title: Mark Waugh

text: The series against Sri Lanka had started in Perth with speculation regarding Waugh's four consecutive Test ducks. After four hours, Waugh reached his century and ended with 111 to end his run of ducks. On reaching his century, he gestured to a section of the crowd who had been heckling him. Australia won by an innings and Waugh then scored 61 in another innings victory in the second Test in Melbourne. He was batting when off-spinner Muttiah Muralitharan was repeatedly no-balled for throwing by Darrell Hair, before being bowled by the spinner. Waugh scored 71 in the third Test and ended with 255 runs at 63.75 in a series clean sweep.


title: Mark Waugh

text: During the triangular ODI tournament, Waugh was the Man of the Match in the opening game against the West Indies at the Adelaide Oval, scoring 53 and conceding only 26 runs in 10 overs. Later in the tournament, Waugh returned to the opening position after the omission of Michael Slater, a position he retained until his retirement. In his first match in the role, Waugh scored 130 from 144 balls against Sri Lanka at the WACA Ground. At the time, the innings was the third-highest ODI score by an Australian and the opening partnership of 189 with Taylor was the seventh-highest of all time. In the second final, Waugh made 73 in a 135-run partnership with Taylor and then in an unorthodox tactic, he opened the bowling with his off-spin, taking 1/31. Waugh ended the summer with 357 runs at 35.70 and took six wickets.


title: Mark Waugh

text: Waugh was one of the leading players at the 1996 Cricket World Cup in the Indian subcontinent. Opening the batting, he scored 130 from 130 balls in Australia's opening game against Kenya in Visakhapatnam. He combined in a 207-run partnership with his brother, the first double-century stand in World Cup history. He followed this up with 126 from 135 balls against India in Bombay, frequently hitting through cover and midwicket. The innings made him the first player to score consecutive centuries in World Cup competition. Waugh then dismissed Sachin Tendulkar for 90 when he looked likely to win the game for India. Tendulkar charged down the pitch to Waugh's off spin, who responded by bowling a wide, resulting in the Indian's stumping. Waugh was named Man of the Match on both occasions. He made an unbeaten 76 against Zimbabwe in a nine-wicket win in Nagpur. He scored only 30 from 63 balls, but took 3/38 in the final group game against the West Indies in Jaipur, which Australia lost. Australia progressed to the quarter-finals, where they faced New Zealand in Madras, he scored his third century (110) to guide a successful Australian run chase, again winning the man of the match. The innings took Waugh's tournament tally to 472 runs, the record for Australia in a single tournament. Although he managed only 0 and 12 in the semi-final and final, Waugh finished the tournament with 484 runs at an average of 80.66 and a strike rate of 85.36, second only to Tendulkar. He contributed five wickets with the ball.


title: Mark Waugh

text: After a four-month break, Waugh returned to international duty with a short tour of the subcontinent. In two tournaments, he scored 207 runs at 25.88 in eight matches, scoring exactly 50 in two matches and taking eight wickets at 36.00. The Australians then lost a one-off Test against Delhi at Feroz Shah Kotla Ground, with Waugh scoring 26 and 23. He took his best First-class career bowling figures of 6/68 in the tour match against the Indian Board President's XI in Patiala that preceded the Test.


title: Mark Waugh

text: Waugh had a consistent series despite failing to score a century in the five Tests against the West Indies during the 1996–97 home season, He scored four half-centuries, only failing to pass 50 in the third Test, ending the series with 370 runs at 41.11. During the second innings of the second Test in Sydney, Waugh collided with batting partner Matthew Elliott, causing Elliott to be taken from the ground on a stretcher due to a knee injury. The fifth Test in Perth marked the 44th time that the Waugh brothers had played together in Tests, surpassing the world record set by Ian and Greg Chappell in the 1970s. In the limited overs format, Waugh was Australia's leading runscorer in the triangular ODI tournament with 358 runs at 59.66, making 102 against the West Indies in Brisbane. He had scored 1059 ODI runs in the 1996 calendar year. However, the team performance was poor and Australia missed the finals for the first time in 17 years. His batting partner Taylor particularly struggled, with only 143 runs at 17.87, attracting substantial media criticism.


title: Mark Waugh

text: The Australian summer was followed by a tour of South Africa. Waugh made 26 in the opening Test, which Australia won by an innings. In the second Test in Port Elizabeth, Australia were skittled in the first innings for 108 and were forced to chase 270 for victory on a seaming wicket. Waugh came to the crease with Australia at 2/30 on the third afternoon. After a hard-fought afternoon, Australia reached the close of play at 3/154 with Waugh on 54. The next morning he continued to his century, before he was bowled for 116, leaving Australia at 6/258. Australia lost two more wickets, but stumbled to victory with two wickets in hand. The five and half-hour innings is often regarded as his finest Test performance. Waugh ended the series with 209 runs at 41.80.


title: Mark Waugh

text: In the ODI series, he hit an unbeaten 115 to steer at a successful run chase in the second match in Port Elizabeth, hitting consecutive sixes to reach his century. He missed several matches due to injury—the first match due to a back problem and then two further matches when he split his hand webbing while failing to take a catch in the third match. Apart from the century, he scored only three further runs at ended with 118 runs at 59.00 for the series.


title: Mark Waugh

text: Waugh proceeded to England for his second Ashes tour in 1997 and gained attention upon his arrival for questioning the hunger and toughness of the home team. He scored 131 runs at 43.66 as Australia lost all three ODIs, with a top-score of 95 in the final match at The Oval. In the first Test at Edgbaston, Waugh made 5 and 1 as Australia suffered a nine-wicket loss. The English media and public reminded Waugh of his pre-series comments about the England cricket team. To make matters worse, he was hospitalised for two days in the middle of the match with suspected appendicitis. The condition was eventually diagnosed as a severe viral infection. Waugh made only 209 runs at 20.90 for the series, with only one half-century. He hit two centuries in the tour matches, including one against Middlesex at Lord's. In the sixth Test, he was dismissed in both innings by his old sparring partner Tufnell, who he had criticised at the start of the series as a "fairly weak sort of player".


title: Mark Waugh

text: Waugh's performances in England had stirred questions about his position in the team. The scrutiny increased after Waugh failed to pass 20 in the first Test against New Zealand in Brisbane and dropped a catch. Waugh made a turnaround in the second Test in Perth, taking a horizontal airborne catch of Chris Cairns at full stretch. He proceeded to score 86, including a lofted drive from Daniel Vettori onto the roof of the Lillee-Marsh Stand. The ball travelled approximately 130 m, one of the longest sixes in history. Australia went on to win the match and Waugh made 81 in the third Test and ended the series with 196 runs at 39.20, enough to save his position in the team.


title: Mark Waugh

text: In the 1997–98 Test series against South Africa, Waugh finished the year with 0 and 1 against South Africa in the Boxing Day Test match in Melbourne. Waugh scored 100 in the New Year's Test at the Sydney Cricket Ground to set up an Australian victory. This came during a 116-run partnership with his brother, noted for a particularly menacing spell by Allan Donald with the second new ball, repeatedly hitting the twins. He batted out the entire fifth day for an unbeaten 115 in the third Test at the Adelaide Oval to deny the South Africans a victory and win the series for Australia. Having scored 63 in the first innings, Waugh came the crease late on the fourth day with Australia at 2/17 and attempting to survive for a draw. He was dropped early and was 11 at stumps. Waugh continued to resist on the following day and brought up his century. Struck by a bouncer from Shaun Pollock late on the final day, Waugh broke the stumps with his bat while walking away, so South Africa appealed for hit wicket, which was denied. South African skipper Hansie Cronje later speared a stump through the umpires' dressing room in anger at the decision. It was only the second time in his career that he had scored consecutive centuries. Waugh took satisfaction in the fact that his century was responsible for saving the Test. He finished the series with 279 runs at 69.75.


title: Mark Waugh

text: The 1997–98 Australian season marked a change in Waugh's ODI career. The Australian selectors changed their policy and picked Test and ODI teams separately, with specialists chosen accordingly in either form of the game. Waugh's captain and opening partner Taylor was dropped. Australia had trouble finding a suitable partner for Waugh, with Michael di Venuto, Tom Moody and Stuart Law all trialled as his opening partner. Despite the instability, Waugh compiled 104 to help Australia successfully chase a target against New Zealand in a round-robin match at the Adelaide Oval. He finished the series as Australia's leading runscorer with 320 runs at 35.55, and took seven wickets at 25.43. During the finals series, new wicketkeeper Adam Gilchrist was elevated to the opening position. The new combination got off to a poor start, with Waugh run out for three in a mix-up in the first final, but the pair went on to become Australia's long term opening pair. After losing all four group matches to South Africa, Australia won the finals series 2–1. The partnership with Gilchrist marked a shift in Waugh's role in ODIs. Waugh had previously been more aggressive while Taylor was his partner, but with the naturally aggressive Gilchrist as his partner, Waugh tended to anchor the innings.


title: Mark Waugh

text: Waugh's strong start to the year continued in two brief ODI series in New Zealand and India, in which he scored 374 runs at 41.56 respectively, with three half-centuries. Australia lost the first two Tests in India, with Waugh scoring 66 in the first innings in the first Test in Chennai but otherwise failing to pass 20. In the third Test in Bangalore, Waugh scored his highest Test score of 153 not out while suffering nausea, vomiting and fever. He was 58 at stumps on the second day before being taken ill and requiring overnight injections. It was the first time that he had batted without his helmet, instead using a floppy hat due to the heat and fever. He claimed that he could not recall much of the innings and was batting on "automatic pilot". Waugh was the only Australian to aggregate more than 200 runs for the series, finishing with 280 runs at 70.00. Australia played nine more ODIs for the year in Asia, spread across three series. Waugh scored 266 runs at 23.25. Waugh was also a part of the limited overs team that won a silver medal at the 1998 Commonwealth Games in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, losing the final to South Africa. The matches were not accreditedas ODIs by the International Cricket Council (ICC).


title: Mark Waugh

text: Australia toured Pakistan in late 1998. In the first Test in Rawalpindi, Waugh scored a duck as Australia won by an innings, its first Test win in Pakistan in 39 years. His tour was disrupted by an appearance at a judicial hearing to give evidence relating to allegations of match-fixing he made against Saleem Malik. After making 42 and 43 in the high-scoring second Test in Peshawar, Waugh scored 117 in the second innings of the third Test in Karachi to end the series with 228 runs at 45.60.


