title: A Raisin in the Sun (1961 film)

text: Ruby Dee won the National Board of Review Award for Best Supporting Actress. Both Poitier and McNeil were nominated for Golden Globe Awards, and director Petrie received a special "Gary Cooper Award" at the 1961 Cannes Film Festival.


title: A Raisin in the Sun (1961 film)

text: Claudia McNeil received rave reviews for her performance and was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Motion Picture – Drama and the BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role.


title: Jim Kaat

text: James Lee Kaat (; born November 7, 1938) is an American former professional baseball player and television sports commentator. He played in Major League Baseball (MLB) as a left-handed pitcher for the Washington Senators / Minnesota Twins (–), Chicago White Sox (–), Philadelphia Phillies (–), New York Yankees (–), and St. Louis Cardinals (–). His 25-year playing career spanned four decades.


title: Jim Kaat

text: Kaat was an All-Star for three seasons and a Gold Glove winner for 16 seasons. He was the American League (AL) leader in shutouts (5) in 1962, and the AL leader in wins (25) and complete games (19) in 1966. In addition to his 283 career wins, he has three 20-win seasons. Kaat won 190 games with the Senators/Twins (winning all but one with the latter), second most in club history and most since the team moved to Minnesota; he also has the most Gold Glove Awards of any Twin with 12.


title: Jim Kaat

text: After a brief stint as a pitching coach for the Cincinnati Reds, he went on to become a sportscaster and for the next 22 years called games for the New York Yankees and the Minnesota Twins. Following a brief retirement in 2006, Jim Kaat was back in the broadcast booth calling Pool D for the 2009 World Baseball Classic in Puerto Rico, called games for NESN in 2009, and worked for the MLB Network from its inception in 2009 until August 2022.


title: Jim Kaat

text: Kaat was elected to the National Baseball Hall of Fame by the Golden Days Era Committee in 2021 and enshrined in 2022.


title: Jim Kaat

text: Kaat was the youngest of four children born to John and Nancy (Bosma) Kaat. He attended the schools of Zeeland, Michigan and is a 1956 graduate of Zeeland High School. During his high school years, he excelled at basketball and baseball.


title: Jim Kaat

text: Kaat attended Hope College in Holland, Michigan, and pitched for the school's Flying Dutchmen baseball team, before being signed by the Washington Senators as an amateur free agent in 1957. Kaat spent all of 1957 and 1958 in the minor leagues before breaking into the majors in 1959. After pitching in 16 games spread out over the next two seasons, Kaat became a permanent member of the pitching staff when the team moved west in 1961 to become the Minnesota Twins. On July 24, 1963 Kaat threw a complete-game shutout and hit a home run for a 5–0 Twins win over the Indians. Minnesota pitchers have only homered in the same game in which they threw a shutout three times, and Kaat did so twice; the second occurrence was on October 1, 1970.


title: Jim Kaat

text: On July 23, 1964, he gave up two home runs to Bert Campaneris, who was making his major league debut in the game. Kaat was a member of the 1965 Twins team that won the American League pennant. He started three games in the 1965 World Series against the Los Angeles Dodgers, matching up with Sandy Koufax on all three occasions, including a complete game victory in Game 2.


title: Jim Kaat

text: His best season was in 1966, when he led the league with 25 wins and 19 complete games. He finished fifth in the MVP voting and was named the American League Pitcher of the Year by "The Sporting News". The National League's Sandy Koufax won the Cy Young Award by a unanimous vote; it was the last year in which only one award was given for all of Major League Baseball. Although his 1967 season was somewhat of a let down compared to 1966 (he finished 16–13 with a 3.04 ERA), he went on a tear in September and nearly pitched the Twins to another World Series appearance — cruising to a 7–0 record with a 1.51 ERA and 65 strikeouts in 65 innings pitched. However Kaat sustained a season-ending arm injury in the third inning of the second-to-last game of the season and the Boston Red Sox swept the final two games to win the American League pennant.


title: Jim Kaat

text: In 1974, he would set a record for largest gap between 20-win seasons at eight, a mark not surpassed until David Cone broke the mark in 1998. Kaat recorded his third 20-win season in 1975, when he pitched to a 20–14 record with a 3.11 ERA. This was also the only year of his career in which he received votes for the Cy Young Award, finishing fourth. Although Kaat would pitch a few games a year out of the bullpen over the course of his career, he was primarily a starting pitcher until 1979, when he became a relief pitcher in a season which he split between the Philadelphia Phillies and New York Yankees. He had been traded with Mike Buskey from the Chicago White Sox to the Phillies for Dick Ruthven, Alan Bannister and Roy Thomas on December 10, 1975. With the St. Louis Cardinals in 1982, Kaat earned his only World Series ring, working in four games out of the bullpen in the 1982 World Series.


title: Jim Kaat

text: Kaat was an All-Star three times (1962, 1966, 1975), and won the Gold Glove Award for defensive skill a record 16 consecutive times (1962–1977). His record for career Gold Gloves by a pitcher is now second to Greg Maddux's 18. Kaat used the same baseball glove for 15 seasons.


title: Jim Kaat

text: In 1983, he became the last major league player to have played in the 1950s and the last player for the original Washington Senators to retire. Kaat is one of only 29 players in baseball history to date to have appeared in Major League games in four decades. At the time of his retirement, Kaat's 25-year career was the longest of any pitcher in major league history. He is now third all-time, behind Nolan Ryan's 27 seasons and Tommy John's 26 campaigns. Kaat also set a 20th-century record by playing during the administrations of seven U.S. Presidents – Dwight D. Eisenhower, John F. Kennedy, Lyndon B. Johnson, Richard M. Nixon, Gerald R. Ford, Jr., Jimmy Carter, and Ronald Reagan. This mark was equaled by Nolan Ryan when he retired after the 1993 season, the first year of the administration of Bill Clinton.


title: Jim Kaat

text: Upon retirement as a player, Kaat served a short stint with the Cincinnati Reds as the club's pitching coach. When Pete Rose took over in 1984 as the Reds' player/manager, he made good on a promise to Kaat, his former Philadelphia Phillies teammate, and hired the former hurler for his coaching staff. Kaat would coach part of the 1984 season and all of 1985, a year in which he guided Cincinnati rookie Tom Browning to a 20–9 record. "At least I can say I had a 20-game winner every year I coached," Kaat used to joke.


title: Jim Kaat

text: In January 2018, Jim Kaat was hired by the Minnesota Twins as a Special Assistant. Kaat's role is "to help assist Twins president Dave St. Peter in business, marketing and community initiatives".


title: Jim Kaat

text: He has written a best-selling book, "Still Pitching", and has started a sports management company, Southpaw Enterprises, Inc., solely representing pitchers. Kaat was inducted into the Minnesota Twins Hall of Fame in 2001.


title: Jim Kaat

text: In 2014, Kaat appeared for the second time as a candidate on the National Baseball Hall of Fame's Golden Era Committee election ballot for possible Hall of Fame consideration for 2015, which required 12 votes. He missed getting inducted by two votes. He was elected to the Hall of Fame in 2021, and was formally enshrined on July 24, 2022.


