radio Veronica's audience.


title: Rod McKuen

text: During the 1970s, McKuen began composing larger-scale orchestral compositions, writing a series of concertos, suites, symphonies, and chamber pieces for orchestra. He continued publishing a steady stream of poetry books throughout the decade. In 1977, he published "Finding My Father", a chronicle of his search for information on his biological father. The book and its publicity helped make such information more readily available to adopted children. He also continued to record, releasing albums such as "New Ballads" (1970), "Pastorale" (1971), and the country-rock outing "McKuen Country" (1976).


title: Rod McKuen

text: McKuen continued to perform concerts around the world and appeared regularly at New York's Carnegie Hall throughout the 1970s, making sporadic appearances as recently as the early 2000s.


title: Rod McKuen

text: In 1973, at forty, McKuen radically changed his outward appearance: he no longer bleached his hair and he grew a beard.


title: Rod McKuen

text: McKuen retired from live performances in 1981. The following year, he was diagnosed with clinical depression, which he battled for much of the next decade. He continued to write poetry, however, and made appearances as a voice-over actor in "The Little Mermaid" and on its spin-off TV series, as well as on the TV series "The Critic".


title: Rod McKuen

text: 2001 saw the publication of McKuen's "A Safe Place to Land", which contains 160 pages of new poetry. For 10 years he gave an annual birthday concert at Carnegie Hall or the Lincoln Center. He released the double CD "The Platinum Collection" and was remastering all of his RCA and Warner Bros. recordings for release as CD boxed sets. In addition to his artistic pursuits he was the Executive President of the American Guild of Variety Artists (AGVA), a post he held longer than any other man or woman elected to the position.


title: Rod McKuen

text: McKuen lived in Beverly Hills, California with his partner Edward, whom he called his "brother", and four cats in a large rambling Spanish house built in 1928, which housed one of the world's largest private record collections. He died of respiratory arrest, a result of pneumonia, at a hospital in Beverly Hills, California, on January 29, 2015.


title: Rod McKuen

text: McKuen refused to identify as gay, straight, or bisexual, but once explained his sexuality saying, "I can't imagine choosing one sex over the other, that's just too limiting. I can't even honestly say I have a preference." He was active in the LGBT rights movement, and as early as the 1950s, was a key member of the San Francisco chapter of the Mattachine Society, one of the nation's earliest LGBT advocacy organizations.


title: Rod McKuen

text: The cover of McKuen's 1977 album "Slide... Easy In" featured a photo of a man's arm gripping a handful of vegetable shortening; the can was a pastiche of Crisco – then widely used by gay men as a sexual lubricant – with the label instead reading "Disco". That same year, McKuen spoke out against singer Anita Bryant and her "Save Our Children" campaign to repeal an anti-discrimination ordinance in Miami, tagging Bryant with the nickname "Ginny Orangeseed", and also including a song on "Slide... Easy In" titled "Don't Drink the Orange Juice", referencing Bryant's fame as commercial pitchwoman for the Florida Citrus Commission. He often gave benefit performances to aid LGBT rights organizations and to fund AIDS research.


title: Rod McKuen

text: Despite his popular appeal, McKuen's work was never taken seriously by critics or academics. Michael Baers observed in Gale Research's "St. James Encyclopedia of Popular Culture" that "through the years his books have drawn uniformly unkind reviews. In fact, criticism of his poetry is uniformly vituperative ..."


title: Rod McKuen

text: Frank W. Hoffmann, in "Arts and Entertainment Fads", described McKuen's poetry as "tailor-made for the 1960s ... poetry with a verse that drawled in country cadences from one shapeless line to the next, carrying the rusticated innocence of a Carl Sandburg thickened by the treacle of a man who preferred to prettify the world before he described it".


title: Rod McKuen

text: Philosopher and social critic Robert C. Solomon described McKuen's poetry as "sweet kitsch," and, at the height of his popularity in 1969, "Newsweek" magazine called him "the King of Kitsch."


title: Rod McKuen

text: Writer and literary critic Nora Ephron said, "[F]or the most part, McKuen's poems are superficial and platitudinous and frequently silly." Pulitzer Prize-winning US Poet Laureate Karl Shapiro said, "It is irrelevant to speak of McKuen as a poet. His poetry is not even trash."


title: Rod McKuen

text: In a "Chicago Tribune" interview with McKuen in 2001 as he was "testing the waters" for a comeback tour, Pulitzer Prize-winning culture critic Julia Keller claimed that "Millions more have loathed him [...] finding his work so schmaltzy and smarmy that it makes the pronouncements of Kathie Lee Gifford sound like Susan Sontag," and that his work "drives many people crazy. They find it silly and mawkish, the kind of gooey schmaltz that wouldn't pass muster in a freshman creative-writing class" while stating that "The masses ate him up with a spoon, while highbrow literary critics roasted him on a spit." She noted that the third concert on his tour had already been canceled because of sluggish ticket sales.


title: Rod McKuen

text: In May 2019, Backbeat Books published "A Voice of the Warm: The Life of Rod McKuen" by Barry Alfonso. This was the first in-depth biography of McKuen. In his introduction to the book, singer and music historian Michael Feinstein wrote that McKuen's life and work held a significant place in pop culture: "[McKuen] knew how to create something that made a reader or listener say, 'That’s me.' Like Gershwin’s, his work is a document of the time in which it was created. But what he did also transcends that time and still speaks fundamentally to the things that matter to people: romance, relationships, the human condition. Those things don’t change. He used the vernacular of his time to reach the widest audience. But at its essence, his work is still valid and, I think, timeless."


title: Four-bar linkage

text: In the study of mechanisms, a four-bar linkage, also called a four-bar, is the simplest closed-chain movable linkage. It consists of four bodies, called "bars" or "links", connected in a loop by four joints. Generally, the joints are configured so the links move in parallel planes, and the assembly is called a "planar four-bar linkage". Spherical and spatial four-bar linkages also exist and are used in practice.


title: Four-bar linkage

text: Planar four-bar linkages are constructed from four links connected in a loop by four one-degree-of-freedom joints. A joint may be either a revolute joint – also known as a pin joint or hinged joint – denoted by R, or a prismatic joint – also known as a sliding pair – denoted by P.


title: Four-bar linkage

text: A link connecting to the ground by a revolute joint that can perform a complete revolution is called a "crank link."<br>


title: Four-bar linkage

text: A link connecting to the ground by a revolute joint that cannot perform a complete revolution is called a "rocker link."<br>


title: Four-bar linkage

text: A link connecting to a ground line by a prismatic joint is called a slider. Sliders are sometimes considered to be cranks that have a hinged pivot at an infinitely long distance away perpendicular to the travel of the slider.<br>


title: Four-bar linkage

text: A coupler connecting a crank and a slider in a single slider crank mechanism is often called a "connecting rod," however, it has also been used to refer to any type of coupler.


title: Four-bar linkage

text: There are three basic types of planar four-bar linkage, depending on the use of revolute or prismatic joints:


title: Four-bar linkage

text: Planar four-bar linkages can be designed to guide a wide variety of movements, and are often the base mechanisms found in many machines. Because of this, the kinematics and dynamics of planar four-bar linkages are also important topics in mechanical engineering.


title: Four-bar linkage

text: Planar quadrilateral linkage, RRRR or 4R linkages have four rotating joints. One link of the chain is usually fixed, and is called the "ground link", "fixed link", or the "frame". The two links connected to the frame are called the "grounded links" and are generally the input and output links of the system, sometimes called the "input link" and "output link". The last link is the "floating link", which is also called a "coupler" or "connecting rod" because it connects an input to the output.


title: Four-bar linkage

text: The Grashof condition for a four-bar linkage states: "If the sum of the shortest and longest link of a planar quadrilateral linkage is less than or equal to the sum of the remaining two links, then the shortest link can rotate fully with respect to a neighboring link." In other words, the condition is satisfied if "S" + "L" ≤ "P" + "Q", where "S" is the shortest link, "L" is the longest, and "P" and "Q" are the other links.


title: Four-bar linkage

text: The movement of a quadrilateral linkage can be classified into eight cases based on the dimensions of its four links. Let a, b, g and h denote the lengths of the input crank, the output crank, the ground link and floating link, respectively. Then, we can construct the three terms:


title: Four-bar linkage

text: The movement of a quadrilateral linkage can be classified into eight types based on the positive and negative values for these three terms, T, T, and T.


