title: Armenians in the Ottoman Empire

text: Ottoman officials involved in the Sasun uprising, who were previously defeated in the First Zeitoun Rebellion, did not want the formation of another semi-autonomous Armenian region in the "Eastern" vilayets. In Sasun, Armenian activists were working to arm the folk and to recruit young men by motivating them to the Armenian cause. 50,000 Turkish and Kurdish troops started the offensive in Sasun, where 500 fedayees had to defend 20,000 unarmed people. The Armenians were headed by Andranik Ozanian along with Kevork Chavoush, Sepasdatsi Mourad, Keri, Hrayr Tjokhk, and others.


title: Armenians in the Ottoman Empire

text: The events of the Hamidian massacres and Sultan Abdul Hamid II's continued anti-Armenian policies gave way for the Armenian Revolutionary Federation to plan an assassination attempt on the sultan to enact vengeance. Dashnak members, led by ARF founder Christapor Mikaelian, secretly started producing explosives and planning the operation in Sofia, Bulgaria. The assassination attempt was unsuccessful in killing Abdul Hamid II, although it resulted in the death of 26 people and a further 58 wounded.


title: Armenians in the Ottoman Empire

text: The Second Constitutional Era of the Empire began shortly after Sultan Abdülhamid II restored the constitutional monarchy after the 1908 Young Turk Revolution. The period established many political groups. A series of elections during this period resulted in the gradual ascendance of the Committee of Union and Progress's ("CUP") domination in politics. This period also marked the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire.


title: Armenians in the Ottoman Empire

text: On 24 July 1908, Armenians' hopes for equality in the empire brightened with the removal of Hamid II from power and restored the country back to a constitutional monarchy. Two of the largest revolutionary groups trying to overthrow Sultan Abdul Hamid II had been the Armenian Revolutionary Federation and the Committee of Union and Progress, a group of mostly European-educated Turks. In a general assembly meeting in 1907, the ARF acknowledged that the Armenian and Turkish revolutionaries had the same goals. Although the Tanzimat reforms had given Armenians more rights and seats in the parliament, the ARF hoped to gain autonomy to govern Armenian populated areas of the Ottoman Empire as a "state within a state". The "Second congress of the Ottoman opposition" took place in Paris, France, in 1907. Opposition leaders including Ahmed Riza (liberal), Sabahheddin Bey, and ARF member Khachatur Maloumian attended. During the meeting, an alliance between the two parties was officially declared. The ARF decided to cooperate with the Committee of Union and Progress, hoping that if the Young Turks came to power, autonomy would be granted to the Armenians.


title: Armenians in the Ottoman Empire

text: Andranik Ozanian participated in the Balkan Wars of 1912–1913 alongside general Garegin Nzhdeh as a commander of Armenian auxiliary troops. Andranik met revolutionist Boris Sarafov and the two pledged to work jointly for the oppressed peoples of Armenia and Macedonia. Andranik participated in the First Balkan War alongside Nzhdeh as a Chief Commander of 12th Battalion of Lozengrad Third Brigade of the Macedonian-Adrianopolitan militia under the command of Colonel Aleksandar Protogerov. His detachment consisted of 273 Armenian volunteers. On 5 May 1912, the Armenian Revolutionary Federation officially severed the relations with the Ottoman government; a public declaration of the Western Bureau printed in the official announcement was directed to "Ottoman Citizens". The June issue of Droshak ran an editorial about it. There were overwhelming numbers of Armenians who served the Empire units with distinction during Balkan wars.


title: Armenians in the Ottoman Empire

text: The Armenian reform package was an arrangement negotiated with Russia, acting on behalf of the Great Powers, and the Ottoman Empire. It aimed to introduce reforms to the Armenian citizens of the empire. This agreement, which was solidified in February 1914 was based on the arrangements nominally made in 1878. According to this arrangement the inspectors general, whose powers and duties constituted the key to the question, were to be named for a period of ten years, and their engagement was not to be revocable during that period.


title: Armenians in the Ottoman Empire

text: During World War I, the Ottoman Empire and Russian Empire engaged each other in Caucasus and Persian Campaigns, and the CUP began to look on the Armenians with distrust and suspicion. This was due to the fact that the Russian army contained a contingent of Armenian volunteers. On 24 April 1915, Armenian intellectuals were arrested by Ottoman authorities and, with the Tehcir Law (29 May 1915), eventually a large proportion of Armenians living in Western Armenia perished in what has become known as the Armenian genocide. There was local Armenian resistance in the region, developed against the activities of the Ottoman Empire. The events of 1915 to 1917 are regarded by Armenians, Western historians, and even some Turkish writers and historians like Taner Akçam and Orhan Pamuk, to have been state-sponsored and planned mass killings, or genocide.


title: Atlas bear

text: The Atlas bear and African bear (Ursus arctos crowtheri) is an extinct population or populations of brown bear native to North Africa that went extinct in historical times.


title: Atlas bear

text: The Atlas bear was Africa's only native bear species that survived into modern times. Once inhabiting the Atlas Mountains and neighbouring areas, from Morocco to Libya, the animal is now thought to be extinct. The Atlas bear was brownish-black in colour and lacked a white mark on the muzzle. The fur on the underparts was reddish-orange. The fur was long. The muzzle and claws were shorter than those of the American black bear, though it was stouter and thicker in body. The Atlas bear was said to have been long and weighed up to . It apparently fed on roots, acorns and nuts. The Atlas bear was said to have been mostly herbivorous, but since most bears today are omnivores, the Atlas bear is believed to have been able to eat meat as well. If it did eat meat, it was believed to eat small mammals as well as carrion while scavenging.


title: Atlas bear

text: A mitochondrial DNA study of bones of Atlas bears ranging in age from 10,000 to 800 years Before Present found that the specimens belonged to two distinct clades, one, referred to as "Clade V", was indistinguishable from brown bears found in the Iberian Peninsula, while the other "Clade VI", was highly distinct from all other brown bears, either closely related to the polar bear and Alaskan brown bears or outside the group that contains all other brown bear mitochondrial lineages. Atlas bears appear to not be closely related to Middle Eastern brown bear populations, despite geographic proximity, which suggests that the colonisation of Africa by brown bears was an event of considerable antiquity.


title: Atlas bear

text: The Atlas bear's ecology is presumed to be similar to that of the other brown bears. Sympatric predators included the Barbary leopard and Barbary lion.


title: Atlas bear

text: The decline of the Atlas bear can be partly attributed to the Roman Empire; as the empire expanded into North Africa, the Romans intensely hunted and captured the Atlas bear (among other local animals) and used them as sport for many of their games. This went on for centuries, during which time thousands of bears were used in the arenas to fight against gladiators, lions, tigers and other animals. They were cruelly treated, often starved and malnourished to increase their desperation, and hence their aggression, within the arena. Thousands of these bears were also hunted for sport, "venatio" games, or execution of criminals in "ad bestias". The Atlas bear became extinct shortly after modern firearms were developed. Over-hunting may have contributed to their decline. Pressure from zoo collectors sealed their fate, with the animals being taken away from one another and unable to reproduce and flourish. The Atlas bear finally became extinct in the late 19th century; the last one recorded to be killed by hunters was in 1870 in the Tetouan Mountains in northern Morocco. Human activity can definitely be said to have played a large role in causing the extinction of the Atlas bear.


title: Prince Oscar, Duke of Skåne

text: Prince Oscar of Sweden, Duke of Skåne (Oscar Carl Olof; born 2 March 2016) is the younger child and only son of Crown Princess Victoria and her husband Prince Daniel. He is a grandson of King Carl XVI Gustaf and Queen Silvia and is third in the line of succession to the Swedish throne, after his mother and his sister, Princess Estelle.


title: Prince Oscar, Duke of Skåne

text: Prince Oscar was born on 2 March 2016 at Karolinska University Hospital in Solna. His birth was greeted by two 21-gun salutes on the island of Skeppsholmen, opposite Stockholm Palace. His names and title of Duke of Skåne were announced the following day by his maternal grandfather, the King.


title: Prince Oscar, Duke of Skåne

text: A Te Deum thanksgiving service was held in the palace's Royal Chapel on 3 March 2016 to celebrate his birth.


title: Prince Oscar, Duke of Skåne

text: Prince Oscar was christened on 27 May 2016 at the Royal Chapel of Stockholm Palace in Stockholm, Sweden. His godparents are Crown Prince Frederik of Denmark; Crown Princess Mette-Marit of Norway; his maternal aunt Princess Madeleine of Sweden; his mother's cousin Oscar Magnuson; and his father's cousin Hans Åström. He was christened in the family's antique christening gown which was first worn by Prince Gustaf Adolf when he was christened in 1906. His name and date of christening were added in embroidery to the gown.


title: King Cobra (2016 film)

text: King Cobra is a 2016 American biographical film about the life and early career of former gay pornographic film actor Sean Paul Lockhart. It was directed by Justin Kelly and based on the book "Cobra Killer: Gay Porn, Murder, and the Manhunt to Bring the Killers to Justice" by Andrew E. Stoner and Peter A. Conway.


title: King Cobra (2016 film)

text: Seventeen-year-old Sean Paul Lockhart arrives in Pennsylvania to film a solo sex scene under the direction of Stephen Kocis, the owner of Cobra Videos. Lockhart lies to his mother, claiming that he is visiting Pennsylvania to intern with a film company, and also lies to Kocis about his age, saying he is eighteen. Lockhart chooses Brent Corrigan as his stage name, and after a successful first video agrees to stay on and continue filming gay pornography with partners, all under the direction of Kocis. Kocis, who is also housing Corrigan, becomes gradually infatuated with Corrigan, and they have sex despite Corrigan's reluctance.


title: King Cobra (2016 film)

text: Faded escort Joe Kerekes and his muse Harlow Cuadra run a competitor porn site called Viper Boyz. Kerekes is aggressively possessive of Cuadra, and the couple are slipping into debt due to their extravagant lifestyle. Cuadra becomes increasingly irate at the popularity of Corrigan.