title: Jim Kaat

text: As was stated during the television broadcast of the seventh game of the 1965 World Series, Kaat was a broadcaster on local radio in Minnesota. He also served as an analyst for Home Team Sports during the 1981 baseball strike. Following his stint as pitching coach, he went into sports broadcasting full-time starting out as the chief baseball correspondent for "Good Morning America" from 1984–85.


title: Jim Kaat

text: His first full-time broadcasting job was with the Yankees was during the 1986 season, where he called around 100 games for WPIX. He only lasted one season as the Yankees replaced him with Billy Martin, who was between managing stints and who was purposely brought in to second-guess Lou Piniella. In between broadcasting stints for the Yankees, he spent six years (–) as an announcer for the Twins.


title: Jim Kaat

text: In 1986, Kaat was the backup announcer for NBC Sports' coverage of baseball with Phil Stone (for the April 19 Minnesota–California contest) and Jay Randolph (the July 14 Cincinnati–Atlanta contest). In 1988, he covered the College World Series and the MLB playoffs and World Series for ESPN and also served as an analyst for NBC's coverage of the 1988 Summer Olympics.


title: Jim Kaat

text: From –, Kaat served as an analyst for CBS television, teaming with Dick Stockton and then, Greg Gumbel (for whom Kaat also called the College World Series with for CBS from 1990–1993) in . Besides calling four American League Championship Series for CBS (1990–1993), Kaat served as a field reporter with Lesley Visser (1990–1992) and Andrea Joyce (1991) during the World Series. Kaat also covered three World Series Trophy presentations for CBS (1990–1992). Over the course of Game 2 of the 1992 ALCS, Kaat was stricken with a bad case of laryngitis. As a result, Johnny Bench had to come over from the CBS Radio booth and finish the game with Dick Stockton as a "relief analyst". There was talk that if Kaat's laryngitis did not get better, Don Drysdale was going to replace Kaat on TV for Game 3 while Bench would continue to work on CBS Radio. In 1993, he filled in for Lesley Visser until late August as CBS' primary field reporter after she suffered injuries in a bizarre jogging accident in New York City's Central Park.


title: Jim Kaat

text: In 1994, he was the lead analyst on "Baseball Tonight" for ESPN's coverage of Major League Baseball. In 1995, he was nominated for a New York Emmy Award for "On Camera Achievement". Also in , Kaat called the American League playoffs with Brent Musburger for ABC/The Baseball Network including the Yankees–Seattle Mariners Division Series and the American League Championship Series.


title: Jim Kaat

text: He served his second stint as an announcer for Yankees games on the MSG Network/YES Network (–), where his straight-shooting style was much in the mode of former Yankees broadcasters Tony Kubek and Bill White. In addition, he was on the team which won the "Outstanding Live Sports Coverage – Single Program" New York Emmy for covering Dwight Gooden's no-hitter on May 14, 1996 and David Wells's perfect game on May 17, 1998.


title: Jim Kaat

text: Towards the end of his second stint with the Yankees, his workload decreased. In 2006, he only broadcast 65 games. Despite his decreased workload, Kaat won another Emmy for on-air achievement in 2006.


title: Jim Kaat

text: In an on-air broadcast on September 10, , with booth partner Ken Singleton, Kaat acknowledged his plan to end his broadcasting career. His final appearance in the booth was to be a Yankee–Red Sox game on September 15, 2006 (Kaat was also set to throw out the first pitch). However, the game was postponed due to rain. Kaat later announced that he was going to record a special farewell message to the fans, but would not return for any additional broadcasts. However, the following day, Kaat did announce one full inning of the first game of Saturday September 16's doubleheader on Fox along with Tim McCarver and Josh Lewin. During that Fox telecast he was able to say goodbye to the Yankee fans, an opportunity that the previous night's rainout had deprived him of doing on the YES Network.


title: Jim Kaat

text: After his retirement from calling Yankees games full-time, Kaat has made several single-game appearances on various networks. Kaat made a special one-inning appearance, during the third inning, on the YES Network on June 30, 2008 during a Yankees–Rangers game. He also appeared live via telephone, during a Yankees–Blue Jays game on July 13, 2008, to discuss the recent death of Bobby Murcer. He joined the "TBS Sunday Baseball" team, for a single game on May 4, .


title: Jim Kaat

text: In , Kaat joined the recently launched MLB Network as a color commentator for their "MLB Network Showcase" series. Kaat also writes a weekly on-line blog for the Yankees (YES) Network, Kaat's Korner, and contributes video blogs and interviews regularly with national and international media outlets. One of the reasons he got back into regular broadcasting was because after his wife died, Tim McCarver and Elizabeth Schumacher, his friend and business manager, urged him to get back into the game. He also called Pool D in Puerto Rico for the 2009 World Baseball Classic games for an international feed.


title: Jim Kaat

text: Kaat broadcast the 2021 American League Division Series between the White Sox and Astros for MLB Network. During Game 2, he attempted to make a joke, saying that the team should "get a 40-acre field full of them" in reference to White Sox third baseman Yoán Moncada, who is Cuban. The comment evoked an unfulfilled promise during the Reconstruction era of 40 acres and a mule to freed slaves. Kaat apologized later in the broadcast for his "insensitive, hurtful remark". On June 2, 2022, Kaat again made headlines when he referred to New York Yankees pitcher Nestor Cortés Jr. as "Nestor the Molester" during a broadcast. The next day, Cortés tweeted about Kaat, "He reached out to me and apologized for his remark last night, but he didn't need to. We all make mistakes and feel 100% there was no malice intended."


title: Jim Kaat

text: After a four decade broadcasting career, Kaat announced his retirement on August 18, 2022 effective after that day's Yankees-Blue Jays game.


title: Jim Kaat

text: Kaat's marriages to his first wife, Julie, and his second wife, Linda, ended in divorce. His third wife, MaryAnn, died in July 2008 after 22 years of marriage. Kaat created a memorial fund in her name to put lights on the baseball fields in his hometown of Zeeland, Michigan, in her honor. Kaat and MaryAnn have four children and six grandchildren. Kaat married his fourth wife, Margie, in 2009.


title: Joe McGann

text: Joseph McGann (born 24 July 1958) is an English actor. His roles include the lead role of Charlie Burrows, the "housekeeper" in the TV comedy series "The Upper Hand" (1990–1996), "Night and Day" and his voice role as Sir Gideon Ofnir in the video game "Elden Ring" (2022)


title: Joe McGann

text: McGann was born in Kensington, Liverpool to a metallurgist father also named Joe, and a teacher mother named Clare.


title: Joe McGann

text: His three younger brothers – Paul, Mark and Stephen – are also actors. He also has a younger sister named Clare after their mother. Together with Stephen and Mark, he starred in "Tom, Dick and Harry", a play by Ray and Michael Cooney at the Duke of York's Theatre, in 1995. That same year, all four brothers starred in the BBC drama "The Hanging Gale".


title: Joe McGann

text: In 1989, he portrayed Lord Glozelle in the BBC version of "Prince Caspian". The following year, he started playing the role of Charlie Burrows in the long-running ITV sitcom The Upper Hand, alongside Diana Weston and Honor Blackman. During this period, he also appeared in All Creatures Great and Small and "Dangerfield (TV series)".