title: Mark Waugh

text: Waugh made starts in all four innings of the first two Ashes Tests in Australia in 1998–99, scoring 31, 27*, 36 and 17* as the first two matches were drawn and won respectively. In the build-up to the third Test in Adelaide, news broke that in 1994–95 Waugh and Shane Warne had accepted money from an Indian bookmaker in exchange for pitch and weather information. The Australian Cricket Board (ACB) has secretly fined both players for their actions. The ACB's suppression of the case and the actions of the two players were widely condemned.


title: Mark Waugh

text: Waugh was booed when he went out to bat in the first innings and, apparently rattled by the hostile reception, he batted scratchily for 36 minutes before being dismissed for seven. He regarded it as the most difficult day of his career. In the second innings, he scored an unbeaten 51 and was given a standing ovation by some parts of the crowd in contrast to other hostile sections. He took three catches in England's second innings as Australia won the match to retain the Ashes. Waugh scored 36 and 43 in the Boxing Day Test at the Melbourne Cricket Ground, which saw him pass 1,000 Test runs for the calendar year.


title: Mark Waugh

text: Waugh started 1999 as he did the previous year, with a century in the New Year's Test at the Sydney Cricket Ground. After being dropped before he had scored, Waugh scored 121 in five hours on the first day, sharing a partnership of 190 with his brother. He became the fifth Australian to take 100 Test catches when he caught Nasser Hussain in the first innings from the bowling of Colin Miller. Australia won the Test and Waugh ended the series with 393 runs at 56.14, placing him second in the batting averages. In the ODI series, he scored six consecutive half-centuries in a consistent run that augured well for the upcoming World Cup. His tally of 542 runs at 49.27 was the highest for the tournament. For the majority of the ODI tournament, Waugh acted as vice-captain to Warne as his brother Steve was sidelined by a hamstring strain.


title: Mark Waugh

text: Taylor retired after the Australian summer and Waugh's brother became the Test captain and the first assignment was a tour of the Caribbean. Waugh had a modest Test series, finishing with 202 runs at 25.25 as Australia retained the Frank Worrell Trophy 2–2. His best score was 67 in the first innings of second Test, which was terminated when he was bowled by a ball that scooted along the ground. Speculation about his future began to simmer again. He then made 217 runs at 31.00 in the ODIs, Australia's second highest runscorer, before the team headed to England for the 1999 World Cup.


title: Mark Waugh

text: Waugh started the tournament with a Man of the Match 67 against Scotland in Worcester as Australia unconvincingly won by four wickets in its first match. He then scored two and 41 as Australia lost to New Zealand and Pakistan respectively, leaving them needing to avoid defeat in all of their remaining matches to win the World Cup. Waugh scored only 33 and three as Australia defeated Bangladesh and the West Indies to progress to the Super Six phase. Needing to win all their matches, Waugh top-scored with 83 against India at The Oval in a win. He then scored 104 from 120 balls against Zimbabwe at Lord's in another victory. In the process, he passed Allan Border's Australian record of 6,524 ODI career runs and became the first person to score four centuries in World Cup competition. He dedicated this achievement to his dying grandfather. He was then run out for five in the final Super Six match against South Africa. In the semi-final against same team, he was dismissed without scoring. Waugh participated in the final play of the match. With the scores tied in the last over of South Africa's run chase and with one wicket remaining, he fielded the ball as Lance Klusener and Allan Donald attempted the winning run. The South Africans had a mix-up and a run out resulted in a tie. The Australians progressed to the final as they had won their previous meeting.


title: Mark Waugh

text: In the final against Pakistan at Lord's, he set the tone of the match with a sideways diving catch to dismiss Wajahatullah Wasti. Pakistan were bowled out for 132. Waugh was 37 not out when Darren Lehmann struck the winning runs. He finished the tournament with 375 runs at 41.67, making him Australia's second highest runscorer for the tournament.


title: Mark Waugh

text: In late 1999, Australia toured Sri Lanka. Waugh continued to perform in the ODIs, with 174 runs at 34.80, but his Test troubles continued with 29 runs at 7.25. In six Tests on the island nation, he had managed 90 runs at an average of 9.00. Australia proceeded to Zimbabwe, where Waugh scored 90 in a ten-wicket win. Had he reached his century, Waugh would have become the first player to record centuries against the eight other Test-playing nations. Waugh then scored 106 from 97 balls in the first ODI before scoring 54* in the second match. That ended his ODI year, with a total of 1468 runs at 44.48.


title: Mark Waugh

text: He made a strong start to the 1999–00 Australian summer, scoring 100 in the first Test against Pakistan in Brisbane and then taking a reflex catch to dismiss Inzamam-ul-Haq in the second Test at Bellerive Oval, although he only scored five and a duck. However, after a duck in the third Test in Perth, he gave a poor display in the first Test against India at the Adelaide Oval which led to calls for his axing. After being dismissed for five in the first innings, he came out to bat in the second innings late on the third day and was protected from the strike by Greg Blewett, who refused to take singles hit into the outfield. After being jeered, he was eventually dismissed the next day for eight, after batting almost an hour. Waugh made only one and 25 in an interstate match following the Test but was retained for the Boxing Day Test at the Melbourne Cricket Ground. He managed a survivalist 41 in the first innings and an unbeaten 51 against the backdrop of a supportive crowd. He was then on a hat-trick in the second innings as Australia won the Test. Waugh was retained and made his 100th Test appearance in the 2000 New Year's Test in Sydney, where he scored 32 in his only innings.


title: Mark Waugh

text: Further poor displays in the early phase of the subsequent ODI tournament, including an innings of 3 from 30 balls, lead to repeated calls for his omission, until he scored a 116 at the Adelaide Oval on Australia Day against India to lay the foundation for Australia's largest ever total on home soil of 5/329. Waugh ended the series with 305 runs at 30.50 and was retained for the tour of New Zealand, where he scored a respectable 206 runs at 41.20 in the abbreviated form of the game including two half-centuries. He then scored an unbeaten 72 in the first Test at Eden Park to set up a victory in a low-scoring game—only one other player passed 20. Waugh ended the series with 190 runs at 47.50 as Australia won 3–0. However, a run of seven ODIs during the 2000 Australian winter including two series against South Africa in which he tallied only 84 runs at 12.00 again saw further media speculation of impending demise.


title: Mark Waugh

text: After the being close to omission the previous season, Waugh made a good start to the 2000–01 season, scoring 119 against the West Indies in the second Test in Perth. He added two further half-centuries to total 339 runs at 48.4 as the Windies were defeated 5–0. His productive summer continued in the limited overs format when he went on to score an Australian ODI record of 173 in the second tri-series final against the West Indies at the Melbourne Cricket Ground. It was one of three ODI centuries he scored in that tournament, the others being a 112 and 102, both not out, against the West Indies and Zimbabwe respectively. In total he scored 540 runs in the series at an average of 108.00. As the leading runscorer by far in the tournament, he was expected to be named Player of the Series, resulting in widespread crowd jeering when it was instead awarded to Brian Lara. Waugh was also tipped to win the Allan Border Medal due to his prolific runscoring that year. However, despite leading the player votes with 32, the umpire and media thought otherwise, awarding Steve Waugh 37 votes to his 32, making Steve the winner 65–64.


title: Mark Waugh

text: The 2001 tour of India saw Australia's 16 Test winning streak come to an end when India claimed the series 2–1. Waugh scored 70 and 57 in the third Test in Chennai to finish with 149 runs at 29.80 in a difficult series. Waugh continued his fine ODI form with another century, an unbeaten 133 against India in the second ODI, but was forced to return home after his finger was fractured by a Javagal Srinath delivery.


title: Mark Waugh

text: During the 2001 Ashes series, Waugh topped the aggregates with 430 runs, scoring Test centuries at Lord's (108) and The Oval (120). He broke Mark Taylor's world record of 157 Test catches. Waugh was unable to maintain this form in the 2001–02 Australian summer: he totalled 269 (at 33.6) in six Tests against New Zealand and South Africa, without a century. Media scrutiny of his inability to combat short-pitched bowling increased and led to speculation about his long-term future in the team.


title: Mark Waugh

text: Nevertheless, he passed two major milestones: the Test at Adelaide marked the 100th Test in which both Waughs played, while the following game was his 100th consecutive Test match. Waugh and fellow ODI opener Adam Gilchrist both hit a batting slump during the VB series, with Waugh averaging 26 for the series and Gilchrist less. Frequent poor starts to the innings resulted in Australia's failure to qualify for the final of the tri-series for the first time in five years. Later in the year, the selectors reacted by dropping Steve and Mark Waugh, the oldest members of the team, in favour of younger players.


title: Mark Waugh

text: Maintaining his place in the Test team, Waugh toured South Africa in early 2002. Although he passed 15 in each of his innings, he managed only one half-century in his 169 runs at 33.8. In an attempt to regain form, he had a brief stint with Essex in the English County Championship. In the subsequent three-Test series against Pakistan, played on neutral grounds in Sri Lanka and the United Arab Emirates due to security reasons, he made only 80 runs at 20. Waugh retired from international cricket in late 2002 after being omitted for the upcoming Test series against England in favour of Darren Lehmann.


title: Mark Waugh

text: Waugh retired as Australia's highest run scorer and century maker (18) in ODI cricket, with these records having since been broken by Ricky Ponting. His world record of 181 Test catches was broken by India's Rahul Dravid in 2009.


title: Mark Waugh

text: Waugh took a record 181 catches in Test matches, the second highest for a non-wicketkeeper. He primarily fielded in the second slip position whilst a fast bowler was operating. He would field at silly point whilst a spin bowler was operating and then at first slip for a spinner following the retirement of Mark Taylor. Additionally, he would field at mid-wicket or short mid-wicket when he was not required in a close catching position and also during ODIs.


title: Mark Waugh

text: In 1993, Waugh was a member of the Australian team competing in the Hong Kong Sixes; one of the Indian team was Test all-rounder Manoj Prabhakar. A report by the Central Bureau of Investigation in 2000 implicated Prabhakar for acting as a conduit for bookmakers involved in illegal cricket betting, which resulted in Prabhakar receiving a five-year suspension from the game. The report also documented allegations by Indian bookmaker Mukesh Gupta that Prabhakar had introduced him to Waugh during the tournament and that Waugh was paid A$20,000 for insider information about the Australian team, pitch conditions and weather information.