title: Four-bar linkage

text: The cases of T = 0, T = 0, and T = 0 are interesting because the linkages fold. If we distinguish folding quadrilateral linkage, then there are 27 different cases.


title: Four-bar linkage

text: The configuration of a quadrilateral linkage may be classified into three types: convex, concave, and crossing. In the convex and concave cases no two links cross over each other. In the crossing linkage two links cross over each other. In the convex case all four internal angles are less than 180 degrees, and in the concave configuration one internal angle is greater than 180 degrees. There exists a simple geometrical relationship between the lengths of the two diagonals of the quadrilateral. For convex and crossing linkages, the length of one diagonal increases if and only if the other decreases. On the other hand, for nonconvex non-crossing linkages, the opposite is the case; one diagonal increases if and only if the other also increases.


title: Four-bar linkage

text: The synthesis, or design, of four-bar mechanisms is important when aiming to produce a desired output motion for a specific input motion. In order to minimize cost and maximize efficiency, a designer will choose the simplest mechanism possible to accomplish the desired motion. When selecting a mechanism type to be designed, link lengths must be determined by a process called dimensional synthesis. Dimensional synthesis involves an "iterate-and-analyze" methodology which in certain circumstances can be an inefficient process; however, in unique scenarios, exact and detailed procedures to design an accurate mechanism may not exist.


title: Four-bar linkage

text: The time ratio ("Q") of a four-bar mechanism is a measure of its quick return and is defined as follows:


title: Four-bar linkage

text: With four-bar mechanisms there are two strokes, the forward and return, which when added together create a cycle. Each stroke may be identical or have different average speeds. The time ratio numerically defines how fast the forward stroke is compared to the quicker return stroke. The total cycle time () for a mechanism is:


title: Four-bar linkage

text: Most four-bar mechanisms are driven by a rotational actuator, or crank, that requires a specific constant speed. This required speed ("ω")is related to the cycle time as follows:


title: Four-bar linkage

text: Some mechanisms that produce reciprocating, or repeating, motion are designed to produce symmetrical motion. That is, the forward stroke of the machine moves at the same pace as the return stroke. These mechanisms, which are often referred to as "in-line" design, usually do work in both directions, as they exert the same force in both directions.


title: Four-bar linkage

text: Other applications require that the mechanism-to-be-designed has a faster average speed in one direction than the other. This category of mechanism is most desired for design when work is only required to operate in one direction. The speed at which this one stroke operates is also very important in certain machine applications. In general, the return and work-non-intensive stroke should be accomplished as fast as possible. This is so the majority of time in each cycle is allotted for the work-intensive stroke. These "quick-return" mechanisms are often referred to as "offset".


title: Four-bar linkage

text: With offset mechanisms, it is very important to understand how and to what degree the offset affects the time ratio. To relate the geometry of a specific linkage to the timing of the stroke, an imbalance angle ("β") is used. This angle is related to the time ratio, "Q", as follows:


title: Four-bar linkage

text: Timing charts are often used to synchronize the motion between two or more mechanisms. They graphically display information showing where and when each mechanism is stationary or performing its forward and return strokes. Timing charts allow designers to qualitatively describe the required kinematic behavior of a mechanism.


title: Four-bar linkage

text: These charts are also used to estimate the velocities and accelerations of certain four-bar links. "The velocity of a link is the time rate at which its position is changing, while the link's acceleration is the time rate at which its velocity is changing." Both velocity and acceleration are vector quantities, in that they have both magnitude and direction; however, only their magnitudes are used in timing charts. When used with two mechanisms, timing charts assume constant acceleration. This assumption produces polynomial equations for velocity as a function of time. Constant acceleration allows for the velocity vs. time graph to appear as straight lines, thus designating a relationship between displacement ("ΔR"), maximum velocity ("v"), acceleration ("a"), and time("Δt"). The following equations show this.


title: Four-bar linkage

text: Given the displacement and time, both the maximum velocity and acceleration of each mechanism in a given pair can be calculated.


title: Four-bar linkage

text: A slider-crank linkage is a four-bar linkage with three revolute joints and one prismatic, or sliding, joint. The rotation of the crank drives the linear movement the slider, or the expansion of gases against a sliding piston in a cylinder can drive the rotation of the crank.


title: Four-bar linkage

text: If the linkage has four hinged joints with axes angled to intersect in a single point, then the links move on concentric spheres and the assembly is called a "spherical four-bar linkage". The input-output equations of a spherical four-bar linkage can be applied to spatial four-bar linkages when the variables are replaced by dual numbers.


title: Four-bar linkage

text: "Bennett's linkage" is a spatial four-bar linkage with hinged joints that have their axes angled in a particular way that makes the system movable.


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: Chester is a city in Delaware County, Pennsylvania within the Philadelphia Metropolitan Area. It is the only city in Delaware County and had a population of 32,605 as of the 2020 census.


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: Incorporated in 1682, Chester is the oldest city in Pennsylvania and is located on the western bank of the Delaware River between the cities of Philadelphia and Wilmington, Delaware. It was the location of William Penn's first arrival in the Province of Pennsylvania and the county seat for Chester County from 1682 to 1788 and Delaware County from 1789 to 1851.


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: Chester evolved over the centuries from a small town with wooden shipbuilding and textile factories into an industrial powerhouse producing steel ships for two World Wars and a myriad of consumer goods. Since the mid-twentieth century, it has lost its manufacturing base and over half of its residents and devolved into a post-industrial city struggling with pollution, poverty, and crime.


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: The Indian tribe that owned the land where Chester now stands were the Okehockings, removed by order of William Penn in 1702 to other lands in Chester County. The original Indian name of Chester was Mecoponaca, which means "the stream along which large potatoes grow".


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: The first European settlers in the area were members of the New Sweden colony. The settlement that became Chester was first called "Finlandia" (the Latin name for Finland) and then "Upland" after the Swedish province of Uppland. The New Sweden settlers built Fort Mecoponacka in 1641 to defend the settlement.


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: By 1682, Upland was the most populous town of the new Province of Pennsylvania. On October 27, the ship "Welcome" arrived bearing William Penn on his first visit to the province. Penn renamed the settlement after the English city of Chester.


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: Chester County originally stretched from the Delaware River to the Susquehanna River from its founding in 1682 until 1729 when Lancaster County was formed from the western part. Chester served as the county seat for Chester County from 1682 to 1788. In 1724, the Chester Courthouse was built to support the legal needs of the county.


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: Chester played only a small role in the American Revolutionary War. Throughout 1776 and 1777, there were significant forces stationed in Chester and nearby Marcus Hook.


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: In April 1776, nearly 1,000 men were stationed in Chester under Colonel Samuel Miles in preparation for the defense of Philadelphia. However, Colonel Miles led the troops to New York City in July 1776 when it became clear that the British Fleet was threatening New York rather than Philadelphia.


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: In 1777, the Continental Army led by George Washington passed through Chester on the way to meet the British Army led by General Howe at the Battle of Brandywine. John Armstrong was ordered to take command of the militia stationed at Chester. The Continental Army fled back to Chester after defeat at the Battle of Brandywine. A portion of the British force occupied Chester as they chased the Continental Army fleeing to Philadelphia.


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: In 1789, Delaware County was formed from the eastern part of Chester County, and Chester became the new county seat.


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: The borough of Chester was governed under the charter granted by Penn in 1701 until March 5, 1795, when it was incorporated by the Pennsylvania Assembly.


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: In the 1700s and 1800s, Chester was a hub for business due to easy access to the Delaware River for the transport of raw materials and finished goods by ship.


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: By the mid-1800s, many textile mills and factories were built along Chester Creek including the Upland Mills by John Price Crozer and the Powhattan Mills by David Reese Esrey and Hugh Shaw.


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: During the War of 1812, a group of volunteers from Chester called the Mifflin Guards was raised and led by Dr. Samuel Anderson. The troops were sent to Fort DuPont to defend the Delaware River from the threatened attack of British Admiral George Cockburn but did not see any action.


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: In 1851, the Delaware County seat was moved from Chester to the borough of Media. On February 14, 1866, Chester was incorporated as a city and the first mayor elected was John Larkin, Jr.


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: In 1871, the Delaware River Iron Ship Building and Engine Works was opened by John Roach through the purchase of the Reaney, Son & Archbold shipyard. The first steel ships of the U.S. Navy were built at the Roach shipyard. For the first 15 years of operation, it was the largest and most productive shipyard in the United States. More tonnage of ships were built at the Roach shipyard than its next two competitors combined.