title: Joe McGann

text: In 1992, he voiced "Masklin" in the TV adaptation of "Truckers", the first of Terry Pratchett's three books in "The Nome Trilogy". He featured as Grimes at the Chichester Festival Theatre in the 2003 stage musical adaptation (by Jason Carr and Gary Yershon) of the novel "The Water Babies".


title: Joe McGann

text: On 16 December 2007, he played one of the three Magi in BBC Three's "Nativity"; a live performance of the Bible story of Jesus's birth, set in modern-day Liverpool. His main solo song was "Lady Madonna", singing to the newly-born Jesus who is lying in a shopping trolley in a pub garage.


title: Joe McGann

text: McGann appeared on tour with "Fiddler on the Roof" playing the paterfamilias, Tevye, in 2008 but left the show 2 months before the tour ended due to an arm injury sustained on stage. In 2009, he appeared on BBC's "Celebrity MasterChef" alongside Linda Barker and Ninia Benjamin and dropped out in the semi-finals. In May-June 2009, he appeared as Richard in "Lost Monsters" by Laurence Wilson at Liverpool's Everyman Theatre. As of 2011, he can be seen occasionally guest presenting STV's daily magazine show, The Hour, alongside regular host Michelle McManus.


title: Joe McGann

text: In 2012, he was cast as Ray Say in a UK touring production of The Rise and Fall of Little Voice. However he dropped out of the tour midway through with understudy Phil Andrews taking over his role for the remainder of the tour. In October 2015, he joined the cast of , playing the role of Walter Hobbs at the Dominion Theatre.


title: Joe McGann

text: It was announced in 2019 that McGann had joined the cast of "Hollyoaks" as Edward Hutchinson, the father of established character Tony Hutchinson (Nick Pickard). In December 2020, it was announced that McGann had filmed his final scenes on the soap, which aired later that month.


title: Randy Cunningham: 9th Grade Ninja

text: Randy Cunningham: 9th Grade Ninja is an animated television series created by Jed Elinoff and Scott Thomas for Disney XD. It was produced by Titmouse, Inc. and Boulder Media Limited for Disney's London-based content hub. Many of the character designs were supplied by Jhonen Vasquez, the creator of "Invader Zim". The first episode premiered on Disney XD on August 13, 2012, and the final episode premiered on July 27, 2015. Voice direction for the series was done by Ginny McSwain. Shaun Cashman was the supervising director.


title: Randy Cunningham: 9th Grade Ninja

text: A town called Norrisville has been protected by a ninja for 800 years, but what the citizens of Norrisville do not know is that a new ninja is selected every four years. Randy Cunningham, the ninth grade teenager, is the next ninja. Now, Randy must protect Norrisville from the evil plans of the Sorcerer, his ally Hannibal McFist, and Hannibal's assistant Willem Viceroy.


title: Randy Cunningham: 9th Grade Ninja

text: A preview of "Randy Cunningham: 9th Grade Ninja" aired on Disney XD August 13, 2012. The official premiere was on September 17, 2012. Disney XD (Canada) premiered the series on September 29, 2012. The series premiered on October 4, 2012, on Disney XD (UK & Ireland). It premiered in Australia on December 10, 2012, on Disney Channel and on April 10, 2014, on Disney XD.


title: 2019 AFL draft

text: The 2019 AFL draft consists of the various periods where the 18 clubs in the Australian Football League (AFL) can trade and recruit players following the completion of the 2019 AFL season.


title: 2019 AFL draft

text: The first mid-season draft since 1993 was held after Round 10 of the 2019 AFL season on 27 May. The draft was only open to clubs with inactive players on their list and vacancies available, such as long term injuries or retirements. Players recruited during the mid-season draft earned a contract for the remainder of the season, though had the option of negotiating terms for an extension at any period throughout the season.


title: 2019 AFL draft

text: Since 2015, clubs have been able to trade future picks in the next year's national draft during the trade period. As a result, a total of 34 selections for the 2019 draft were traded during the 2018 trade period, including (for the first time) at the 2018 National Draft, where 14 picks were traded. The selection order for each of these picks is tied to the original club's finishing position in the 2019 season.


title: 2019 AFL draft

text: Due to poor on-field results and issues with player retention, prior to the draft, the AFL announced a "rescue package" for which included:


title: 2019 AFL draft

text: Clubs were able to promote any player who was listed on their rookie list in 2019 to their 2020 primary playing list prior to the draft.


title: 2019 AFL draft

text: The 2020 pre-season draft was held on the morning of Friday, 29 November 2019 prior to the commencement of the rookie draft.


title: Languages of Zimbabwe

text: Many languages are spoken, or historically have been spoken, in Zimbabwe. Since the adoption of its 2013 Constitution, Zimbabwe has 16 official languages, namely Chibarwe, English, Kalanga, Koisan, Nambya, Ndau, Ndebele, Shangani, Shona, sign language, Sotho, Tonga, Tswana, Venda, Xhosa, Chewa. The country's main languages are Shona, spoken by over 70% of the population, and Ndebele, spoken by roughly 20%. English is the country's lingua franca, used in government and business and as the main medium of instruction in schools. English is the first language of most white Zimbabweans, and is the second language of a majority of black Zimbabweans. Historically, a minority of white Zimbabweans spoke Afrikaans, Greek, Italian, Polish, and Portuguese, among other languages, while Gujarati and Hindi could be found amongst the country's Indian population. Deaf Zimbabweans commonly use one of several varieties of Zimbabwean Sign Language, with some using American Sign Language. Zimbabwean language data is based on estimates, as Zimbabwe has never conducted a census that enumerated people by language.


title: Languages of Zimbabwe

text: Since the adoption of the 2013 Constitution, Zimbabwe has 16 official languages, namely Chibarwe, English, Kalanga, Koisan, Nambya, Ndau, Ndebele, Shangani, Shona, sign language, Sotho, Tonga, Tswana,Chewa, Venda, and Xhosa. Zimbabwe holds the Guinness World Record for the country with the largest number of official languages.


title: Languages of Zimbabwe

text: Prior to independence in 1980, English had been the official language of Zimbabwe's antecedents since the arrival of white rule in the region. During the Company-rule period in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, English was established as Rhodesia's official language by the British South Africa Company. In a 1918 letter written in response to an Afrikaner settler who complained about the Rhodesian policy of not allowing the teaching of Afrikaans in schools, the secretary to the Administrator of Southern Rhodesia wrote that "the official language of Southern Rhodesia has ever since the occupation of the country been English and ... no provision exists in the legislation of the territory for the recognition of a second official language."


title: Languages of Zimbabwe

text: English remained the official language when Southern Rhodesia was established as a self-governing Crown colony in 1923. During the UDI period from 1965 to 1979, English was retained as the official language of the unrecognised state of Rhodesia. Rhodesia's successor, the short-lived unrecognized state of Zimbabwe Rhodesia, designated English the "only official language" of the country. Zimbabwe Rhodesia was succeeded by Zimbabwe in 1980. Zimbabwe's original constitution, drafted in 1979 at the Lancaster House Agreement, did not name any official languages. By the time the new 2013 constitution was being drafted, English, Shona, and Ndebele had become the country's official languages. The Constitution requires that Zimbabwe equally promote each of its official languages, including in schools and in government.


