title: Virginia General Assembly

text: The Virginia General Assembly is described as "the oldest continuous law-making body in the New World". Its existence dates to its establishment at Jamestown on July 30, 1619, by instructions from the Virginia Company of London to the new Governor Sir George Yeardley. It was initially a unicameral body composed of the Company-appointed Governor and Council of State, plus 22 burgesses elected by the settlements and Jamestown. The Assembly became bicameral in 1642 upon the formation of the House of Burgesses. The Assembly had a judicial function of hearing cases both original and appellate. At various times it may have been referred to as the Grand Assembly of Virginia. The General Assembly met in Jamestown from 1619 until 1699, when it first moved to the College of William & Mary near Williamsburg, Virginia, and from 1705 met in the colonial Capitol building. It became the General Assembly in 1776 with the ratification of the Virginia Constitution. The government was moved to Richmond in 1780 during the administration of Governor Thomas Jefferson.


title: Virginia General Assembly

text: The annual salary for senators is $18,000. The annual salary for delegates is $17,640, with the exception that the Speaker's salary is $36,321. Members and one staff member also receive a per diem allowance for each day attending to official duties such as attending session in Richmond or attending committee meetings. Transportation expenses are reimbursed.


title: Virginia General Assembly

text: Under the Constitution of Virginia, Senators and Delegates must be 21 years of age at the time of the election, residents of the district they represent, and qualified to vote for members of the General Assembly. Under the Constitution, "a senator or delegate who moves his residence from the district for which he is elected shall thereby vacate his office".


title: Virginia General Assembly

text: The state constitution specifies that the General Assembly shall meet annually, and its regular session is a maximum of 60 days long in even-numbered years and 30 days long in odd-numbered years, unless extended by a two-thirds vote of both houses. The Governor of Virginia may convene a special session of the General Assembly "when, in his opinion, the interest of the Commonwealth may require" and must convene a special session "upon the application of two-thirds of the members elected to each house".


title: Virginia General Assembly

text: Article II, section 6 on apportionment states, "Members of the ... Senate and of the House of Delegates of the General Assembly shall be elected from electoral districts established by the General Assembly. Every electoral district shall be composed of contiguous and compact territory and shall be so constituted as to give, as nearly as is practicable, representation in proportion to the population of the district." The Redistricting Coalition of Virginia proposes either an independent commission or a bipartisan commission that is not polarized. Member organizations include the League of Women Voters of Virginia, AARP of Virginia, OneVirginia2021, the Virginia Chamber of Commerce and Virginia Organizing. Governor Bob McDonnell's Independent Bipartisan Advisory Commission on Redistricting for the Commonwealth of Virginia made its report on April 1, 2011. It made two recommendations for each state legislative house that showed maps of districts more compact and contiguous than those adopted by the General Assembly. However, no action was taken after the report was released.


title: Virginia General Assembly

text: In 2011 the Virginia College and University Redistricting Competition was organized by Professors Michael McDonald of George Mason University and Quentin Kidd of Christopher Newport University. About 150 students on sixteen teams from thirteen schools submitted plans for legislative and U.S. Congressional Districts. They created districts more compact than the General Assembly's efforts. The "Division 1" maps conformed with the Governor's executive order, and did not address electoral competition or representational fairness. In addition to the criteria of contiguity, equipopulation, the federal Voting Rights Act and communities of interest in the existing city and county boundaries, "Division 2" maps in the competition did incorporate considerations of electoral competition and representational fairness. Judges for the cash award prizes were Thomas Mann of the Brookings Institution and Norman Ornstein of the American Enterprise Institute.


title: Virginia General Assembly

text: In January 2015 Republican State Senator Jill Holtzman Vogel of Winchester and Democratic State Senator Louise Lucas of Portsmouth sponsored a Senate Joint Resolution to establish additional criteria for the Virginia Redistricting Commission of four identified members of political parties, and three other independent public officials. The criteria began with respecting existing political boundaries, such as cities and towns, counties and magisterial districts, election districts and voting precincts. Districts are to be established on the basis of population, in conformance with federal and state laws and court cases, including those addressing racial fairness. The territory is to be contiguous and compact, without oddly shaped boundaries. The commission is prohibited from using political data or election results to favor either political party or incumbent. It passed with a two-thirds majority of 27 to 12 in the Senate, and was then referred to committee in the House of Delegates.


title: Virginia General Assembly

text: In 2015, in "Vesilind v. Virginia State Board of Elections" in a Virginia state court, plaintiffs sought to overturn the General Assembly's redistricting in five House of Delegate and six state Senate districts as violations of both the Virginia and U.S. Constitutions because they failed to represent populations in "continuous and compact territory".


title: Virginia General Assembly

text: In 2020, a constitutional amendment moved redistricting power to a commission consisting of eight lawmakers, four from each party, and eight citizens. The amendment passed with all counties and cities supporting the measure except Arlington. The commission failed to reach an agreement on new state and congressional districts by an October 25, 2021, deadline, and relied upon the amendment’s provision that lets the state Supreme Court of Virginia draw the districts in the event that the commission could not do so. The Supreme Court did so and approved newly-drawn districts on December 28, 2021. While newly-drawn districts will currently first be used in 2023, a federal lawsuit is pending that calls for an election to be held using newly-drawn districts as immediately as November 2022. If the lawsuit is successful, it may require all House districts, which just held elections under the previous districts in 2021, to hold back-to-back elections in 2022 and 2023 under the newly-drawn districts.


title: Gender bender

text: A gender bender is a person who dresses up and acts like the opposite sex. Bending expected gender roles may also be called a genderfuck.


title: Gender bender

text: Gender bending may be political, stemming from the early identity politics movements of the 1960s and 1970s, a guiding principle of which is the idea that the personal is political. In his 1974 article, "Genderfuck and Its Delights", Christopher Lonc explained his motivation for performing genderfuck: "I want to criticize and poke fun at the roles of women and of men too. I want to try [to] show how not-normal I can be. I want to ridicule and destroy the whole cosmology of restrictive sex roles and sexual identification."


title: Gender bender

text: The term "genderfuck" has long been part of the gay vernacular, and started to appear in written documents in the 1970s. Sheidlower cites the definition of the term "gender fuck" in L Humphreys' 1972 work "Out of the Closets: Sociology of Homosexual Liberation" as "a form of extended guerilla theatre". Also quoted is the August 1972 issue of "Rolling Stone" magazine, in reference to the glam rock style: "The new 'macho' transvestism, called vulgarly 'gender-fuck', a curious satire of female impersonation – dresses, pumps, full make-up and beards – is represented by, among others, three men in WAC uniforms and big moustaches".


title: Gender bender

text: Gender bending is commonly used as a rebellion against socially constructed expectations of gender and gender roles, which can vary widely between cultures, though commonly include some variation of the gender binary - the idea that only two genders exist: men and women. In many cultures, it is only acceptable for an individual to embody one of these two gender roles, which often mimic the social expectations of the sexual categories of "male" and "female". Within this cultural expectation, people designated as male are expected to be masculine, while those designated female are expected to be feminine. The belief in and subscription to polar gender roles is known as "gender binarism".


title: Gender bender

text: In many cultures, for a person to be seen as belonging to a particular gender category, the individual must not only have a particular anatomical (including genital) makeup, but must conform to that culture's ideas of appropriate sex role stereotypes. These roles are highly influenced by culture and peers. This sex role stereotype includes sexual orientation. To this end, those who go against expected conduct, for example gays and lesbians, may be seen as "less than" or "other".


title: Gender bender

text: In Western cultures, gender roles have changed over many centuries, though mainstream Western culture still tends to expect stereotypical "feminine" behaviors from females, and "masculine" sex role stereotypes from males. A study by Princeton University outlined these common, prescriptive gender stereotypes:


title: Gender bender

text: In Christian and Jewish cultures, gender roles and gender presentation have formed part of scriptural texts and religious teachings for thousands of years: "The woman shall not wear that which pertaineth unto a man, neither shall a man put on a woman's garment; for all that do so are abomination unto the Lord thy God" (KJV, Deut. 22:5). Crossing these lines has been interpreted by some Christians as a moral transgression.


title: Gender bender

text: Other cultures - often indigenous peoples, or subcultures that exist within Western cultures - may conceptualize gender as having more than two options, and even see their people as potentially fulfilling more than one gender role. Some indigenous peoples of North America have historically had more than two gender roles as part of their social structure, while others, who may or may not have embraced this diversity historically, may accept modern two spirit people as part of their communities now. Other cultures may see people as being capable of embodying more than one gender role at different times, or of being "in the middle", "embracing both male and female spirit". One such example is the Bugis people of South Sulawesi, Indonesia. People of the Bugis society have a total of five genders. These genders include what would traditionally be seen as cisgender man and woman, as well as transgender men and women, and the androgynous "Bissu" shamans.


title: Gender bender

text: Often, parody and exaggeration are used to transgress gender roles, usually to expose them as artificial. For example, a person who engages in gender bending may purposefully exaggerate conventional notions of femininity, or masculinity. Gender bending can also be achieved through cross-dressing and androgyny, both of which challenge and contribute to dismantling the gender binary by separating expression or performance of gender from perceptions of biological or physiological sex. Thus, gender bending protests gender essentialism. This concept is protested not only through non-normative appearance, but by challenging normative gender roles, characteristics, or behaviors as well – for example, a female-bodied individual who is purposefully assertive and nondomestic in order to challenge the notion of essential femininity. Gender bending is based in gender performativity: the concept of gender as a performance. It can be achieved through physical presentation (e.g. clothing, hair, makeup, and secondary sex characteristics), as well as behavior. Because much of gender performance is expressed through clothing, in societies where a gender binary can be observed, there is an established, widespread notion that some clothes are "masculine" and should be worn only by male-bodied individuals, and others are "feminine" and should be worn only by female-bodied individuals. Hawkes, sociologist and author, addresses this "dress code" and the opportunity for a resistance: "The universality of [dress] codes and their meanings allows for the [subversion of] the mainstream 'messages' they convey and through this to illuminate the existence of alternative [gender] identities."