title: King Cobra (2016 film)

text: Corrigan's videos become extremely popular, and upon learning how unfairly he is paid, Corrigan starts to feel animosity towards Kocis. He asks for a high fee for his next video, and although Kocis agrees to raise sightly, he reminds Corrigan that he is under contract. Later that evening, he discovers that Kocis has earned exorbitant amounts, and after a fight Corrigan leaves to return home. After losing out on a high-profile contract due to Kocis legally owning his name, and after a telephone confrontation where Kocis tries to assert his position, Corrigan reports to the police that he was seventeen in the videos he filmed with Kocis. Kocis is indicted with child pornography charges and Corrigan's actions cause repercussions throughout the gay porn industry while rendering him unable to obtain work. It also causes friction with his mother, who looks upon him unfavorably.


title: King Cobra (2016 film)

text: Kerekes and Cuadra offer Corrigan $25,000 to perform in a video with Viper Boyz, however grow agitated that Kocis retains ownership of the Brent Corrigan moniker. Cuadra gains entry to Kocis' house by pretending to audition for Cobra Video, and during the audition he violently stabs Kocis to death. He and Kerekes rob the house before burning it down in an attempt to make it look as though Kocis died from arson.


title: King Cobra (2016 film)

text: Quickly uncovered as foul play, Kocis' death launches a murder investigation. Corrigan goes to the police to disclose he believes Kerekes and Cuadra were responsible. He visits their residence with a wire, and captures Cuadra's confession to the killing. In the moments before their arrest, they consider the gravity of their crimes before reaffirming their love. At the police station, Corrigan reconciles with his mother. In the final shots, Corrigan is shown to be director and actor on set, producing porn with his own studio.


title: King Cobra (2016 film)

text: "King Cobra" premiered at the 2016 Tribeca Film Festival in April 2016. Shortly after, IFC Films acquired distribution rights to the film. The film was released in the US on October 21, 2016.


title: King Cobra (2016 film)

text: Rotten Tomatoes reports that 43% of 35 surveyed critics gave the film a positive review; the average rating is 5.3/10. Metacritic rated it 48/100 based on 19 reviews. Graham Fuller of "Screen Daily" wrote that it was "a movie of such wit and daring that it could transcend its LGBT appeal to become a crossover hit". David Ehrlich of IndieWire gave it a letter grade of B+ and described it as a "rock-solid dark comedy" with an excellent cast. Peter Debruge of "Variety" called it "all smut and no soul", comparing it to Cinemax After Dark. John DeFore of "The Hollywood Reporter" called it "a dreary would-be thriller" that has poor pacing.


title: King Cobra (2016 film)

text: Corrigan himself was approached about playing a supporting role in the film but declined. He later criticized the filmmakers for "bastardising" his life to present an inaccurate portrayal of the murder and of his time in pornography.


title: Ellen Ochoa

text: Ellen Ochoa (born May 10, 1958) is an American engineer, former astronaut and former director of the Johnson Space Center. In 1993, Ochoa became the first Hispanic woman to go to space when she served on a nine-day mission aboard the Space Shuttle "Discovery". Ochoa became director of the center upon the retirement of the previous director, Michael Coats, on December 31, 2012. She was the first Hispanic director and the second female director of Johnson Space Center.


title: Ellen Ochoa

text: Ellen Lauri Ochoa was born on May 10, 1958 in Los Angeles, California to Joseph and Rosanne (née Deardorff) Ochoa. Her paternal grandparents immigrated from Sonora, Mexico to Arizona and later to California where her father was born. She grew up in La Mesa, California. Ochoa was the middle child of five and neither parent had college degrees.


title: Ellen Ochoa

text: Ochoa graduated from Grossmont High School in El Cajon in 1975. Her parents divorced when she was in high school and she lived with her mother and her brothers.


title: Ellen Ochoa

text: Ochoa received a bachelor of science degree in physics from San Diego State University and graduated Phi Beta Kappa in 1980, before earning a master of science degree and a doctorate from Stanford Department of Electrical Engineering in 1981 and 1985, respectively. During her time at San Diego State University she found that she loved physics, math, and engineering; ultimately, deciding to major in physics.


title: Ellen Ochoa

text: As a doctoral student at Stanford, and later as a researcher at Sandia National Laboratories and the NASA Ames Research Center, Ochoa investigated optical systems for performing information processing. At the NASA Ames Research Center, she led a research group working primarily on optical systems for automated space exploration. At Sandia National Laboratories, she applied what she knew about optics to the research being done on nuclear weapons. She patented an optical system to detect defects in a repeating pattern and is a co-inventor on three patents for an optical inspection system, an optical object recognition method, and a method for noise removal in images.


title: Ellen Ochoa

text: Ochoa was enticed by optical systems and committed to improving its applications for performing information processing. She wanted to help computers "see". NASA later recognized her methods in optics could be used in fabricating such as inspecting for flaws, or it might be used on a space vehicle such as the Rover.


title: Ellen Ochoa

text: As Chief of the Intelligent Systems Technology Branch at Ames, she supervised 35 engineers and scientists in the research and development of computational systems for aerospace missions. Ochoa has presented numerous papers at technical conferences and in scientific journals.


title: Ellen Ochoa

text: In 1985, Dr. Ochoa sent in an application for the NASA Astronaut program, which was considered during the 1987 selection process. She got to interview but wasn’t selected. She kept her application updated, and also got a pilot’s license to gain operational experience, and she was invited to interview again during the next selection, when she was selected as part of the 1990 class of astronauts.


title: Ellen Ochoa

text: Ochoa was selected by NASA in January 1990 and became an astronaut in July 1991. Her technical assignments in the Astronaut Office included serving as the crew representative for flight software, computer hardware and robotics, Assistant for Space Station to the Chief of the Astronaut Office, lead spacecraft communicator (CAPCOM) in Mission Control and acting as Deputy Chief of the Astronaut Office.


title: Ellen Ochoa

text: Ochoa became the first Hispanic woman to go to space when she served on a nine-day mission aboard the Space Shuttle "Discovery" in 1993. The purpose of the Shuttle mission was to study the Earth's ozone layer. A veteran of four space flights, Ochoa has logged nearly 1000 hours in space. She was a mission specialist on STS-56 (1993), was payload commander on STS-66, and was mission specialist and flight engineer on STS-96 and STS-110 in 2002. Ochoa was in Mission Control during the Space Shuttle "Columbia" disaster and was one of the first personnel informed of television coverage showing "Columbia"s disintegration.


title: Ellen Ochoa

text: From 2007, after retiring from spacecraft operations, Ochoa served as Deputy Director of NASA's Johnson Space Center, helping to manage and direct the Astronaut Office and Aircraft Operations. On January 1, 2013, Ochoa became the first Hispanic and second female director of the Johnson Space Center.


title: Ellen Ochoa

text: Ochoa was named Vice Chair of the National Science Board for the 2018–2020 term. She currently chairs the committee evaluating nominations for the National Medal of Technology and Innovation.


title: Ellen Ochoa

text: Ochoa's husband is Coe Miles, an intellectual property attorney. They have two sons. Ochoa is a classical flautist and played with the Stanford Symphony Orchestra, once receiving the Student Soloist Award. While an undergraduate at San Diego State University, she played the flute for two years as part of the university marching band and for five years as a member of the university wind ensemble. She took a flute with her on her first mission to space.


title: Ellen Ochoa

text: The Ochoa Middle School located in Pasco, Washington, the Ellen Ochoa Elementary School in Cudahy, CA and the Ánimo Ellen Ochoa Charter Middle School in East Los Angeles are named in her honor. In addition, Grand Prairie, Texas has the Ellen Ochoa STEM Academy at Ben Milam Elementary School and Pico Rivera, California has the Ellen Ochoa Prep Academy. Union Public Schools in Tulsa named a new elementary school after her as well.


title: Ellen Ochoa

text: A flag with the rocket logo of the Ochoa Middle School in Pasco, Washington, flew with Ochoa in April 2002 aboard the Shuttle "Atlantis" for an 11-day mission to the International Space Station. Ochoa returned the flag to the school when she visited as a special guest at the 2002 dedication and it remains on permanent display.


title: Ellen Ochoa

text: Ochoa has received many awards among which are NASA's Distinguished Service Medal (2015), Exceptional Service Medal (1997), Outstanding Leadership Medal (1995) and Space Flight Medals (2002, 1999, 1994, 1993). Ochoa and Michael Foale were announced as the 2017 class of the United States Astronaut Hall of Fame. Ochoa was recognized in "Hispanic Executive"'s 2017 Best of the Boardroom issue for her work as a board director for Johnson Space Center. She was inducted into the 2018 International Air and Space Hall of Fame class.


title: Ellen Ochoa

text: Ochoa is a Fellow of American Association for the Advancement of Science, the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, the National Academy of Inventors and Optica.


title: Ellen Ochoa

text: An animated version of Ochoa was featured in the 2019 episode "Astronaut Ellen Ochoa" of the children's television program, "Ready Jet Go!".


title: Belmont Report

text: The Belmont Report is a report created by the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research. Its full title is the "Belmont Report: Ethical Principles and Guidelines for the Protection of Human Subjects of Research, Report of the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research".


title: Belmont Report

text: The report was issued on September 30, 1978 and published in the Federal Register on April 18, 1979. The report took its name from the Belmont Conference Center where the document was drafted in part. The Belmont Conference Center, once a part of the Smithsonian Institution, is in Elkridge, Maryland, 10 miles south of Baltimore, and until the end of 2010 was operated by Howard Community College.


title: Belmont Report

text: The "Belmont Report" summarizes ethical principles and guidelines for research involving human subjects. Three core principles are identified: respect for persons, beneficence, and justice. Three primary areas of application are also stated. They are informed consent, assessment of risks and benefits, and selection of subjects.


title: Belmont Report

text: According to Vollmer and Howard, the "Belmont Report" allows for a positive solution, which at times may be difficult to find, to future subjects who are not capable to make independent decisions.


title: Belmont Report

text: The "Belmont Report" was first written by the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research. Prompted in part by problems arising from the Tuskegee Syphilis Study (1932–1972) and based on the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research (1974–1978), the Department of Health, Education and Welfare (HEW) revised and expanded its regulations for the protection of human subjects 45 CFR part 46 in the late 1970s and early 1980s. In 1978, the commission's report "Ethical Principles and Guidelines for the Protection of Human Subjects of Research" was released, and it was published in 1979 in the Federal Register. It was named the "Belmont Report", for the Belmont Conference Center, where the National Commission met when first drafting the report.