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: Roach built other businesses to supply materials for his shipbuilding including the Chester Rolling Mill in 1873 to supply metal hull plates and beams, the Chester Pipe and Tube Company in 1877 for the manufacture of iron pipes and boiler tubes, and the Standard Steel Casting Company in 1883 to supply steel ingots.


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: Roach built the Combination Steel and Iron Company in 1880 to supply steel rails and other products for businesses beyond the Roach shipyard. He lost control of the company after his shipbuilding enterprise entered receivership in 1885.


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: Chester was known as a freewheeling destination for vices such as drugs, alcohol, numbers rackets, gambling and prostitution. Chester was widely known as Greater Philadelphia's "Saloon Town". By 1914, Chester had more saloons than police officers; approximately 1 saloon per every 987 residents.


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: World War I brought Chester its first massive growth. People migrated to Chester for jobs, 63% of which were in manufacturing. Between 1910 and 1920, Chester's population increased from 38,000 to 58,000 due to the influx of southern and eastern Europeans and southern U.S. blacks. The Sun Shipbuilding & Drydock Co. was opened in 1917 to build ships for the United States until its closure in 1990. The idled Roach shipyard was purchased in 1917 by W. Averell Harriman to build merchant ships during World War I, and renamed the Merchant Shipbuilding Corporation. The shipyard closed permanently in 1923.


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: Like many boomtowns, Chester was unprepared for the social changes that came along with rapid growth. As southern blacks migrated to Pennsylvania as part of the Great Migration, racial violence broke out, racially segregated neighborhoods expanded and economic discrimination emerged. A four-day race riot that resulted in seven deaths broke out in the city in July 1917, and the separation of blacks and whites in Chester's neighborhoods and workplaces became more defined.


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: In 1927, the Ford Motor Company opened the Chester Assembly factory on the site of the previous Roach and Merchant shipyard and built cars there until its closure in 1961.


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: Chester experienced its second growth period during World War II. Manufacturing increased exponentially including companies such as Wetherill Steel and Boilermakers, Congoleum-Nairn, Aberfoyles Textiles, Scott Paper Company, Belmont Iron Works, American Steel Foundries, Crew Levick Oil, Crown Smelting, Fields Brick Company, Hetzel and Ford Motor Company. During World War II, the Sun shipyard became the largest single shipyard in the world.


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: Chester began losing its mainstay manufacturing jobs by the early 1960s. Ford Motor Company shuttered its Chester plant, American Viscose Corporation in nearby Marcus Hook closed, Baldwin Locomotive Works in nearby Eddystone was close to bankruptcy and Sun Shipyard employment had fallen from a high of 35,000 in 1945 to 4,000. The precipitous drop in jobs in Chester caused the population to be halved from over 66,000 in 1950 to under 34,000 in 2010.


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: The Chester school protests were a series of demonstrations that occurred in Chester from November 1963 through April 1964. The demonstrations focused on ending the de facto segregation that resulted in the racial categorization of Chester public schools, even after the landmark U.S. Supreme Court case "Brown v. Board of Education" (1954). The racial unrest and civil rights protests led by George Raymond of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored Persons (NAACP) and Stanley Branche of the Committee for Freedom Now (CFFN) made Chester one of the key battlegrounds of the civil rights movement.


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: In April 1964, a series of almost nightly protests brought chaos to Chester. Mayor James Gorbey issued "The Police Position to Preserve the Public Peace", a 10-point statement promising an immediate return to law and order. The city deputized firemen and trash collectors to help handle demonstrators. The State of Pennsylvania deployed 50 state troopers to assist the 77-member Chester police force. The demonstrations were marked by violence and police brutality with Chester being dubbed the "Birmingham of the North" by civil rights activist James Farmer. Over 600 people were arrested over a two-month period of civil rights rallies, marches, pickets, boycotts and sit-ins. National civil rights leaders such as Gloria Richardson, Malcolm X and Dick Gregory came to Chester in support of the demonstrations. Pennsylvania Governor William Scranton became involved in the negotiations and convinced the protestors to obey a court-ordered moratorium on demonstrations by agreeing to hold hearings on the de facto segregation of public schools in Chester.


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: The Pennsylvania Human Relations Committee determined that the Chester School Board had violated the law and the Chester School District was ordered to desegregate the city's six predominantly African-American schools. The city appealed the ruling, which delayed implementation, but the schools were eventually desegregated.


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: In 1978, an intense fire broke out at Wade Dump, a rubber recycling facility and illegal industrial chemical dumping site. It burned out of control for several days. The burning chemicals caused multi-colored smoke and noxious fumes which injured 43 firemen and caused long-term health problems for the first responders to the fire. In 1981, the location was declared a Superfund cleanup site and remediation occurred throughout the 1980s. In 1989, the site was deemed safe and removed from the Superfund national priorities list. In 2004, the site was converted to a parking lot for Barry Bridge Park.


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: By the 1980s, Chester was a city bereft of industry. Many bottom-rung projects were initiated in Chester, including the Westinghouse trash incinerator, a sewage treatment plant, and a prison. Chester residents and politicians began pushing back against the placement of projects that increased concerns about pollution, noise and trucks, such as a contaminated soil remediation facility, the trash incinerator, the DELCORA sewage waste treatment center and the Abbonizio recycling center.


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: Recent programs to foster investment into Chester include the Pennsylvania Keystone Opportunity Zone (KOZ) program, which incentivizes companies with state and local tax breaks to invest in KOZ-designated areas. The Wharf at Rivertown, a $60 million renovation of the Chester Waterside Station of the Philadelphia Electric Company, originally built in 1918, provides recreational and office space for businesses.


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: Harrah's Casino and Racetrack began harness racing in September 2006 and opened its racino in January 2007. Subaru Park, home of the Major League Soccer Philadelphia Union franchise, opened in 2010.


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: Despite the recent investments into the community, Governor Tom Wolf declared a fiscal emergency for Chester in 2020 and the city declared bankruptcy in 2022.


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: Two ships of the United States Navy have been named USS "Chester" in honor of the city. National Register of Historic Places in Chester are: Delaware County National Bank, 1724 Chester Courthouse, Chester Waterside Station of the Philadelphia Electric Company, Old Main and Chemistry Building, Third Presbyterian Church, William Penn Landing Site, and the former Second Street Bridge.


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: Chester has a mayor-council government system, consisting of a popularly elected city mayor and city council. The terms of the mayor and members are four years.


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: The current mayor of the City of Chester is Thaddeus Kirkland, who won the Democratic nomination in May 2015 over incumbent Mayor John Linder. Kirkland was elected on November 3, 2015, and took office on January 4, 2016.


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: The Chester City Council consists of the mayor and four council members. Council members are elected at-large to serve the entire city. Council meetings are generally held the second and fourth Wednesday of each month. The five help administer the five municipal departments:


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: The city government has been in financial distress for many years and has operated under the state's Act 47 provisions for twenty-one years. The act provides for municipalities that are near bankruptcy.


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: Chester has been hurt for decades by corrupt politicians and organized crime. Chester's Republican Party political machine was one of the nation's oldest and most corrupt. John J. McClure took over from his father, William McClure, in 1907 and was the political boss for the machine until his death in 1965. In 1933, McClure was found guilty in federal court and sentenced to 18 months in prison for vice and rum-running but his conviction was overturned on appeal.


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: In 1941, McClure was indicted for conspiracy to gain a $250,000 profit from the sale of the Chester Water Works to a private buyer. McClure and four Chester City Council members were acquitted but ordered by the court to return the money to the city of Chester.


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: With the exception of 1904–1905, the Republican political machine controlled Chester politics for over a century. The first non-machine mayor was elected in 1992: Barbara Bohannan-Sheppard; however, in 1995, she lost her re-election bid and was replaced by Republican Dr. Aaron Wilson, Jr.


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: In the 1990s, the Pennsylvania Crime Commission reported that Chester's government had been dominated by "a triad of criminals, corrupt politicians and rogue law-enforcement officers" since the 1960s. John H. Nacrelli, the mayor of Chester from 1968 to 1979, was convicted of racketeering and income tax evasion for accepting $22,000 in bribes from an illegal gambling operation with ties to organized crime and served two years in prison.