title: Languages of Zimbabwe

text: Shona is a Bantu language spoken by roughly 87% of Zimbabweans and is one of Zimbabwe's official languages. It is the traditional language of Zimbabwe's Shona people, who live in Zimbabwe's central and eastern provinces. Shona has a number of dialects, including Karanga, Korekore, Manyika, Ndau, and Zezuru. Standard Shona is derived from the Central Shona dialects, especially Karanga and Zezuru. According to Ethnologue, Shona is spoken by roughly 9.8 million people, making it the most widely spoken Bantu language of Zimbabwe. The Manyika and Ndau dialects are listed separately by Ethnologue and are spoken by around 1 million and 2.4 million people, respectively. When Manyika and Ndau are added to the total, Shona is spoken by over 14 million people. There are over 80,000 Shona speakers in Botswana. They are found mainly in the villages of Mmandunyane,Tonota, Francistown, Selibe Phikwe, Gaborone, and other towns and villages in Botswana although Shona is not an official language in Botswana.


title: Languages of Zimbabwe

text: The Northern Ndebele language, also known simply as Ndebele, is an Nguni Bantu language spoken by the Northern Ndebele people of Zimbabwe's Matabeleland region. The Ndebele language is closely related to the Zulu language of South Africa, and developed in Zimbabwe in the 19th century when Zulus migrated to what is now Zimbabwe from the Zulu Kingdom in 1839. Today, Ndebele is spoken by roughly about 13% of the population and is one of Zimbabwe's official languages.


title: Languages of Zimbabwe

text: There is a small number of Ndebele speakers in the northeastern part of Botswana bordering Zimbabwe. Ndebele, however, is not an official language in Botswana.


title: Languages of Zimbabwe

text: Chewa is a Bantu language spoken in northeastern Zimbabwe. According to some estimates, it is the third-most widely spoken indigenous language in the country, after Shona and Ndebele." Chewa is one of Zimbabwe's official languages.


title: Languages of Zimbabwe

text: Chibarwe, also known as Sena, is a Bantu language, mainly found in Malawi and Mozambique, with a small number of speakers in Zimbabwe. Chibarwe is one of Zimbabwe's official languages.


title: Languages of Zimbabwe

text: Kalanga is a Bantu language spoken by the Kalanga people of northwestern Zimbabwe. It is spoken by over 300,000 people, and is one of Zimbabwe's official languages.


title: Languages of Zimbabwe

text: Kalanga is spoken by over 300,000 people in Botswana. The language is however not an official one. Kalanga is predominantly in the North Eastern part of Botswana.


title: Languages of Zimbabwe

text: Kunda is a Bantu language spoken in eastern Zimbabwe, in the Mashonaland Central and Mashonaland West provinces. It was spoken by 145,000 people in Zimbabwe in 2000.


title: Languages of Zimbabwe

text: Lozi, a Bantu language spoken primarily in southwestern Zambia, is spoken by roughly 70,000 Zimbabweans. There are over 30,000 Lozi/Rotsi speakers in Botswana. They are found mainly in Chobe district which comprises Kazungula, Kasane and surrounding small settlements bordering Zimbabwe, Namibia and Zambia. Lozi is, however, not an official language in Botswana.


title: Languages of Zimbabwe

text: Manyika is in practice a dialect of Shona and is considered by all Zimbabweans to be Shona, though it is officially listed as a separate language for unknown reasons. It is spoken by the Manyika tribe of Zimbabwe's easternmost province, Manicaland, as well as in Mashonaland East Province. In 2000, it had an estimated 861,000 speakers in Zimbabwe.


title: Languages of Zimbabwe

text: Nambya is a Bantu language spoken by the Nambya people of northwestern Zimbabwe, particularly in the town of Hwange. It is closely related to the Kalanga language. It is spoken by nearly 100,000 people, and is one of Zimbabwe's official languages.


title: Languages of Zimbabwe

text: Ndau is a Bantu language, often considered a dialect of Shona, that is spoken by around 2.4 million people in southeastern Zimbabwe and central Mozambique. It is one of Zimbabwe's official languages.


title: Languages of Zimbabwe

text: Shangani, also known as Tsonga, is a Bantu language spoken in southeastern Zimbabwe, as well as in Eswatini, Mozambique, and South Africa. It is one of Zimbabwe's official languages.


title: Languages of Zimbabwe

text: Sotho, also known as Sesotho, is a Bantu language primarily spoken in South Africa and Lesotho, with a small number of speakers in Zimbabwe. It is one of Zimbabwe's official languages. There is a small number of BaSotho in Botswana at a village called Tlhareseleele, however it is not an official language in Botswana


title: Languages of Zimbabwe

text: Tjwao (formerly Tshwao) is an endangered Khoe language spoken by fewer than 20 people in the Tsholotsho District of Zimbabwe, all over 60 years of age. A slightly larger group of 100 have passive or partial knowledge of the language.


title: Languages of Zimbabwe

text: Tonga, also known as Zambezi, is a Bantu language spoken by 1.5 million people in southern Zambia and northern Zimbabwe. It is primarily spoken by the Tonga people and is a second language for some Zimbabweans. Tonga is one of Zimbabwe's official languages.


title: Languages of Zimbabwe

text: Tswa ("Xitswa") is a South-Eastern Bantu language in Southern Mozambique. Its closest relatives are Ronga and Tsonga, the three forming the Tswa–Ronga family of languages.


title: Languages of Zimbabwe

text: Venda is a Bantu language that is one of Zimbabwe's official languages. It is spoken in the northern part of South Africa around Mesina whereas in Zimbabwe, it's common in the southern area of the Limpopo river.


title: Languages of Zimbabwe

text: Xhosa is an Nguni Bantu language, most commonly found in South Africa, spoken by around 200,000 Zimbabweans, a little over 1% of the population. Xhosa is one of Zimbabwe's official languages. "Ishe Komborera Africa", the former Zimbabwean national anthem, was based on a Xhosa hymn. A small population of Xhosa is found in Botswana at a village called Bikwe and at Xhosa ward in Mahalapye village. Xhosa is not an official language in Botswana.


title: Languages of Zimbabwe

text: Afrikaans is spoken by a small minority of white Zimbabweans, the number of whom has declined significantly since 1980. Afrikaans speakers in Zimbabwe are typically Afrikaner immigrants from South Africa or their descendants. Afrikaners first arrived in what would become Southern Rhodesia in the early 1890s, recruited to be among the first pioneers by Cecil Rhodes, who sought to bring their agricultural expertise for the new region. They spread throughout the country, taking up farming and cattle ranching. Afrikaners settled in rural areas outside towns and cities, so they could sell their agricultural products. Bulawayo, Enkeldoorn, Umtali, Salisbury, and particularly, Melsetter, became Afrikaner population centers.


title: Languages of Zimbabwe

text: Afrikaner children, especially in rural areas, were initially educated in Afrikaans. However, following the Second Boer War, British colonial authorities increasingly demanded that Afrikaner schools teach in English. Despite Afrikaner complaints, the British South Africa Company, which governed the territory until 1923, would not budge. In a letter written in response to protesting Afrikaners, the secretary to the administrator of Southern Rhodesia wrote: "... the laws of the country make no provision for Dutch teaching, and even recently the Administrator has publicly stated that there is no prospect of change in the said laws." L. M. Foggin, the colonial director of education, warned in an official report: "I am convinced that if the concession of mother-tongue instruction were allowed in the schools of Rhodesia, it would result at once in Dutch districts in the teaching to the children of characteristic anti-British and anti-Imperial principles of the Nationalist party."