title: Mark Waugh

text: When the allegations were made public by the report in November 2000, Waugh immediately pledged to co-operate with any inquiry. In January 2001, the International Cricket Council's anti-corruption unit and the ACB's special investigator Greg Melick requested an interview with Waugh, which his management "presently declined". Waugh received legal advice to seek further clarification of the scope of the investigation. After condemnation from the ACB and media, and the possibility of losing his contract with the ACB, Waugh agreed to the interview. He was cleared in August 2001.


title: Mark Waugh

text: During the Singer World Series tournament, played in Sri Lanka during September 1994, Waugh made a decision which came back to affect his career four years later. He was approached in Colombo by an Indian named "John", a bookmaker who asked him for general pitch and weather information as well as insider team information. In return, Waugh received US$4,000. The arrangement continued during the 1994–95 Australian summer, but he refused to divulge inside team information. Waugh introduced "John" to Shane Warne.


title: Mark Waugh

text: On the 1994 tour of Pakistan, Waugh claimed that along with Warne and Tim May, he was offered A$200,000 to underperform by Pakistan captain Saleem Malik. The offer was in regard to an ODI played in Rawalpindi on 22 October. Waugh says he rejected the bribe and went on to score 121* from 134 deliveries in the match. The trio signed a statement in early 1995 stating their claims, which were forwarded to the ICC. In October 1995, a Pakistan Cricket Board inquiry led by former Pakistan Supreme Court judge Fakhruddin G. Ebrahim ruled that the allegations, "are not worthy of any credence and must be rejected as unfounded". Further, he stated that they "appear to have been concocted".


title: Mark Waugh

text: However, during the 1998 tour of Pakistan, the issue was again raised, as the Government of Pakistan had initiated a separate judicial inquiry into general issues regarding the performance of the Pakistani team and allegations of illegal betting by past and former players. Waugh, along with his captain Mark Taylor and ACB CEO Malcolm Speed, were summoned to Lahore by PCB CEO Majid Khan to appear before an inquiry led by Justice Malik Mohammed Qayyum.


title: Mark Waugh

text: In December 1998, prior to the Adelaide Test match against England, news broke that Waugh and Warne were involved with "John" four years earlier and had been fined by the ACB. Both players were required to make public statements acknowledging that they had been, "naive and stupid" and reasserting that they were not involved in corruption. The players were widely condemned by the media and public, with Prime Minister of Australia John Howard stating that he felt an "intense feeling of disappointment". Former Test player Neil Harvey called for both players to be banned. In May 2000, the PCB banned Malik for life, after a recommendation from the Qayyum investigation, which concluded that Malik had attempted to bribe Waugh, Warne and May.


title: Mark Waugh

text: In 2002, he did a brief stint as Nine Network cricket commentator during the 3-match Australia-Pakistan ODI series.


title: Mark Waugh

text: Waugh was previously a commentator on Network Ten for the Big Bash as well as a national selector. In 2018, Ten lost the rights to the Big Bash.


title: Mark Waugh

text: He was named as an opening batsman in Australia's "greatest ever ODI team." He was also inducted into the Australian Hall of Fame by the CA in 2014.


title: Mark Waugh

text: After separating from Sue Porter - his partner of 17 years in 2004 - he then married Sydney Cup-winning thoroughbred trainer Kim Waugh (née Moore) on 9 April 2005.


title: Arthur Goldberg

text: Arthur Joseph Goldberg (August 8, 1908January 19, 1990) was an American statesman and jurist who served as the 9th U.S. Secretary of Labor, an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States, and the 6th United States Ambassador to the United Nations.


title: Arthur Goldberg

text: Born in Chicago, Illinois, Goldberg graduated from the Northwestern University School of Law in 1930. He became a prominent labor attorney and helped arrange the merger of the American Federation of Labor and the Congress of Industrial Organizations. During World War II, he served in the Office of Strategic Services, organizing European resistance to Nazi Germany. In 1961, President John F. Kennedy appointed Goldberg as the Secretary of Labor.


title: Arthur Goldberg

text: In 1962, Kennedy successfully nominated Goldberg to the Supreme Court to fill a vacancy created by the retirement of Felix Frankfurter. Goldberg aligned with the liberal bloc of justices and wrote the majority opinion in "Escobedo v. Illinois". In 1965, Goldberg resigned from the bench to accept appointment by President Lyndon B. Johnson as the Ambassador to the United Nations. In that role, he helped draft UN Resolution 242 in the aftermath of the Six-Day War. He ran for governor of New York in 1970 but was defeated by Nelson Rockefeller. After his defeat, he served as president of the American Jewish Committee and continued to practice law.


title: Arthur Goldberg

text: Goldberg was born and raised on West Side, Chicago, the youngest of eight children of Rebecca Perlstein and Joseph Goldberg, Orthodox Jewish immigrants from the Russian Empire. His paternal line derived from a shtetl called Zenkhov, in Ukraine. Goldberg's father, a produce peddler, died in 1916, forcing Goldberg's siblings to quit school and go to work to support the family. As the youngest child, Goldberg was allowed to continue school, but worked jobs on the side, including as a vendor at Wrigley Field and as a library clerk, to help support his family. He was childhood friends with future professional boxer Jackie Fields. Goldberg attended classes and lectures at the Hull House, which aimed to educate recent European immigrants. He graduated from Harrison Technical High School at the age of 16.


title: Arthur Goldberg

text: Goldberg's interest in the law was sparked by the noted murder trial in 1924 of Leopold and Loeb, two wealthy young Chicagoans who were spared the death penalty with the help of their high-powered defense attorney, Clarence Darrow. Goldberg attended the trial while he was a high school senior. Goldberg later pointed to the case as inspiration for his opposition to the death penalty on the bench, since he had seen how inequality of social status could lead to unfair application of the death penalty. Jewish Supreme Court Justices Louis Brandeis and Benjamin Cardozo also served as inspiration to Goldberg from a young age.


title: Arthur Goldberg

text: Goldberg, who worked part time as a construction worker, took night courses at Crane Junior College of the City Colleges of Chicago and DePaul University. He later earned a B.S.L. ("magna cum laude"; 1929) and J.D. (1930) degrees from Northwestern University. Goldberg served as the Editor of the "Illinois Law Review" (now known as the Northwestern Law Review) and helped Law Dean John Henry Wigmore write his third edition of the treatise on evidence. Goldberg graduated from Northwestern law school in just 2.5 years and with the highest academic record ever at Northwestern. Being just 21-years-old, he was too young to pass the Illinois Bar. However, he sued and successfully argued his own case to be admitted to the bar.


title: Arthur Goldberg

text: In 1931, Goldberg married Dorothy Kurgans. They had one daughter, Barbara Goldberg Cramer, and one son, Robert M. Goldberg (an attorney in Anchorage, Alaska). He was the uncle of prolific blues rock keyboardist Barry Goldberg.


title: Arthur Goldberg

text: During World War II, Goldberg was a member of the United States Army, wherein he served as a captain and later a major. He wanted to join the Marines, but was not physically fit enough. Goldberg served as well in an espionage group operated by the Office of Strategic Services, the precursor to the CIA, serving as chief of the Labor Desk, an autonomous division of the American intelligence agency that was charged with the task of cultivating contacts and networks within the European underground labor movement during World War II. The Jewish Telegraphic Agency stated, "Goldberg's file notes that as both a civilian and a member of the Army, he supervised a section in the Secret Intelligence Branch of OSS to maintain contact with labor groups and organizations regarded as potential resistance elements in enemy-occupied and enemy countries. He organized anti-Nazi European transportation workers into an extensive intelligence network."


title: Arthur Goldberg

text: Due to antisemitism, Goldberg was unable to work in Chicago's big law firms because they would not hire Jews. Instead, he started his legal career at Pritzger & Pritzger, a firm founded by German Jews. However, he was uncomfortable with his work at Pritzger because the work mainly dealt with representing large businesses.


title: Arthur Goldberg

text: Goldberg's interest in labor law spiked at the start of The Great Depression and in 1933 he left Pritzger to create his own boutique law firm, which was focused on labor law. Goldberg joined the National Lawyers Guild (NLG), a group that was advocating for The New Deal, in the mid-1930s. However, Goldberg, among others, resigned a few years later due to the NLG's growing association with the American Communist Party.


title: Arthur Goldberg

text: Goldberg became a prominent labor lawyer and represented striking Chicago newspaper workers on behalf of the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) in 1938. The strike went on for eight months and Goldberg spent almost everyday in court arguing on the worker's behalf. Eventually, the strike persuaded William Randolph Hearst to recognize the newspaper union. Appointed general counsel to the CIO in 1948 to succeed Lee Pressman, Goldberg served as a negotiator and chief legal adviser in the merger of the American Federation of Labor and CIO in 1955. AFL-CIO is one of the US major labor unions representing America's workers and labor. Goldberg also served as general counsel of the United Steelworkers of America.


title: Arthur Goldberg

text: Goldberg was an active participant in the National Citizens Political Action Committee and the CIO Political Action Committee. He supported the presidential campaigns of Franklin D. Roosevelt and Harry Truman. Goldberg initially supported Senator Joseph McCarthy's efforts to investigate communism in the United States, but soon opposed those efforts after it became clear they threatened the organized labor movement.


title: Arthur Goldberg

text: In 1960, Goldberg wanted his friend Adlai Stevenson to run for President, but Stevenson encouraged Goldberg to back Hubert Humphrey. Instead, Goldberg backed Senator John F. Kennedy. Goldberg served as a labor advisor to Kennedy's campaign and was influential in getting unions to back Kennedy.


title: Arthur Goldberg

text: President John F. Kennedy nominated Goldberg to be United States Secretary of Labor, where he served from 1961 to 1962. He was the third Jew to be named to a Cabinet position. Goldberg wanted to be named Attorney General, so he would improve his chances of getting nominated to the Supreme Court, but that spot went to Kennedy's brother Robert. As Labor Secretary, Goldberg encouraged Kennedy to increase the minimum wage, extend unemployment benefits, create job opportunities for the youth and invest in economically distressed areas. Following Goldberg's advice, Kennedy established the President's Committee on Equal Employment Opportunity (PCEEO), which ensured employees are treated fairly regardless of "race, creed, color, or national origin." Goldberg also championed the creation of the President’s Advisory Committee on Labor-Management Policy.