title: Gender bender

text: Cross-dressing would be a form of gender bending because the purpose is to "fuck with gender" roles and presentation. Androgyny is not specifically gender bending, but it can be considered as such if someone is being androgynous on purpose. The origin of the word "androgynous" is from the Greek "androgynos": "male and female in one; womanish man; common to men and women". Androgyny as a form of gender expression may present as a blended unification of masculine and feminine traits, with the goal of making one's sex indiscernible, or as a dichotomous mix juxtaposing male and female phenotypes, with the goal of transgressing gender norms.


title: Gender bender

text: There have been many famous people who have cross-dressed and many famous people now who are androgynous. The rock star Prince was very well known for his cross-dressing or androgynous look. Eddie Izzard started to freely talk about her cross-dressing as early as 1992.


title: Gender bender

text: Shakespeare used cross-dressing in his performances. Over the centuries some readers have posited that Shakespeare's sonnets are autobiographical, and point to them as evidence of his love for a young man. Shakespeare had characters in his writings that were considered cross-dressers. The four of the five main female characters in his plays were seen as women who cross-dress as men or boys: Cleopatra in Antony and Cleopatra, Portia in The Merchant of Venice, Rosalind in As You Like It, Viola in Twelfth Night.


title: Gender bender

text: Drag shows are stage performances where people perform in drag. Drag costuming and makeup may in some cases simply involve an actor portraying a character of a sex or gender different from their own, or the performance itself may be a parody or critique of gender and gender roles. Often "feminine" or "masculine" gender stereotypes of the person's culture are exaggerated for comic or satirical effect. Performers may call themselves drag kings or drag queens. Drag revues typically involve elaborate, glamorous costumes and musical performances. The entertainers may sing, dance, or lip sync.


title: Gender bender

text: A faux drag performer is a person who performs as the gender they identify as in day-to-day life, albeit in a usually exaggerated form. For instance a cisgender woman who performs as a drag queen is a faux queen.


title: Gender bender

text: Rupp et al. noted in 2010 that "In order to understand the differences and similarities between gay male drag queens and female-bodied and transgender drag kings and bio queens, we consider how the personal gender and sexual identities of drag performers affect and are affected by their gender performances in drag."


title: Gender bender

text: Literature, in particular erotica, is another method that has been used to explore genderfuck scenarios. The basis of the literary genre of genderfuck is that it's unimportant whether someone is a man or a woman during the sex act, an idea which challenges for example the Catholic theology of sexuality. Doris Libetseder points to Carol Queen's short story "The Leather Daddy and the Femme", where a lesbian femme uses a strap-on dildo to have sex with a gay leather daddy as a fitting example of the genderfuck genre.


title: Gender bender

text: It was noted as early as May 2019 that the software product Snapchat had photograph filters that make it easy to perform a gender bender on the subjects of photographs, especially those taken on handheld devices like smartphones.


title: Gender bender

text: Gender bending is not always a purposeful political standpoint. According to Butler, gender is something that is performed; it only holds cultural significance to the extent that this is ascribed to it. Despite the gender binary roles society imposes, there are many ways for individuals to express gender variation and not all of them are intentionally political radicalism. Further, in 1995 Tamsin Wilton argued that:


title: Gender bender

text: Gender-fuck is not intrinsically radical – otherwise gender-benders such as Boy George, Prince, Annie Lennox, David Bowie etc. would not get away with it to the extent that they do. A politically aware gender-fuck – such as that of RuPaul or (to a limited extent) Madonna – gets much closer to radicalism, but it is only by incorporating a critique of gender "as an axis of power" that playing about with gender signifiers can be more than wickedly entertaining.


title: Gender bender

text: Judith Butler a theorist who believes the idea that gender is something that is performed by individuals. Her concept of "gender performativity" is the idea that people choose to perform gender in a context in which we are given very few socially acceptable choices, but can be explained as being similar to what actors do in front of the camera. Due to the importance we place on the belief that men need to act like men and women need to behave like women, it is often believed that gender is an innate attribute and not a social construct. In her article "Performative Acts and Gender Constitution: An Essay in Phenomenology and Feminist Theory", Butler explains that if gender is something that sexed bodies assimilate to in order to follow the societal codes of what is appropriate behavior, then those actions can be conceptualized in different ways to allow more flexibility for individuals. In the same article, she asserts that in American culture, there is a gender binary along with strict social repercussions against those that act against the "normal" script. This script is policed by harassment, parental pressures to fill expectations, and peer influence. All of these are ways to guarantee that the culture will repeat itself from generation to generation.


title: Gender bender

text: Judith Butler's theory about gender roles and their social implications and need for reconstruction is developed in her book, "Gender Trouble" (1990) in which she argues that the limited acceptance of variation in gender roles does great harm to individual expression. With the limited options for both men and women, there is little room for their combined forces, because men are constantly focused on becoming the financial supporters of their families which leaves women with the sole option of being the maternal expert she is expected to be. This idea excludes the masculine women or feminine men from being acceptable parental figures for their children because it may lead to a child growing up and conceptualizing the world differently.


title: Gender bender

text: According to Susan Witt's 1997 study, children generally come to their first conclusions about being male or female from their parents since typically they are the first people the child relates to and the nature of the relationship is intense. Besides parents giving children gender specific clothing, toys, and expectations, there are often many subtle messages about what is acceptable or not regarding gender. Witt's study showed that children that grow up with more androgynous gendered parents are more focused on achievements and typically have a better sense of self. Conversely, in cases of gender nonconformity, when a child exhibits gender performances that are atypical of their prescribed gender role, Kerry Robinson and Cristyn Davies report that a parental figure may respond with hostility. According to Roberts et al. in "Pediatrics", people who do not conform to the gender binary are often subject to abuse from society, from within the family and within their community. Types of abuse range from physical and sexual to psychological abuse.


title: Gender bender

text: The Cockettes were a psychedelic drag queen troupe, founded in San Francisco in the late 1960s. According to the journal "Maledicta" in 1987: "Real transvestites and transsexuals are... embarrassed... [by]... The genderfuck Cockettes and such (in dresses and beards)."


title: Gender bender

text: Credited as one of the innovators of the early 70's glam rock era, lead singer and guitarist Marc Bolan of rock band T. Rex was dubbed 'feminine looking'. He was known for his volumized curly hair, vibrant wardrobe and experimentation with glittery make-up and eyeliner. As well as this, he wore platform boots and feather boas during his performances.


title: Gender bender

text: Exploiting his androgynous appearance, rock star David Bowie wore a dress on the UK cover of his 1970 album, "The Man Who Sold the World", and often wore dresses, makeup and leotards both onstage and while doing interviews. In a time when very few people were out, he announced he and his wife were both bisexual. In 1972 Bowie co-produced Lou Reed's album "Transformer", which includes several gender bending songs, notably the classic, "Walk on the Wild Side".


title: Gender bender

text: The New York Dolls are a protopunk band, formed in 1971 and who were very influential in the early New York City punk rock scene. They broke up in 1977 but reformed in 2004. While they often performed in dresses, long hair and glitter/glam makeup, at least one reviewers called their genderfuck "quite subtle".


title: Gender bender

text: Dr. Frank-N-Furter from the 1973 musical, The Rocky Horror Show, and later the cult film / midnight movie, "Rocky Horror Picture Show", is a male bodied person but wears lingerie, clothing, and accessories considered feminine in the English and American culture of the era. The character also wears heavy make-up influenced by 1940s female film stars like Joan Crawford. In one of the songs featured in the musical Dr. Frank-N-Furter sings, "I'm just a sweet transvestite from Transsexual, Transylvania."


title: Gender bender

text: Prince wrote many songs that dealt with ambiguity - of gender, of sexuality, and of race. A charismatic entertainer and prolific songwriter, his songs with bisexual content have also been recorded by artists such as Cyndi Lauper, who in "When You Were Mine", sang about sharing a lover with another man, who was in bed with them, "sleeping in between the two of us".


title: Gender bender

text: According to SheWired, Grace Jones laughs at outside attempts to define her gender identity. Jones herself has said of her gender ambiguity that she feels her masculine side is "a bit stronger". NPR cites her as an influence on Madonna and Lady Gaga.


title: Gender bender

text: Singer-songwriter and political activist Annie Lennox began her career as lead singer with The Tourists in the late 1970s. In the 1980s she fronted synthpop band the Eurythmics but has focused on solo work since the 1990s with the exception of an album and tour with Eurythmics in 1999. The "Spin Alternative Record Guide" described her in 1995 as "Gender-fuck goddess Annie Lennox".


title: Gender bender

text: The American singer-songwriter and artist Phranc began her career in 1978 with punk band Nervous Gender. In 1985 "Village Voice" wrote: "Part of Phranc's appeal is the genderfuck of her sweet feminine voice coming from such a masculine frame." She later worked with queercore band Team Dresch.


title: Gender bender

text: The charity, protest and street performance organization Sisters of Perpetual Indulgence was formed by gay men in 1979, originally using nuns' attire and high camp to draw attention to social conflicts in the Castro, San Francisco. Currently they fundraise for AIDS and other LGBT causes and promote and educate on safer sex issues. The "Cambridge Guide to American Theater" identified them as one of the "more anarchic uses of "gender-fuck"... [which]... "parodied traditional drag".


title: Gender bender

text: Boy George of the 1980s band Culture Club, has cultivated an androgynous style, and was part of the English New Romantic movement which emerged in the early 1980s. He famously stated, "I can do anything. In "GQ", I appeared as a man."