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: Chester borders on (clockwise from southwest to northeast) Trainer Borough, Upper Chichester Township, Chester Township, Upland Borough, Parkside Borough, Brookhaven Borough, Nether Providence Township, Ridley Township, and Eddystone Borough in Pennsylvania. Chester is bordered to the south by the Delaware River. The city has a total area of , of which is land and of which (19.42%) is water, according to the United States Census Bureau.


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: Chester Creek meets the Delaware River in Chester. The northeastern border of Chester is defined by Ridley Creek. The Port of Chester is along the Delaware.


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: Being at a low elevation between Philadelphia and Wilmington, Chester experiences a humid subtropical climate ("Cfa".) The hardiness zone is 7b.


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: "Note: the US Census treats Hispanic/Latino as an ethnic category. This table excludes Latinos from the racial categories and assigns them to a separate category. Hispanics/Latinos can be of any race."


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: As of Census 2010, the racial makeup of the city was 74.7% African American, 17.2% White, 9.0% Hispanic or Latino of any race, 0.6% Asian, 0.4% Native American, 0.1% Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islander, 3.9% from other races, and 3.0% from two or more races.


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: There were 11,662 households, out of which 37.3% had children under the age of 18, 19.5% were headed by married couples living together, 35.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 38.1% were non-families. 31.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.1% were someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.64, and the average family size was 3.34.


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: For the period 2010–2014, the estimated median annual income for a household in the city was $28,607, and the median income for a family was $34,840. Male full-time workers had a median income of $34,354 versus $30,634 for females. The per capita income for the city was $15,516. About 27.3% of families and 33.1% of the total population were below the poverty line, including 47.7% of those under age 18 and 18.4% of those age 65 or over.


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: In Chester, east–west streets are numbered, while north–south streets carry names. The main bisecting street, known as The Avenue of the States south of 9th Street and Edgmont Avenue north of it, is signed as both Pennsylvania Route 320 (southbound only; northbound PA Rt. 320 uses adjacent Madison Street to Interstate 95) and Pennsylvania Route 352. North of I-95, State Route 320 follows Providence Avenue. Between 1993 and 2006, the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation (PennDOT) widened and realigned Pennsylvania Route 291 from Trainer to Eddystone from a two-lane roadway to a five-lane roadway. This widening and realignment project, spearheaded by the late State Senator Clarence D. Bell, allowed PA Route 291 to maintain at least two travel lanes in each direction.


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: Chester is served by two interstate highways: Interstate 95 and Interstate 476, which meet in nearby Crum Lynne. I-95 was built in the 1960s and originally terminated just north of the Chester/Eddystone line at the present-day I-95/I-476 junction. It was extended north in the 1970s, with the section around Philadelphia International Airport being completed in 1985. Three exits on I-95 allow access to Highland Avenue, Kerlin Street, and Edgmont Avenue/Avenue of the States (Rts. 320 & 352).


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: Two federal highway routes, U.S. Route 13 and U.S. Route 322, also run through Chester. US 13 enters Chester from Trainer on W. 4th Street, becomes part of Highland Avenue between W. 4th Street and W. 9th Street, and then continues on 9th Street to Morton Avenue. US 13 follows Morton Avenue in the city's Sun Village section until it crosses Ridley Creek and becomes Chester Pike in Eddystone.


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: US 322 enters Chester from the northeast, merges with I-95 briefly and crosses the Delaware River over the Commodore Barry Bridge. Prior to the bridge's opening in 1974, US 322 would cross the Delaware River on the Chester-Bridgeport Ferry, via Flower Street, causing major backups because of limited space on the ferries. With the expansion of State Rt. 291 and the redevelopment of the Chester Waterfront, both the Delaware River Port Authority and PennDOT built a pair of entrance (westbound) and exit (eastbound) ramps to PA Rt. 291, providing direct access to the waterfront without using local streets. The ramps were built between 2007 and 2010 and were opened in 2011.


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: Plans for reconstruction of US 322 and the merge with I-95 are underway. The road currently requires traffic to merge onto I-95 in the left lane and requires changing lanes three times to the Commodore Barry Bridge exit ramp in less than a mile.


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: A $16.6 million project to fix up eight I-95 bridges will begin March 2017 and is expected to be finished in November 2018. Improvements to Chestnut Street and Morton Avenue are also included in the project.


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: Public bus transportation in Chester is provided by the Southeastern Pennsylvania Transportation Authority (SEPTA), which acquired the former Suburban Philadelphia Transit Authority (aka "Red Arrow" Lines) in 1968. Seven bus routes (Routes 37, 109, 113, 114, 117, 118, and 119) serve the city, with the Chester Transportation Center as the hub.


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: The city is also served by the SEPTA Wilmington/Newark Line commuter rail service. The Chester Transportation Center and Highland Avenue stations are the two SEPTA train stations in Chester. The Lamokin Street station was run as a flagstop station until it was closed and demolished in 2003 due to low usage.


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: The Chester Transportation Center was both a commuter and intercity stop on the former Pennsylvania Railroad's New York City–Washington, D.C. route. The Chester Transportation Center was bypassed when Amtrak took over intercity rail passenger services in 1971, with the exception from April 30, 1978, to October 29, 1983, when the "Chesapeake" stopped once daily in each direction between Philadelphia and Washington, D.C.


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: In 1995, the city's schools ranked last among the state's 501 districts, leading Pennsylvania education officials in 2001 to hire the for-profit Edison Schools to run the local school district for three years.


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: The Chester-Upland School District serves the city, along with nearby Chester Township and the borough of Upland.


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: Drexel Neumann Academy, of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Philadelphia, is Chester's only parochial school. It is run by the Saint Katharine Drexel Roman Catholic Church which was established in 1993 by the Archdiocese of Philadelphia with the consolidation of all Roman Catholic parishes in the city.


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: Resurrection of Our Lord School in Chester closed in 1993. St. James High School for Boys closed its doors in 1993 due to low enrollment.


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: Chester Charter Scholars Academy began in 2008 as a small public-private partnership between The Chester Fund for Education and the Arts and the Chester-Upland school district. The school was originally called the Chester Upland School for the Arts (CUSA) and operated until 2011 when significant staff reduction occurred due to state funding cuts. In 2012, a charter school application was accepted and the school operated in Aston until September 2017 when a $30 million campus was built on Highland Ave.


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: Chester Community Charter School is a charter school established in 1998 that serves over 4,000 students in grades K-8. The school operates four campuses, the Upland campus at 1100 Main Street in Upland, the Aston campus at 200 Commerce Drive in Aston, the East Campus at 302 East 5th Street and the West Campus at 2730 Bethel Road in Chester Township.


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: Widener Partnership Charter School was first launched in 2006, and is located across from the main campus of Widener University. It enrolls students from kindergarten to eighth grade. Widener University provides support to the charter school including educating staff, providing work to graduate students, and use of the university facilities. The school also has a number of outside partners that include 21st Century Learning Communities, Andrew Hicks Foundation, Big Brothers Big Sisters, Big Friends, Chester Education Foundation, Earth Force, Exelon Foundation, Incredible Years, PECO, and Soccer for Success. The Widener Partnership Charter School also has recently added a new $4.6 million wing of the school at 1450 Edgmont Ave. This new edition includes a science learning center, an extension of the library, a gymnasium, eight classrooms and eight offices.


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: Widener University is a private, coeducational university in Chester. Its main campus sits on . The university has three other campuses: two in Pennsylvania (Harrisburg and Exton) and one in Wilmington, Delaware.


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: Founded as The Bullock School for Boys in 1821, the school was established in Wilmington, Delaware. It became The Alsop School for Boys from 1846 to 1853, and then Hyatt's Select School for Boys from 1853 to 1859. Military instruction was introduced in 1858, and in 1859, the school changed its name to Delaware Military Academy. It moved to Chester in 1862 and became Pennsylvania Military Academy. It was known as Pennsylvania Military College after 1892 and adopted the Widener name in 1972.


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: About 3,300 undergraduates and 3,300 graduate students attend Widener in eight degree-granting schools. The university offers associates, bachelors, masters, and doctoral degrees in areas ranging from traditional liberal arts to professional programs. The Carnegie Foundation classifies Widener as a "Doctoral/Research University" and a "Community Engagement Institution". Widener was ranked #181 in the National Universities category by "US News & World Report" for 2012.


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: Crozer Theological Seminary was a multi-denominational religious institution built in 1858 by the wealthy industrialist John Price Crozer. Its most famous student was Martin Luther King Jr., who graduated in 1951 with a Bachelor of Divinity degree.