title: Arthur Goldberg

text: On August 31, 1962, Kennedy nominated Goldberg as an associate justice of the U.S. Supreme Court, to succeed Felix Frankfurter, who was retiring. Earlier that same year, Kennedy had considered nominating Goldberg to succeed Charles Whittaker, but chose Byron White instead. Frankfurter and Chief Justice Earl Warren were consulted by the President beforehand and both gave their full support.


title: Arthur Goldberg

text: He was confirmed by the U.S. Senate on September 25, and served on the Court from October 1, 1962, until July 25, 1965. Only one Senator, Strom Thurmond from South Carolina, opposed his nomination. During his tenure, the seat Goldberg occupied on the Court came to be informally known as the "Jewish seat", as his two immediate predecessors—Frankfurter and Benjamin Cardozo before him—were also Jewish. , Goldberg is the last Cabinet official to have also served on the Supreme Court.


title: Arthur Goldberg

text: Despite his short time on the bench, Goldberg played a significant role in the Court's jurisprudence. Replacing Justice Felix Frankfruter, who was a center-right Justice, Goldberg's liberal views on constitutional questions shifted the Court's balance toward a broader construction of constitutional rights. A self-described judicial activist, Goldberg voted for a liberal outcome in 89% of cases before the court.


title: Arthur Goldberg

text: His best-known opinion came in the concurrence of "Griswold v. Connecticut" (1965), arguing that the Ninth Amendment supported the existence of an unenumerated right of privacy. He argued that to determine if a right is a fundamental right, the court should look to whether the right involved is of such a character that it cannot be denied without violating those fundamental principles of liberty and justice which lie at the base of all America's civil and political institutions.


title: Arthur Goldberg

text: Perhaps Goldberg's most influential move on the Court involved the death penalty. Goldberg argued in a 1963 internal Supreme Court memorandum that imposition of the death penalty was condemned by the international community and should be regarded as "cruel and unusual punishment," in contravention of the Eighth Amendment. Finding support in this position from two other justices (William J. Brennan and William O. Douglas), Goldberg published an opinion dissenting from the Court's denial of certiorari in a case, "Rudolph v. Alabama", involving the imposition of the death penalty for rape, in which Goldberg cited the fact that only five nations responding to a UN survey indicated that they allowed imposition of the death penalty for rape, including the U.S., and that 33 states in the U.S. had outlawed the practice.


title: Arthur Goldberg

text: Goldberg's dissent sent a signal to lawyers across the nation to challenge the constitutionality of capital punishment in appeals. As a result of the influx of appeals, the death penalty effectively ceased to exist in the United States for the remainder of the 1960s and 1970s, and the Supreme Court considered the issue in the 1972 case of "Furman v. Georgia", where the Justices, in a 5 to 4 decision, effectively suspended the death penalty laws of states across the country on the ground of the capricious imposition of the penalty. That decision would be revisited in "Gregg v. Georgia" (1976), where the justices voted to allow the death penalty under some circumstances; the death penalty for rape of an adult female victim, however, would be struck down in "Coker v. Georgia" (1977). In 2008, the death penalty for rape of children was ruled unconstitutional by a 5 to 4 decision ("Kennedy v. Louisiana"). Writing for "The New York Times", Adam Liptak said that Goldberg's dissent helped "create the modern movement for the abolition of the death penalty."


title: Arthur Goldberg

text: Goldberg also wrote the majority opinions in "Escobedo v. Illinois", which provided criminal defendants the right to counsel during interrogation under the Sixth Amendment and "Kennedy v. Mendoza-Martinez", which declared unconstitutional parts of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952 that revoked citizenship for those that had fled the country in order to dodge the draft.


title: Arthur Goldberg

text: Despite Goldberg's short tenure on the court, a number of his law clerks have gone on to become deeply influential. Stephen Breyer became an later Associate Justice of the Supreme Court and he held Goldberg's seat on the Court from 1994 until 2022. Another of Goldberg's law clerks was Harvard law professor Alan Dershowitz. Since other justices would be unlikely to hire a Jewish clerk, Goldberg emphasized hiring Jewish clerks. Six out of his eight law clerks were Jewish.


title: Arthur Goldberg

text: In 1965, Goldberg was persuaded by Johnson to resign his seat on the court to replace the recently deceased Adlai Stevenson II as the U.S. ambassador to the United Nations (UN). Johnson wanted to appoint his friend, Abe Fortas, to the court. If any of his Great Society reforms were going to be deemed unconstitutional by the Court, he thought that Fortas would notify him in advance. Goldberg, who had declined an earlier offer to leave his position to be Secretary of Health, Education and Welfare, took Johnson's offer of the UN ambassadorship when Johnson discussed it with him on Air Force One to Illinois for Stevenson's funeral. Goldberg was promised by Johnson that he would be a member of the President's cabinet and would be involved in all decisions involving ending the Vietnam War. Bruce Allen Murphy, a professor at Lafayette College, wrote in one of his books that Johnson also told Goldberg that he would consider putting him on his ticket as Vice President in the 1968 United States presidential election.


title: Arthur Goldberg

text: Goldberg wrote that he resigned to have influence in keeping the peace in Vietnam and that after the crisis had passed, he expected he would be reappointed to the Supreme Court by Johnson to replace the retiring Chief Justice Earl Warren. He also said, "I had an exaggerated opinion of my capacities. I thought I could persuade Johnson that we were fighting the wrong war in the wrong place [and] to get out."


title: Arthur Goldberg

text: David Stebenne, Goldberg's biographer, adds, "Many observers, then and later, found this answer hard to accept." He suggests, "Johnson must have had some influence over Goldberg that induced him [to resign from the Supreme Court]." "Time" reported in 1962 that Johnson knew that for a party thrown in Johnson's honor that year, a Goldberg aide, Jerry Holleman, solicited contributions from wealthy supporters of Johnson, including Billy Sol Estes. Holleman accepted responsibility and there was no public awareness of Goldberg and Johnson's involvement.


title: Arthur Goldberg

text: Goldberg would be able to answer the Russians... very effectively... He's got a bulldog face on him, and I think this Jew thing would take "The New York Times"-- all this crowd that gives me hell all the time-- and disarm them. And still have a Johnson man. I've always thought that Goldberg was the ablest man in Kennedy's Cabinet, and he was the best man to us... Goldberg sold bananas, you know... He's kind of like I am... He's shined some shoes in his day and he's sold newspapers, and he's had to slug it out...


title: Arthur Goldberg

text: Goldberg chose to retain only one of Stevenson's aides, US Ambassador Charles W. Yost, a career Foreign Service Office who was able to help Goldberg navigate the intricacies of United Nations procedures, and foreign affairs debates in the Security Council. While serving as UN Ambassador, Goldberg was successful at brokering peace between Greece and Turkey during the Cyprus crisis of 1967 and helped diplomatically resolve a conflict between North Korea and the United States following the 1968 Pueblo incident.


title: Arthur Goldberg

text: In 1967, Goldberg was a key drafter of Resolution 242, which followed the 1967 Six-Day War between Israel and the Arab states. While interpretation of that resolution has subsequently become controversial, Goldberg was very clear that the resolution does not obligate Israel to withdraw from all of the captured territories. He stated that:


title: Arthur Goldberg

text: The notable omissions in language used to refer to withdrawal are the words "the", "all", and the "June 5, 1967, lines". I refer to the English text of the resolution. The French and Soviet texts differ from the English in this respect, but the English text was voted on by the Security Council, and thus it is determinative. In other words, there is lacking a declaration requiring Israel to withdraw from the (or all the) territories occupied by it on and after June 5, 1967. Instead, the resolution stipulates "withdrawal from occupied territories without defining the extent of withdrawal". And it can be inferred from the incorporation of the words "secure and recognized boundaries" that the territorial adjustments to be made by the parties in their peace settlements could encompass less than a complete withdrawal of Israeli forces from occupied territories [italics by Goldberg].


title: Arthur Goldberg

text: Goldberg's role as the UN ambassador during the Six-Day War may have been the reason why Sirhan Sirhan, the assassin of Robert F. Kennedy, also wanted to assassinate Goldberg.


title: Arthur Goldberg

text: Frustrated with the war in Vietnam, Goldberg resigned from the ambassadorship in 1968 and accepted a senior partnership with the New York law firm Paul, Weiss, Rifkind, Wharton & Garrison. Longing to return to the bench, Goldberg later claimed that he was Earl Warren's preference to succeed him when the chief justice announced his retirement in 1968, but President Johnson selected Abe Fortas instead. After Fortas's nomination was withdrawn in the face of Senate opposition, Johnson briefly considered naming Goldberg chief justice as a recess appointment before ruling out the idea. On 15 October 1969, Goldberg was a featured speaker at the Moratorium to End the War in Vietnam march.


title: Arthur Goldberg

text: With the prospect of a return to the Supreme Court closed to him by the election of Richard Nixon, Goldberg contemplated a run for elected office. Initially considering a challenge to Charles Goodell's reelection to the United States Senate, he decided to run against New York Governor Nelson Rockefeller in 1970. Though the former justice initially polled well, his campaign was unsuccessful. Goldberg faced accusations of being a "carpetbagger" by the New York media and he faced a contested Democratic primary campaign against Howard J. Samuels. Although Goldberg won the Democratic primary, his poor skills as a campaigner and lack of knowledge about New York (while campaigning in Manhattan, he mistakenly claimed that he was in Brooklyn), coupled with Rockefeller's formidable advantages, resulted in a 700,000 vote margin of victory for the incumbent Republican. At one point in the campaign, Goldberg told a voter, who commented that he wished he was still on the Court "so do I, sometimes." Basil Paterson was his running mate as Lt. Governor. His son David later became Governor in 2008.


title: Arthur Goldberg

text: After his defeat, Goldberg returned to law practice in Washington, D.C., and served as President of the American Jewish Committee. In 1972, Goldberg returned to the Supreme Court as a lawyer, representing Curt Flood in "Flood v. Kuhn". His oral argument was referred to by one observer as "one of the worst arguments I'd ever heard – by one of the smartest men I've ever known..." Under President Jimmy Carter, Goldberg served as United States Ambassador to the Belgrade Conference on Human Rights in 1977, and was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1978.