title: Gender bender

text: American drag queen, singer, actor, and host/star of RuPaul's Drag Race, RuPaul got his start by performing in genderfuck, performance art, music videos and punk bands in Atlanta in the late 1980s and early 1990s.


title: Gender bender

text: Pat, a character from the television show "Saturday Night Live", served as the basis for the movie "It's Pat". The sketches and film feature an androgynous main character, Pat. People are unable to determine Pat's sex, including one male who cannot determine their gender after having sex with Pat while stranded on a deserted island.


title: Gender bender

text: At least one writer says Marilyn Manson's gender-bending rock act "shows trans identities can resonate with the public in a way that cannot be ghettoised". Manson's gender-bending has been compared to that of Alice Cooper and Bowie.


title: Gender bender

text: Eddie Izzard started to freely talk about her transvestism in venues like Edinburgh Festival as early as 1992. Her stance is that cross-dressing is neither part of her performance nor a sexual fetish. She remarks in her show "Unrepeatable", "Women wear what they want and so do I." According to Izzard, "Most transvestites fancy women." She identifies as "a straight transvestite or a male lesbian". She has also described herself as "a lesbian trapped in a man's body", transgender, and "a complete boy plus half girl".


title: Gender bender

text: Lady Gaga is very specific in what she wears and even states that, "But in a sense, I portray myself in a very androgynous way, and I love androgyny."


title: Transformer types

text: A variety of types of electrical transformer are made for different purposes. Despite their design differences, the various types employ the same basic principle as discovered in 1831 by Michael Faraday, and share several key functional parts.


title: Transformer types

text: This is the most common type of transformer, widely used in electric power transmission and appliances to convert mains voltage to low voltage to power electronic devices. They are available in power ratings ranging from mW to MW. The insulated laminations minimizes eddy current losses in the iron core.


title: Transformer types

text: Small appliance and electronic transformers may use a split bobbin, giving a high level of insulation between the windings. The rectangular cores are made up of stampings, often in E-I shape pairs, but other shapes are sometimes used. Shields between primary and secondary may be fitted to reduce EMI (electromagnetic interference), or a screen winding is occasionally used.


title: Transformer types

text: Small appliance and electronics transformers may have a thermal cut-out built into the winding, to shut-off power at high temperatures to prevent further overheating.


title: Transformer types

text: Donut-shaped toroidal transformers save space compared to E-I cores, and may reduce external magnetic field. These use a ring shaped core, copper windings wrapped around this ring (and thus threaded through the ring during winding), and tape for insulation.


title: Transformer types

text: Toroidal transformers have a lower external magnetic field compared to rectangular transformers, and can be smaller for a given power rating. However, they cost more to make, as winding requires more complex and slower equipment.


title: Transformer types

text: They can be mounted by a bolt through the center, using washers and rubber pads or by potting in resin. Care must be taken that the bolt does not form part of a short-circuit turn.


title: Transformer types

text: An autotransformer consists of only one winding that is tapped at some point along the winding. Voltage is applied across a terminal of the winding, and a higher (or lower) voltage is produced across another portion of the same winding. The equivalent power rating of the autotransformer is lower than the actual load power rating. It is calculated by: load VA × (|Vin – Vout|)/Vin. For example, an auto transformer that adapts a 1000 VA load rated at 120 volts to a 240 volt supply has an equivalent rating of at least: 1,000 VA (240 V – 120 V) / 240 V = 500 VA. However, the actual rating (shown on the tally plate) must be at least 1000 VA.


title: Transformer types

text: For voltage ratios that don't exceed about 3:1, an autotransformer is cheaper, lighter, smaller, and more efficient than an isolating (two-winding) transformer of the same rating. Large three-phase autotransformers are used in electric power distribution systems, for example, to interconnect 220 kV and 33 kV sub-transmission networks or other high voltage levels.


title: Transformer types

text: By exposing part of the winding coils of an autotransformer, and making the secondary connection through a sliding carbon brush, an autotransformer with a near-continuously variable turns ratio can be obtained, allowing for wide voltage adjustment in very small increments.


title: Transformer types

text: The induction regulator is similar in design to a wound-rotor induction motor but it is essentially a transformer whose output voltage is varied by rotating its secondary relative to the primary—i.e., rotating the angular position of the rotor. It can be seen as a power transformer exploiting rotating magnetic fields. The major advantage of the induction regulator is that unlike variacs, they are practical for transformers over 5 kVA. Hence, such regulators find widespread use in high-voltage laboratories.


title: Transformer types

text: For polyphase systems, multiple single-phase transformers can be used, or all phases can be connected to a single polyphase transformer. For a three phase transformer, the three primary windings are connected together and the three secondary windings are connected together. Examples of connections are wye-delta, delta-wye, delta-delta, and wye-wye. A vector group indicates the configuration of the windings and the phase angle difference between them. If a winding is connected to earth (grounded), the earth connection point is usually the center point of a wye winding. If the secondary is a delta winding, the ground may be connected to a center tap on one winding (high leg delta) or one phase may be grounded (corner grounded delta). A special purpose polyphase transformer is the zigzag transformer. There are many possible configurations that may involve more or fewer than six windings and various tap connections.


title: Transformer types

text: "Grounding" or "earthing transformers" let three wire (delta) polyphase system supplies accommodate phase to neutral loads by providing a return path for current to a neutral. Grounding transformers most commonly incorporate a single winding transformer with a zigzag winding configuration but may also be created with a wye-delta isolated winding transformer connection.


title: Transformer types

text: This is a specialized type of transformer which can be configured to adjust the phase relationship between input and output. This allows power flow in an electric grid to be controlled, e.g. to steer power flows away from a shorter (but overloaded) link to a longer path with excess capacity.


title: Transformer types

text: A "variable-frequency transformer" is a specialized three-phase power transformer which allows the phase relationship between the input and output windings to be continuously adjusted by rotating one half. They are used to interconnect electrical grids with the same nominal frequency but without synchronous phase coordination.


title: Transformer types

text: A leakage transformer, also called a stray-field transformer, has a significantly higher leakage inductance than other transformers, sometimes increased by a magnetic bypass or shunt in its core between primary and secondary, which is sometimes adjustable with a set screw. This provides a transformer with an inherent current limitation due to the loose coupling between its primary and the secondary windings. The adjustable short-circuit inductance acts as a current limiting parameter.


title: Transformer types

text: The output and input currents are kept low enough to preclude thermal overload under any load conditions — even if the secondary is shorted.


title: Transformer types

text: Leakage transformers are used for arc welding and high voltage discharge lamps (neon lights and cold cathode fluorescent lamps, which are series connected up to 7.5 kV AC). It acts both as a voltage transformer and as a magnetic ballast.


title: Transformer types

text: Other applications are short-circuit-proof extra-low voltage transformers for toys or doorbell installations.


title: Transformer types

text: A resonant transformer is a transformer in which one or both windings has a capacitor across it and functions as a tuned circuit. Used at radio frequencies, resonant transformers can function as high Q factor bandpass filters. The transformer windings have either air or ferrite cores and the bandwidth can be adjusted by varying the coupling (mutual inductance). One common form is the IF (intermediate frequency) transformer, used in superheterodyne radio receivers. They are also used in radio transmitters.


title: Transformer types

text: Resonant transformers are also used in electronic ballasts for gas discharge lamps, and high voltage power supplies. They are also used in some types of switching power supplies. Here the short-circuit inductance value is an important parameter that determines the resonance frequency of the resonant transformer. Often only secondary winding has a resonant capacitor (or stray capacitance) and acts as a serial resonant tank circuit. When the short-circuit inductance of the secondary side of the transformer is L and the resonant capacitor (or stray capacitance) of the secondary side is C, The resonance frequency ω of 1' is as follows


title: Transformer types

text: The transformer is driven by a pulse or square wave for efficiency, generated by an electronic oscillator circuit. Each pulse serves to drive resonant sinusoidal oscillations in the tuned winding, and due to resonance a high voltage can be developed across the secondary.


title: Transformer types

text: By arranging particular magnetic properties of a transformer core, and installing a ferro-resonant tank circuit (a capacitor and an additional winding), a transformer can be arranged to automatically keep the secondary winding voltage relatively constant for varying primary supply without additional circuitry or manual adjustment. Ferro-resonant transformers run hotter than standard power transformers, because regulating action depends on core saturation, which reduces efficiency. The output waveform is heavily distorted unless careful measures are taken to prevent this. Saturating transformers provide a simple rugged method to stabilize an AC power supply.


title: Transformer types

text: Ferrite core power transformers are widely used in switched-mode power supplies (SMPSs). The powder core enables high-frequency operation, and hence much smaller size-to-power ratio than laminated-iron transformers.


title: Transformer types

text: Ferrite transformers are not used as power transformers at mains frequency since laminated iron cores cost less than an equivalent ferrite core.


title: Transformer types

text: Manufacturers either use flat copper sheets or etch spiral patterns on a printed circuit board to form the "windings" of a planar transformer, replacing the turns of wire used to make other types. Some planar transformers are commercially sold as discrete components, other planar transformers are etched directly into the main printed circuit board and only need a ferrite core to be attached over the PCB. A planar transformer can be thinner than other transformers, which is useful for low-profile applications or when several printed circuit boards are stacked. Almost all planar transformers use a ferrite planar core.


title: Transformer types

text: Large transformers used in power distribution or electrical substations have their core and coils immersed in oil, which cools and insulates. Oil circulates through ducts in the coil and around the coil and core assembly, moved by convection. The oil is cooled by the outside of the tank in small ratings, and by an air-cooled radiator in larger ratings. Where a higher rating is required, or where the transformer is in a building or underground, oil pumps circulate the oil, and an oil-to-water heat exchanger may also be used. Some transformers may contain PCBs where or when its use was permitted. For example, until 1979 in South Africa. substitute fire-resistant liquids such as silicone oils are now used instead.