title: Belmont Report

text: The "Belmont Report" is one of the leading works concerning ethics and health care research. It allows for the protection of participants in clinical trials and research studies.


title: Belmont Report

text: The "Belmont Report" explains the unifying ethical principles that form the basis for the National Commission's topic-specific reports and the regulations that incorporate its recommendations.


title: Belmont Report

text: These principles remain the basis for the United States Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) human subject protection regulations.


title: Belmont Report

text: Today, the "Belmont Report" continues as an essential reference for institutional review boards (IRBs) that review HHS-conducted or -supported human subjects research proposals involving human subjects, in order to ensure that the research meets the ethical foundations of the regulations.


title: Belmont Report

text: Applications of these principles to conduct research requires careful consideration of i) informed consent, ii) risks benefit assessment, and iii)selection of subjects of research.


title: Belmont Report

text: Outlined by Jennifer Sims in her article "A brief review of the "Belmont Report"", she states 7 things nurses, as primary caregivers for individuals participating in a study, must do to ensure the rights of the participant are met.


title: Belmont Report

text: Researchers must share the findings of their procedures regardless of them being good or bad results. Also in the case someone did not want to participate in research but would like treatment they cannot be turned away and must be treated with the same standard care.


title: Belmont Report

text: The Belmont report itself consists of 3 clauses: A. Boundaries between Practice and Research, B. Basic Ethical Principles, C. Applications.


title: Belmont Report

text: This clause establishes the differences between biomedical and behavioral research, and that the different areas of research, require different protections for human participants. Examining the differences between "practice" and "research", practice is dealing with bettering the wellbeing of an individual or group, while research is testing a theory and potentially has an unknown ending. This difference, establishes that they require different protections for human participants, and when any amount of research is occurring, it should be reviewed for the protection those involved.


title: Belmont Report

text: This ethical principle describes individuals as autonomous agents. Stating that an autonomous agent is an individual capable of deliberation regarding their personal goals, and who is able to be guided by that deliberation. It acknowledges that while most individuals are capable of making the decision, some groups of people require more protections. Some lose their capacity for self-determination due to illness, mental disabilities, or other circumstances. Children, and the groups just mentioned, are to be granted protections, either temporarily or permanently, until the individual is capable of self-determination. These protections range from ensuring that the individual understands and is freely participating in the research, to excluding the individual from harm.


title: Belmont Report

text: This principle, in short, emphasizes the maximization of benefits, and minimization of potential harms. Especially when dealing with those who require further protections, from the "Respect for Persons" principle. Scientific researchers are urged to consider, not just the immediate consequences, but also the long term consequences of their research.


title: Belmont Report

text: This principle deals with the distribution of benefits and burdens of research. It puts forward 5 different formulations, on how to base the distribution, 1, all given an equal share, 2, based on need, 3, based on individual effort, 4, based on societal contribution, 5, based on merit. This principle described the circumstances of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study, and explains the importance of the participants getting recognition and the possible benefits of research. It also mentions the exploitation of unwilling prisoners, as research participants, in the Nazi concentration camps.


title: Belmont Report

text: This clause is broken down into three parts, informed consent, Assessment of Risk and Benefits, Selection of Subjects.


title: Belmont Report

text: Ensuring that the participants, are not only given all the relevant information, but that the information is presented in an understandable and researchable way.


title: Belmont Report

text: The participants should be capable of understanding the information; if they aren't, the third party in-charge of their safety (part of the protections from the Basic Ethical Principles, the Beneficence section) should be given the information regarding the research, and presented it in an understandable manner.


title: Belmont Report

text: Participants shouldn't be under any unjustifiable pressures to participate in research. This can include coercion, undue influence by excessive or inappropriate reward, influence by a close relative, threatening to withdraw health services, and other comparable situations. Individuals should make the decision to participate without being pressured by any unwarranted sources.


title: Belmont Report

text: In 1991, 14 other Federal departments and agencies joined HHS in adopting a uniform set of rules for the protection of human subjects, identical to subpart A of 45 CFR part 46 of the HHS regulations. This uniform set of regulations is the Federal Policy for the Protection of Human Subjects, informally known as the "Common Rule". The Office for Human Research Protections (OHRP) was also established within HHS.


title: Belmont Report

text: Today, the "Belmont Report" both serves as a historical document and provides the moral framework for understanding regulations in the United States on the use of humans in experimental methods.


title: Belmont Report

text: Additionally, the 'Revised Common Rule', issued as a Final Rule on January 19, 2017, and mainly coming into effect two years later, on January 21, 2019, included 2 changes which instituted the Belmont Report as part of the Protection of Human Subjects federal policy.


title: Belmont Report

text: In the field of psychology, the Belmont Report has been heavily supplemented, if not entirely replaced, by the American Psychological Association's (APA) Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct. The APA's guidelines include the basics provided in the originally published Belmont Report, but also enhance and reinforce those established principles. Just as the Belmont Report details the principles of beneficence, respect for persons, and justice, the APA details them further and expands the three initial guidelines into five: (1) beneficence, (2) respect for persons, (3) justice, with the addition of (4) fidelity and responsibility, as well as (5) integrity.


title: Belmont Report

text: The principle of fidelity and responsibility ensures that researchers establish trust and a sense of responsibility for their study and its possible repercussions. The principle of integrity furthers this concept into honesty and accuracy throughout all professional psychological endeavors. The inclusion of the last two principles has become pertinent in modern science and research. As ethical practices are constantly evolving, the frequently revised APA guidelines have, in some fields, replaced the practical use of The Belmont Report. The report currently serves as more of a foundation for the ever-growing caution and attention paid to ethical practices used in psychological experiments.


title: Belmont Report

text: Another area where APA guidelines move beyond the Belmont report is in the setting of standards. The APA establishes standards for all reputable members of the psychology community (particularly those members of the American Psychological Association). The association sets a code of conduct for all APA individuals, which, when violated, can result in termination of professional licensure or membership.


title: Belmont Report

text: One of the most important standards that is detailed in the APA manual is the one that requires the induction of an institutional review board (IRB), which serves the same purpose as outlined in the Belmont Report. An IRB is responsible for interpreting the established principles and ensuring the ethicality of research done on humans. Other standards are completely beyond the scope of the Belmont Report but have since been added to the APA manual. One such standard is the ethical treatment of animals (the report's full title being 'Ethical Principles and Guidelines for the Protection of Human Subjects of Research'), something that has become a resurgent topic in recent years.


title: Belmont Report

text: The APA Guidelines have evolved into a more modern approach to ethics in research, and are frequently updated (with nearly nine revisions since its original publication), building on the Belmont Report's foundation as new information becomes available and changes occur in opinion and societal acceptance. While the Belmont Report when published was a beneficial first step to ensuring ethical practice, today it serves as a reminder of the ever-changing moral guidelines in psychology. It was nevertheless an important collection of regulations in response to the Tuskegee Study (1932-1972) that provided the first stepping stones to modern ethical practice in psychological research.


title: Belmont Report

text: In a study by Nancy Shore, community-based participatory researchers were interviewed for their interpretation and critique of the "Belmont Report". Interviewees expressed concerns regarding the "Belmont Report"s ethical principles and interpretations as being one size fits all and advocated researchers to resist the tendency to rely on those principles systematically. It argues that the ethical analysis should be extended to take into account more appropriate factors, such as cultural, gender, ethnic and geographical considerations. Debate continues over the ethics and regulations of research involving human subjects because of discrepancies over the meaning and priority of the "Belmont Report"s basic ethical principles: respect for persons, beneficence, and justice. Notably, the "Belmont Report" does not specify how its three ethical principles should be weighted or prioritized. According to Albert R. Jonsen, a member of the National Commission that composed the report, the Institutional Review Board is charged with weighing these principles and deciding how they should be applied. Matters become controversial when deciding if the principles should be interpreted as more or less weighty depending upon the particular circumstances of the research in question, if the principles should be viewed as an obligation that society must undertake on behalf of its members, or if it should be viewed as giving absolute priority to respect for persons' autonomy over the general good of society.


title: Paddy Roy Bates

text: Patrick Roy Bates (29 August 1921 – 9 October 2012), also known as Prince Roy of Sealand, was a British pirate radio broadcaster and micronationalist, who founded the Principality of Sealand. He was a major in the British Army during World War II.


title: Paddy Roy Bates

text: Bates was born in Ealing, London in 1921. He served in the British Army, rising to the rank of major, and was injured several times. He served in the Battle of Monte Cassino in the Italian campaign, and had been with the Eighth Army in North Africa. He then became a fisherman.


title: Paddy Roy Bates

text: He then moved into broadcasting via a pirate radio. In 1965, he ousted the pirate station Radio City staff who had occupied Knock John Tower, a Maunsell Sea Fort (a World War II British naval defence platform).


title: Paddy Roy Bates

text: Using the military equipment that was left on the platform, Bates used an old United States Air Force radio beacon to broadcast his station. From Knock John Tower, he ran Radio Essex from 1965 to 1966 and succeeded in becoming the first pirate radio station to provide 24-hour entertainment.


title: Paddy Roy Bates

text: The station changed its name in October 1966 to Britain's Better Music Station (BBMS) after Bates had been convicted of violating Section One of the Wireless Telegraphy Act 1949. Bates was then fined £100 for his continued illegal broadcasting. Due to insufficient funds, BBMS went off the air on Christmas Day in 1966.


title: Paddy Roy Bates

text: Bates moved his operation to the nearby Roughs Tower, another Maunsell Fort further out beyond the then boundary of the United Kingdom's territorial waters, but, despite having the necessary equipment, he never began broadcasting again.


title: Paddy Roy Bates

text: On 14 August 1967, the Marine Broadcasting Offences Act of 1967 came into effect which forbade broadcasting from certain marine structures, namely platforms such as Bates's. 19 days later, on 2 September 1967, Bates declared the independence of Roughs Tower and deemed it the Principality of Sealand.


title: Paddy Roy Bates

text: Ronan O'Rahilly of another pirate radio station, Radio Caroline, along with a small group of men, tried to storm the platform that Bates claimed. Bates and company used petrol bombs and guns to thwart O'Rahilly's attempt. As a result of the conflict, the Royal Navy went to Roughs Tower and were the recipients of warning shots fired by Bates's son, Michael, when they entered what Bates claimed to be Sealand's territorial waters.