title: Arthur Goldberg

text: Goldberg was a member of the Council on Foreign Relations from 1966 until 1989. He was also a member of the from 1961 to 1962, but resigned when he was named to the Supreme Court.


title: Arthur Goldberg

text: Goldberg died in 1990. As a former member of the U.S. Army he was buried at Arlington National Cemetery in Virginia.


title: Santa Fe Trail

text: The Santa Fe Trail was a 19th-century route through central North America that connected Franklin, Missouri, with Santa Fe, New Mexico. Pioneered in 1821 by William Becknell, who departed from the Boonslick region along the Missouri River, the trail served as a vital commercial highway until 1880, when the railroad arrived in Santa Fe. Santa Fe was near the end of El Camino Real de Tierra Adentro which carried trade from Mexico City. The trail was later incorporated into parts of the National Old Trails Road and U.S. Route 66.


title: Santa Fe Trail

text: The route skirted the northern edge and crossed the north-western corner of Comancheria, the territory of the Comanche. Realizing the value, they demanded compensation for granting passage to the trail. American traders envisioned them as another market. Comanche raiding farther south in Mexico isolated New Mexico, making it more dependent on the American trade. They raided to gain a steady supply of horses to sell. By the 1840s, trail traffic through the Arkansas Valley was so numerous that bison herds were cut off from important seasonal grazing land. This habitat disruption, on top of overhunting, contributed to the collapse of the species. Comanche power declined in the region when they lost their most important game.


title: Santa Fe Trail

text: In 1846, during the Mexican–American War, the United States Army used the Santa Fe trail to invade New Mexico.


title: Santa Fe Trail

text: After the U.S. acquisition of the Southwest that ended the war, the trail was integral to the U.S. opening the region to economic development and settlement. It played a vital role in the westward expansion of the U.S. into these new lands. The road route is commemorated today by the National Park Service as the Santa Fe National Historic Trail. A highway route that roughly follows the trail's path, through the entire length of Kansas, the southeast corner of Colorado and northern New Mexico, has been designated as the Santa Fe Trail National Scenic Byway.


title: Santa Fe Trail

text: The Santa Fe Trail was a transportation route opened by the Indians as well as European trappers and traders in the second half of the 18th century. It was later used extensively by people from the United States in the 19th century after the Louisiana Purchase. Traders and settlers crossed the southwest of North America by the route connecting Independence, Missouri, with Santa Fe, New Mexico. Its major market in Missouri was St. Louis, with its port on the Mississippi River.


title: Santa Fe Trail

text: In 1719, the French officer Claude Charles Du Tisne was tasked by French authorities to establish a route to trade with the Spanish colony of Santa Fe in New Mexico. This first expedition, which started in Kaskaskia, Illinois, failed, as it was stopped by Indian tribes in Kansas. Then, at the time of the Louisiana (New France) regime, under French and then Spanish sovereignty, the French traders Pierre Antoine and Paul Mallet made a first trip in 1739 and 1740, starting also from Kaskaskia, Illinois, reaching Santa Fe and returning. They made other expeditions in 1741 and 1750, which faced various challenges from Indians and Spaniards. Then, the French explorer Pierre Vial made another pioneering trip on the route in 1792, and French traders and trappers from St. Louis gained progressively a fur trading dominance from the Spanish in Santa Fe as well as with the Indian tribes living in this vast region. Other French traders and trappers made trips on the trail from St. Louis, such as Auguste Pierre Chouteau and Jules de Mun in 1815, who were arrested by Spanish authorities in Santa Fe.


title: Santa Fe Trail

text: After Louisiana (New France) was sold to the United States in 1803 (Louisiana Purchase), Americans improved and publicized the Santa Fe Trail beginning in 1822, in order to take advantage of new trade opportunities with Mexico which had just won independence from Spain in the Mexican War of Independence. Manufactured goods were hauled from Missouri to Santa Fe, which was then in the northern Mexican state of "Nuevo Mexico".


title: Santa Fe Trail

text: Settlers seeking the opportunity to hold free land used wagon trains to follow various emigrant trails that branched off to points west. The political philosophy of Manifest Destiny, the idea that the U.S. should extend from one coast to another, dominated national political discussions. The trail connected interior port cities along the Mississippi and Missouri and their wagon train outfitters to western destinations. The trail was used to carry products from the central plains to the trail head towns St. Joseph and Independence, Missouri.


title: Santa Fe Trail

text: In the 1820s–30s, it was also sporadically important in the reverse trade, used by traders to transport foods and supplies to the fur trappers and mountain men opening the remote Northwest, especially in the interior Northwest: Idaho, Wyoming, Colorado, and Montana. A mule trail (trapper's trails) led to points north to supply the lucrative overland fur trade in ports on the Pacific Coast.


title: Santa Fe Trail

text: Santa Fe was near the northern terminus of El Camino Real de Tierra Adentro, which led overland between Mexico City to San Juan Pueblo, New Mexico.


title: Santa Fe Trail

text: Cargo mule trains were run from Fort Bernard in Wyoming to the Santa Fe Trail at Fort Bent in Colorado .


title: Santa Fe Trail

text: In 1825, the merchant Manuel Escudero of Chihuahua was commissioned by New Mexico governor Bartolome Baca to negotiate in Washington, DC for opening U.S. borders to traders from Mexico. Beginning in 1826, prominent aristocratic families of New Mexicans, such as the Chávezes, Armijos, Pereas, and Oteros, entered into the commerce along the trail. By 1843, traders from New Mexico and Chihuahua had become the majority of traders involved in the traffic of goods over the Santa Fe Trail.


title: Santa Fe Trail

text: In 1835, Mexico City had sent Albino Pérez to govern the department of New Mexico as "Jefe Politico" (political chief or governor) and as commanding military officer. In 1837, the forces of "Rio Arriba" (the upper Rio Grande, i.e., northern New Mexico) rebelled against Pérez's enforcement of the recent Mexican constitution, new revenue laws taxing Santa Fe commerce and entertainment, and the large grants of New Mexico land to wealthy Mexicans. New Mexicans appreciated the relative freedoms of a frontier, remote from Mexico City. The rebels defeated and executed governor Albino Perez, but were later ousted by the forces of "Rio Abajo" (the lower Rio Grande, or southern New Mexico) led by Manuel Armijo.


title: Santa Fe Trail

text: The Republic of Texas competed with Mexico in claiming Santa Fe, as part of the territory north and east of the Rio Grande which both nations claimed following Texas's secession from Mexico in 1836.


title: Santa Fe Trail

text: In 1841, a small military and trading expedition departed from Austin, Texas for Santa Fe. They represented the Republic of Texas and its president Mirabeau B. Lamar. Their intention was to persuade the people of Santa Fe and New Mexico to relinquish control over the territory under dispute with Mexico, and over associated Santa Fe Trail commerce. Knowing about recent political disturbances there, they hoped for a welcome by the rebellious faction in New Mexico. What was known as the Texan Santa Fe Expedition encountered many difficulties. The party was captured by governor Armijo's Mexican army under less than honest negotiations. They were subjected to harsh and austere treatment during a tortuous forced march to Mexico City, where they were tried, convicted and imprisoned for their insurgent activities.


title: Santa Fe Trail

text: In 1842, Colonel William A. Christy wrote Sam Houston, president of Texas, requesting support for an overthrow scheme by Charles Warfield dependent on armed forces. He proposed deposing the governments in the Mexican provinces of New Mexico and Chihuahua and returning half of the spoils to the Republic of Texas. Houston agreed, provided the operation be conducted under the strictest secrecy.


title: Santa Fe Trail

text: He commissioned Warfield as a colonel, who attempted to raise volunteers in Texas, St. Louis, Missouri; and the southern Rockies for a Warfield Expedition. He recruited John McDaniel and a small band of men in the proximate vicinity of St. Louis, giving McDaniel the rank of a Texas captain. After Warfield headed toward the Rockies with a companion, McDaniel led a robbery in April 1843 (in present-day Rice County, Kansas) of a lightly defended Santa Fe Trail trading caravan. This resulted in the murder of its leader Antonio José Chávez, the son of a former governor of New Mexico, Francisco Xavier Chávez.


title: Santa Fe Trail

text: Warfield was reportedly unaware of the crime. McDaniel and one accomplice were tried, convicted and executed. Other participating suspects arrested by the US were convicted and imprisoned. The newspapers reported that Americans and Mexicans were outraged by the crime. Local merchants and citizens at the U.S. end of the Santa Fe Trail demanded justice and a return to the stable commerce which their economy depended on.


title: Santa Fe Trail

text: After the murder of Chávez, Warfield began limited military hostilities in the region using recruits from the southern Rockies. He made an unprovoked attack on Mexican troops outside Mora, New Mexico, leaving five dead. Warfield lost his horses after an encounter in Wagon Mound, where the Mexican forces had made chase. After Warfield's men reached Bent's Fort on foot, they disbanded.


title: Santa Fe Trail

text: In February 1843, Colonel Jacob Snively had received a commission to intercept Mexican caravans along the Santa Fe Trail, similar to that received by Warfield the year prior. After disbanding the volunteers under his command, Warfield located and joined the 190-man, Texas "Battalion of Invincibles," under the command of Snively. New Mexico governor Manuel Armijo led Mexican troops out of Santa Fe to protect incoming caravans. But, after the Invincibles destroyed much of an advance party led by Captain Ventura Lovato, the governor retreated. Following this battle, many Americans resigned and Snively's force was reduced to little over 100 men. Snively planned to plunder Mexican merchant caravans on territory claimed by Texas, in retaliation for recent Texian executions and Mexican invasions, but his battalion was quickly arrested and disarmed by the US troops escorting the caravans. After disarming these men, Captain Philip St. George Cooke allowed them to return to Texas.


title: Santa Fe Trail

text: In 1863, with all the political bickering over railroad legislation, entrepreneurs opened their pockets and set their sights on the American Southwest leading to the gradual construction east to west of the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway; the name eponymously reflecting the intentions of the founders, the expected eastern terminus to be in Atchison, Kansas.


title: Santa Fe Trail

text: Inside Kansas, the AT&SF roadbed roughly paralleled the Santa Fe Trail west of Topeka as it expanded between 1868 and 1874. When a railroad bridge was built across the Missouri River to connect eastern markets to the Dodge City cattle trail and Colorado coal mines, the railroad spurred the growth of Kansas City, Missouri. Building the railway so that it extended westwards to destinations in and beyond the New Mexico border was delayed and kept the fledgling railroad gasping for cash. In a move to bootstrap their own base market, the railway began offering packaged "Shopping Excursion deals" to potential buyers desiring to look over a real estate parcel. The railroad began to discount such trips to visit its land offices and gave back the ticket price as part of the purchase price, if a sale was concluded.