title: Transformer types

text: Cast-resin power transformers encase the windings in epoxy resin. These transformers simplify installation since they are dry, without cooling oil, and so require no fire-proof vault for indoor installations. The epoxy protects the windings from dust and corrosive atmospheres. However, because the molds for casting the coils are only available in fixed sizes, the design of the transformers is less flexible, which may make them more costly if customized features (voltage, turns ratio, taps) are required.


title: Transformer types

text: An isolation transformer links two circuits magnetically, but provides no metallic conductive path between the circuits. An example application would be in the power supply for medical equipment, when it is necessary to prevent any leakage from the AC power system into devices connected to a patient. Special purpose isolation transformers may include shielding to prevent coupling of electromagnetic noise between circuits, or may have reinforced insulation to withstand thousands of volts of potential difference between primary and secondary circuits.


title: Transformer types

text: A solid-state transformer is actually a power converter that performs the same function as a conventional transformer, sometimes with added functionality. Most contain a smaller high-frequency transformer. It can consist of an AC-to-AC converter, or a rectifier powering an inverter.


title: Transformer types

text: Instrument transformers are typically used to operate instruments from high voltage lines or high current circuits, safely isolating measurement and control circuitry from the high voltages or currents. The primary winding of the transformer is connected to the high voltage or high current circuit, and the meter or relay is connected to the secondary circuit. Instrument transformers may also be used as an isolation transformer so that secondary quantities may be used without affecting the primary circuitry.


title: Transformer types

text: Terminal identifications (either alphanumeric such as H, X, Y, etc. or a colored spot or dot impressed in the case) indicate one end of each winding, indicating the same instantaneous polarity and phase between windings. This applies to both types of instrument transformers. Correct identification of terminals and wiring is essential for proper operation of metering and protective relay instrumentation.


title: Transformer types

text: A current transformer (CT) is a series connected measurement device designed to provide a current in its secondary coil proportional to the current flowing in its primary. Current transformers are commonly used in metering and protective relays in the electrical power industry.


title: Transformer types

text: Current transformers are often constructed by passing a single primary turn (either an insulated cable or an uninsulated bus bar) through a well-insulated toroidal core wrapped with many turns of wire. The CT is typically described by its current ratio from primary to secondary. For example, a 1000:1 CT provides an output current of 1 amperes when 1000 amperes flow through the primary winding. Standard secondary current ratings are 5 amperes or 1 ampere, compatible with standard measuring instruments. The secondary winding can be single ratio or have several tap points to provide a range of ratios. Care must be taken to make sure the secondary winding is not disconnected from its low-impedance load while current flows in the primary, as this may produce a dangerously high voltage across the open secondary and may permanently affect the accuracy of the transformer.


title: Transformer types

text: Specially constructed wideband CTs are also used, usually with an oscilloscope, to measure high frequency waveforms or pulsed currents within pulsed power systems. One type provides a voltage output that is proportional to the measured current. Another, called a Rogowski coil, requires an external integrator in order to provide a proportional output.


title: Transformer types

text: A current clamp uses a current transformer with a split core that can be easily wrapped around a conductor in a circuit. This is a common method used in portable current measuring instruments but permanent installations use more economical types of current transformer.


title: Transformer types

text: Voltage transformers (VT), also called potential transformers (PT), are a parallel connected type of instrument transformer, used for metering and protection in high-voltage circuits or phasor phase shift isolation. They are designed to present negligible load to the supply being measured and to have an accurate voltage ratio to enable accurate metering. A potential transformer may have several secondary windings on the same core as a primary winding, for use in different metering or protection circuits. The primary may be connected phase to ground or phase to phase. The secondary is usually grounded on one terminal.


title: Transformer types

text: There are three primary types of voltage transformers (VT): electromagnetic, capacitor, and optical. The electromagnetic voltage transformer is a wire-wound transformer. The capacitor voltage transformer uses a capacitance potential divider and is used at higher voltages due to a lower cost than an electromagnetic VT. An optical voltage transformer exploits the electrical properties of optical materials. Measurement of high voltages is possible by the potential transformers. An optical voltage transformer is not strictly a transformer, but a sensor similar to a Hall effect sensor.


title: Transformer types

text: A combined instrument transformer encloses a current transformer and a voltage transformer in the same transformer. There are two main combined current and voltage transformer designs: oil-paper insulated and SF insulated. One advantage of applying this solution is reduced substation footprint, due to reduced number of transformers in a bay, supporting structures and connections as well as lower costs for civil works, transportation and installation.


title: Transformer types

text: A pulse transformer is a transformer that is optimised for transmitting rectangular electrical pulses (that is, pulses with fast rise and fall times and a relatively constant amplitude). Small versions called "signal" types are used in digital logic and telecommunications circuits such as in Ethernet, often for matching logic drivers to transmission lines. These are also called Ethernet transformer modules.


title: Transformer types

text: Medium-sized "power" versions are used in power-control circuits such as camera flash controllers. Larger "power" versions are used in the electrical power distribution industry to interface low-voltage control circuitry to the high-voltage gates of power semiconductors. Special high voltage pulse transformers are also used to generate high power pulses for radar, particle accelerators, or other high energy pulsed power applications.


title: Transformer types

text: To minimize distortion of the pulse shape, a pulse transformer needs to have low values of leakage inductance and distributed capacitance, and a high open-circuit inductance. In power-type pulse transformers, a low coupling capacitance (between the primary and secondary) is important to protect the circuitry on the primary side from high-powered transients created by the load. For the same reason, high insulation resistance and high breakdown voltage are required. A good transient response is necessary to maintain the rectangular pulse shape at the secondary, because a pulse with slow edges would create in the power semiconductors.


title: Transformer types

text: The product of the peak pulse voltage and the duration of the pulse (or more accurately, the voltage-time integral) is often used to characterise pulse transformers. Generally speaking, the larger this product, the larger and more expensive the transformer.


title: Transformer types

text: Pulse transformers by definition have a duty cycle of less than 0.5; whatever energy stored in the coil during the pulse must be "dumped" out before the pulse is fired again.


title: Transformer types

text: There are several types of transformer used in radio frequency (RF) work, distinguished by how their windings are connected, and by the type of cores (if any) the coil turns are wound onto.


title: Transformer types

text: Laminated steel used for power transformer cores is very inefficient at RF, wasting a lot of RF power as heat, so transformers for use at radio frequencies tends to use magnetic ceramics for winding cores, such as powdered iron (for mediumwave and lower shortwave frequencies) or ferrite (for upper shortwave).


title: Transformer types

text: The core material a coil is wrapped around can increase its inductance dramatically – hundreds to thousands of times more than “air” – thereby raising the transformer's . The cores of such transformers tend to help performance the most at the lower end of the frequency band transformer was designed for.


title: Transformer types

text: Old RF transformers sometimes included an extra, third coil (called a tickler winding) to inject feedback into an earlier (detector) stage in antique regenerative radio receivers.


title: Transformer types

text: So-called “air-core” transformers actually have no core at all – they are wound onto non-magnetic forms or frames, or merely held in shape by the stiffness of the coiled wire. These are used for very high frequency and upper shortwave work.


title: Transformer types

text: The lack of a magnetically reactive core means very low inductance per turn, requiring many turns of wire on the transformer coil. All forward current excites reverse current and induces secondary voltage which is proportional to the mutual inductance. At VHF, such transformers may be nothing more than a few turns of wire soldered onto a printed circuit board.


title: Transformer types

text: Ferrite core transformers are widely used in RF transformers, especially for current balancing (see below) and impedance matching for TV and radio antennas. Because of the enormous improvement in inductance that ferrite produces, many ferrite cored transformers work well with only one or two turns.


title: Transformer types

text: Ferrite is an intensely magnetically reactive ceramic material made from iron oxide (rust) mixed with small fractions of other metals or their oxides, such as magnesium, zinc, and nickel. Different mixtures respond best at different frequencies.


title: Transformer types

text: Because they are ceramics, ferrites are (almost) non-conductive, so they respond only to the magnetic fields created by nearby currents, and not to the electric fields created by the accompanying voltages.


title: Transformer types

text: For radio frequency use, "choke" transformers are sometimes made from windings of transmission line wired in parallel. Sometimes the windings are coaxial cable, sometimes bifilar (paired parallel wire); either is wound around a ferrite, powdered iron, or "air" core. This style of transformer gives an extremely wide bandwidth but only a limited number of impedance ratios (such as 1:1, 1:4, or 1:9) can be achieved with this technique.


title: Transformer types

text: Choke transformers are sometimes called "transmission-line transformers" (although see below for a different transformer type with the same name), or "Guanella transformers", or "current baluns", or "line isolators". Although called a "transmission line" transformer, it is distinct from the transformers made from segments of transmission line.


title: Transformer types

text: At radio frequencies and microwave frequencies, a quarter-wave impedance transformer can provide impedance matching between circuits over a limited range of frequencies, using only a section of transmission line no more than a  wave long. The line may be coaxial cable, waveguide, stripline, or microstrip. For upper VHF and UHF frequencies, where coil self resonance interferes with proper operation, it is usually the only feasible method for transforming line impedances.


title: Transformer types

text: Single frequency transformers are made using sections of transmission line, often called a "matching section" or a "matching stub". Like the choke transformer above, it is also called a "transmission line transformer" even though the two are very different in form and operation.


title: Transformer types

text: Unless it is terminated in its characteristic impedance, any transmission line will produce standing waves of impedance along its length, repeating exactly every full wavelength, and covering its full range of absolute values over only a quarter wave. One may exploit this behavior to transform currents and voltages by connecting sections of transmission line with mismatched impedances to deliberately create a standing wave on a line, and the cut and reconnect to the line at the position where a desired impedance is reached – never requiring more than a  wave of mismatched line.