title: Languages of Zimbabwe

text: In spite of this issue, Afrikaners assimilated fairly well into the larger English-speaking white population, and were generally seen as loyal to the Southern Rhodesian government. Afrikaners preserved their language and culture through their own institutions. Dutch Reformed churches commonly conducted Afrikaans services in the morning, followed by services in English and indigenous African languages in the afternoon. An Afrikaans-language school, Bothashof, was established in 1911 in Bulawayo. An Afrikaner organisation, the Afrikaans Cultural Union of Rhodesia (AKUR), was established in 1934, and sought to preserve Afrikaner culture in Rhodesia, particularly through creating an Afrikaans press and by promoting the Afrikaans language in schools. A printing press was acquired, and AKUR began publishing Afrikaans daily newspapers and magazines, including "Zambesi Ringsblad", "Kern", "Die Rhodesiër", and "Die Volksgenoot".


title: Languages of Zimbabwe

text: Tension over language and cultural differences between Afrikaners and the English continued to exist, coming to a head in 1944, when the so-called "Enkeldoorn incident", in which an Afrikaner boy killed an English boy at the Enkeldoorn School, made headlines. A commission investigating the incident found that the incident was motivated by language and cultural tensions, which at the time were inflamed by World War II, as many English suspected Afrikaners of having German sympathies. Nevertheless, the Afrikaner population in Rhodesia continued to grow and more Afrikaner organisations were established, including the Afrikaner Youth in 1947) and the Association of Rhodesian Afrikaners (GRA) in 1965. The GRA soon became the preeminent Afrikaner organisation in the country, organising Afrikaner cultural activities and lobbying for greater Afrikaans language rights, particularly in schools.


title: Languages of Zimbabwe

text: By the late 1960s, the Afrikaner population in Rhodesia had grown to 25,000. After the mid 1960s, Afrikaners began to enter Rhodesian politics. Notable Afrikaner politicians during this period included several cabinet ministers: Rowan Cronjé, P. K. van der Byl, and Phillip van Heerden. Though the Rhodesian government under premier Ian Smith was on better terms with Afrikaners than previous governments, the issue of education remained. Bothashof, which had relocated to Salisbury in 1946, remained the country's only Afrikaans-medium school. In 1971, the Association of Rhodesian Afrikaners made an urgent call to the government, demanding that they open more Afrikaans-language schools, but the government ignored them. The Afrikaner population in Rhodesia peaked at 35,000 in 1975, and began declining thereafter. As Afrikaners emigrated to South Africa, Afrikaner organisations saw decline; the GRA gradually became less active. In 1977, the Rhodesian Afrikaner Action Circle (RAAK) was established in Bulawayo, and soon became the main Afrikaner organisation in the country. "Kern" and "Die Rhodesiër", the two major Afrikaans newspapers in Rhodesia, were edited by RAAK members.


title: Languages of Zimbabwe

text: After Zimbabwe's independence in 1980, much of the country's Afrikaner population emigrated, most to South Africa. The GRA was disestablished in the early 1980s. A new Afrikaner organisation, the Afrikaner Community of Zimbabwe, was founded in April 1981 in Harare. Bothashof, the country's Afrikaans-medium school, saw its enrollment drop from 450 in 1980 to 160 in 1982. The school closed and reopened the next year as a multiracial, English-language school with an English headmaster, marking an end to Afrikaans education in Zimbabwe. By 1984, just 15,000 Afrikaners remained in Zimbabwe, a nearly 60% decline from ten years earlier.


title: Languages of Zimbabwe

text: Chinese people in Zimbabwe are a small community that grew in size in the 2000s as an influx of Chinese shopkeepers settled in the country. it is estimated there are roughly around 10000 Chinese people living in the country. Making it a sizable community.


title: Languages of Zimbabwe

text: A wave of Dutch-speaking immigrants from the Netherlands moved to Southern Rhodesia in the 1950s. Many of them remained in Rhodesia after 1965, when the colony unilaterally declared independence under a white minority government, as well as after Zimbabwe's independence in 1980. Many of them lost their farms during the country's land reform program in the early 2000s, with some leaving the country and others remaining.


title: Languages of Zimbabwe

text: German is spoken by a small minority of white Zimbabweans. The language first arrived in Southern Rhodesia during World War II, when the British set up five camps in the colony to hold thousands of Axis prisoners of war and internees, mainly Italians and Germans. Two of these camps, which opened in 1939–40 outside Salisbury, accommodated roughly 800 German inmates, who were former residents of Tanganyika. These prisoners were repatriated after war.


title: Languages of Zimbabwe

text: By the 1970s, a number of West German missionaries were present in Rhodesia. In 1978, the year two German missionaries were killed amidst the Rhodesian Bush War, it was reported that 30 German Jesuits were active in the country. In the years after Zimbabwe's independence in 1980, a number of German nationals took up farming in Zimbabwe. They were among those whose farms were confiscated during the land reform program in the early 2000s, and left the country.


title: Languages of Zimbabwe

text: The Greeks in Zimbabwe comprise about 3,000 people of Greek origin, almost half of them from the island of Cyprus. Zimbabwe currently hosts eleven Greek Orthodox churches and fifteen Greek associations and humanitarian organizations.


title: Languages of Zimbabwe

text: Gujarati is the traditional language of the majority of Zimbabwe's Indian population, many of whom are descended from immigrants from Gujarat. The Indian presence in what is now Zimbabwe dates back to 1890, when Indian plantation workers emigrated from South Africa into Southern Rhodesia. Indian immigration was restricted in 1924 when Southern Rhodesia attained self-government, but the Indian community still grew. Many Indian Zimbabweans left the country following the country's economic downturn that began around 2000. As of October 2016, an estimated 9,000 Zimbabwean citizens were of Indian origin, mostly Gujarati. An additional 500 Indian citizens were residents in Zimbabwe at that time. as there was racial segregation during the colonial period, Asians and Coloured people we allowed to intermarry resulting in many coloured people being also descendant of Gujarati and Hindi ethnic groups as well as to some extent afro-Asian descendants.


title: Languages of Zimbabwe

text: Hindi is the traditional language of a minority of Zimbabwe's Indian population, most of whom are of Gujarati, rather than Hindustani, origin. The Indian presence in what is now Zimbabwe dates back to 1890, when Indian plantation workers emigrated from South Africa into Southern Rhodesia. Indian immigration was restricted in 1924 when Southern Rhodesia attained self-government, but the Indian community still grew. Many Indian Zimbabweans left the country following the country's economic downturn that began around 2000. As of October 2016, an estimated 9,000 Zimbabwean citizens were of Indian origin (it is unclear how many of these, if any, are Hindi speakers. An additional 500 Indian citizens were residents in Zimbabwe at that time.