title: Santa Fe Trail

text: The railroad's sale of its land granted by congress fostered growth of new towns and businesses along its route, which generated railway traffic and revenues. With this financial base, the railway extended west, gradually adding new connections through rougher west country along the western Trail. With the development of rail transport, traffic on the Trail soon dropped to merely local trade. In a sense, after World War I the trail was reborn; by the 1920s it gradually became paved automobile roads.


title: Santa Fe Trail

text: The eastern end of the trail was in the central Missouri town of Franklin on the north bank of the Missouri River. The route across Missouri first used by Becknell followed portions of the existing Osage Trace and the Medicine Trails. West of Franklin, the trail crossed the Missouri near Arrow Rock, after which it followed roughly the route of present-day U.S. Route 24. It passed north of Marshall, through Lexington to Fort Osage, then to Independence. Independence was also one of the historic "jumping off points" for the Oregon and California Trails.


title: Santa Fe Trail

text: West of Independence, it roughly followed the route of U.S. Route 56 from near the town of Olathe to the western border of Kansas. It enters Colorado, cutting across the southeast corner of the state before entering New Mexico. The section of the trail between Independence and Olathe was also used by immigrants on the California and Oregon Trails, which branched off to the northwest near Gardner, Kansas.


title: Santa Fe Trail

text: From Olathe, the trail passed through the towns of Baldwin City, Burlingame, and Council Grove, then swung west of McPherson to the town of Lyons. West of Lyons the trail followed nearly the route of present-day Highway 56 to Great Bend. Ruts in the earth made from the trail are still visible in several locations (Ralph's Ruts are visible in aerial photos at (). At Great Bend, the trail encountered the Arkansas River. Branches of the trail followed both sides of the river upstream to Dodge City and Garden City.


title: Santa Fe Trail

text: West of Garden City in southwestern Kansas the trail splits into two branches. One of the branches, called the Mountain Route or the Upper Crossing follows the Purgatoire River from La Junta upstream to Trinidad then south through the Raton Pass into New Mexico.


title: Santa Fe Trail

text: The other main branch, called the Cimarron Cutoff or Cimarron Crossing or Middle Crossing cut southwest across the Cimarron Desert (also known as the Waterscrape or "La Jornada") to the valley of the Cimarron River near the town of Ulysses and Elkhart then continued toward Boise City, Oklahoma, to Clayton, New Mexico, joining up with northern branch at Fort Union. This route was generally very hazardous because it had very little water. In fact, the Cimarron River was one of the only sources of water along this branch of the trail.


title: Santa Fe Trail

text: From Watrous, the reunited branches continued southward to Santa Fe. Part of this route has been designated a National Scenic Byway.


title: Santa Fe Trail

text: Travelers faced many hardships along the Santa Fe Trail. The trail was a challenging of dangerous plains, hot deserts, and steep and rocky mountains. The natural weather was and is continental: very hot and dry summers, coupled with long and bitterly cold winters. Fresh water was scarce, and the high steppe-like plains are nearly treeless. Water flows in the Pecos, Arkansas, Cimarron, and Canadian rivers that drain the region vary by 90 or more percent in their flows during an average year. Also on this trail, unlike the Oregon trail, there was a serious danger of Indian attacks, for neither the Comanches nor the Apaches of the southern high plains tolerated trespassers. In 1825, Congress voted for federal protection for the Santa Fe Trail, even though much of it lay in the Mexican territory. Lack of food and water also made the trail very risky. Weather conditions, like huge lightning storms, gave the travelers even more difficulty. If a storm developed, there was often no place to take shelter and the livestock could get spooked. Rattlesnakes often posed a threat, and many people died due to snakebites. The caravan size increased later on to prevent Indian raids. The travelers also harnessed more oxen instead of mulesprimarily for the greater hauling power of oxen but also because they were less valued by Indians and thus less risk of being raided.


title: Santa Fe Trail

text: Segments of this trail in Missouri, Kansas, Oklahoma, and New Mexico are listed on the National Register of Historic Places. In Missouri, this includes the 85th and Manchester "Three Trails" Trail Segment, Arrow Rock Ferry Landing, Santa Fe Trail – Grand Pass Trail Segments, and Santa Fe Trail – Saline County Trail Segments. The longest clearly identifiable section of the trail, Santa Fe Trail Remains, near Dodge City, Kansas, is listed as a National Historic Landmark. In Colorado, Santa Fe Trail Mountain Route – Bent's New Fort is included on the National Register.


title: Christianity and violence

text: Christians have had diverse attitudes towards violence and non-violence over time. Both currently and historically, there have been four attitudes towards violence and war and four resulting practices of them within Christianity: non-resistance, Christian pacifism, just war, and preventive war (Holy war, e.g., the Crusades). In the Roman Empire, the early church adopted a nonviolent stance when it came to war because the imitation of Jesus's sacrificial life was preferable to it. The concept of "just war", the belief that limited uses of war were acceptable, originated in the writings of earlier non-Christian Roman and Greek thinkers such as Cicero and Plato. Later, this theory was adopted by Christian thinkers such as St Augustine, who like other Christians, borrowed much of the just war concept from Roman law and the works of Roman writers like Cicero. Even though "Just War" concept was widely accepted early on, warfare was not regarded as a virtuous activity and expressing concern for the salvation of those who killed enemies in battle, regardless of the cause for which they fought, was common. Concepts such as "Holy war", whereby fighting itself might be considered a penitential and spiritually meritorious act, did not emerge before the 11th century.


title: Christianity and violence

text: The Bible contains several texts which encourage, command, condemn, reward, punish, regulate and describe acts of violence.


title: Christianity and violence

text: Leigh Gibson and Shelly Matthews, associate professor of Religion at Furman University, write that some scholars, such as René Girard, "lift up the New Testament as somehow containing the antidote for Old Testament violence". According to John Gager, such an analysis risks advocating the views of the heresiarch Marcion of Sinope (c. 85–160), who made a distinction between the God of the Old Testament responsible for violence and the God of mercy found in the New Testament.


title: Christianity and violence

text: Mahatma Gandhi embraced the concept of nonviolence which he had found in both Indian Religions and the New Testament (e.g. Sermon on the Mount), which he then utilized in his strategy for social and political struggles.


title: Christianity and violence

text: J. Denny Weaver, Professor Emeritus of Religion at Bluffton University, suggests that there are numerous evolving views on violence and nonviolence throughout the history of Christian theology. According to the view of many historians, the Constantinian shift turned Christianity from a persecuted into a persecuting religion.


title: Christianity and violence

text: Miroslav Volf has identified the intervention of a "new creation", as in the Second Coming, as a particular aspect of Christianity that generates violence. Writing about the latter, Volf says: "Beginning at least with Constantine's conversion, the followers of the Crucified have perpetrated gruesome acts of violence under the sign of the cross. Over the centuries, the seasons of Lent and Holy Week were, for the Jews, times of fear and trepidation. Muslims also associate the cross with violence; crusaders' rampages were undertaken under the sign of the cross."


title: Christianity and violence

text: The statement attributed to Jesus "I come not to bring peace, but to bring a sword" has been interpreted by some as a call to arms for Christians. Mark Juergensmeyer argues that "despite its central tenets of love and peace, Christianity—like most traditions—has always had a violent side. The bloody history of the tradition has provided disturbing images and violent conflict is vividly portrayed in the Bible. This history and these biblical images have provided the raw material for theologically justifying the violence of contemporary Christian groups. For example, attacks on abortion clinics have been viewed not only as assaults on a practice that Christians regard as immoral, but also as skirmishes in a grand confrontation between forces of evil and good that has social and political implications.", sometimes referred to as Spiritual warfare.


title: Christianity and violence

text: Historically, according to René Girard, many Christians embraced violence when it became the state religion of the Roman Empire: "Beginning with Constantine, Christianity triumphed at the level of the state and soon began to cloak with its authority persecutions similar to those in which the early Christians were victims."


title: Christianity and violence

text: The study of Christian participation in military service in the pre-Constantinian era has been highly contested and has generated a great deal of literature.


title: Christianity and violence

text: Through most of the twentieth century, a consensus was formed around Adolf von Harnack's view that the early church was pacifist, that during the second and third centuries, a growing accommodation of military service occurred, and by the time of Constantine, a just war ethic had arisen.


title: Christianity and violence

text: This consensus was challenged mostly by the work of John Helgeland in the 1970s and 1980s. He said that most of the early Christians opposed military service because they refused to practice the Roman religion and they also refused to perform the rituals of the Roman army, not because they were against killing. Helgeland also stated that there is a diversity of voices in the written literature, as well as evidence of a diversity of practices by Christians. George Kalantzis, Professor of Theology at Wheaton College, sided with Harnack in the debate writing that "literary evidence confirms the very strong internal coherence of the Church's non-violent stance for the first three centuries."


title: Christianity and violence

text: David Hunter has concluded that a "new consensus" has emerged and it includes aspects of Helgeland's and Harnack's views. Hunter suggests that the early Christians based their opposition to military service upon both their "aboherrence of Roman army religion" (Helgeland's view) and their opposition to bloodshood (Harnack's view). Hunter notes that there is evidence that by the 2nd century Christian practices had started to diverge from the theological principles espoused in early Christian literature. Hunter's third point of the "new consensus" is the assertion that the just war theory reflects at least one pre-Constantinian view. Finally, to these three points, Kreider added that Christian attitudes towards violence were likely varied in different geographical locations, pointing out that pro-militarist views were stronger in border areas then they were in "heartland" areas which were more strongly aligned with the Empire.


title: Christianity and violence

text: There is little evidence concerning the extent of Christian participation in the military; generalizations are usually speculation. A few gravestones of Christian soldiers have been found.


title: Christianity and violence

text: Just war theory is a doctrine of military ethics of Roman philosophical and Catholic origin studied by moral theologians, ethicists, and international policy makers, that holds that a conflict can and ought to meet the criteria of philosophical, religious or political justice, provided it follows certain conditions.