title: Transformer types

text: This type of transformer is very efficient (very little loss) but severely limited in the frequency span it will operate on: Whereas the choke transformer, above, is very broadbanded, a line section transformer is very narrowbanded.


title: Transformer types

text: "Balun" is a generic name for any transformer configured specifically to connect between balanced (non-grounded) and unbalanced (grounded) circuits. They can be made using any transformer type, but the actual balance achieved depends on the type; for example, "choke" baluns produce balanced current and autotransformer-type baluns produce balanced voltages. Baluns can also be made from configurations of transmission line, using bifilar or coaxial cable similar to transmission line transformers in construction and operation.


title: Transformer types

text: In addition to interfacing between balanced and unbalanced loads by producing balanced current or balanced voltage (or both), baluns can in addition separately transform (match) impedance between the loads.


title: Transformer types

text: Ferrite-core transformers are widely used in (intermediate frequency) (IF) stages in superheterodyne radio receivers. They are mostly tuned transformers, containing a threaded ferrite slug that is screwed in or out to adjust IF tuning. The transformers are usually canned (shielded) for stability and to reduce interference.


title: Transformer types

text: Audio transformers are those specifically designed for use in audio circuits to carry audio signal. They can be used to block radio frequency interference or the DC component of an audio signal, to split or combine audio signals, or to provide impedance matching between high impedance and low impedance circuits, such as between a high impedance tube (valve) amplifier output and a low impedance loudspeaker, or between a high impedance instrument output and the low impedance input of a mixing console. Audio transformers that operate with loudspeaker voltages and current are larger than those that operate at microphone or line level, which carry much less power. Bridge transformers connect 2-wire and 4-wire communication circuits.


title: Transformer types

text: Being magnetic devices, audio transformers are susceptible to external magnetic fields such as those generated by AC current-carrying conductors. "Hum" is a term commonly used to describe unwanted signals originating from the "mains" power supply (typically 50 or 60 Hz). Audio transformers used for low-level signals, such as those from microphones, often include magnetic shielding to protect against extraneous magnetically coupled signals.


title: Transformer types

text: Audio transformers were originally designed to connect different telephone systems to one another while keeping their respective power supplies isolated, and are still commonly used to interconnect professional audio systems or system components, to eliminate buzz and hum. Such transformers typically have a 1:1 ratio between the primary and the secondary. These can also be used for splitting signals, balancing unbalanced signals, or feeding a balanced signal to unbalanced equipment. Transformers are also used in DI boxes to convert high-impedance instrument signals (e.g., bass guitar) to low impedance signals to enable them to connect to a microphone input on the mixing console.


title: Transformer types

text: A particularly critical component is the output transformer of a valve amplifier. Valve circuits for quality reproduction have long been produced with no other (inter-stage) audio transformers, but an output transformer is needed to couple the relatively high impedance (up to a few hundred ohms depending upon configuration) of the output valve(s) to the low impedance of a loudspeaker. (The valves can deliver a low current at a high voltage; the speakers require high current at low voltage.) Most solid-state power amplifiers need no output transformer at all.


title: Transformer types

text: Audio transformers affect the sound quality because they are non-linear. They add harmonic distortion to the original signal, especially odd-order harmonics, with an emphasis on third-order harmonics. When the incoming signal amplitude is very low there is not enough level to energize the magnetic core (see coercivity and magnetic hysteresis). When the incoming signal amplitude is very high the transformer saturates and adds harmonics from soft clipping. Another non-linearity comes from limited frequency response. For good low-frequency response a relatively large magnetic core is required; high power handling increases the required core size. Good high-frequency response requires carefully designed and implemented windings without excessive leakage inductance or stray capacitance. All this makes for an expensive component.


title: Transformer types

text: Early transistor audio power amplifiers often had output transformers, but they were eliminated as advances in semiconductors allowed the design of amplifiers with sufficiently low output impedance to drive a loudspeaker directly.


title: Transformer types

text: In the same way that transformers create high voltage power transmission circuits that minimize transmission losses, loudspeaker transformers can power many individual loudspeakers from a single audio circuit operated at higher than normal loudspeaker voltages. This application is common in public address applications. Such circuits are commonly referred to as constant-voltage speaker systems. Such systems are also known by the nominal voltage of the loudspeaker line, such as "25-", "70-" and "100-volt" speaker systems (the voltage corresponding to the power rating of a speaker or amplifier). A transformer steps up the output of the system's amplifier to the distribution voltage. At the distant loudspeaker locations, a step-down transformer matches the speaker to the rated voltage of the line, so the speaker produces rated nominal output when the line is at nominal voltage. Loudspeaker transformers commonly have multiple primary taps to adjust the volume at each speaker in steps.


title: Transformer types

text: Valve (tube) amplifiers almost always use an output transformer to match the high load impedance requirement of the valves (several kilohms) to a low impedance speaker


title: Transformer types

text: Moving coil phonograph cartridges produce a very small voltage. For this to be amplified with a reasonable signal-noise ratio usually requires a transformer to convert the voltage to the range of the more common moving-magnet cartridges.


title: Transformer types

text: Microphones may also be matched to their load with a small transformer, which is mu-metal shielded to minimise noise pickup. These transformers are less widely used today, as transistorized buffers are now cheaper.


title: Transformer types

text: In a push–pull amplifier, an inverted signal is required and can be obtained from a transformer with a center-tapped winding, used to drive two active devices in opposite phase. These phase splitting transformers are not much used today.


title: Transformer types

text: A transactor is a combination of a transformer and a reactor. A transactor has an iron core with an air-gap, which limits the coupling between windings.


title: Transformer types

text: Hedgehog transformers are occasionally encountered in homemade 1920s radios. They are homemade audio interstage coupling transformers.


title: Transformer types

text: Enameled copper wire is wound round the central half of the length of a bundle of insulated iron wire (e.g., florists' wire), to make the windings. The ends of the iron wires are then bent around the electrical winding to complete the magnetic circuit, and the whole is wrapped with tape or string to hold it together.


title: Transformer types

text: A variometer is a type of continuously variable air-core RF inductor with two windings. One common form consisted of a coil wound on a short hollow cylindrical form, with a second smaller coil inside, mounted on a shaft so its magnetic axis can be rotated with respect to the outer coil. The two coils are connected in series. When the two coils are collinear, with their magnetic fields pointed in the same direction, the two magnetic fields add, and the inductance is maximum. If the inner coil is rotated so its axis is at an angle to the outer coil, the magnetic fields do not add and the inductance is less. If the inner coil is rotated so it is collinear with the outer coil but their magnetic fields point in opposite directions, the fields cancel each other out and the inductance is very small or zero. The advantage of the variometer is that inductance can be adjusted continuously, over a wide range. Variometers were widely used in 1920s radio receivers. One of their main uses today is as antenna matching coils to match longwave radio transmitters to their antennas.


title: Transformer types

text: The "vario-coupler" was a device with similar construction, but the two coils were not connected but attached to separate circuits. So it functioned as an air-core RF transformer with variable coupling. The inner coil could be rotated from 0° to 90° angle with the outer, reducing the mutual inductance from maximum to near zero.


title: Transformer types

text: The pancake coil variometer was another common construction used in both 1920s receivers and transmitters. It consists of two flat spiral coils suspended vertically facing each other, hinged at one side so one could swing away from the other to an angle of 90° to reduce the coupling. The flat spiral design served to reduce parasitic capacitance and losses at radio frequencies.


title: Transformer types

text: Pancake or "honeycomb" coil vario-couplers were used in the 1920s in the common Armstrong or "tickler" regenerative radio receivers. One coil was connected to the detector tube's grid circuit. The other coil, the "tickler" coil was connected to the tube's plate (output) circuit. It fed back some of the signal from the plate circuit into the input again, and this positive feedback increased the tube's gain and selectivity.


title: Transformer types

text: A rotary (rotatory) transformer is a specialized transformer that couples electrical signals between two parts that rotate in relation to each other—as an alternative to slip rings, which are prone to wear and contact noise. They are commonly used in helical scan magnetic tape applications.


title: Transformer types

text: A variable differential transformer is a rugged non-contact position sensor. It has two oppositely-phased primaries which nominally produce zero output in the secondary, but any movement of the core changes the coupling to produce a signal.


title: Transformer types

text: The two-phase resolver and related three-phase synchro are rotary position sensors which work over a full 360°. The primary is rotated within two or three secondaries at different angles, and the amplitudes of the secondary signals can be decoded into an angle. Unlike variable differential transformers, the coils, and not just the core, move relative to each other, so slip rings are required to connect the primary.


title: Transformer types

text: Resolvers produce in-phase and quadrature components which are useful for computation. Synchros produce three-phase signals which can be connected to other synchros to rotate them in a generator/motor configuration.


title: Transformer types

text: Two piezoelectric transducers can be mechanically coupled or integrated in one piece of material, creating a piezoelectric transformer.


title: Transformer types

text: A Flyback transformer is a high-voltage, high-frequency transformer used in plasma balls and with cathode-ray tubes (CRTs). It provides the high (often several kV) anode DC voltage required for operation of CRTs. Variations in anode voltage supplied by the flyback can result in distortions in the image displayed by the CRT. CRT flybacks may contain multiple secondary windings to provide several other, lower voltages. Its output is often pulsed because it is often used with a voltage multiplier, which may be integrated with the flyback.


title: One Tree Hill (season 1)

text: The first season of "One Tree Hill", an American teen drama television series created by Mark Schwahn, began airing on September 23, 2003 on The WB television network. The season concluded on May 11, 2004, after 22 episodes.


title: One Tree Hill (season 1)

text: The series premiere was watched by 2.5 million viewers and achieved a 1.9 Adults 18–49 rating on September 23, 2003. However, the following week it rose to 3.3 million viewers and a 2.4 demo, becoming only one of three shows to rise in its second episode in the 2003–2004 TV season.