title: Languages of Zimbabwe

text: Italian is spoken by a small minority of white Zimbabweans. The language first arrived in Southern Rhodesia during World War II, when the British set up five camps in the colony to hold thousands of Axis prisoners of war and internees. Three of these camps, set up in 1941–42 in Gatooma, Umvuma, and Fort Victoria, accommodated roughly 5,000 Italians, mostly from Somaliland and Ethiopia. After Italy's surrender in September 1943, the British began repatriating Italian internees and POWs, sending them to Port Elizabeth, South Africa, where they were taken home by ship. Other Italians were not sent home, but were simply let out of the camps, and some of these chose to remain in Southern Rhodesia. Italian prisoners of War were also used in construction of the Castle next to the Leopard Rock Hotel in the 1920s.By the early 2000s, there was still a sizable Italian population in Zimbabwe.


title: Languages of Zimbabwe

text: Polish is spoken by a small minority of white Zimbabweans. The language first arrived in Southern Rhodesia during World War II, when the colony hosted nearly 7,000 refugees from Poland. Polish refugees were housed at dedicated settlements set up at Marandellas and Rusape, two towns about apart to the south-east of Salisbury, from 1943. The Polish settlements in Southern Rhodesia were run jointly by local authorities and the Polish consulate in Salisbury; the Polish government-in-exile in London provided funding. Polish-language schools and churches were built for the refugees. After the Polish government-in-exile discontinued its operations and closed its consulate in 1944, the Polish refugees were increasingly viewed as a burden by the Southern Rhodesian government. A few began being sent home in May 1944, and transport back to Europe picked up sharply as the war came to a close, with less than 2,000 Polish refugees remaining by October 1945.


title: Languages of Zimbabwe

text: Colonial officials were reluctant to let the remaining Poles stay in Southern Rhodesia indefinitely, asserting that they were not culturally British enough and might have communist connections or sympathies. Additionally, the Poles were seen as lacking the skills and education that would allow them to compete against blacks in a free market. Despite these concerns, most of the Poles who remained showed little inclination to leave. By 1947, when the Rhodesian government offered repatriation to the remaining 1,282 Poles in the colony, only two women agreed. Despite pressure from the British government and the United Nations Refugee Programme, the Rhodesian government agreed to accept only 726 Poles as permanent residents, the bare minimum to meet the 10% per nationality required by international law.


title: Languages of Zimbabwe

text: Chilapalapa, also known as Fanagalo, was a pidgin language used as a lingua franca between whites, Asians, and blacks during the colonial period. Like its South African cousin Fanagalo, it was primarily spoken in the mining sector, on white-owned farms, and in larger settlements. According to one source, 60% of Chilapalapa vocabulary is of Ndebele origin, 20% from English, 10% from Shona, 5% from Afrikaans, and 5% from Chewa. Other sources describes the language as having primarily Shona influence rather than Ndebele.


title: Languages of Zimbabwe

text: Fanagalo originated in the 19th century in South Africa, and Chilapalapa, which is closely related, developed as whites began settling in Southern Rhodesia. As the majority of blacks at that time lacked education and the ability to speak English, Chilapalapa became a common lingua franca used by whites and Asians to communicate with blacks, and vice versa, usually in the context of work environment. Blacks who spoke Chilapalapa generally lacked formal education and often did not speak English. Additionally, whites often demanded that blacks speak to them in Chilapalapa, not wanting to speak with them in English as it might imply an equal status among the races. Because it was often used demeaningly by whites, blacks often associated Chilapalapa with racism and colonialism. In contrast, whites viewed Chilapalapa more positively, even celebrating it as a unique facet of Rhodesian culture. The Rhodesian folk singer John Edmond recorded "The Chilapalapa Song", and newsreader and comedian Wrex Tarr routinely used Chilapalapa in his performances.


title: Languages of Zimbabwe

text: Though Chilapalapa was a widespread second language in Rhodesia, with several hundred thousand speakers in 1975, it was never commonly spoken outside work environments. It was used in towns, and in the farming and mining sectors, and was especially common in the Mashonaland region, but was never taught in schools or used in any official contexts. Written Chilapalapa literature was rare. Because of its lack of use in schools and formal contexts and due to its negative association with colonialism, use of Chilapalapa virtually disappeared after Zimbabwe's independence after 1980. Today, Chilapalapa is heard only occasionally being spoken between older white and blacks.


title: Languages of Zimbabwe

text: A 2018 survey of white farm owners, Asian store owners, and young black teachers born after independence found wide disparities in knowledge of and attitudes toward Chilapalapa. Among those surveyed who grew up before independence, all were proficient in Chilapalapa. Among those born after independence, none could speak Chilapalapa, though most had heard of it. Attitudes towards the language differed, largely across racial lines. Most whites and Asians surveyed saw Chilapalapa as a useful lingua franca, while blacks viewed it as a symbol of racism and colonialism.


title: Languages of Zimbabwe

text: Alongside numerous oral languages, sign languages are also used in Zimbabwe. Sign languages in Southern Rhodesia first developed independently among deaf students in different schools for the deaf beginning in the 1940s. It is unclear how many sign languages there are in Zimbabwe, and to what extent each is used, as little research has been done. The Glottolog, a language database maintained by the Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History in Germany, lists seven varieties of indigenous Zimbabwean sign language: Manicaland Sign, Mashonaland Sign, Masvingo School Sign, Matabeleland Sign, Midlands Sign, Zimbabwe Community Sign, and Zimbabwe School Sign. American Sign Language is also reportedly used, though it is not clear to what extent. "Sign language", without further specificity, became one of Zimbabwe's official languages in the 2013 Constitution.


title: Tetramorph

text: A tetramorph is a symbolic arrangement of four differing elements, or the combination of four disparate elements in one unit. The term is derived from the Greek "tetra", meaning four, and "morph", shape.


title: Tetramorph

text: In Christian art, the tetramorph is the union of the symbols of the Four Evangelists, derived from the four living creatures in the Book of Ezekiel, into a single figure or, more commonly, a group of four figures. Each of the four Evangelists is associated with one of the living creatures, usually shown with wings. The most common association, but not the original or only, is: Matthew the man, Mark the lion, Luke the ox, and John the eagle. In Christian art and iconography, Evangelist portraits are often accompanied by tetramorphs, or the symbols alone used to represent them. Evangelist portraits that depict them in their human forms are often accompanied by their symbolic creatures, and Christ in Majesty is often shown surrounded by the four symbols.


title: Tetramorph

text: The word comes from the Greek for "four forms" or "shapes". In English usage each symbol may be described as a tetramorph in the singular, and a group as "the tetramorphs", but usually only in contexts where all four are included. The tetramorphs were especially common in Early Medieval art, above all in illuminated Gospel books, but remain common in religious art to the present day.


title: Tetramorph

text: Images of unions of different elements into one symbol were originally used by the Ancient Egyptians, Assyrians, and Greeks. The image of the sphinx, found in Egypt and Babylon, depicted the body of a lion and the head of a human, while the harpies of Greek mythology showed bird-like human women.


title: Tetramorph

text: The prophet Ezekiel lived among the Jews who were exiled to Babylon in the 6th century BC. The creatures in his vision, from which the images of the tetramorph are derived, are reminiscent of ancient Assyrian art.


title: Tetramorph

text: The animals associated with the Christian tetramorph originate in the Babylonian symbols of the four fixed signs of the zodiac: the ox representing Taurus; the lion representing Leo; the eagle representing Scorpio; the man or angel representing Aquarius. In Western astrology, the four symbols are associated with the elements of, respectively Earth, Fire, Water, and Air. The creatures of the Christian tetramorph were also common in Egyptian, Greek, and Assyrian mythology. The early Christians adopted this symbolism and adapted it for the four Evangelists as the tetramorph, which first appears in Christian art in the 5th century, but whose interpretative origin stems from Irenaeus in the 2nd century.