title: Paddy Roy Bates

text: Bates and his son were arrested and charged in a British court with weapons charges. The court threw out the case, claiming that the British court did not have jurisdiction over international affairs as Roughs Tower lay beyond the territorial waters of Britain.


title: Paddy Roy Bates

text: Bates took this as "de facto" recognition of Sealand and seven years later issued a constitution, flag, and national anthem, among other things, for the Principality of Sealand.


title: Paddy Roy Bates

text: In 1978, a German businessman, Alexander Achenbach along with other Germans and Dutch, invaded Sealand and took Bates's son, Michael, hostage. Bates and others then launched a counterattack in the early hours of the morning to recapture the fort. He held the German and Dutch men as prisoners of war. As one had accepted a Sealand Passport, he was held and convicted of treason while the rest were released. Germany then sent a diplomat to Britain to ask for intervention but Britain claimed they did not have jurisdiction. Germany then sent a diplomat to Sealand directly to negotiate the release of the prisoner. He was released, and the act of diplomatic negotiation was claimed by Roy Bates to be "de facto" recognition of Sealand, which Germany has denied.


title: Paddy Roy Bates

text: Bates retired and lived in England during his later life. His son Michael was then in charge of the administration of Sealand as "Prince Regent", although he lived on the British mainland. On 9 October 2012, Paddy Bates died quietly at a care home in Leigh-on-Sea, Essex after having had Alzheimer's for several years. His funeral took place at Southend-on-Sea Crematorium.


title: Paddy Roy Bates

text: He was survived by his wife Joan and their children, son Michael and daughter Penny. Michael reacted to his father's death by recalling him as a "huge, huge character". "I might die young or I might die old, but I will never die of boredom", Bates said in a 1980s interview.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: The Cinema of the Philippines (Filipino: "Pelikulang Pilipino" or "Sine Pilipino") began with the introduction of the first moving pictures to the country on August 31, 1897, at the "Salón de Pertierra" in Manila. The following year, local scenes were shot on film for the first time by a Spaniard, Antonio Ramos, using the Lumiere Cinematograph. While most early filmmakers and producers in the country were mostly wealthy enterprising foreigners and expatriates, on September 12, 1919, "Dalagang Bukid (Country Maiden)", a movie based on a popular musical play, was the first movie made and shown by Filipino filmmaker José Nepomuceno. Dubbed as the "Father of Philippine Cinema," his work marked the start of cinema as an art form in the Philippines.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: Even with the problems currently facing motion pictures around the world, films are still considered one of the popular forms of entertainment among the Filipino people, directly employing some 260,000 Filipinos and generating around ₱2 billion revenues annually. Among its neighbors in Southeast Asia, Philippine cinema remains as the strongest in the Southeast Asian region with the majority of films made in the region came from the Philippines along with the film industries of Thailand and Indonesia.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: The Film Development Council of the Philippines established a national film archive in October 2011. Furthermore, their annually held Luna Awards honor the outstanding Filipino films as voted by their own peers. Meanwhile, the Manunuri ng Pelikulang Pilipino hands out the Gawad Urian Awards, which is well known due to its credible choices of winners.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: The formative years of Philippine cinema, starting from the 1930s, were a time of discovering the film genre as a new medium of art. Scripts and characterisations in films came from popular theatre and familiar local literature. Nationalistic films were also quite popular, although they were labeled as being too subversive.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: The 1940s and the war brought to the Philippine cinema the consciousness of reality. Movie themes consisting primarily of war and heroism had proven to be a huge hit among local audiences.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: The 1950s saw the first golden age of Philippine cinema, with the emergence of more artistic and mature films, and significant improvement in cinematic techniques among filmmakers. The studio system produced frenetic activity in the local film industry, as many films were made annually and several local talents started to earn recognition abroad. Award-giving bodies were first instituted during this period. When the decade was drawing to a close, the studio system monopoly came under siege as a result of labor-management conflicts, and by the 1960s, the artistry established in the previous years was already on the decline. This era can be characterized by rampant commercialism, fan movies, soft porn films, action flicks, and western spin-offs.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: The 1970s and 1980s were turbulent years for the industry, bringing both positive and negative changes. The films in this period now dealt with more serious topics following the Martial Law era. In addition, action and sex films developed further, introducing more explicit subject matter. These years also brought the arrival of alternative or independent film in the Philippines.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: The 1990s saw the emerging popularity of slasher movies, teen-oriented romantic comedies, as well as sexually explicit adult films, although slapstick comedies still draw a large audience. Genres of previous decades had been recycled with almost the same stories, and love teams, which had been popular in the past, have reemerged.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: The Philippines, which as one of Asia's oldest film industries, remains undisputed in terms of the highest level of theater admission in Southeast Asia. Over the years, however, the film industry has registered a steady decline in movie viewership from 131 million in 1996 to 63 million in 2004. From a high of 200 films a year during the 1980s, the country's film industry was down to making a total of 56 new films in 2006 and around 30 in 2007. Although the industry has undergone turbulent times, the 21st century saw the rebirth of independent filmmaking through the use of digital technology, and a number of films have once again earned international recognition and prestige.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: On January 1, 1897, the first film shown was "Espectaculo Scientifico" and followed by other four movies, namely, "Un Homme Au Chapeau (Man with a Hat)", "Une scène de danse japonnaise (Scene from a Japanese Dance)", "Les Boxers (The Boxers)", and "La Place de L' Opéra (The Place L' Opéra)", were shown via 60 mm Gaumont Chrono-photograph projector at the "Salon de Pertierra" at No.12 Escolta in Manila. The venue was formerly known as the Phonograph Parlor on the ground floor of the Casino Español at Pérez Street, off Escolta Street. Other countries, such as France, England, and Germany had their claims to the introduction of publicly projected motion picture in the Philippines, although Petierra is credited by most historians and critics.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: Antonio Ramos, a Spanish soldier from Aragón, was able to import a Lumiere Cinematograph from Paris, including 30 film titles, out of his savings and the financial banking of two Swiss entrepreneurs, Liebman and Peritz.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: By August 1897, Liebman and Peritz presented the first movies on the Lumiere Cinematograph in Manila. The cinema was set up at Escolta Street at the corner of San Jacinto Street. A test preview was presented to a limited number of guests on August 28 and the inaugural show was presented to the general public the next day, August 29, 1897. Documentary films showing recent events as well as natural calamities in Europe were shown.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: During the first three weeks, Ramos had a selection of ten different films to show, but by the fourth week, he was forced to shuffle the 30 films in various combinations to produce new programs. These were four viewing sessions, every hour on the hour, from 6:00 P.M. to 10:00 P.M. After three months, attendance began to slacken for failure to show any new features. They transferred the viewing hall to a warehouse in Plaza Goiti and reduced the admission fees. By the end of November, the movie hall closed down.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: The next year, to attract patronage, using the Lumiere as a camera, Ramos locally filmed "Panorama de Manila (Manila landscape)", "Fiesta de Quiapo (Quiapo Fiesta)", "Puente de España (Bridge of Spain)", and "Escenas Callejeras (Street scenes)", making him the first movie producer in the Philippines. Aside from Ramos, there were other foreigners who left documentary evidences of their visits to the Philippines. Burton Holmes, father of the travelogue, who made the first of several visits in 1899, made the "Battle of Baliwag"; Kimwood Peters shot the "Banawe Rice Terraces"; and, Raymond Ackerman of "American Biography" and "Mutoscope" filmed "Filipino Cockfight" and the "Battle of Mt. Arayat".


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: Film showing in the Philippines resumed in 1900 when a British entrepreneur named Walgrah opened the Cine Walgrah at No.60 Calle Santa Rosa in Intramuros. The second movie house was opened in 1902 by a Spanish entrepreneur, Samuel Rebarber, who called his building, "Gran Cinematógrafo Parisino", located at No. 80 Calle Crespo in Quiapo. In 1903, José Jiménez, a stage backdrop painter, set up the first Filipino-owned movie theater, the "Cinematograpo Rizal" in Azcarraga Street (now C.M. Recto Ave.), in front of the Tutuban Railway Station. In the same year, a movie market was formally created in the country along with the arrival of silent movies and American colonialism. The silent films were always accompanied by gramophone, a piano, or a quartet, or when "Caviria" was shown at the Manila Grand Opera House, a 200-man choir.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: In 1905, Herbert Wyndham, shot scenes at the "Manila Fire Department"; Albert Yearsley shot" the Rizal Day Celebration" in Luneta 1909; in 1910, the "Manila Carnival"; in 1911, the "Eruption of Mayon Volcano"; the first "Airplane Flight Over Manila" by Bud Mars and the "Fires of Tondo, Pandacan and Paco"; and, in 1912, the "Departure of the Igorots to Barcelona" and the "Typhoon in Cebu". These novelty films, however, did not capture the hearts of the audience because they were about the foreigners.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: The Philippine Commission recognized early the potential of cinema as a tool of communication and information, so that in 1909, the Bureau of Science bought a complete film-making unit and laboratory from Pathé, and sent its chief photographer, the American, Charles Martin, to France to train for a year. When Martin completed his training, he resolved to document, in motion pictures, the varied aspects of the Philippines.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: In 1910, the first picture with sound reached Manila, using the Chronophone. A British film crew also visited the Philippines, and filmed, among other scenes, the "Pagsanjan Falls (Oriental)" in 1911 in kinemacolor. In 1912, New York and Hollywood film companies started to establish their own agencies in Manila to distribute films. In the same year, two American entrepreneurs made a film about the execution of Jose Rizal, and aroused a strong curiosity among Filipino moviegoers. This led to the making of the first Filipino film, "La vida de Jose Rizal".