title: Christianity and violence

text: The concept of justification for war under certain conditions goes back at least to Roman and Greek thinkers such as Cicero and Plato. However its importance is connected to Christian medieval theory beginning from Augustine of Hippo and Thomas Aquinas.


title: Christianity and violence

text: According to Jared Diamond, Augustine of Hippo played a critical role in delineating Christian thinking about what constitutes a just war, and about how to reconcile Christian teachings of peace with the need for war in certain situations. Partly inspired by Cicero's writings, Augustine held that war could be justified in order to preserve the state, rectify wrongs by neighboring nations, and expand the state if a tyrant will lose power in doing so.


title: Christianity and violence

text: In Ulrich Luz's formulation; "After Constantine, the Christians too had a responsibility for war and peace. Already Celsus asked bitterly whether Christians, by aloofness from society, wanted to increase the political power of wild and lawless barbarians. His question constituted a new actuality; from now on, Christians and churches had to choose between the testimony of the gospel, which included renunciation of violence, and responsible participation in political power, which was understood as an act of love toward the world." Augustine of Hippo's "Epistle to Marcellinus" (Ep 138) is the most influential example of the "new type of interpretation".


title: Christianity and violence

text: Just war theorists combine both a moral abhorrence towards war with a readiness to accept that war may sometimes be necessary. The criteria of the just war tradition act as an aid to determining whether resorting to arms is morally permissible. Just War theories are attempts "to distinguish between justifiable and unjustifiable uses of organized armed forces"; they attempt "to conceive of how the use of arms might be restrained, made more humane, and ultimately directed towards the aim of establishing lasting peace and justice."


title: Christianity and violence

text: The just war tradition addresses the morality of the use of force in two parts: when it is right to resort to armed force (the concern of "jus ad bellum") and what is acceptable in using such force (the concern of "jus in bello"). In more recent years, a third category—"jus post bellum"—has been added, which governs the justice of war termination and peace agreements, as well as the prosecution of war criminals.


title: Christianity and violence

text: In 1095, at the Council of Clermont, Pope Urban II declared that some wars could be deemed as not only a "bellum iustum" ("just war"), but could, in certain cases, rise to the level of a "bellum sacrum" (holy war). Jill Claster, dean of New York University College of Arts and Science, characterizes this as a "remarkable transformation in the ideology of war", shifting the justification of war from being not only "just" but "spiritually beneficial". Thomas Murphy examined the Christian concept of Holy War, asking "how a culture formally dedicated to fulfilling the injunction to 'love thy neighbor as thyself' could move to a point where it sanctioned the use of violence against the alien both outside and inside society". The religious sanctioning of the concept of "holy war" was a turning point in Christian attitudes towards violence; "Pope Gregory VII made the Holy War possible by drastically altering the attitude of the church towards war... Hitherto a knight could obtain remission of sins only by giving up arms, but Urban invited him to gain forgiveness 'in and through the exercise of his martial skills'." A holy war was defined by the Roman Catholic Church as "war that is not only just, but justifying; that is, a war that confers positive spiritual merit on those who fight in it".


title: Christianity and violence

text: In the 12th century, Bernard of Clairvaux wrote: "'The knight of Christ may strike with confidence and die yet more confidently; for he serves Christ when he strikes, and saves himself when he falls... When he inflicts death, it is to Christ's profit, and when he suffers death, it is his own gain."


title: Christianity and violence

text: The consensus among Christians on the use of violence has changed radically since the crusades were fought. The just war theory prevailing for most of the last two centuries—that violence is an evil which can in certain situations be condoned as the lesser of evils—is relatively young. Although it has inherited some elements (the criteria of legitimate authority, just cause, right intention) from the older war theory that first evolved around a.d. 400, it has rejected two premises that underpinned all medieval just wars, including crusades: first, that violence could be employed on behalf of Christ's intentions for mankind and could even be directly authorized by him; and second, that it was a morally neutral force which drew whatever ethical coloring it had from the intentions of the perpetrators.


title: Christianity and violence

text: The Biblical account of Joshua and the Battle of Jericho was used to justify genocide against Catholics by Oliver Cromwell. Daniel Chirot, professor of Russian and Eurasian studies at the University of Washington, interprets 1 Samuel as "the sentiment, so clearly expressed, that because a historical wrong was committed, justice demands genocidal retribution."


title: Christianity and violence

text: The Inquisition was a group of institutions within the judicial system of the Catholic Church whose aim was to combat heresy The Spanish Inquisition is often cited in popular literature and history as an example of Catholic intolerance and repression. The total number of people who were processed by the Inquisition throughout its history was approximately 150,000; applying the percentages of executions that appeared in the trials of 1560–1700—about 2%—the approximate total would be about 3,000 of them were put to death. However, the actual death toll was probably higher, according to the data which Dedieu and García Cárcel provided to the tribunals of Toledo and Valencia, respectively. It is likely that between 3,000 and 5,000 people were executed. About 50 people were executed by the Mexican Inquisition. Included in that total are 29 people who were executed as "Judaizers" between 1571 and 1700 out of 324 people who were prosecuted for practicing the Jewish religion.


title: Christianity and violence

text: In the Portuguese Inquisition, the major targets were people who had converted from Judaism to Catholicism, the Conversos, also known as New Christians or Marranos, because they were suspected of secretly practising Judaism. Many of these people were originally Spanish Jews, who had left Spain for Portugal. The number of victims of the Portuguese Inquisition is estimated to be around 40,000. One particular focus of the Spanish and Portuguese inquisitions was the issue of Jewish anusim and Muslim converts to Catholicism, partly because these minority groups were more numerous in Spain and Portugal than they were in many other parts of Europe, and partly because they were often considered suspect due to the assumption that they had secretly reverted to their former religions.


title: Christianity and violence

text: The Goa Inquisition was the office of the Portuguese Inquisition which operated in Portuguese India, as well as in the rest of the Portuguese Empire in Asia. It was established in 1560, it was briefly suppressed from 1774 to 1778, and it was finally abolished in 1812. Based on the records that survive, H. P. Salomon and Rabbi Isaac S.D. Sassoon state that between the Inquisition's beginning in 1561 and its temporary abolition in 1774, some 16,202 persons were brought to trial by the Inquisition. Of this number, 57 of them were sentenced to death and executed, and another 64 were burned in effigy (this sentence was imposed on those persons who had either fled or died in prison; in the latter case, the executed person's remains and the effigy were both placed in a coffin and burned at the same time). Others were subjected to lesser punishments or penance, but the fate of many of those who were tried by the Inquisition is unknown.


title: Christianity and violence

text: During the second half of the 16th century, the Roman Inquisition was responsible for prosecuting individuals who were accused of committing a wide range of crimes which were related to religious doctrine, alternative religious doctrine or alternative religious beliefs. Out of 51,000–75,000 cases which were judged by the Inquisition in Italy after 1542, around 1,250 of them resulted in death sentences.


title: Christianity and violence

text: The period of witch trials in Early Modern Europe was a widespread moral panic caused by the belief that malevolent Satanic witches were operating as an organized threat to Christendom from the 15th to the 18th centuries. A variety of punishments was imposed upon those who were found guilty of witchcraft, including imprisonment, flogging, fines, or exile.


title: Christianity and violence

text: In the Old Testament, Exodus 22:18 states that "Thou shalt not permit a sorceress to live". Many people faced capital punishment if they were convicted of witchcraft during this period, either by being burned at the stake, hanged on the gallows, or beheaded. Similarly, in the New England Colonies, people convicted of witchcraft were hanged (See Salem witch trials). The scholarly consensus on the total number of executions for witchcraft ranges from 40,000 to 60,000.


title: Christianity and violence

text: The legal basis for some inquisitorial activity came from Pope Innocent IV's papal bull "Ad extirpanda" of 1252, which explicitly authorized (and defined the appropriate circumstances for) the use of torture by the Inquisition for eliciting confessions from heretics. By 1256, inquisitors were given absolution if they used instruments of torture. "The overwhelming majority of sentences seem to have consisted of penances like wearing a cross sewn on one's clothes, going on pilgrimage, etc." When a suspect was convicted of unrepentant heresy, the inquisitorial tribunal was required by law to hand the person over to the secular authorities for final sentencing, at which point a magistrate would determine the penalty, which was usually burning at the stake although the penalty varied based on local law. The laws were inclusive of proscriptions against certain religious crimes (heresy, etc.), and the punishments included death by burning, although imprisonment for life or banishment would usually be used. Thus the inquisitors generally knew what would be the fate of anyone so remanded, and cannot be considered to have divorced the means of determining guilt from its effects.


title: Christianity and violence

text: Except for the Papal States, the institution of the Inquisition was abolished in Europe in the early 19th century, after the Napoleonic Wars and in the Americas, it was abolished after the Spanish American wars of independence. The institution survived as a part of the Roman Curia, but in 1904, it was renamed the "Supreme Sacred Congregation of the Holy Office". In 1965, it was renamed the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith.


title: Christianity and violence

text: Christian terrorism comprises terrorist acts that are committed by groups or individuals who use Christian motivations or goals as a justification for their actions. As with other forms of religious terrorism, Christian terrorists have relied on interpretations of the tenets of their faith—in this case, the Bible. Such groups have cited Old Testament and New Testament scriptures as justifications for acts of violence and killings or they have sought to bring about the "end times" which are described in the New Testament.


title: Christianity and violence

text: These interpretations are typically different from the interpretations of established Christian denominations.


title: Christianity and violence

text: After the Constantinian shift, Christianity became entangled in government. While anthropologists have shown that throughout history the relationship between religion and politics has been complex, there is no doubt that religious institutions, including Christian ones, have been used coercively by governments, and that they have used coercion themselves. Augustine advocated government force in his Epistle 185, "A Treatise Concerning the Correction of the Donatists", justifying coercion from scripture. He cites Jesus striking Paul during Paul's vision on the road to Damascus. He also cites the parable of the great banquet in . Such short term pain for the sake of eternal salvation was an act of charity and love, in his view.


title: Christianity and violence

text: Examples of forced conversion to Christianity include: the Christian persecution of paganism under Theodosius I, the forced conversion and violent assimilation of pagan tribes in medieval Europe, the Inquisition, including its manifestations in Goa, Mexico, Portugal, and Spain, the forced conversion of indigenous children in North America and Australia


title: Christianity and violence

text: Early Christianity variously opposed, accepted, or ignored slavery. The early Christian perspectives on slavery were formed in the contexts of Christianity's roots in Judaism, and they were also shaped by the wider culture of the Roman Empire. Both the Old and New Testaments recognize the existence of the institution of slavery.