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: In 1970, the school was moved to Rochester, New York in a merger that formed the Colgate Rochester Crozer Divinity School. The Old Main Building of the Crozer Theological Seminary was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1973. The seminary grounds are part of the Crozer Arboretum and the Old Main building is part of the Crozer-Chester Medical Center.


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: According to a report in 2020 by NeighborhoodScout, Chester ranked 20th on a list of the "Top 100 Most Dangerous Cities in the U.S.". NeighborhoodScout says one's chance of becoming a victim of either violent or property crime in Chester is one in 21, and that "Within Pennsylvania, more than 99% of the communities have a lower crime rate than Chester."


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: With the construction of Harrah's Philadelphia, the city received a series of horse races that were once held at the Brandywine Raceway and the now-defunct Liberty Bell Park Racetrack. The racino opened on January 22, 2008, and features a specially constructed bridge that enables the midpoint of races, contested at one mile, to take place over the Delaware River.


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: Chester is the home of the Major League Soccer Philadelphia Union franchise, which plays its home games at Subaru Park, a soccer-specific stadium at the base of the Commodore Barry Bridge. Located on the Delaware River, the stadium is part of a larger development called Rivertown. Financing for the Rivertown development was announced in early 2008 by Governor Ed Rendell and Pennsylvania Senate Majority Leader Dominic Pileggi, with $25 million going to the construction of Subaru Park, and an additional $7 million towards a two-phase project composing of 186 townhouses, 25 apartments, of office space, a convention center, more than of retail space, and a parking structure to house 1,350 cars. In phase two, another 200 apartments will be built, along with of office space and of retail space.


title: Chester, Pennsylvania

text: St. Katharine Drexel Church is the only Roman Catholic parish remaining in Chester. It is part of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Philadelphia and is the result of the conglomeration of six Chester parishes in 1993.


title: Mercury Rev

text: Mercury Rev is an American indie rock band formed in 1989 in Buffalo, New York. Original personnel were David Baker (vocals), Jonathan Donahue (vocals, guitars), Sean Mackowiak, known as "Grasshopper" (guitars, clarinet), Dave Fridmann (bass guitar), Suzanne Thorpe (flute) and Jimy Chambers (drums).


title: Mercury Rev

text: The band's members met while students at the University at Buffalo. Buffalo media studies professor Tony Conrad was a strong artistic influence on co-founder Grasshopper. The band was initially formed to score its members' student films.


title: Mercury Rev

text: With their early records, Mercury Rev offered experimental, psychedelic rock, which gradually shifted to a melodic, ornate sound. Mercury Rev is often compared to The Flaming Lips, and share close ties: soon after the band's formation, Donahue also joined the Flaming Lips as second guitarist and appeared on two of their albums; and since the 1990 album "In a Priest Driven Ambulance", Dave Fridmann has co-produced every Flaming Lips studio album to date except 1993's "Transmissions from the Satellite Heart".


title: Mercury Rev

text: Despite considerable critical acclaim, their early releases never gave Mercury Rev more than cult popularity, though they appeared on the smaller second stage at some 1993 Lollapalooza stops. Baker left after their second record, "Boces" (1993), citing musical and personal disputes; he later recorded an album as Shady. With his departure, the thematically darker and musically experimental features of the band began to disappear.


title: Mercury Rev

text: The band's first post-Baker album, "See You on the Other Side" (1995) contained a variety of styles, including a sprawling psychedelic opening track and noise rock numbers like "Young Man's Stride" (for which a music video was released), but also more melodic songs, such as "Sudden Ray of Hope".


title: Mercury Rev

text: That year, the group also recorded and released the album, "Paralyzed Mind Of The Archangel Void", under the moniker "Harmony Rockets". The album featured a single forty minute track of mostly instrumental psychedelic improvised music. It was rated four and half stars, out of five, by AllMusic. The group performed it again in the Don't Look Back concert series in 2009.


title: Mercury Rev

text: The 1998 release of the acclaimed "Deserter's Songs" (which featured appearances by Garth Hudson and Levon Helm of The Band) made Mercury Rev unexpected pop stars. In the UK, "NME" magazine made "Deserter's Songs" their Album of the Year. Donahue's earnest, high-pitched vocals and concentration on relatively concise, melodic songs gave the band's material an entirely new feel and much increased popularity ("Deserter's Songs" spawned three UK Top 40 singles: "Delta Sun Bottleneck Stomp", "Opus 40" and "Goddess On A Hiway").


title: Mercury Rev

text: "All Is Dream" was issued in 2001 and became the band's highest charting album in the UK to date (#11). It included "Little Rhymes", "Nite And Fog" and "The Dark is Rising," which reached No. 16 in the UK Singles Chart. David Bowie producer Tony Visconti arranged strings for the album.


title: Mercury Rev

text: Mercury Rev's "The Secret Migration" was released on January 24, 2005. It featured the UK Top 40 single "In A Funny Way" (#28). The album itself reached #16 in the UK Albums chart. It was followed up in 2006, by a compilation album, "" and the film soundtrack album "Hello Blackbird".


title: Mercury Rev

text: The band released a pair of albums on September 29, 2008: "Snowflake Midnight", and a free MP3 album of instrumentals, "Strange Attractor".


title: Mercury Rev

text: "The Light in You" was released on October 2, 2015 through Bella Union, their first studio album in seven years. It reached #39 on the UK albums chart. Mercury Rev's most recent album, a reworking of Bobbie Gentry's seminal album "The Delta Sweete", was released in February 2019. The album features instrumentation by Mercury Rev and a female guest singer unique to each song. Lucinda Williams, actress Carice van Houten, Beth Orton and Norah Jones were among the vocalists. The album was another UK Top 40 hit in the UK for the band (#32).


title: Mercury Rev

text: Other movies in which the band's songs can be heard are "Gunpowder Milkshake" (2020, "Goddess On A Hiway") and "Love And Monsters" (2020, "Opus 40").


title: Arjun Maini

text: Arjun Maini (born 10 December 1997) is an Indian professional racing driver, currently competing in the DTM. He has previously also competed in FIA Formula 2 Championship with Trident Racing, as well as Campos Racing.


title: Arjun Maini

text: Maini comes from a family of racers. His brother Kush is also a racer competing in the FIA Formula 3 Championship with MP Motorsport, and his father, Gautam, raced in the National Racing Championship in the late 1990s, at the Formula India Single Seater Maruti Engine. The teenager first fell in love with motorsport when his father gave him an electric car. Maini received his first go-kart, an 80cc Comer Kart at the age of 5.


title: Arjun Maini

text: Maini's uncle Chetan Maini is an Indian business magnate best known for building India's first electric car, REVA, and as the Founder of Reva Electric Car Company Ltd, now Mahindra Electric Mobility Limited, where he served as an advisor.


title: Arjun Maini

text: He idolises Sebastian Vettel and in his free time enjoys wrestling, cycling, fitness activities and video editing.


title: Arjun Maini

text: Maini received his first go-kart, an 80cc Comer Kart, at the age of 5. At the young age of 8, Maini won his first two championships, the MRF Mini Max Championship in both the Rotax class and the 4-stroke Cadet class in his first year of racing. After his first titles, Maini raced on foreign soil for the first time in the Asia Max championship, which led to immediate success. In 2008 Maini became the youngest Indian to win a kart race abroad by winning the Malaysian Royal Kelatan Kart Prix held in 2008.


title: Arjun Maini

text: Maini was the youngest driver to take part in the J.K. Tyre Rotax Max Junior Max National championship at the age of 11. He was selected by the Red Rooster Racing Team in 2009. He then took part in the Rotax Max Challenge India - Junior in 2010 and finished in 2nd place, with the highest number of fastest laps. Maini's major breakthrough came in 2011 where he won the J.K.Tyre Rotax Max National Karting Championship title in the Junior Max category and followed this up by becoming the Sahara Force India team's One from a Billion winner. He was also the winner of AKOC race in Macau as well as the Ask KF3 Race in Elite, Malaysia. He finished second overall in the AKS Malaysian Championship 2011.


title: Arjun Maini

text: In his penultimate year of karting, Maini finished a creditable fifth in the ROK Cup International Final in Junior ROK category. Maini was awarded the best rookie at Rowrah while racing in the MSA British Karting Championship. He also finished in second place in Junior category in the Indonesia Kart Prix 2012 along with first place in the Junior max category in Rotax Invitational Karting Race held at Kuala Lumpur.