title: Tetramorph

text: The elements of the Christian tetramorph first appear in the vision of Ezekiel, who describes the four creatures as they appear to him in a vision:


title: Tetramorph

text: The association of the four living creatures with the four evangelists originated with Irenaeus in the 2nd century. The interpretation of each creature has varied through church history. The most common interpretation, first laid out by Victorinus and adopted by Jerome, St Gregory, and the Book of Kells, is that the man is Matthew, the lion Mark, the ox Luke, and the eagle John. The creatures of the tetramorph, just like the four gospels of the Evangelists, represent four facets of Christ.


title: Tetramorph

text: It is clear from the table that various interpretive schemes have been followed through church history. The four main schemes are summarized below with their most well-known proponent and rationale. The given rationale usually has to do with how each Gospel begins, major themes in each Gospel, or the aspect of Christ emphasized in each Gospel.


title: Tetramorph

text: The man is Matthew, because his Gospel begins with the genealogy of Jesus; the lion is John, because his Gospel begins full of confidence; the ox is Luke, because his Gospel begins with priestly sacrifice; and the eagle is Mark, because his Gospel begins with the prophecy of Isaiah. Irenaeus originates this connection between the four living creatures and the four evangelists because he is looking for an answer to the question "Why four Gospels?"


title: Tetramorph

text: The rationale given for this scheme is how each Gospel narrative begins. Matthew is the man because he begins with a genealogy; Mark is the lion, roaring in the desert with prophetic power; Luke is the ox, because he begins with temple sacrifice; and John is the eagle, flying heavenwards like the divine Word. It must be said that at a certain point, once enough interpretive authorities in the church backed this scheme, many who followed simply defaulted to their authority.


title: Tetramorph

text: The lion is Matthew, because Matthew's Gospel depicts Christ royal character, he who descended from the tribe of Judah; the ox is Luke, because Christ is shown in his priestly character; the man is Mark, because of the humanity of Christ shown in that Gospel focusing on the things the man did; and the eagle is John, because the mystery of the Word ascends to heaven. Augustine departs from Jerome's scheme saying, "This latter formulation focuses only on the beginnings of the books and not on the overall plan of the evangelists, which is what should have been examined more thoroughly."


title: Tetramorph

text: The Eagle is Matthew, who presents Jesus as the King who will soon return to seek his people, Jesus Will Return; the ox is Luke, where he presents Jesus as the suffering servant who bore our sickness, Jesus Healing; The Face of Man (representing Mark) presents Jesus as the perfect man who came to save us, Jesus Saves; The Lion is John presents Jesus as the Baptizer in the Holy Spirit.


title: Tetramorph

text: The creatures of the tetramorph, as they appear in their animal forms, are predominantly shown as winged figures. The wings, an ancient symbol of divinity, represent the divinity of the Evangelists, the divine nature of Christ, and the virtues required for Christian salvation . In regards to the depiction of St Mark in particular, the use of wings distinguish him from images of St Jerome, who is also associated with the image of a lion.


title: Tetramorph

text: The perfect human body of Christ was originally represented as a winged man, and was later adapted for St Matthew in order to symbolise Christ's humanity. In the context of the tetramorphs, the winged man indicates Christ's humanity and reason, as well as Matthew's account of the Incarnation of Christ. The lion of St Mark represents courage, resurrection, and royalty, coinciding with the theme of Christ as king in Mark's gospel. It is also interpreted as the Lion of Judah as a reference to Christ's royal lineage. The ox, or bull, is an ancient Christian symbol of redemption and life through sacrifice, signifying Luke's records of Christ as a priest and his ultimate sacrifice for the future of humanity. The eagle represents the sky, heavens, and the human spirit, paralleling the divine nature of Christ.


title: Tetramorph

text: In their earliest appearances, the Evangelists were depicted in their human forms each with a scroll or a book to represent the Gospels. By the 5th century, images of the Evangelists evolved into their respective tetramorphs. By the later Middle Ages, the tetramorph in the form of creatures was used less frequently. Instead, the Evangelists were often shown in their human forms accompanied by their symbolic creatures, or as men with the heads of animals.


title: Tetramorph

text: In images where the creatures surround Christ, the winged man and the eagle are often depicted at Christ's sides, with the lion and the ox positioned lower by his feet, with the man on Christ's right, taking precedence over the eagle, and the lion to the left of the ox. These positions reflect the medieval great chain of being.


title: Tetramorph

text: The use of the tetramorph in architecture is most common in the decoration of Christian churches. On medieval churches, the symbols of the Evangelists are usually found above westerly-facing portals and in the eastern apse, particularly surrounding the enthroned figure of Christ in Glory in scenes of the Last Judgment. This image of Christ in Glory often features Christ pantocrator in a mandorla surrounded by the creatures of the tetramorph is often found on the spherical ceiling inside the apse, typically as a mosaic or fresco. Older Roman churches, such as Santa Pudenziana and Santa Maria in Trastevere, mosaics often depict the four creatures in a straight line rather than in a circular formation.


title: Tetramorph

text: Medieval churches also feature sculptures of bas-relief symbols of the Evangelists on western facades, externally around eastern apse windows, or as large statues atop apse walls. Generally all four creatures of the tetramorph will be found together in either one image or in one structure, but it is not unheard of to have a single Evangelist dominate the imagery of the church. This is usually found in cities that bear one of the Evangelists as their patron saint. A notable example is St Mark's Basilica in Venice, where the winged lion is the city's mascot and St Mark is the city's patron saint.


title: Tetramorph

text: Most illuminated Gospel books were prefaced with Evangelist portraits, often combined on a single page. Insular manuscripts were very focused on abstract linear patterns that combined Mediterranean, Anglo-Saxon and Celtic influences, the latter mostly traceable from surviving metalwork. The artists of the period were initially more comfortable with images of animals than humans, so in early Gospel Books the Evangelists were represented as tetramorphic symbols rather than portraits. Their preferences for abstract, geometric, and stylized art led to a lot of differences in portrayals of the tetramorphs. Celtic artists would paint the creatures in a relatively realistic fashion, or their divine nature would be emphasised through the inclusion of wings or human traits, such as hands in place of talons or the animal standing upright.


title: Tetramorph

text: The Evangelists and tetramorphs were highly featured in Ottonian manuscripts as the Gospel books, pericopes, and the Apocalypse were most popular. While they imitated the Byzantine artistic style, Carolingian illuminations consciously revived the early Christian style, and was much more elaborate than Celtic or Insular art.


title: Tetramorph

text: For most illuminated manuscript portraits, the Evangelist typically occupied a full page. Though numerous examples of Late Antique portraits featured each figure in a standing position, the Evangelists were predominantly depicted in a seating position at a writing desk or with a book or scroll, both in reference to the Gospels. The symbols of the tetramorphs were most common in the Middle Ages until the Romanesque period before they fell out of favour and images of the Evangelists in their human forms became more common. However, the tetramorphs were used still used and were found in artwork of the Renaissance and even in modern art. A notable 20th century example is the massive tapestry by Graham Sutherland which hangs in Coventry Cathedral.