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: By 1914, the US colonial government was already using films as a vehicle for information, education, propaganda and entertainment. The Bureau of Science tackled subjects designed to present an accurate picture of the Philippines before the American public, particularly the US Congress. By 1915, the best European and American films were shown in Philippine theaters. When World War I (1914–1918) choked off the production of European studios, Manila theater managers turned to US for new film products. With the variety they offered, American films quickly dominated the Philippine film market.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: The first film produced by a Filipino is José Nepomuceno's "Dalagang Bukid (Country Maiden)" in 1919 based on a highly acclaimed musical play by Hermogenes Ilagan and León Ignacio. Early filmmakers, even with meager capital, followed some of the genres provided by Hollywood movies. The main sources of movie themes during this period were theater pieces from popular dramas or zarzuelas. Another source of movie themes at that time was Philippine literature.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: During the 1920s when the Germans and Russians dominated the artistic development of the film and its techniques (Examples are "The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari" – 1919, "Nosferatu" – 1922, and "Battleship Potemkin" – 1925), Filipino-Visayan filmmakers such as Max Borromeo, Florentino Borromeo and Celestino Rodriguez collaborated in making "El Hijo Disobediente" (The Disobedient Son) in 1922. This black and white silent picture could have been one of the earliest noted films from the Southern Philippines. The year 1929 marked the advent of talking pictures, but only in 1938 did the Visayan Film Industry have its first "talkie" entitle "Bertoldo Ug Balodoy" (Bertoldo and Balodoy) written by Piux Kabahar, which was followed by "Mini" (Fake; 1940), and "Gugmang Talagsaon" (Rare Love; 1940) by Virgilio Gonzales. In Cebu, the first movie houses were built by the Avila Clan: Ideal Theater (1911), Cine Auditorium (1922) and Cine Oriente (The old Teatro Junquera). Films have already been showing outside of Manila as early as 1897 through the feats of Señor Pertierra, a Spanish expatriate and a certain Englishman going only with the surname of 'Bischoff'. Mr. Bischoff was the first to show films in Iloilo in 1903. These were short features produced by the film company Cinematographo Pastor and were screened nightly from 6:30 to 9:30 in Bischoff's bodega or camarin in Calle Real. Later on, other film companies have also begun to rise such as Cinematografo Insular (which arrived from Manila to Iloilo in 1905), Cinematografo Teatro Colón and Cinematografo Parsien. To coincide with the rising of such film companies, there came the establishment of movie houses in Iloilo. In 1919, one highlighted event that stood out from that decade was the showing of the first full-length Tagalog feature film in Iloilo: Jose Nepomuceno's Dalagang Bukid (literal translation from Tagalog: 'mountain girl'). Thousands of Ilonggo film buffs went to see the movie and were highly moved by it. In Iloilo, Teatro Malhabour touted as the first cinema or movie house in Iloilo was opened to the public on July 3, 1908, at the corner of Calle Quiñones (now Mabini) and Calle Concepcion (now Ledesma). It was owned by Felix Malhabour, a policeman and a member of the board of the Iglesia Filipina Independiente. Other early cinema or movies houses in Iloilo City include the Rex Theater, Roxy Theater, Republic Theater and Cine Commonwealth built around 1910s–1920s. The two prominent or popular cinema houses in Iloilo include the oldest still existing and operating movie theater in Iloilo, Cine Palace and the now defunct Cine Eagle both built in 1928.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: In 1929, the "Syncopation", the first American sound film, was shown in Radio theater in Plaza Santa Cruz in Manila inciting a competition on who could make the first talkie among local producers. On December 8, 1932, a film in Tagalog entitled "Ang Aswang (The Aswang)", a monster movie inspired by Philippine folklore, was promoted as the first sound film. Moviegoers who remembered the film attested that it was not a completely sound film. José Nepomuceno's "Punyal na Guinto (Golden Dagger)", which premiered on March 9, 1933, at the Lyric theater, was credited as the first completely sound, all-talking picture in the country.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: In the 1930s, a few film artists and producers deviated from the norms and presented sociopolitical movies. Ironically, the people who helped the film industry develop and flourish were also the same people who suppressed its artistic expression by inhibiting movie themes that would establish radical political views among the Filipinos. Instead, love and reconciliation between members of different classes of people were encouraged as themes. Julian Manansala’s film "Patria Amor (Beloved Country)" was almost suppressed because of its anti-Spanish sentiments.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: Carmen Concha, the first female director in the country, also ventured into filmmaking, and she directed "Magkaisang Landas" and "Yaman ng Mahirap" in 1939 under Parlatone, and "Pangarap" in 1940 under LVN.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: Despite fierce competition with Hollywood movies, the Filipino film industry survived and flourished. When the 1930s drew to a close, the Filipino film industry was well established, and local movie stars acquired huge followers.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: During the Japanese Occupation, filmmaking was suddenly put to a halt. As was the case in Japan's other colonial and occupied film markets, Japanese film companies took over the local exhibition venues replacing films from the Hollywood and the region with Japanese films for propaganda. Japanese films had been imported into the Philippines since the late 1930s but without great success. Japanese-sponsored film production in the Philippines continued until 1945 but was limited mostly to newsreels and educational films.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: Although the Philippines never became a center for feature film production under the Japanese, it was a strategically important market for Japan. First, unlike Manchuria, where the Japanese literally had to construct a film industry, the Philippines already had many large, well-equipped motion picture theaters that were well-stocked with significant Hollywood product. Many confiscated films were exported back to Japan to train its filmmakers. Production facilities were better in the Philippines than any other market in the Japanese empire with the exception of Shanghai. This was another reason why such Japanese film companies as the Nanyo Film Association (南洋映画協会) and Film Distributors (映画配給者) each established branch offices in Manila in 1942. Further, due to the long period of American influence, the local film community boasted a significant number of people who had worked in Hollywood during the silent era and had considerable experience.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: In 1944, Toho Studios sent director Abe Yutaka to Manila to produce the first of what would be the only two feature films to be entirely shot on location by the Japanese. "Ano hata o ute" (あの旗を撃て) aka "Dawn of Freedom" told the story of the Japanese victory at the Battle of Corregidor and the U.S. military's hasty retreat from the islands. The film presented the Japanese as Asian liberators who came to free the Filipinos from decades of colonial oppression that began with the Spanish and continued with the Americans. The film was shot in Japanese, Tagalog, and English and was written for the screen by Tsutomo Sawamura, co-directed by Gerardo de Leon (uncredited), and co-starred Fernando Po and Leopold Celecdo. The other Japanese-produced feature film shot in the Philippines was "Tatlong Maria" (1944). At the same time, the comedy duo Pugo and Togo, popular for satirizing Japanese occupation in the Philippines, was renamed to "Tuguing and Puguing" because of Togo name's closeness to Tojo, the name of the Prime Minister of Japan during the early 1940s. However, perhaps out of deference to the substantial local Japanese population, film censors were sensitive to Japanese complaints about negative representations of Japanese in U.S. films screened in the Philippines and aggressively cut scenes depicting Japanese soldiers committing atrocities in "Thunder in the Orient" (1939) and "Fight For Peace" (1939) years before Japanese military occupation.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: During World War II, almost all actors depended only on stage shows on most major Manila movie theaters as livelihood. As a consequence, live theater began to thrive again as movie stars, directors and technicians returned to the stage.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: After the second world war, a resurgence of Visayan films came about through Lapu-Lapu Pictures, which produced "Timbu Mata" (1948), starring Eva de Villa and Lino Ramas, and "Damgo ni Adan" (Adan's Dream), produced by Rudy Robles. Then came Mactan Films which produced "Tahas" (Mission; 1950), starring Luz Celeste and Dakay; Mat Ranillo was in this film. Then "Balud" (Wave; 1950) which starred Luz Celeste and Mat Ranillo. Another independent picture, "Sa Kabukiran" (In the Mountains; 1948), was also produced during this time.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: By 1951, Azucena Productions was established by the Arong Family (owners of Rene and Liberty Theaters). They produced "Princesa Tirana" (Princess Tirana), 1951 with Mat Ranillo and Gloria Sevilla (her first feature title role after she was discovered through a declamation contest at the University of the Visayas) as lead players. Their first feature together made such a box office success in the Visayas and Mindanao that other features immediately followed: "Leonora" (1951), "Pailub Lang" (Be Forebearing; 1951), "Utlanan" (Border; 1952), "Handumanan" (Memoir; 1953), "Inahan" (Mother; 1952), starring Mat Ranillo and Caridad Sanchez; "Antigan" (1952) with Virgie Postigo and Arise Roa; "Carmen 1 and 2" (from the famous radio drama in Cebu; 1953), "Paabuta Lang Ako" (Wait for Me; 1953), "Gloria Kong Anak" (Gloria My Child; 1953), and "Gihigugma Kong Ikaw" (I Love You; 1954). Mat and Gloria then became synonymous to Visayan pictures, and since then were called as the King and Queen of Visayan Movies.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: In 1953 a film entitled "Sangang Nangabali" (Broken Branches), produced by Cebu Stars Production broke box-office records in the mid-1950s. Cebu Stars Productions (owned by the Tojong Family) had earlier produced "Dimakaling" (1952) and "Mga Anak Intawon" (Oh, Poor Children; 1953). Other independent Visayan films produced at this time were: "Mapait Ang Balaod" (by Arturo Blanco; 1953), Bugas Mais (Corn Rice; by Arturo Blanco; 1953), "Kapintas Sa Kinabuhi" (Hard Life; 1953), (Cebu Stars Productions with Esterlina and Rebecca Torres), "Pit Senor" (Hail Senor) and "San Tilmo" (1953), (Barba Productions), "Ang Siloy" (1953) (with Nora Hermosa and Rebecca Torres), "Huni sa Gugma" (Where Is Love; 1953), "Dadansoy" (1953) and "Inahan" (Mother; 1954).