title: Arjun Maini

text: Maini then stepped up into cars in 2013. He finished runner up in the J.K.Tyre Racing Series championship, winning two races at the Buddh International Circuit as well as winning the Malaysian Super 6 Series. He also competed in the WSK Euro and Master karting in the KF category.


title: Arjun Maini

text: In 2014 he then went on to compete in the BRDC Formula 4 championship; finishing second overall and missing out on the championship by 3 points to teammate George Russell. He finished the championship with 8 wins and 9 podium finishes. He was also the highest ranked Indian driver in the Driver Database


title: Arjun Maini

text: At the beginning of 2015 Maini showed remarkable pace in the Toyota Racing Series in New Zealand en route to a 4th overall in the championship with two wins, five podiums and 3 poles. He also finished 4th overall in Race 2 of the Pau Grand Prix. However, a learning year in the FIA European Formula 3 series meant he could only manage 18th overall and 9th in the rookie class. Maini did manage to end the season on a high, finishing 10th at the Macau Grand Prix.


title: Arjun Maini

text: In 2016, Maini raced for Jenzer Motorsport in the GP3 series, he finished the season in 10th position in the championship despite missing the first 4 races. He also became the first Indian to secure a podium in the GP3 series at Hungaroring, after finishing 2nd. Maini also raced in the Macau GP for Team Motopark.


title: Arjun Maini

text: The Indian signed for Jenzer again in 2017, for his second stint in the GP3 Series. He scored two podiums, including a victory in the sprint race at Circuit de Barcelona-Catalunya, and ended up 9th in the championship, two positions behind teammate Alessio Lorandi.


title: Arjun Maini

text: At the end of 2017 he took part in a post season test in Abu Dhabi with F2 teams Trident and Russian Time.


title: Arjun Maini

text: Maini signed for Trident Racing in the 2018 FIA Formula 2 Championship, partnering fellow Haas F1 Team development driver Santino Ferrucci.


title: Arjun Maini

text: Maini replaced Dorian Boccolacci at Campos Racing in the 2019 FIA Formula 2 Championship at Spielberg. He raced in six races, scoring no points, before being replaced by Marino Sato.


title: Arjun Maini

text: In May 2017, it was announced that Haas F1 team signed Maini as a development driver. He remained in his role throughout 2018.


title: Arjun Maini

text: Maini changed from single seaters to Endurance racing in the European Le Mans Series with RLR M SPORT. He also competed in the prestigious 2019 24 Hours of Le Mans as well as competing in the Asian Le Mans Series where he won the first race at Shanghai International Circuit.


title: Arjun Maini

text: In 2021 Maini joined the Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters driving for Mercedes-AMG Team GetSpeed. He picked up his first podium finish in the series at the Norisring. This was also the first podium finish by an Indian in the history of the series.


title: Purser

text: A purser is the person on a ship principally responsible for the handling of money on board. On modern merchant ships, the purser is the officer responsible for all administration (including the ship's cargo and passenger manifests) and supply. Frequently, the cooks and stewards answer to the purser as well. They were also called a pusser in British naval slang.


title: Purser

text: The purser joined the warrant officer ranks of the Royal Navy in the early 14th century and existed as a naval rank until 1852. The development of the warrant officer system began in 1040, when five English ports began furnishing warships to King Edward the Confessor in exchange for certain privileges. They also furnished crews whose officers were the Master, Boatswain, Carpenter and Cook. Later these officers were "warranted" by the British Admiralty. Pursers received no pay but were entitled to profits made through their business activities. In the 18th century a purser would buy his warrant for £65 and was required to post sureties totalling £2,100 with the Admiralty. They maintained and sailed the ships and were the standing officers of the navy, staying with the ships in port between voyages as caretakers supervising repairs and refitting.


title: Purser

text: In charge of supplies such as food and drink, clothing, bedding, candles, the purser was originally known as "the clerk of burser." They would usually charge the supplier a 5% commission for making a purchase and it is recorded they charged a considerable markup when they resold the goods to the crew. The purser was not in charge of pay, but he had to track it closely since the crew had to pay for all their supplies, and it was the purser's job to deduct those expenses from their wages. The purser bought everything (except food and drink) on credit, acting as an unofficial private merchant. In addition to his official responsibilities, it was customary for the purser to act as an official private merchant for luxuries such as tobacco and to be the crew's banker.


title: Purser

text: As a result, the purser could be at risk of losing money and being thrown into debtor's prison; conversely, the crew and officers habitually suspected the purser of making an illicit profit out of his complex dealings. It was the common practice of pursers forging pay tickets to claim wages for "phantom" crew members that led to the Navy's implementation of muster inspection to confirm who worked on a vessel. The position, though unpaid, was very sought after because of the expectation of making a reasonable profit; although there were wealthy pursers, it was from side businesses facilitated by their ships' travels.


title: Purser

text: On modern-day passenger ships, the purser has evolved into a multiperson office that handles general administration, fees and charges, currency exchange, and any other money-related needs of the passengers and crew.


title: Purser

text: On modern airliners, the cabin manager (chief flight attendant) is often called the purser. The purser oversees the flight attendants by making sure airline passengers are safe and comfortable. A flight purser completes detailed reports and verifies all safety procedures are followed.


title: Laëtitia Eïdo

text: Laëtitia Eïdo (born October 25, 1985) is a French actress, born to a French father and a Lebanese mother. She is best known as Dr. Shirin El Abed, one of the leading roles in the Israeli Netflix series "Fauda", and as the voice of Mira in the Adult Swim adult animated television series "Primal".


title: Laëtitia Eïdo

text: She is also known for her roles in the American HBO Cinemax "Strike Back" series, "A Borrowed Identity" by Eran Riklis and the Israeli production "Tel Aviv on Fire". Laëtitia was awarded the Best Actress Award at Montreal's Festival Vues du Monde' at Fespaco and at the Agadir Festival for her title role of the historical character Fatma N'Soumer in the French-Algerian feature film ".


title: Laëtitia Eïdo

text: Her multicultural background has led to her being cast as various different nationalities and playing roles in several languages. Eido has worked on both French, American, and other international productions.


title: Laëtitia Eïdo

text: She first trained in classical acting techniques in Paris, she attended workshops with theatre companies such as Peter Brook's or Jacques Lecoq's. She then studied in depth S. Meisner acting techniques in Paris and New York. She thus first started her acting career in the theatre where she interpreted known classical roles such as Andromache, in Racine's Greek tragedy, Eglé, Marivaux's character in the Quarrel.


title: Laëtitia Eïdo

text: In 2017 she took part in the new adaptation of the book the 4th wall of Sorj Chalandon staged by Arnaud Stéphan, at the National Theatre of Bretagne in Rennes. She then directed her career towards cinema and television. She plays many roles such as Cleopatra in " for the channel ARTE, Eshana for the series called "Hero Corp" directed by Simon Astier, the role of Jade in a French series called "Yes I Do", produced by Studio+, as well as the leading feminine role in the film "Holy Air" directed by Shady Srour. She also starred in the film "Tel Aviv on Fire" directed by Sameh Zoabi.


title: Laëtitia Eïdo

text: In 2014, she took on the role of Fatma n'Soumer, a drama film shot in the Algerian Berber mountains in the Kabyle language, taking on the traits of a resistant woman who repels the first French invasion in 1850. That same year she played Fahima in the drama "Dancing Arabs", directed by Eran Riklis.


title: Laëtitia Eïdo

text: In 2015, she landed her breakthrough role as Dr. Shirin El Abed in the international television series "Fauda". That same year, she was a ‘Talent’ Alumna at the Berlin Film Festival (2015) and a jury member in festivals like Jerusalem, Oran or Cannes for the ‘Queer Palm’ award.


title: M.A.S.K. (TV series)

text: M.A.S.K. is a 1985 French/American animated television series produced by DIC and ICC TV Productions, Ltd. The series was based on the M.A.S.K. action figures produced by Kenner Products. It was animated in Japan by Ashi Productions, Studio World and K.K. DiC Asia (later known as K.K. C&D Asia).


title: M.A.S.K. (TV series)

text: M.A.S.K. (an acronym for "Mobile Armored Strike Kommand") is a special task force led by Matt Trakker, who operate transforming armored vehicles in their ongoing battle against the criminal organization V.E.N.O.M. (an acronym for Vicious Evil Network of Mayhem) with an emphasis on superpowered helmets (called "masks") worn by the characters of both factions.