title: One Tree Hill (season 1)

text: "Warner Home Video" released the complete first season, under the title of "One Tree Hill: The Complete First Season", on January 25, 2005, as a six-disc boxed set.


title: One Tree Hill (season 1)

text: The first season follows Lucas Scott, a junior, as he joins his high school basketball team and forges a relationship with his half-brother Nathan Scott, while also coming to terms with who he is and who his father, Dan, is. The season mainly explores into the boys' love lives as they form connections with characters such as Peyton Sawyer, Haley James, and Brooke Davis, while most of these kids' parents confront their own pasts in order to move on.


title: One Tree Hill (season 1)

text: The DVD release of season one was released after the season has completed broadcast on television. It has been released in Regions 1, 2 and 4. As well as every episode from the season, the DVD release features bonus material such as audio commentaries on some episodes from the creator and cast, deleted scenes, gag reels and behind-the-scenes featurettes. The words "The WB Presents" were printed on the packaging before the ""One Tree Hill"" title, although they were not included on international releases as The WB was not the broadcaster.


title: Dustin Jacoby

text: Dustin Jacoby (born April 4, 1988) is an American mixed martial artist and kickboxer who currently competes in the Ultimate Fighting Championship. In kickboxing, he has competed for GLORY, and in MMA, he has competed also for Bellator, World Series of Fighting, and Titan FC. He has fought as both a Light Heavyweight and a Middleweight. On November 1, 2018, he was ranked as the #8 middleweight kickboxer in the world by Combat Press.


title: Dustin Jacoby

text: Jacoby was born in Fort Morgan, Colorado and grew up in Colorado. Dustin has a twin brother Darren, who is a former professional mixed martial artist. The brothers begun training taekwondo at the age of four, both picking up wrestling a year later. Dustin trained taekwondo for four years but continued to wrestle until the family moved to Illinois when the brothers were 12.


title: Dustin Jacoby

text: In Illinois Jacoby started playing basketball, claiming all-state honors while attended Triopia High School. Also playing football in the high school, Dustin had many Division I scholarship offers for both sports but due to a severe knee injury sustained during his senior year many of the offers were withdrawn. Subsequently Jacoby selected Culver-Stockton College where he played football two years as a quarterback while studying business management, before transferring to Quincy University.


title: Dustin Jacoby

text: Jacoby was a last-minute replacement for professional boxer Manuel Quezada at the Road to GLORY USA Light Heavyweight (209 lbs.) Tournament in Tulsa, Oklahoma. He had never competed in a professional kickboxing match before the tournament. He pulled off a major upset, knocking out International Sport Karate Association Heavyweight Champion Randy Blake, fellow mixed martial artist Roy Boughton and 19–0 prospect Brian Collette en route to winning the Tournament Championship. He earned a check for $20,000 and a one-year contract with Glory World Series.


title: Dustin Jacoby

text: He lost to Michael Duut by TKO after being knocked down three time in round one at "" in London, England on March 23, 2013.


title: Dustin Jacoby

text: Jacoby fought at "" in New York City, New York on June 22, 2013. Rematching Brian Collette in the quarter-finals, he took a close majority decision win. He then faced Danyo Ilunga in the semis and put up a good fight early, but fell behind in rounds two and three as he was hacked at with leg kicks and lost a unanimous decision.


title: Dustin Jacoby

text: He was set to fight Makoto Uehara at "" in New York City on November 23, 2013 but the fight was switched to "" in Tokyo, Japan on December 21, 2013. He lost to Uehara by split decision.


title: Dustin Jacoby

text: He was set to face Robert Thomas in the semifinals of the "" in Zagreb, Croatia on March 8, 2014 but Thomas withdrew for undisclosed reasons and was replaced by Alex Pereira.


title: Dustin Jacoby

text: During a college offseason, Jacoby took an amateur mixed martial arts bout and got hooked to the sport immediately. After the college he started training at Finney's HIT Squad and turned professional after racking up an amateur record of 9-1.


title: Dustin Jacoby

text: Jacoby was expected to make his UFC debut against Brad Tavares on October 29, 2011 at UFC 137, replacing an injured Tim Credeur. However, Tavares himself was forced out of the bout with an injury and replaced by fellow newcomer Clifford Starks. Jacoby lost the fight via unanimous decision.


title: Dustin Jacoby

text: In his second UFC outing, Jacoby was submitted by Chris Camozzi via guillotine choke on January 28, 2012 at UFC on Fox 2. He was later released from the UFC, following an 0–2 run in the promotion.


title: Dustin Jacoby

text: Jacoby bounced back from his UFC stint with a pair of victories on the regional circuit. He knocked out Billy Johnson in 45 seconds at an Indiana-based Hoosier Fight Club event on June 2, 2012, followed by a doctor stoppage win over Tim Williams for the Cage Fury FC middleweight title.


title: Dustin Jacoby

text: Jacoby made his WSOF debut at its inaugural event on November 3, 2012, losing to fellow UFC veteran David Branch via unanimous decision.


title: Dustin Jacoby

text: Jacoby stepped in as a replacement for an injured Marcus Sursa to face Muhammed Lawal on September 5, 2014 at Bellator 123. He lost the fight via technical knockout in the second round.


title: Dustin Jacoby

text: Jacoby faced John Salter on January 16, 2015 at Bellator 132. He lost the fight via submission in the second round.


title: Dustin Jacoby

text: After the loss to Salter, Jacoby decided to concentrate on his kickboxing career. He eventually returned to MMA in 2019 to participate in Sparta Combat League heavyweight tournament, which consisted of boxing, kickboxing and MMA bouts. Jacoby went on to win the tournament by beating Cody East in the final bout.


title: Dustin Jacoby

text: On August 4, 2020, Jacoby headlined Dana White's Contender Series Season 4 opening week against Ty Flores. He won the fight via unanimous decision and was subsequently awarded a UFC contract.


title: Dustin Jacoby

text: Jacoby faced Justin Ledet on October 31, 2020 at UFC Fight Night 181. He won the fight via TKO in the first round.


title: Dustin Jacoby

text: Jacoby faced Maxim Grishin on February 27, 2021 at UFC Fight Night 186. At the weigh-ins, Maxim Grishin weighed in at 210.5 pounds, four and a half pounds over the light heavyweight non-title fight limit of 206 pounds. His bout proceeded at a catchweight and Grishin was fined 30% of his individual purse, which went Dustin. Despite being knocked down twice, Jacoby won a close bout via unanimous decision.


title: Dustin Jacoby

text: Jacoby faced Ion Cuțelaba, replacing injured Devin Clark, on May 1, 2021 at . Cuțelaba dominated the first round, however Jacoby came back in the second and third rounds with the fight ending in a split draw. Prior to the bout, Jacoby signed a new four-fight contract with the UFC.


title: Dustin Jacoby

text: Jacoby was scheduled to face Askar Mozharov on August 28, 2021 at UFC on ESPN 30. However, Mazharov was removed from the event for undisclosed reasons and was replaced by Darren Stewart. Jacoby won the fight via technical knockout in round one.


title: Dustin Jacoby

text: Replacing Aleksa Camur, Jacoby faced John Allan on short notice on November 6, 2021 at UFC 268. Jacoby won the bout via unanimous decision.


title: Dustin Jacoby

text: Jacoby faced Michał Oleksiejczuk on March 5, 2022 at UFC 272. He won the fight via unanimous decision.


title: Dustin Jacoby

text: Jacoby faced Da Un Jung on July 16, 2022, at UFC on ABC 3. He won the fight via knockout in the first round. This win earned Jacoby his first "Performance of the Night" bonus award.


title: Dustin Jacoby

text: Jacoby faced Khalil Rountree Jr. on October 29, 2022 at UFC Fight Night 213. He lost the fight via split decision.


title: Dej Loaf

text: Deja Monét Trimble (born April 8, 1991), better known by her stage name Dej Loaf (stylized as DeJ Loaf), is an American rapper, singer and songwriter from Detroit, Michigan. She began her music career in 2011, and released her debut single "Just Do It" in 2012. In October 2014, she released her second mixtape, "Sell Sole".


title: Dej Loaf

text: Deja Trimble was raised on the East side of Detroit, Michigan. As a child, she often listened to music with her parents and grandmother, including 2Pac, Rakim and Miles Davis. Her father was killed when she was four years old. A self-described "good kid and a decent student" who mostly kept to herself, she began writing her own original music at the age of 9. In 2009, she graduated from Southeastern High School in Detroit, playing basketball at the junior varsity level. She then attended Saginaw Valley State University and studied nursing for three semesters before deciding to focus full-time on her music career.


title: Dej Loaf

text: In 2011, Dej Loaf began her career as a hip hop artist. Her stage name is a portmanteau of a shortened version of her first name, "Deja", and "loafer", as she took a keen interest in Air Jordans when growing up. In 2013, she released her first official mixtape, "Just Do It.". That mixtape attracted the attention of a fellow Detroit-native rapper SAYITAINTTONE. She was later signed to his indie record label, called IBGM (I Been Gettin' Money) under his management team. In July 2014, she released her track, called "Try Me" (produced by DDS), as a single, which earned her viral popularity. Canadian hip hop recording artist Drake quoted lyrics from the song in his Instagram post. In October 2014, she signed a major record deal to Columbia Records. After signing the deal, she released her second official mixtape, called "Sell Sole". The mixtape was given an "A−" by music critic Robert Christgau, who wrote in his review for "Vice", "What's irresistible is the form-content disparity—a rapper who brags so un-macho, a rapper whose greed is so explicitly for her family, a rapper who's 'Grindin' ' at music. Plus her flow is a brook, her producer respects her space, and her two sex rhymes are into it and into it more."