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: Mutya and VM Productions (formed by Natalio Bacalso – former Cebu assemblyman) entered "Salingsing sa Kasakit" (Partner in Pain), directed by Bacalso, in the 1955 FAMAS derby and won the "Best Child Actor Award" for Undo Juezan. These movie outfits also produced some memorable features such as "Ungo Sa Parian" (Witch In The Parian); Remember Erlinda;Rosita; "Politika" (Politics); and "Mutya sa Saging Tindok" (Muse of Saging Tindok). "Garbosa" (Proud; 1957) and "Matam-is Ang Pagpaubos" (Too Sweet to Suffer; 1957) were also released during this time.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: Mat ang Gloria finally got married off-screen (in real life) and formed S-R Productions in 1954. The company's initial projects were "Paradista" (1955) and "May Luhang Nahabilin sa Baybayon" (A Tear Fell on the Shore; 1955) and even as they moved on to make Tagalog movies in Manila, they still continued producing Visayan movies like (It is the Palm That Commands) with Flash Elorde and Edita Clomera; "Palad Ta Ang Nagbuot Lungsod Sa Buenavista" (Town of Buenavista; 1969), and "Hain Ang Langit" (Where is Heavean?; 1969), with Gloria Sevilla and Mat Ranillo and Von Serna – this is Mat's last movie. "Badlis sa Kinabuhi" (The Line of Life; 1969) was entered in the 18th FAMAS Awards and got 12 nominations out of 14 categories. Gloria Sevilla won Best Actress, Frankie Navaja, Jr. won Best Child Performer, and the late Mat Ranillo got a posthumous award (Mat Ranillo had earlier died in a plane crash in 1969). The film ("Badlis") was the Philippine entry to the ASEAN Film Festival in Indonesia, and was showcased under the informative division of the Berlin Film Festival (the film was dubbed in English in Hong Kong and retitled "Destined"). In 1970, "Badlis Sa Kinabuhi" and "Palad Ta Ang Nagbuot" were released in their original Visayan versions in Metro Manila and made good at the box office. "Ang Bayan" (The Country), 1970 was also produced at this time.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: The 1970s saw the emergence of more Visayan talents in the Tagalog film industry. Actresses such as Chanda Romero, Caridad Sanches, Alma Moreno, Tessie Sevilla, Rebecca Torres, Aurora Villa, Eva de Villa, Rosita Fernandez, Virgie Postigo, Virgie Solis, Olivia Solis, Cora Real, Diana Arong, Luz Celeste, Annabelle Rama, Suzette Ranillo, Lady Ramos, Pilar Pilapil, and others stepped into the limelight. Male leads (to name a few) were Bert Nombrado, Ber Lopez, Tony Delgado, Riel Ylaya, Lino Ramas, Arturo Blanco, Arturo de Castille, Frankie Navaja Jr, Tony Cruz, Undo Juezan, Felix de Catalina, Arsie Roa, Warfi Engracia, Kadyo Roma and Romy Kintanar (who is now a sports commentator). Directors Leroy Salvador, Fernando Alfon, Talyo Bacalso, Sat Villarino, Gene Labella, Leox Juesan, Cesar B. Cesar and Emmanuel H. Borlaza also originated from the south. Borlaza directed Alma Bonita (with Chanda Romero and Ernie Garcia) and Paypay Placid (Fan of Placid), Diadem Films, (with Pepito Rodriguez, Lilian Lain, Alice Mendez, and Justo C. Justo). Other films that were produced at this time were Medalyon Nga Bulawan (Medalyon Na Ginto), produced by Annabelle Rama, starring Bert Leroy, Gina Pareno, Jerry Pons, Charlie Davao, Johnny Delgado, Raul Aragon, Alice Mendez, and Yoyoy Villame; (with Nobo Bono, Jr. and Tessie Sevilla); Mayor AndalBatul of Mactan (Battle of Mactan), JRJ Productions, starring Chanda Romero, Eddie Peregrina and Alice Mendez; Anino sa Villa Lagrimas (Shadow of Villa Lagrimas), starring Chanda Romero and Ernie Garcia; Bulawan Sa Lapok (Gold in the Mud), starring Alicia Alonzon, Bert Leroy Jr., Tommy Abuel and Dindo Fernando; Antonio Solitaryo and Mga Milagaro sa Santo Niño (Miracles of Sto. Niño), Magnolia Films both directed by Sol Gaudite; Aliyana, 1974; and Ikaduhang Bathala (Second God), 1974.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: Gloria Sevilla remarried in 1971, and together with her husband Amado Cortez (of the Padilla clan) went on to produce another Visayan film entitled Gimingaw Ako (I Long For You), 1974 (which was shot entirely in Cebu City and directed by Amado Cortez starring Gloria Sevilla, Suzette Ranillo, Bert Nombrado and Inday Nita Cortez). This film won the FAMAS "Best Actress Award" for Gloria Sevilla and "Best Supporting Actress Award" for Suzette Ranillo. Naghila Ako Sa Kahilum (Crying Silently) also came about within the year. Other independent productions were: Diego Salvador, 1973; Ang Pagbabalik ni Diego Salvador (The Return of Diego Salvador), 1974 with Von Serna; and Sabrin, 1975 with Chanda Romero and Rebecca Torres.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: Visayan film producers continued trying to revive the Visayan movies in the mid-seventies by filming in the 16mm format and transferring the material to 35mm for theatrical release. Films such as "Ang Manok ni San Pedro" (St. Peter's Rooster), 1975 and "Itlog Manoy Orange" (The Orange Egg Vendor), 1976 were originally shot in 16mm. This less costly process, however, did not prevent the Visayan film industry from finally going into a dormant stage. The Tagalog film industry was just at an upswing at this time, prompting Visayan producers to venture into television production instead.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: It was not until 1991 that another Visayan film project was brought to the big screen. "Eh Kasi Babae" (Because She Is a Woman) starring Pilita Corales, Yoyoy Villame and Manilyn Reynes was produced, then followed by "Matud Nila" (They Say; 1991) (Bisaya Films, Inc. produced by James R. Cuenco, Jr.). This starred Gloria Sevilla, Mat Ranillo III, Suzette Ranillo, Dandin Ranillo, Juni Ranillo, Pilar Pilapil, Jennifer Sevilla, Mark Gil and Pinky Marquez. Matud Nila also marked the last film directed by Leroy Salvador.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: After World War II, the Philippine version of a war film emerged as a genre. The audience were hungry for films with patriotic themes. Films such as "Garrison 13" (1946), "Dugo ng Bayan (The Country’s Blood)" (1946), "Walang Kamatayan (Deathless)" (1946), and "Guerilyera" (1946), narrated the horrors of the war and the heroism of the soldiers and guerrillas.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: The 1950s was labeled as the first golden age of Philippine cinema. Four big production studios (LVN Pictures, Sampaguita Pictures, Premiere Productions and Lebran International) were at their peak in filmmaking, employing premier directors like Gerardo de León, Eddie Romero and César Gallardo while contracting the biggest stars of that period. The Filipino film industry was one of the busiest and bustling film communities in Asia, releasing an average of 350 films a year making Philippines second to Japan in terms of film productions a year.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: The four biggest production studios produced most of the notable films of Philippine cinema during this era. In 1951, the movie "Roberta" of Sampaguita Pictures which featured leading child stars was the hit. LVN Pictures, under the leadership of the Doña Sisang de León, not only specialized in super productions, rural comedies and musicals, but also produced socially-relevant films such as Avellana's "Anak Dalita" (1956), Tony Santos's "Badjao" (1957) and Manuel Silos's "Biyaya ng Lupa" (1959). Sampaguita Pictures mainly produced high-gloss, glamorous pictures such as "Maalaala Mo Kaya" (1954). On the other hand, Premiere Productions released most of the action films of the decade, such as "Sawa sa Lumang Simboryo" (1952), "Salabusab" (1954) and "Huwag Mo Akong Limutin" (1960).


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: High production values on the motion pictures during this era produced movies that gained international acclaim. In 1952, Manuel Conde's "Genghis Khan" became the first Asian film to be shown at the Venice and Cannes Film Festival, a feat that would not be repeated until the 1970s. Inspired by Conde's picture, Hollywood remade "Genghis Khan" in 1956 as "The Conqueror" starring John Wayne as Genghis Khan and produced by RKO Radio Pictures. And also of Columbia Pictures' film "Genghis Khan" in which Omar Sharif portrayed in the title role in 1965.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: In 1956, "Anak Dalita" won the Golden Harvest Award (Best Picture) of the prestigious Asia-Pacific Film Festival. Actress Lilia Dizon, was presented with the Best Actress Award by the prince of Cambodia, Norodom Sihanouk, for the film "Kandelerong Pilak" in the 1954 Asia-Pacific Film Festival. Leroy Salvador was also recognized in his performance as Best Supporting Actor for the film "Huk sa Bagong Pamumuhay" (1953) in the same film festival.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: During this era, the first award-giving body was also established in 1950. The "Maria Clara Awards" of the Manila Times Publishing Corp., was composed of film publicists and writers who voted for the exemplary achievements of Filipino motion pictures in a calendar year. In 1953, the María Clara folded up to give way to the establishment of the Filipino Academy of Movie Arts and Sciences (FAMAS), the Philippines' equivalent to the United States' Academy Awards in prestige.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: During this period, Filipinos saw Hollywood's first full-length picture in living Technicolor. Soon after, Filipino local producers started presenting full-length pictures in color despite some technical deficiency, one of which was "Prinsipe Amante" (Prince Amante).


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: This era is characterized by rampant commercialism with James Bond and Western knock offs, and in the later 1960s, the so-called "bomba" (soft porn) pictures. It was also the era of musical films produced mostly by Sampaguita Pictures and their discovered talents.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: The studio systems came under siege from the growing labor movement, which resulted in labor-management conflicts. The first studio to close was Lebran followed by Premiere Productions then LVN. Those production studios were replaced by new and independent producers like Regal Films, which was established by Lily Monteverde in 1962.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: The decade also saw the emergence of the youth subculture best represented by the Beatles and rock and roll. As a result, certain movie genres were made to cater to this trend. Fan movies and teen love team-ups emerged, showing Nora Aunor and Vilma Santos, along with Tirso Cruz III and Edgar Mortiz as their respective screen sweethearts. In addition, movie genres showing disaffection to the status quo during the era were also popular. Action movies with Pinoy cowboys and secret agents as the movers of the plots depicted a "society ravaged by criminality and corruption". Another kind of youth revolt, implying rejection of adult corruption, came in the form of movies featuring child stars. Near the end of this decade, another movie genre that embodied a different form of revolt took center stage. Soft porn movies, more popularly known as "bomba" films, increasingly became popular, and these films were described as a direct challenge to the conventions, norms and conduct of the society.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: Even in the period of decline, several Philippine films that stood out. These include the following films by Gerardo de Leon:


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: During this period, Filipino filmmakers were more successful in presenting some full-length pictures in living Eastmancolor, one of which was "Ito ang Pilipino" by J.E. Production. This movie was produced and starred by Joseph Estrada.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: Touted as the second golden age of Philippine cinema, this was the period of the avant-garde filmmakers. At the turn of the 70s, local producers and filmmakers ceased to produce pictures in black and white.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: In 1972, the Philippines was placed under martial law, and films were used as propaganda vehicles. President Ferdinand Marcos and his technocrats sought to regulate filmmaking through the creation of the "Board of Censors for Motion Pictures" (BCMP). Prior to the start of filming, a finished script was required to be submitted to the Board and incorporate the "ideology" of the New Society Movement such as, a new sense of discipline, uprightness and love of country. Annual festivals were revived, and the "Bomba" films as well as political movies critical of the Marcos administration were banned.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: "Maharlika" was a 1971 film banned by then-first lady Imelda Marcos because it starred actress Dovie Beams, who was allegedly Ferdinand Marcos' mistress. The producer of the film was Luis Nepomuceno, son of Filipino filmmaker Jose Nepomuceno. The company that produced the film went bankrupt, as the banned screening prevented them from recouping production costs. In pity, Imelda Marcos offered loans to the company through government banks. However, the bank would then go on to foreclose the film company.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: The film portrayed the story of Ferdinand Marcos' life in the Philippine Military. There have been allegations that the film was propaganda intended to portray Marcos as a war hero who fought against the Japanese in World War II. Although the film was banned, it was allowed to make its cinematic debut in 1987, after the EDSA Revolution.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: In spite of the censorship, the exploitation of sex and violence onscreen continued to assert itself. Under martial law, action films usually append an epilogue like claims that social realities depicted had been wiped out with the establishment of the New Society. The notorious genre of sex or "bomba" films still existed but in a milder, less overt way like female stars swimming in their underwear or taking a bath in their chemise, labeled as the "wet look". An example of the trend was the 1974 hit movie "Ang Pinakamagandang Hayop sa Balat ng Lupa" (The Most Beautiful Animal on the Face of the Earth) which featured former Miss Universe Gloria Díaz and filmed in the famed Sicogon Island in Carles, Iloilo.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: In spite of the presence of censorship, this period paved way to the ascendancy of a new breed of directors. Some of the notable films made by these new crop of filmmakers were:


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: In 1977, Eric de Guia, going by his pseudonym Kidlat Tahimik, made a film entitled "Mababangong Bangungot (Perfumed Nightmare)", which won the International Critic's Prize in the Berlin Film Festival that same year. Out of short film festivals sponsored by the University of the Philippines Film Center and by the Experimental Cinema of the Philippines, young filmmakers joined Kidlat Tahimik by distancing themselves from the traditions of mainstream cinema. Nick Deocampo’s "Oliver" (1983) and Raymond Red's "Ang Magpakailanman" ("The Eternal", 1983) have received attention in festivals abroad.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: In 1981, as mandated by Executive Order No. 640-A, the Film Academy of the Philippines was enacted, serving as the umbrella organization that oversees the welfare of various guilds of the movie industry and gave recognition to the artistic and technical excellence of the performances of its workers and artists. The same year, Viva Films was established and began its rise as a production company.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: Also in 1981, first lady Imelda Marcos organized the first Manilla International Film Festival (MIFF). The objective was to promote Filipino films for them to be distributed worldwide. A lavish event took place January 18–29, 1982, major entertainment figures were present including Priscilla Presley, Franco Nero, Brooke Shields, Jeremy Irons, etc. Local filmmakers saw it as a real opportunity to showcase their talents. The spy comedy spoof "For Your Height Only" (1981) turned Ernesto dela Cruz, better known as Weng Weng, in a short lived international star and gave him the notoriety to become a unique figure in cinema being a short person who performs death defying stunts. At the event, "For Your Height Only" outsold every other films on foreign sales, while dela Cruz was the mediatic center of attention and the breakthrough celebrity. Marcos' daughter Imee said dela Cruz's success shocked and shattered everyone's artistic aspirations. Filipino film historians Teddy Co and Ed Lejano said that in the film industry the Weng Weng image was uncomfortable since at the time they had no other international figures. The film became Philippines' highest exported film, and within their acting community dela Cruz's international reach hasn't been topped.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: The second MIFF took place from January 24-February 4, 1983. 280 local and foreign films were screened out of competition in the 12-day festival while 22 films from 21 countries competed for seven different categories. Despite the festival’s financial success, the festival received criticisms from the Catholic Church, film censors, and civic groups. Manila Archbishop Jaime Cardinal Sin criticized the festival’s organizers, Johnny Litton and First Lady Imelda Marcos, for allowing the screening of soft-core pornographic movies in participating theaters. Board of Review for Motion Pictures and Television Chairman Maria Kalaw-Katigbak also questioned the legality of showing films banned by the board in commercial cinemas. Because of the controversies and public outcry, the succeeding Manila International Film Festivals were permanently canceled.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: During the closing years of martial rule, a number of films defiant of the Marcos dictatorship were made. Films such as Marilou Diaz-Abaya’s "Karnal" implicitly depicted this defiance in the film's plot, wherein patricide ended a tyrannical father's domination. In the same year, Mike de Leon's "Sister Stella L.", a movie about oppression and tyranny was shown on the big screen. In 1985, Lino Brocka's "This Is My Country" depicted images of torture, incarceration, struggles and oppression. During this period, the Philippines ranked among the top 10 film-producing countries in the world, with an annual output of more than 300 movies.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: The Philippines' most political filmmaker was Lino Brocka (1939–1991). His works such as "Manila in the Claws of Light" (1975) and "Fight for Us" (1989) were considered the opening and the end of the golden age of film in the country. Brocka's works were committed to an anti-Marcos, anti-authoritarian type of politics and highly valued the freedom of artistic expression. He contributed in the building of a post-Marcos Philippines and was able to help topple the Marcos dictatorship through his active participation in cultural and social activities. His films told the story of the underclass' struggle, the dark side of a sprawling metropolis and featured poverty-stricken locations which were able to make a statement with regards to the Marcos' autocratic rule and human rights violations. He was also notably part of the group of filmmakers, artists and cultural workers that formed the "Free Artist Movement" which eventually became the "Concerned Artists of the Philippines". This group challenged the censorship practice that the Marcoses imposed on all artistic media.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: By the time the People Power Revolution deposed Ferdinand Marcos from the presidency, most Filipino films were mass-produced with quality sacrificed for commercial success. Storylines were unimaginative and predictable, comedy was slapstick, and the acting was either mediocre or overly dramatic. Producers resorted to formulas that worked well in the past that cater to the standards and tastes of the masses, and story ideas were often copied from Hollywood and Hong Kong films that were successful in local cinemas. Romantic dramas, broad comedy films and soft pornographic pictures composed the majority of the genre produced, while the action genre became especially prevalent during this period; in 1992, critic Justino Dormiendo observed that "the action flick itself remains as the most abused genre in our time." In reviewing the acclaimed American drama film "Stand by Me", JC Nigado of the "Manila Standard" stated that he was disturbed while viewing the film because "I was hard put trying to figure out what local movie could have approximated it. And it bothered me that I couldn't think of any."


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: Despite the imposition of a high amusement tax, the film industry prospered and produced more than 200 films a year. Majority of them were "pito-pito" films, shot in seven to ten days and aimed at quickly recouping their minimal costs. Attendance in theaters rose and several productions became huge successes. New laws were also introduced that gave more rights to women, causing several female directors to launch careers.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: Aside from competition with Hollywood films, the Asian Financial Crisis, escalating cost of film production, exorbitant taxes, arbitrary and too much film censorship, high-tech film piracy, and rise of cable television further contributed for the trimming down of production costs of film outfits that resulted to falling box-office receipts of domestic films, and the eventual precarious state of the local film industry.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: In 1993, a television station ventured into film production. ABS-CBN's Star Cinema produced "" in cooperation with Regal Films. Five years later, another television station, GMA Network, started producing movies. GMA Films released the critically acclaimed "Sa Pusod ng Dagat", "Jose Rizal", and "Muro Ami", which attained commercial success.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: 2011 is the most fruitful year in Philippine Cinema history as 3 films produced within the year (all from Star Cinema) landed in the top 3 of the highest grossing Filipino films of all time. Wenn Deramas' "The Unkabogable Praybeyt Benjamin" grossed ₱331.6 million in box office and became the highest grossing local film in the Philippines. "No Other Woman" grossed ₱278.39 million while 2011 Metro Manila Film Festival ("MMFF") entry "Enteng Ng Ina Mo", has a gross income of ₱237.89 million () and considered the highest-grossing MMFF entry of all time. However, "Sisterakas" , a Kris Aquino-Ai Ai delas Alas-Vice Ganda movie, replaced the title of "Enteng ng Ina Mo" and "the Unkabogable Praybeyt Benjamin" as it became the highest grossing Filipino film and highest grossing MMFF entry of all time.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: In 2013, "It Takes a Man and a Woman", the third film of the "A Very Special Love" series of Sarah Geronimo and John Lloyd Cruz, made many box office records, one of which is being the current "Highest Grossing Filipino Film of All Time", replacing "Sisterakas". It made ₱375,024,507 during its theatrical run in the Philippines and ₱211,573,332 overseas, for a total of ₱586,597,839 worldwide until Vice Ganda's "Girl, Boy, Bakla, Tomboy" and Kris Aquino's "My Little Bossings" (both are MMFF entries) surpassed their local box-office record and battle for the first spot .