title: M.A.S.K. (TV series)

text: V.E.N.O.M.'s primary goal was obtaining money through either robbery, extortion, counterfeiting, kidnapping, or attempting to steal historical artifacts, but M.A.S.K. always found a way to foil their plans.


title: M.A.S.K. (TV series)

text: A total of 75 syndicated episodes over two seasons were broadcast from September 1985 to November 1986. The first season consisted of 65 episodes. The second season, whose theme centered around auto racing instead of crimefighting, lasted only ten episodes.


title: M.A.S.K. (TV series)

text: One of many cartoons produced during the 1980s as a vehicle for toy merchandising, "M.A.S.K." was a hybrid of popular era cartoons "" and "The Transformers". When originally broadcast, "M.A.S.K." was the first closed-captioned series to air in first-run syndication.


title: M.A.S.K. (TV series)

text: Several episodes of the series were released under Karl-Lorimar's "Kideo Video" branding on VHS in the 1980s, with two episodes per tape. The "racing" second season was distributed by Tempest Video.


title: M.A.S.K. (TV series)

text: In the United Kingdom, two releases titled "M.A.S.K The Movie", and "M.A.S.K The Movie II" were released by Tempo Video, featuring episodes edited into a feature-length format.


title: M.A.S.K. (TV series)

text: While certain critics criticized the show for showing the weaponry and vehicles "at the expense of anything deeper in terms of plotting and characterization", the show was quite successful. IGN voted "M.A.S.K." the 99th-best animated series in 2009, calling it one of the most popular cartoon/toy marketing franchises of the 1980s, stating that it took many of the strengths of "G.I. Joe" and "Transformers" while taking few of their flaws.


title: M.A.S.K. (TV series)

text: In 2015, Hasbro and Paramount were planning a cinematic universe combining Micronauts with "G.I. Joe", "", "M.A.S.K." and "Rom". A group of writers consisting of Michael Chabon, Brian K. Vaughan, Nicole Perlman, Lindsey Beer, Cheo Coker, John Francis Daley, Jonathan Goldstein, Joe Robert Cole, Jeff Pinkner, Nicole Riegel and Geneva Robertson-Dworet was formed in April 2016 to create a writer's room to develop a storylines for the film. F. Gary Gray was attached to direct the live-action adaptation, while the writer Chris Bremner was hired to pen the script.


title: Joachim Sauter

text: Joachim Sauter (16 May 1959 – 10 July 2021) was a German media artist, designer and technology entrepreneur. He was appointed Professor for New Media Art and Design at the Universität der Künste Berlin, UdK (Berlin University of the Arts) in 1991, and in 1993 he created Terravision (computer program), before pursuing a lawsuit against Google for infringing the patent. He became an adjunct professor at UCLA, Los Angeles in 2001.


title: Joachim Sauter

text: Sauter studied design at the UdK Berlin, and direction and camera at the German Academy for Film and Television, Berlin. He was using computers both as a tool and as a medium since the early stages of his work. A pioneer of new media, he developed and shaped the field from the early 1980s on.


title: Joachim Sauter

text: In 1988, he founded the new media design studio ART+COM with other designers, architects, technologists, and other artists and scientists. Their goal was to research the new medium in the realms of art and design, emphasizing the translation of information (easily transmissible via new media) into physical spaces, offering a more communal, reality-grounded experience than could be achieved with computer monitors alone. As Head of Design at ART+COM, Sauter led the interdisciplinary group’s innovative experiments, using new technologies to convey complex topics while exploring their potential for spatial communication and art.


title: Online Streaming Act

text: The Online Streaming Act, commonly known as Bill C-11, is a proposed bill introduced in the 44th Canadian Parliament. It was first introduced on November 3, 2020, by Minister of Canadian Heritage Steven Guilbeault during the second session of the 43rd Canadian Parliament as An Act to amend the Broadcasting Act and to make related and consequential amendments to other Acts, commonly known as Bill C-10, which passed in the House of Commons on June 22, 2021, but failed to pass the Senate before Parliament was dissolved for a federal election. It was reintroduced with amendments as the "Online Streaming Act" during the first session of the 44th Canadian Parliament in February 2022 and passed in the House of Commons on June 21, 2022. it is once again pending Senate approval.


title: Online Streaming Act

text: The bill seeks to amend the "Broadcasting Act" to account for the increased prominence of internet video and digital media, and to prioritize the "needs and interests" of Canadians, and the inclusion and involvement of Canadians of diverse backgrounds in broadcast programming. It adds undertakings that conduct "broadcasting" over the internet to the regulatory scope of the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC), which would give the CRTC the power to regulate almost all audiovisual content distributed via online platforms (including monetized content on social media services). This can include compelling them to make use of Canadian talent, mandating that they make contributions to the Canada Media Fund to support the production of Canadian content, and improve the discoverability of Canadian content on their platforms.


title: Online Streaming Act

text: Alongside this, the bill also removes the seven-year term limit for CRTC-issued broadcast licenses (a regulatory process which will not apply to internet broadcasters), adds a mechanism of imposing "conditions" on broadcasters without them being bound to a license term, and introduces monetary fines for violating orders and regulations issued by the CRTC.


title: Online Streaming Act

text: Supporters of the bill state that it would allow the CRTC to compel foreign streaming services to follow similar regulatory obligations to conventional radio and television broadcasters, and government officials projected that mandating participation in the CMF by online broadcasters would result in at least $830 million in additional funding by 2023. The opposition has directed criticism at the bill for granting a large amount of power to the CRTC, who are unelected regulators and receive very little guidance from Parliament or the government. Its unclear applicability to user-generated content on social media services has also faced concerns that it infringes freedom of expression, and that the bill would extraterritorially subject any form of audiovisual content distributed online via platforms accessible by Canadian residents to regulation by the CRTC. The bill has also faced criticism over the lack of transparency in its legislative process, with both instances of the bill having faced arbitrarily limited time periods for their clause-by-clause review, thus limiting the amount of debate and discussion of individual amendments.


title: Online Streaming Act

text: On January 19, 2021, the Broadcasting and Telecommunications Legislative Review Panel issued a report to Minister of Heritage Steven Guilbeault and Minister of Innovation, Science and Industry Navdeep Bains, calling for reforms of Canada's broadcasting system to account for digital media. Among other reforms, the panel urgently recommended that any company "with significant Canadian revenues" that distributes or curates audio, audiovisual, or news content be required to register with and be regulated by the CRTC (which the review proposed to be renamed to the "Canadian Communications Commission" to signify its wider scope), and become obligated to make expenditures towards the creation of Canadian content (just as licensed radio and television broadcasters must do under the existing "Broadcasting Act" and CRTC policy). The CRTC does not currently regulate internet content.


title: Online Streaming Act

text: The panel's urgent recommendations were incorporated into Bill C-10. The bill is the first in a series of three bills intended to address online platforms and their influence in Canada, alongside a proposed "online harms" bill that will seek to address online hate speech. On February 16, 2021, the bill completed its second reading and was referred to the Standing Committee on Canadian Heritage (CHPC).


title: Online Streaming Act

text: On June 1, a proposed amendment by the Conservatives to reinstate a clause excluding user-generated content from the scope of the bill, citing various concerns from critics and media outlets, was voted down by the House. The Liberals, with support of the Bloc, subsequently passed a motion of time allocation in order to limit debate of the bill (the first such motion in 20 years, and only the third overall) to five hours, after which the Heritage Committee was required to conclude its clause-by-clause review. Guilbeault cited "systematic obstruction" of the bill by Conservatives.


title: Online Streaming Act

text: As a result of the effective "gag order", a number of amendments were voted on with no discussion or publication of the amendments permitted. On June 14, another motion was introduced to only allow one hour of debate for the amended bill when it returned to the House, and only 75 minutes for the third reading. On June 15, the aforementioned amendments were voided by Speaker Anthony Rota, for having been passed by the Heritage Committee after the five-hour period expired. During a late-night session on June 21, most of the voided amendments were reintroduced, and the bill was passed by the House of Commons 196–112 during its third reading. It awaited Senate approval, but was unable to do so before Parliament was dissolved for the 2021 federal election.