title: Dej Loaf

text: Dej Loaf rapped on the song "Detroit vs. Everybody" featured on a fellow American high-profile rapper Eminem's compilation "Shady XV" (2014). In 2015, she opened for Nicki Minaj during the North American leg of The Pinkprint Tour. Later that year, she was chosen as part of the "XXL" magazine 2015 Freshman Class.


title: Dej Loaf

text: In February 2016, Dej Loaf released a mixtape called "All Jokes Aside." In July 2017, she released a joint mixtape with Jacquees titled "Fuck a Friend Zone".


title: Dej Loaf

text: After several years of delays, Dej Loaf split from Columbia Records in 2019 independently released her debut album, "Sell Sole II" on October 23, 2020. It features appearances from Big Sean, Gunna, Rick Ross, Lil Uzi Vert, and 6LACK. The album is the sequel to Dej Loaf's 2014 mixtape "Sell Sole". The album holds a 72/100 rating on Metacritic, indicating "generally favorable reviews."


title: Dej Loaf

text: In February 2021, Dej Loaf was featured on Sevyn Streeter's single "Guilty" along with Chris Brown and A$AP Ferg.


title: Pepperidge Farm

text: Pepperidge Farm is an American commercial bakery founded in 1937 by Margaret Rudkin, who named the brand after her family's 123-acre farm property in Fairfield, Connecticut, which had been named for the pepperidge tree.


title: Pepperidge Farm

text: Margaret Rudkin began baking bread in 1937 for her youngest son, Mark, who had asthma and was allergic to most commercially processed foods. Her son's doctor recommended the bread to his other patients and encouraged her to sell it to the public. Her first commercial sale was to her local grocer in Fairfield, Conn., Mercurio’s Market. Rudkin's husband Henry, a Wall Street broker, began taking loaves of bread with him to New York to be sold in specialty stores. Rudkin moved the growing business out of her kitchen and into her garage, and then into a factory in 1940. Rationing during World War II forced her to cut back production due to the restricted availability of quality ingredients. In 1947, Rudkin opened a modern commercial bakery in Norwalk, Connecticut, and soon after added plants in Illinois and Pennsylvania.


title: Pepperidge Farm

text: On a trip to Europe in the 1950s, Rudkin discovered fancy chocolate cookies that she believed would be popular in the United States. She bought the rights to produce and sell them, and the Distinctive Cookies line was born. Under her management, Pepperidge Farm continued to expand into other products, including frozen pastry items and, later, the Goldfish snack cracker from Switzerland. In 1961, she sold the business to the Campbell Soup Company for $28 million and became the first woman to serve on its board of directors. She drew on her knowledge and experience to write "The Margaret Rudkin Pepperidge Farm Cookbook" in 1963, which was the first cookbook ever to make the "New York Times" Best Seller list.


title: Pepperidge Farm

text: The Pepperidge Farm logo is based on the Grist Mill in Sudbury, Massachusetts, which supplied the company with 48 tons of whole wheat flour monthly from 1952 to 1967.


title: Pepperidge Farm

text: Pepperidge Farm products include Goldfish crackers, varieties of bread, and several lines of cookies. Their cookies are separated into two lines, the Distinctive line and the Farmhouse line. Each type of cookie from the "Distinctive" line is named for a European city such as the Milano cookie or the Brussels cookie. The Distinctives cannot be readily replicated by home bakers. In contrast, the Farmhouse line emphasizes commonplace cookies like chocolate chip and shortbread types that anyone could bake for themselves in an ordinary home kitchen.


title: Race and genetics

text: Researchers have investigated the relationship between race and genetics as part of efforts to understand how biology may or may not contribute to human racial categorization.


title: Race and genetics

text: Many constructions of race are associated with phenotypical traits and geographic ancestry, and scholars like Carl Linnaeus have proposed scientific models for the organization of race since at least the 18th century. Following the discovery of Mendelian genetics and the mapping of the human genome, questions about the biology of race have often been framed in terms of genetics. A wide range of research methods have been employed to examine patterns of human variation and their relations to ancestry and racial groups, including studies of individual traits, studies of large populations and genetic clusters, and studies of genetic risk factors for disease.


title: Race and genetics

text: Research into race and genetics has also been criticized as emerging from, or contributing to, scientific racism. Some have interpreted genetic studies of traits and populations as evidence to justify social inequalities associated with race, despite the fact that patterns of human variation have been shown to be mostly clinal, with human genetic code being approximately 99.9% identical between individuals, and with no clear boundaries between groups.


title: Race and genetics

text: There is ongoing scientific debate regarding the definition and meaning of race in genetic and biomedical research. Some researchers argue that race can act as a "proxy" for genetic ancestry because individuals of the same racial category may share a common ancestry, but others advocate for distinguishing between biology and the social, political, cultural, and economic factors that contribute to race as most commonly understood.


title: Race and genetics

text: The concept of "race" as a classification system of humans based on visible physical characteristics emerged over the last five centuries, influenced by European colonialism. However, there is widespread evidence of what would be described in modern terms as "racial consciousness" throughout the entirety of recorded history. For example, in Ancient Egypt there were four broad racial divisions of human beings: Egyptians, Asiatics, Libyans, and Nubians. There was also Aristotle of Ancient Greece, who once wrote: "The peoples of Asia... lack spirit, so that they are in continuous subjection and slavery." The concept has manifested in different forms based on social conditions of a particular group, often used to justify unequal treatment. Early influential attempts to classify humans into discrete races include 4 races in Carl Linnaeus's "Systema Naturae" ("Homo europaeus", "asiaticus", "americanus", and "afer") and 5 races in Johann Friedrich Blumenbach's "On the Natural Variety of Mankind". Notably, over the next centuries, scholars argued for anywhere from 3 to more than 60 race categories. Race concepts have changed within a society over time; for example, in the United States social and legal designations of "White" have been inconsistently applied to Native Americans, Arab Americans, and Asian Americans, among other groups ("See main article: Definitions of whiteness in the United States"). Race categories also vary worldwide; for example, the same person might be perceived as belonging to a different category in the United States versus Brazil. Because of the arbitrariness inherent in the concept of race, it is difficult to relate it to biology in a straightforward way.


title: Race and genetics

text: There is broad consensus across the biological and social sciences that race is a social construct, not an accurate representation of human genetic variation. Humans are remarkably genetically similar, sharing approximately 99.9% of their genetic code with one another. We nonetheless see wide individual variation in phenotype, which arises from both genetic differences and complex gene-environment interactions. The vast majority of this genetic variation occurs "within" groups; very little genetic variation differentiates "between" groups. Crucially, the between-group genetic differences that do exist do not map onto socially recognized categories of race. Furthermore, although human populations show some genetic clustering across geographic space, human genetic variation is "clinal", or continuous. This, in addition to the fact that different traits vary on different clines, makes it impossible to draw discrete genetic boundaries around human groups. Finally, insights from ancient DNA are revealing that no human population is "pure" – all populations represent a long history of migration and mixing. For example, the genetic makeup of European populations was massively transformed by waves of migrations of farmers from the Near East between 8,500-5,000 years ago and Yamnaya pastoralists from the Eurasian steppe beginning around 4,500 years ago. Even within historical times, different population groups throughout the world have experienced admixture events that led to their current genetic compositions. For instance, different populations of the Mediterranean, Asia Minor, and around the Arabian Sea exhibit recent historical geneflow from various Sub-Saharan populations, with the most recent influx of Sub-Saharan admixture ranging in date from AD980 to 1754. Populations of modern-day Central and Eastern Europe, from Poland in the west and Bulgaria in the south exhibit traces of north-eastern and eastern Asian genetic flow ranging in date from AD440 to 1080 and likely reflect a 'small genetic legacy' of the various Inner Asian nomads, including Huns, Magyars, and Bulgars.


title: Race and genetics

text: Genetic variation arises from mutations, from natural selection, migration between populations (gene flow) and from the reshuffling of genes through sexual reproduction. Mutations lead to a change in the DNA structure, as the order of the bases are rearranged. Resultantly, different polypeptide proteins are coded. Some mutations may be positive and can help the individual survive more effectively in their environment. Mutation is counteracted by natural selection and by genetic drift; note too the founder effect, when a small number of initial founders establish a population which hence starts with a correspondingly small degree of genetic variation. Epigenetic inheritance involves heritable changes in phenotype (appearance) or gene expression caused by mechanisms other than changes in the DNA sequence.


title: Race and genetics

text: Human phenotypes are highly polygenic (dependent on interaction by many genes) and are influenced by environment as well as by genetics.


title: Race and genetics

text: Nucleotide diversity is based on single mutations, single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). The nucleotide diversity between humans is about 0.1 percent (one difference per one thousand nucleotides between two humans chosen at random). This amounts to approximately three million SNPs (since the human genome has about three billion nucleotides). There are an estimated ten million SNPs in the human population.


title: Race and genetics

text: Research has shown that non-SNP (structural) variation accounts for more human genetic variation than single nucleotide diversity. Structural variation includes copy-number variation and results from deletions, inversions, insertions and duplications. It is estimated that approximately 0.4 to 0.6 percent of the genomes of unrelated people differ.


title: Race and genetics

text: Much scientific research has been organized around the question of whether or not there is genetic basis for race. In Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza's book (circa 1994) "The History and Geography of Human Genes" he writes, "From a scientific point of view, the concept of race has failed to obtain any consensus; none is likely, given the gradual variation in existence. It may be objected that the racial stereotypes have a consistency that allows even the layman to classify individuals. However, the major stereotypes, all based on skin color, hair color and form, and facial traits, reflect superficial differences that are not confirmed by deeper analysis with more reliable genetic traits and whose origin dates from recent evolution mostly under the effect of climate and perhaps sexual selection".