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: In 2014, "The Amazing Praybeyt Benjamin", another Vice Ganda film, breaks his own record again with an estimated gross of PHP450,000,000.00. Meanwhile, the sequel of Kris Aquino's "Feng Shui series" is the highest grossing Filipino horror film.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: In 2015, a new box-office breaking record has been set as "A Second Chance", the sequel of John Lloyd Cruz and Bea Alonzo's "One More Chance" earns PHP 556,000,000 worldwide surpassing Phenomenal Box-Office Star Vice Ganda's "The Amazing Praybeyt Benjamin". It is surpassed again by a Star Cinema, Viva Films-produced film "Beauty and the Bestie" still starred by the "Phenomenal Box-Office Star" Vice Ganda.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: The mid 2010s also saw broader commercial success of films produced by independent studios, with Antoinette Jadaone's Cinema One Originals Film Festival entry "That Thing Called Tadhana" achieving commercial success upon its commercial release in 2015, becoming the highest grossing independently produced Filipino film of all time in under 3 weeks despite facing piracy issues online during its run.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: September 2015 saw the release of Jerrold Tarog's "Heneral Luna", a 2015 historical biopic film depicting General Antonio Luna's leadership of the Philippine Revolutionary Army during the Philippine–American War, produced by an independent outfit called Artikulo Uno Productions. Because it was independently produced, Heneral Luna initially fell prey to the commercial theater practice of dropping films after only a few screening days on the first week. But praise from critics and audiences alike, praising the film's writing, plot, acting, and cinematography resulted in a word of mouth campaign to bring the movie back to theaters. As a result, Heneral Luna become the highest grossing Filipino historical film of all time on its third week in cinemas. Similar word of mouth campaigns would allow critically acclaimed films like Antoinette Jadaone's "That Thing Called Tadhana" (commercially released in 2015) and JP Habac's "I'm Drunk, I Love You" (2017) to achieve broad commercial success even if they did not benefit from the large promotional budget and television cross-promotion enjoyed by commercial studio films.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: On September 12, 2019, the film industry celebrated its One Hundred Years of Philippine Cinema, in pursuant to Presidential Proclamation 622, S. 2018, which declares the same day up until September 11, 2020, as Philippine Cinema's Centennial Year.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: Censorship in the Philippines truly began under the reign of the Spaniards, who prohibited works that were deemed revolutionary. While they prohibited literary, musical, and visual forms of art, film censorship was included in the picture upon the American colonization.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: When the Americans took over after the Spanish–American War in 1898, a brief stint of Philippine cultural freedom after independence from Spain was halted. General Arthur MacArthur's military censorship focused on repressing nationalism, along with the Flag Act of 1907. Because film in itself was only beginning to form at the time, motion pictures brought to the Philippines were tame, and film was not yet seen as an avenue for social and cultural subversion.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: In 1929, the Philippine Legislature creates Act. No. 3582, titled "An Act to Create a Board of Censorship for Moving Pictures and Define Its Functions". The board consisted of 15 members that sought ""to examine all films, spoken or silent, imported or produced in the Philippine Islands, and prohibit the introduction and exhibition in this country of films, which in their judgement are immoral or contrary to law and good customs or injurious to the prestige of the Government of people of the Philippine Islands"." In 1930, The first meeting of the board was conducted in the office of then Secretary of the Interior Honoro Ventura, and the first president of the board was Teodoro M. Kalaw. Out of the 1,249 films approved, 6 had parts cut out. Two films were banned.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: In 1937 the film "Batang Tulisan", directed by and produced by Philippine Films was set to be released, and controversies arose regarding its sudden ban. The cost of production totaled 16,000 Pesos, and the film 2 and a half months to complete. Four reasons were stated as to why it was pulled-out: Three are aspects of the movie: the priest portrayed in a villainous light, the use of a hypodermic needle as a murder weapon, the amorous scenes between a 10-year-old couple, and the fact that ""[the film] might give [the] youth certain subversive ideas"." The production crew argued that this was an example of foreign films being given more lenience, despite being as bad (or sometimes, worse) than local cinema. The novel adaptation of "Batang Tulisan" which was published in "Liwayway" Magazine, in contrast, was not met with the same negative criticism.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: In 1938, the Board of Censorship was renamed the Board of Review for Moving Pictures, enabled by the amendment of the law by Commonwealth Act No. 305.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: In 1942, the Japanese occupation of the Philippines led to what was arguably the strictest period of censorship the country has faced. The "Eiga Heikusa" was established to act as a Board of Censors, and introduced Japanese films with American subtitles. In light of Japan's desire to convert the Philippines into a willing member of the Greater East-Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, printed matter, radio shows, theater plays, and visual art were heavily monitored, leading to the hiatus of production for Philippine cinema until 1945. As a result, the country saw an increase in theatrical productions. Screen actors such as Carmen Rosales, Rogelio de la Rosa, Norma Blancaflor, Ely Ramos, Elsa Oria, Leopoldo Salcedo, and Ester Magalona, took to the "entablado" and were received well. Theaters showed "bodabil" (a malapropism of Vaudeville) shows where actors would perform a special number upon knowing that they were to be raided by the "Kempei Tai", signaling the viewers to flee.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: Independence and the regime of then President Manuel Roxas saw the creation of a new Board of Reviews for Moving Pictures, led by Marciano Roque, who would also become Executive Secretary under President Quirino. In months, the board reviewed 76 films, with only 5 being locally made. Due to the non-confirmation by the Congress of all 10 members of the board, it was reconstituted on October 29, 1946, with its 7 official members. The newly appointed chairman was Dr. Gabriel Mañalac, and the secretary was Teodoro Valencia. The board had grown to 12 members by 1947, having reviewed a total of 463 films for the year. 435 were foreign, and 28 were locally produced. By the time, the Philippines had 463 officially recorded theaters, with 71 of them being in Manila. "Ako Raw ay Huk" (Dir. Ramon Estrella) is one of the films that was banned at the time, due to allegations of it promoting communism.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: In 1950, a Code of Motion Picture Censorship was instilled, further identifying what aspects were considered censorable. Scenes that depict drunkenness as attractive, scenes that depict drug trafficking, and scenes that deal with sex and surgical subjects "when shown to selected groups" are some examples of scenes that were put under review. Foreign films banned at the time include "The Moon Is Blue" (Dir. Otto Preminger) in 1954, and "Martin Luther" (Dir. Irving Pichel) in 1953. "Perlas ng Silangan" (Dir. Pablo Santiago) was screened without edits, which spiked a protest from the Provincial Board of Sulu, claiming that it misrepresented Muslim culture.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: The Citizens Council for Better Motion Pictures was established by in 1960, as a response to a "grave concern over the general disappearance of the cherished virtues and traditions of the Christian way of life, the alarming increase in juvenile delinquency, and the deterioration of public and private morals". In 1961, they lobbied for what is presently known as the Censorship Law (Republic Act No. 3060), which was approved on June 17, 1961. The law created an Appeals Committee, composed of the undersecretaries of justice, national defense, and education. This committee could revoke the decisions of the Board of Censors. Independent from the CCBMP, the still standing Board of Censors had grown to 24 members, and could now establish a system of classification which consisted of two categories: "for general patronage". and "for adults only". Jose L. Guevara was appointed by President Diosdado Macapagal as the new chairperson in 1962, and the board members appointed by President Carlos P. Garcia were removed, on account of their positions being "midnight" extensions.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: In 1962, the board lifted the ban on mouth-to-mouth kissing, so long as it was deemed non-lascivious. In 1963 and after a long-pleaded appeal from the public, the board bans films that heavily play up violence and crime. "Ang Manananggol Ni Ruben" (Dir. Eddie Garcia) was a 1963 film heavily based on the story of Ruben Ablaza, who was convicted for the rape of Annabelle Huggins. The film was initially approved and quickly banned in September, but was screened again in December after being renamed to "Ang Manananggol."


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: In 1965, "Iginuhit ng Tadhana" (Dir. Jose de Villa) is released, and is arguably one of the most controversial films to come out of Philippine cinema, in that it was able to set the tone of Ferdinand Marcos’ entire presidential campaign. The movie, which chronicled the life of Marcos, had reached the realm of politics, ultimately leading the appointment of Marcos to presidency. In August 1965, the film was approved without change, but its premiere in September was halted on the time of the premiere itself. An "en banc" of the film was requested by then acting chairman Rosalina Castro, raising much suspicion from the press and the Nacionalistas. Days after, then chairman Jose L. Guevara resigned from his spot.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: 1967 onwards saw a relaxing of rules by the Board of Censorship, who started allowing more nudity and explicit sex. This led to the rise of commercial, pornographic "bomba" (taken from the term "bombshell", which normally included a scandal in Political public office) films, which persisted despite heavy criticism from Catholic groups. These films usually depicted outright nudity and sexual scenes, cut portions from previously banned films, or the entire prohibited films themselves.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: The rise of "bomba" films was attributed to the fact that movies tackled more adult, realistic themes. The ideal of a "true Filipino" was introduced. These films also brought in a new audience for Philippine film; the usual filmgoers, the teenagers who saw the films as "hip", and the youth, who used these films as a means for their own sexual awakenings, the educated, collegiate, and the working-class crowd. On another side, the larger audience of these films were the male devotees, who came to see the sex scenes and left as soon as the last one finished airing. Some films from this era include "Ang Saging ni Pacing, Dayukdok" (Dir. Luis San Juan; the movie was only approved by the board upon being renamed to "Ang Magsasaing ni Pacing), Ang Batuta ni Drakula" (Dir. Luis San Juan)", Gutom" (Dir. Danny Zialcita)", Sabik" (Dir. Angelito de Guzman)", Laman sa Laman" (Dirs. Lauro Pacheco, Jose Sibal)"," and "Hayok" (Dir. Ruben Abalos) among many other titles.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: While the non-ban of these kinds of films led to the liquidation of censorship committees for most countries, this was not the case for the Philippines, likely due to the demand in box office. On February 22, 1970, the theaters "Pablace" and "Mayfair" are picketed by protesters who went against "bomba" movies. In 1972, the Board begins its anti-sex policy, which was backed by the general public who deemed the films as "attributing to the upsurge of crimes by minors and loose morality of youth".


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: Film censorship under the martial law dictatorship was undertaken as part of the stifling of free expression and civil rights, during which artists, journalists, activists, and members of the opposition were under threats of sanctions or arrest.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: Prior to the administration of Ferdinand Marcos and the declaration of Martial Law in 1972, policing films had been a matter which only went as far as censorship and the non-distribution of movies in the country. The Board of Censorship then had no right to take legal action against any film, director, actor, producing company, or theater that had violated any of its mandates. Cases like these were to be brought up to the local government, who had jurisdiction over legal matters.


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: On September 27, 1972, Marcos issued Letter of Instructions No. 13, which he claimed would "uphold morality in the youth". However, the ban was instead used to stifle dissent and to maintain the propaganda of the government at the time. Among the films banned were "Hubad na Bayani" (1977), "Manila By Night" (1980), "Bayan Ko: Kapit sa Patalim" (1984), among many others. The letter stated 7 kinds of films that were not to be exhibited in any local theater:


title: Cinema of the Philippines

text: What made this proclamation different from those appointed by the board was that the government now had jurisdiction over bodies that were at fault. It was proclaimed in coordination with the Department of National Defense. In fear of legal action and prosecution, the board tightened their rules, banning 148 imported movies and 50 local movies which displayed negative acts. Films were expected to uphold objectives of the New Society through upholding moral values and ensuring that the ideologies shown did not subvert the peace of the nation and the mind.