title: Online Streaming Act

text: The bill was reintroduced in February 2022 as the Online Streaming Act, "or" Bill C-11 on February 2, 2022. Once again, in June 2022 debate was largely curtailed by providing only three,120-minute sessions for a clause-by-clause review, after which all remaining proposed amendments were voted on with no discussion or publication permitted. The bill was passed by the House of Commons 208–117 on June 21 during its third reading, and will once again be sent to the Senate for review.


title: Online Streaming Act

text: The bill consists primarily of amendments to the "Broadcasting Act", along with consequential and related amendments to existing legislation such as "Canada's Anti-Spam Legislation", the "Cannabis Act," the "Copyright Act", and the "Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission Act." The exact regulatory policies would be determined by the CRTC based on its interpretation of the amended "Broadcasting Act" after royal assent.


title: Online Streaming Act

text: The broadcasting policy of Canada as defined by the "Broadcasting Act" is amended, stating that the broadcasting system must serve the needs and interests of all Canadians (including age groups, economic backgrounds, ethnic groups, disabilities, and gender identities among other categories) via programming and employment opportunities.


title: Online Streaming Act

text: The CRTC is given the authority to impose "conditions" on broadcasters to uphold the broadcasting policy of Canada, including the production, presentation, and discoverability of Canadian content, accessibility of content to individuals with disabilities, and other regulatory matters similar to the current "conditions of license" used to regulate broadcasters. "Conditions" would not be bound to license terms. The licensing framework for broadcasters is modified to remove the seven-year limit for fixed terms, and authorize the CRTC to issue indefinite licenses. The CRTC will be prohibited from imposing any obligation on the industry that "does not contribute in a material way to implementing the broadcasting policy for Canada." The act introduces monetary penalties for violating any regulation or order issued by the CRTC, with fines of up to C$25,000 for the first offense by an individual, and up to $10 million for the first offense by a corporation.


title: Online Streaming Act

text: The "Act" is amended to include a definition of "online undertakings", which are any internet service that broadcasts "programs" over the internet (the "Act" currently defines "programs" as "sounds or visual images, or a combination of sounds and visual images, that are intended to inform, enlighten or entertain, but does not include visual images, whether or not combined with sounds, that consist predominantly of alphanumeric text"). The definition of "broadcast undertaking" and "broadcasting" under the "Act" would also be amended to include online transmission.


title: Online Streaming Act

text: Via the "Act", foreign online undertakings are excluded from the requirement that all broadcasters be owned by Canadians, but are compelled to "make the greatest practicable use of Canadian creative and other human resources", and "contribute in an equitable manner to strongly support the creation, production and presentation of Canadian programming".


title: Online Streaming Act

text: Unlike conventional broadcast undertakings, online undertakings are exempt from the requirement that all broadcasters must be licensed. However, the bill would still allow the CRTC to require that all broadcasters (including "online undertakings") be registered with the Commission, and to impose regulatory "conditions" and obligations on them, such as making contributions to the Canada Media Fund, giving prominence to Canadian content on their platforms (although the bill prohibits mandating the use of algorithms to do so), and being compelled to provide information to the Commission on such matters when requested.


title: Online Streaming Act

text: The "Act" applies to "programs" on a social media service that are uploaded by "the provider of the service or the provider's affiliate, or the agent or mandatary of either of them", or otherwise covered under regulations created by the CRTC, making regulations that consider (Section 4.2(2)):


title: Online Streaming Act

text: Persons are not considered to be carrying on a broadcasting undertaking for the purposes of the "Act" if:


title: Online Streaming Act

text: The bill has faced mixed reception. Supporters of the bill argue that it creates a level playing field between legacy and digital broadcast undertakings, and would allow the CRTC to compel foreign streaming services such as Netflix and YouTube to make expenditures towards the production of Canadian content in the same way as conventional broadcasters, and be required to prepare reports to the CRTC on the discoverability of Canadian content on their platforms. Federal officials estimated that mandating participation in the Canada Media Fund by major streaming services could generate up to $830 million in new funding per-year by 2023. Supporters of the bill also argue that it is designed to encourage the production of certified Canadian content, and discourage the practice of "foreign location and service productions" (FLSP) that extensively use Canadian resources and personnel, but do not include Canadians in specific key creative positions.


title: Online Streaming Act

text: Critics of the proposed legislation have argued that it gives broad power to the CRTC, who are unelected regulators and receive very little guidance from Parliament or the government, to enforce regulations on digital media platforms. University of Ottawa professor Michael Geist criticized the bill for removing a number of long-standing policies from the "Act" that were intended to protect Canada's broadcasting system, including the requirement that all broadcasters be Canadian-owned and controlled, and the expectation that broadcasters make "maximum use, and in no case less than predominant use" of Canadian talent in programming.


title: Online Streaming Act

text: The bill originally contained a clause, Section 4(1), which excluded "programs" that are uploaded by users of social media platforms, who are not an owner, operator, or affiliate of the platform, as well as any "online undertakings" that consist only of such content, from the scope of the "Broadcasting Act". It was removed from the bill in April 2021, due to concerns that it could be used as a loophole by video sharing platforms to declare music content as being user-generated because it was uploaded to a musician's own channel, and thus not provide reports on such content to the CRTC. Concerns were raised by critics that removing the clause would place a burden on the operators of social media platforms to regulate user content for compliance with CRTC regulations.


title: Online Streaming Act

text: Former CRTC commissioner Peter Menzies stated that "granting a government agency authority over legal user generated content — particularly when backed up by the government’s musings about taking down websites — doesn’t just infringe on free expression, it constitutes a full-blown assault upon it and, through it, the foundations of democracy." Guilbeault stated that the bill was intended to cover "professional series, films, and music", and argued that the bill included "safeguards" to protect individual users. Liberal MP and Guilbeault's secretary Julie Dabrusin argued that "we do not want to regulate your cat videos."


title: Online Streaming Act

text: Conservative Party leader Erin O'Toole commented that Justin Trudeau's government was the most "anti-internet government in Canadian history". Conservative Party heritage critic Alain Rayes stated that "Conservatives support creating a level playing field between large, foreign streaming services and Canadian broadcasters, but not at the cost of Canadians’ fundamental rights and freedoms." Conservative MP Michael Barrett accused the bill of "silencing Canadians online", and argued that Trudeau was attempting to make "every aspect of Canadian life" conform to "his Liberal vision of Canadian society". In response, Trudeau argued that free speech is "not negotiable by our government", and commented that "the tinfoil hats on the other side of the aisle are really quite spectacular."


title: Online Streaming Act

text: On May 3, Guilbeault stated that the bill would be amended to reinstate a more explicit exclusion of user-generated content from the bill, stating that it "is not about what Canadians do online. It is about what the web giants do and don't do, which is to support Canadian stories and music." The amendment adds a statement establishing that the CRTC's powers over social media platforms would be limited to imposing conditions on "the discoverability of Canadian creators"; Geist criticized the amendment for merely confirming the CRTC's regulatory powers and "doubling down on [the government's] Internet regulation plans."


title: Online Streaming Act

text: On May 9 in an interview with CTV's political talk show "Question Period", Guilbeault stated that the "Broadcasting Act" as amended by the bill "should apply to people who are broadcasters, or act like broadcasters", and suggested that social media users that have a large audience or derive a large amount of revenue (insofar that they have a "material impact on the Canadian economy") would also be classified as broadcasters.


title: Online Streaming Act

text: Concerns were raised over the comments, as they had contradicted Guilbeault's previous assurance that the "Act" would not apply to individual users of social networks, and it was unclear what the threshold would be under this criteria. Guilbeault later admitted that he had used "unclear language" during the "Question Period" interview, and argued that individual persons would not be considered broadcasters under the "Act", and that social media platforms would be regulated when they themselves "produce content for Canadians to watch or listen to — for broadcast." Regarding social media platforms likely being required to improve the discoverability of Canadian content, he explained that "it does not mean the CRTC would dictate, limit or prohibit a feed or what you can post, watch or listen to on social media. As the Internet is infinite, discoverability won’t limit the content you see on a feed – it will just add more."


title: Online Streaming Act

text: On May 9, Kate Taylor of "The Globe and Mail" published an opinion piece in support of the bill, stating that concerns over the bill were being "overblown" by the Conservatives, that the "Broadcasting Act" has always required that it be applied by the CRTC "in a manner that is consistent with the freedom of expression and journalistic, creative and programming independence", and that all Canadian creators "deserve a broadcasting law that offers basic fairness".