title: Christianity and violence

text: The earliest surviving Christian teachings about slavery are from Paul the Apostle. Paul did not renounce the institution of slavery, though perhaps this was not for personal reasons (similar to Aristotle). He taught that Christian slaves ought to serve their masters wholeheartedly. Nothing in the passage affirms slavery as a naturally valid or divinely mandated institution. Rather, Paul's discussion about the duties of Christian slaves and the responsibilities of Christian masters transforms the institution, even if it falls short of calling for slavery's outright abolition. In the ancient world the slave was a thing. Aristotle wrote that there could never be friendship between a master and a slave, for a master and a slave have nothing in common: "a slave is a living tool, just as a tool is an inanimate slave." Paul's words are entirely different. He calls the slave a "slave of Christ", one who wants to do "the will of God" and who will receive a "reward" for "whatever good he does". Likewise, the master is responsible to God for how he treats his slave, who is ultimately God's property rather than his own. This is another way of saying that the slave, no less than the master, has been made in God's image. As such, he possesses inestimable worth and great dignity. He is to be treated properly. In such a framework slavery, even though it was still slavery, could never be the same type of institution that was imposed on non-Christians. It was this transformation (which came from viewing all persons as being made in God's image) that ultimately destroyed slavery. Tradition describes Pope Pius I (term c. 158–167) and Pope Callixtus I (term c. 217–222) as former slaves.


title: Christianity and violence

text: Nearly all Christian leaders before the late 15th century recognised the institution of slavery, within specific Biblical limitations, as being consistent with Christian theology. In 1452, Pope Nicholas V instituted the hereditary slavery of captured Muslims and pagans, regarding all non-Christians as "enemies of Christ".


title: Christianity and violence

text: , the Curse of Ham, says: "Cursed be Canaan! The lowest of slaves will he be to his brothers. He also said, 'Blessed be the Lord, the God of Shem! May Canaan be the slave of Shem." This verse has been used to justify racialized slavery, since "Christians and even some Muslims eventually identified Ham's descendents as black Africans". Anthony Pagden argued that "This reading of the Book of Genesis merged easily into a medieval iconographic tradition in which devils were always depicted as black. Later pseudo-scientific theories would be built around African skull shapes, dental structure, and body postures, in an attempt to find an unassailable argument—rooted in whatever the most persuasive contemporary idiom happened to be: law, theology, genealogy, or natural science—why one part of the human race should live in perpetual indebtedness to another."


title: Christianity and violence

text: Rodney Stark makes the argument in "For the Glory of God: How Monotheism Led to Reformations, Science, Witch-Hunts, and the End of Slavery", that Christianity helped to end slavery worldwide, as does Lamin Sanneh in "Abolitionists Abroad". These authors point out that Christians who viewed slavery as wrong on the basis of their religious convictions spearheaded abolitionism, and many of the early campaigners for the abolition of slavery were driven by their Christian faith and a desire to realize their view that all people are equal under God.


title: Christianity and violence

text: Modern-day Christians generally condemn slavery as wrong and contrary to God's will. Only peripheral groups such as the Ku Klux Klan and other Christian hate groups which operate on the racist fringes of the Christian Reconstructionist and Christian Identity movements advocate the reinstitution of slavery. Full adherents of Christian Reconstructionism are few and they are marginalized among conservative Christians. With these exceptions, all Christian faith groups now condemn slavery, and they see the practice of slavery as being incompatible with basic Christian principles.


title: Christianity and violence

text: A strain of hostility towards Judaism and the Jewish people developed among Christians in the early years of Christianity, persisted over the ensuing centuries, was driven by numerous factors including theological differences, the Christian drive for converts, which is decreed by the Great Commission, a misunderstanding of Jewish beliefs and practices, and the perception that Jews are hostile towards Christians.


title: Christianity and violence

text: Over the centuries, these attitudes were reinforced by Christian preaching, art and popular teaching, all of which expressed contempt for Jews.


title: Christianity and violence

text: Modern antisemitism has primarily been described as hatred against Jews as a race, a form of racism, rather than hatred against Jews as a religious group, because its modern expression is rooted in 18th century racial theories, while anti-Judaism is described as hostility towards the Jewish religion, a sentiment which is rooted in but more extreme than criticism of Judaism as a religion, but in Western Christianity, anti-Judaism was transformed into antisemitism during the 12th century.


title: Christianity and violence

text: Historian Roland Bainton described the early church as pacifist—a period that ended with the accession of Constantine.


title: Christianity and violence

text: In the first few centuries of Christianity, many Christians refused to engage in military service. In fact, there were a number of famous examples of soldiers who became Christians and refused to engage in combat afterwards. They were subsequently executed for their refusal to fight. The commitment to pacifism and the rejection of military service are attributed by Mark J. Allman, professor in the Department of Religious and Theological Studies at Merrimack College, to two principles: "(1) the use of force (violence) was seen as antithetical to Jesus' teachings and service in the Roman military required worship of the emperor as a god which was a form of idolatry."


title: Christianity and violence

text: In the 3rd century, Origen wrote: "Christians could not slay their enemies." Clement of Alexandria wrote: "Above all, Christians are not allowed to correct with violence the delinquencies of sins." Tertullian argued forcefully against all forms of violence, considering abortion, warfare and even judicial death penalties to be forms of murder.


title: Christianity and violence

text: Several present-day Christian churches and communities were established specifically with nonviolence, including conscientious objection to military service, as foundations of their beliefs. Members of the Historic Peace Churches such as Quakers, Mennonites, Amish and the Church of the Brethren object to war based on their conviction that Christian life is incompatible with military actions, because Jesus enjoins his followers to love their enemies and refrain from committing acts of violence.


title: Christianity and violence

text: In the 20th century, Martin Luther King Jr. adapted the nonviolent ideas of Gandhi to a Baptist theology and politics.


title: Christianity and violence

text: In the 21st century, Christian feminist thinkers have drawn attention to their views by opposing violence against women.


title: Martello tower

text: Martello towers, sometimes known simply as Martellos, are small defensive forts that were built across the British Empire during the 19th century, from the time of the French Revolutionary Wars onwards. Most were coastal forts.


title: Martello tower

text: They stand up to high (with two floors) and typically had a garrison of one officer and 15–25 men. Their round structure and thick walls of solid masonry made them resistant to cannon fire, while their height made them an ideal platform for a single heavy artillery piece, mounted on the flat roof and able to traverse, and hence fire, over a complete 360° circle. A few towers had moats or other batteries and works attached for extra defence.


title: Martello tower

text: The Martello towers were used during the first half of the 19th century, but became obsolete with the introduction of powerful rifled artillery. Many have survived to the present day, often preserved as historic monuments.


title: Martello tower

text: Martello towers were inspired by a round fortress, part of a larger Genoese defence system, at Mortella (Myrtle) Point in Corsica. The designer was Giovan Giacomo Paleari Fratino (el Fratin), and the tower was completed in 1565.


title: Martello tower

text: Since the 15th century, the Corsicans had built similar towers at strategic points around the island to protect coastal villages and shipping from North African pirates. The towers stood one or two storeys high and measured in diameter, with a single doorway five metres off the ground that one could access only via a ladder that the occupants could remove.


title: Martello tower

text: Local villagers paid for the towers and watchmen, known as "torregiani", who would signal the approach of unexpected ships by lighting a beacon fire on the tower's roof. The fire would alert the local defence forces to the threat. Although the pirate threat subsequently dwindled, the Genovese built a newer generation of circular towers (the Genoese towers), that warded off later foreign raids.


title: Martello tower

text: On 7 February 1794 as part of the siege of Saint-Florent, two British warships, (74 guns) and (32 guns), unsuccessfully attacked the tower at Mortella Point; the tower eventually fell to land-based forces under Sir John Moore after two days of heavy fighting. What helped the British was that the tower's two 18-pounder guns fired seaward, while only the one 6-pounder could fire landward.


title: Martello tower

text: Late in the previous year, the tower's French defenders had abandoned it after (32 guns) had fired two broadsides at it. The British removed the guns to arm a small vessel; consequently, the French were easily able to dislodge the garrison of Corsican patriots that had replaced them. Still, the British were impressed by the effectiveness of the tower when properly supplied and defended, and copied the design. But they got the name wrong, misspelling "Mortella" as "Martello" (which means "hammer" in Italian). When the British withdrew from Corsica in 1803, with great difficulty they blew up the tower, leaving it in an unusable state.


title: Martello tower

text: The towers were about high with walls about thick. In some towers the rooms were not built in the centre, but more to the landside, leaving the walls thicker on seaside. These were cases where an attack with a cannon from the landside was thought very unlikely. Entry was by ladder to a door about from the base above which was a machicolated (slotted) platform which allowed for downward fire on attackers. The flat roof or "terreplein" had a high parapet and a raised platform in the centre with a pivot (sometimes a converted cannon) for a cannon that would traverse a 360° arc. (Some towers were designed to carry more than one gun, with each having a more limited arc of fire.) The walls had narrow slits for defensive musket fire.


title: Martello tower

text: The interior of a classic British Martello tower consisted of two storeys (sometimes with an additional basement). The ground floor served as the magazine and storerooms, where ammunition, water, stores and provisions were kept. The garrison of 24 men and one officer lived in a casemate on the first floor, which was divided into several rooms and had fireplaces built into the walls for cooking and heating. The officer and men lived in separate rooms of almost equal size. A well or cistern within the fort supplied the garrison with water. An internal drainage system linked to the roof enabled rainwater to refill the cistern.


title: Martello tower

text: During the first half of the 19th century, the British government embarked on a large-scale programme of building Martello towers to guard the British and Irish coastlines. Around 140 were built, mostly along the south coast of England. Governments in Australia, Canada, Menorca, South Africa and Sri Lanka also constructed towers. The construction of Martello towers abroad continued until as late as the 1870s but was discontinued after it became clear that they could not withstand the new generation of rifled artillery weapons.


title: Martello tower

text: The French built similar towers along their own coastline that they used as platforms for communication by optical telegraphs (using the Chappe Telegraph). The United States government also built a number of Martello towers along the east coast of the US that copied the British design with some modifications.