title: Race and genetics

text: A more up-to-date and comprehensive book authored by geneticist David Reich (2018) reaffirms the conclusion that the traditional views which assert a biological basis for race are wrong:


title: Race and genetics

text: Scientists investigating human variation have used a series of methods to characterize how different populations vary.


title: Race and genetics

text: Early racial classification attempts measured surface traits, particularly skin color, hair color and texture, eye color, and head size and shape. (Measurements of the latter through craniometry were repeatedly discredited in the late 19th and mid-20th centuries due to a lack of correlation of phenotypic traits with racial categorization.) In actuality, biological adaptation plays the biggest role in these bodily features and skin type. A relative handful of genes accounts for the inherited factors shaping a person's appearance. Humans have an estimated 19,000–20,000 human protein-coding genes. Richard Sturm and David Duffy describe 11 genes that affect skin pigmentation and explain most variations in human skin color, the most significant of which are MC1R, ASIP, OCA2, and TYR. There is evidence that as many as 16 different genes could be responsible for eye color in humans; however, the main two genes associated with eye color variation are "OCA2" and "HERC2", and both are localized in chromosome 15.


title: Race and genetics

text: Before the discovery of DNA, scientists used blood proteins (the human blood group systems) to study human genetic variation. Research by Ludwik and Hanka Herschfeld during World War I found that the incidence of blood groups A and B differed by region; for example, among Europeans 15 percent were group B and 40 percent group A. Eastern Europeans and Russians had a higher incidence of group B; people from India had the greatest incidence. The Herschfelds concluded that humans comprised two "biochemical races", originating separately. It was hypothesized that these two races later mixed, resulting in the patterns of groups A and B. This was one of the first theories of racial differences to include the idea that human variation did not correlate with genetic variation. It was expected that groups with similar proportions of blood groups would be more closely related, but instead it was often found that groups separated by great distances (such as those from Madagascar and Russia), had similar incidences. It was later discovered that the ABO blood group system is not just common to humans, but shared with other primates, and likely predates all human groups.


title: Race and genetics

text: In 1972, Richard Lewontin performed a F statistical analysis using 17 markers (including blood-group proteins). He found that the majority of genetic differences between humans (85.4 percent) were found within a population, 8.3 percent were found between populations within a race and 6.3 percent were found to differentiate races (Caucasian, African, Mongoloid, South Asian Aborigines, Amerinds, Oceanians, and Australian Aborigines in his study). Since then, other analyses have found F values of 6–10 percent between continental human groups, 5–15 percent between different populations on the same continent and 75–85 percent within populations. This view has been affirmed by the American Anthropological Association and the American Association of Physical Anthropologists since.


title: Race and genetics

text: While acknowledging Lewontin's observation that humans are genetically homogeneous, A. W. F. Edwards in his 2003 paper "Human Genetic Diversity: Lewontin's Fallacy" argued that information distinguishing populations from each other is hidden in the correlation structure of allele frequencies, making it possible to classify individuals using mathematical techniques. Edwards argued that even if the probability of misclassifying an individual based on a single genetic marker is as high as 30 percent (as Lewontin reported in 1972), the misclassification probability nears zero if enough genetic markers are studied simultaneously. Edwards saw Lewontin's argument as based on a political stance, denying biological differences to argue for social equality. Edwards' paper is reprinted, commented upon by experts such as Noah Rosenberg, and given further context in an interview with philosopher of science Rasmus Grønfeldt Winther in a recent anthology.


title: Race and genetics

text: As referred to before, Edwards criticises Lewontin's paper as he took 17 different traits and analysed them independently, without looking at them in conjunction with any other protein. Thus, it would have been fairly convenient for Lewontin to come up with the conclusion that racial naturalism is not tenable, according to his argument. Sesardic also strengthened Edwards' view, as he used an illustration referring to squares and triangles, and showed that if you look at one trait in isolation, then it will most likely be a bad predicator of which group the individual belongs to. In contrast, in a 2014 paper, reprinted in the 2018 Edwards Cambridge University Press volume, Rasmus Grønfeldt Winther argues that "Lewontin's Fallacy" is effectively a misnomer, as there really are two different sets of methods and questions at play in studying the genomic population structure of our species: "variance partitioning" and "clustering analysis." According to Winther, they are "two sides of the same mathematics coin" and neither "necessarily implies anything about the "reality" of human groups."


title: Race and genetics

text: Researchers currently use genetic testing, which may involve hundreds (or thousands) of genetic markers or the entire genome.


title: Race and genetics

text: Several methods to examine and quantify genetic subgroups exist, including cluster and principal components analysis. Genetic markers from individuals are examined to find a population's genetic structure. While subgroups overlap when examining variants of one marker only, when a number of markers are examined different subgroups have different average genetic structure. An individual may be described as belonging to several subgroups. These subgroups may be more or less distinct, depending on how much overlap there is with other subgroups.


title: Race and genetics

text: In cluster analysis, the number of clusters to search for "K" is determined in advance; how distinct the clusters are varies.


title: Race and genetics

text: Focus on study of structure has been criticized for giving the general public a misleading impression of human genetic variation, obscuring the general finding that genetic variants which are limited to one region tend to be rare within that region, variants that are common within a region tend to be shared across the globe, and most differences between individuals, whether they come from the same region or different regions, are due to global variants.


title: Race and genetics

text: Genetic distance is genetic divergence between species or populations of a species. It may compare the genetic similarity of related species, such as humans and chimpanzees. Within a species, genetic distance measures divergence between subgroups. Genetic distance significantly correlates to geographic distance between populations, a phenomenon sometimes known as "isolation by distance". Genetic distance may be the result of physical boundaries restricting gene flow such as islands, deserts, mountains or forests. Genetic distance is measured by the fixation index (F). F is the correlation of randomly chosen alleles in a subgroup to a larger population. It is often expressed as a proportion of genetic diversity. This comparison of genetic variability within (and between) populations is used in population genetics. The values range from 0 to 1; zero indicates the two populations are freely interbreeding, and one would indicate that two populations are separate.


title: Race and genetics

text: Many studies place the average F distance between human races at about 0.125. Henry Harpending argued that this value implies on a world scale a "kinship between two individuals of the same human population is equivalent to kinship between grandparent and grandchild or between half siblings". In fact, the formulas derived in Harpending's paper in the "Kinship in a subdivided population" section imply that two unrelated individuals of the same race have a higher coefficient of kinship (0.125) than an individual and their mixed race half-sibling (0.109).


title: Race and genetics

text: While acknowledging that F remains useful, a number of scientists have written about other approaches to characterizing human genetic variation. Long & Kittles (2009) stated that F failed to identify important variation and that when the analysis includes only humans, F = 0.119, but adding chimpanzees increases it only to F = 0.183. Mountain & Risch (2004) argued that an F estimate of 0.10–0.15 does not rule out a genetic basis for phenotypic differences between groups and that a low F estimate implies little about the degree to which genes contribute to between-group differences. Pearse & Crandall 2004 wrote that F figures cannot distinguish between a situation of high migration between populations with a long divergence time, and one of a relatively recent shared history but no ongoing gene flow. In their 2015 article, Keith Hunley, Graciela Cabana, and Jeffrey Long (who had previously criticized Lewontin's statistical methodology with Rick Kittles) recalculate the apportionment of human diversity using a more complex model than Lewontin and his successors. They conclude: "In sum, we concur with Lewontin's conclusion that Western-based racial classifications have no taxonomic significance, and we hope that this research, which takes into account our current understanding of the structure of human diversity, places his seminal finding on firmer evolutionary footing."


title: Race and genetics

text: Anthropologists (such as C. Loring Brace), philosopher Jonathan Kaplan and geneticist Joseph Graves have argued that while it is possible to find biological and genetic variation roughly corresponding to race, this is true for almost all geographically distinct populations: the cluster structure of genetic data is dependent on the initial hypotheses of the researcher and the populations sampled. When one samples continental groups, the clusters become continental; with other sampling patterns, the clusters would be different. Weiss and Fullerton note that if one sampled only Icelanders, Mayans and Maoris, three distinct clusters would form; all other populations would be composed of genetic admixtures of Maori, Icelandic and Mayan material. Kaplan therefore concludes that, while differences in particular allele frequencies can be used to identify populations that loosely correspond to the racial categories common in Western social discourse, the differences are of no more biological significance than the differences found between any human populations (e.g., the Spanish and Portuguese).


title: Race and genetics

text: Current-population genetic structure does not imply that differing clusters or components indicate only one ancestral home per group; for example, a genetic cluster in the US comprises Hispanics with European, Native American and African ancestry.


title: Race and genetics

text: Geographic analyses attempt to identify places of origin, their relative importance and possible causes of genetic variation in an area. The results can be presented as maps showing genetic variation. Cavalli-Sforza and colleagues argue that if genetic variations are investigated, they often correspond to population migrations due to new sources of food, improved transportation or shifts in political power. For example, in Europe the most significant direction of genetic variation corresponds to the spread of agriculture from the Middle East to Europe between 10,000 and 6,000 years ago. Such geographic analysis works best in the absence of recent large-scale, rapid migrations.


title: Race and genetics

text: Historic analyses use differences in genetic variation (measured by genetic distance) as a molecular clock indicating the evolutionary relation of species or groups, and can be used to create evolutionary trees reconstructing population separations.


title: Race and genetics

text: Results of genetic-ancestry research are supported if they agree with research results from other fields, such as linguistics or archeology. Cavalli-Sforza and colleagues have argued that there is a correspondence between language families found in linguistic research and the population tree they found in their 1994 study. There are generally shorter genetic distances between populations using languages from the same language family. Exceptions to this rule are also found, for example Sami, who are genetically associated with populations speaking languages from other language families. The Sami speak a Uralic language, but are genetically primarily European. This is argued to have resulted from migration (and interbreeding) with Europeans while retaining their original language. Agreement also exists between research dates in archeology and those calculated using genetic distance.