title: Tetramorph

text: The tetramorph of the four living creatures is depicted on the World card of many tarot decks, including the Tarot of Marseilles and the Rider-Waite tarot deck. It is also depicted in some Islamic art.


title: Madame X (2021 film)

text: Madame X is a 2021 documentary concert film starring American singer-songwriter Madonna, chronicling her Madame X Tour. Written and produced by Madonna herself, the film was shot in January 2020 when she held her concerts in Lisbon, Portugal at the Coliseu dos Recreios. The film was directed by Ricardo Gomes and SKNX (Sasha Kasiuha and Nuno Xico).


title: Madame X (2021 film)

text: The film's official premiere was held on September 23, 2021, at the Paradise Club on top of the Times Square Edition hotel in New York City. It was released on October 8, 2021, on Paramount+, and MTV in regions where Paramount+ is unavailable. An accompanying live album was released on the same day as the film. Critical response to "Madame X" film was generally positive, with many reviewers praising its visuals.


title: Madame X (2021 film)

text: The introduction features a montage of newspaper articles and shots from Madonna's music videos, showing her fight against misogyny, sexism, ageism, bigotry, racism, and promoting feminism and artistic liberation. This is done to the backdrop of Honey Dijon's remix of "I Don't Search I Find". The official show begins with a quote by James Baldwin: "Art is here to prove that all safety is an illusion... Artists are here to disturb the peace." Then, a silhouetted woman sits at a typewriter; each key press sounding like a gunshot, accompanied by a dancer jerking and flinching as if he has been shot. Madonna then appears to sing "God Control" while being bounced between two police officers’ shields. The number has cops attacking dancers under a video montage of news footage. "Dark Ballet" is performed next, with Joan of Arc references and the singer fighting dancers in gas masks reminiscent of the mice in "The Nutcracker" (1892); it counted with a ballet breakdown halfway through. Afterwards, Madonna yells "Fuck the patriarchy!" before being dragged by dancers dressed as policemen into a circular cell in the stage. This leads into a rendition of "Human Nature", as pointing fingers are projected across the stage. Towards the end, she plays a bongo solo and was surrounded by 11 black women − including her daughters Stella, Estere, and Mercy James − and chanting the phrase "I'm not your bitch!" An a capella rendition of "Express Yourself" and a brief interlude where Madonna addresses the audience follows. Madonna and her daughters make reference to the possibility of God being a woman, the MeToo and Time's Up movements. Madonna then has a costume change behind some vanity mirrors with two of her dancers dressed in trench coats, sunglasses and blowing their fans wait for her. Meanwhile, she makes comedic jokes with the crowd including Mozart's music coming out of her vagina and poking fun at her age.


title: Madame X (2021 film)

text: "Vogue" and "I Don't Search I Find" are performed with lookalike dancers dressed in blonde wigs, trench coats, shades, and high heels. Afterwards, she played guitar for "American Life" while uniforms fell down from above the stage, and dancers dressed as soldiers dragged a coffin. Madonna then wears a faux fur coat and takes selfies using a polaroid camera. Shots are shown across multiple shows whereby fans donate money for the pictures, which goes to her charity Raising Malawi. "Batuka" has 14 women of the Batukadeiras Orchestra playing the drums while Madonna sits to the side on a stairwell before eventually joining them and doing batuque moves. Following this, Isabel De Oliveira's "Fado Pechincha", and "Madame X" album tracks "Killers Who are Partying" and "Crazy" – the last one was played with an accordion. A cha-cha-chá mashup of "La Isla Bonita" and a new song called "Welcome to My Fado Club" is performed next, with elements of Cesária Évora's "Sodade". The next numbers were "Medellín", with Maluma appearing on the backdrop screens, and album track "Extreme Occident". Within the Medellin performance, her son David Banda joins her to form a conga line withn the theatre. Following that she interacts further with the crowd including comedian Dave Chappelle who praises Madonna for being a revolutionary. An interlude of dancers doing synchronized moves to lyrics of "Rescue Me" follows.


title: Madame X (2021 film)

text: "Frozen" sees the singer performing in the middle of a massive projection of the video of her daughter Lourdes. For "Come Alive", Madonna and the dancers wear colorful flowing robes. The film features shots from her 2018 holiday to Morocco with her family. She then plays the piano for "Future" and is joined by dancers with red lights on their eyes; the word "Warning" flashes on the stage behind her as she sings. "Like a Prayer" has her performing in front of an X-shaped staircase while surrounded by a choir and the song's music video projected on the stage. The final number, "I Rise", begins with elements from her speech from the 2019 GLAAD awards, and the video interlude shows news footage of protests and marches, from her 2019 music video for the song with Times magazine. Halfway through, the screen turned the colors of the Rainbow flag as Madonna and her dancers left the stage with their fists raised.


title: Madame X (2021 film)

text: Madonna released her fourteenth studio album, "Madame X", in 2019, while she was living in Lisbon, Portugal. She was inspired to write the album after frequently getting invited to "living room sessions" with local musicians playing fado, morna, and samba music. She also brought these musicians to the stage of the Madame X Tour, an all-theatre concert tour to promote the album. The tour was held in ten cities across North America and Europe, between September 17, 2019, and March 8, 2020, and earned $51.4 million in ticket sales.


title: Madame X (2021 film)

text: On January 12, 2020, Lisbon-based production service company Krypton International posted, via their official Instagram account, a picture of an "All Stage Access Pass" for the Lisbon tour evening happening that day, followed by the information that they were shooting and recording that concert. During February 2021, after months of teasing the editing process from her home, Madonna re-shot specific elements of the show for the film. On April 14, 2021, she posted on her official Facebook account that a private screening of "Madame X" had been held at a 500-seat theatre.


title: Madame X (2021 film)

text: The film was projected at three exclusive screening events, on October 8 at Le Grand Rex in Paris, on October 9 at NiteOwl Drive-In in Miami and on October 10 at TCL Chinese Theatre in Los Angeles. On October 8, Madonna appeared during "The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon" to promote the film. She made a surprise performance in Harlem singing "Dark Ballet", "Crazy", "Sodade" and "La Isla Bonita" at The Red Rooster, and later walked down the streets singing "Like a Prayer" in front of the St. Andrew's Episcopal Church along with Jon Batiste and a little choir.


title: Madame X (2021 film)

text: On October 22, 2021, Madonna uploaded a teaser on Instagram from the Q&A session from the film's premiere. The recording of the Q&A session is directed by SKNX (Sasha Kasiuha and Nuno Xico) and was released on Paramount+ on November 18, 2021. The discussion was assisted by RuPaul's Drag Race winners Symone and Aquaria. On October 28, 2021, Madonna went on to tease a list of artists who submitted a question to her including, Lil Wayne, Billie Eilish, Doja Cat, Amy Schumer, Katy Perry, Kim Kardashian, Snoop Dogg, FKA Twigs, Jeremy Scott, Lil Nas X, Ariana Grande, and Jimmy Fallon.


title: Madame X (2021 film)

text: "Madame X" received generally positive reviews from critics. On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, "Madame X" has an approval rating of 67%, based on 6 reviews from critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average rating, the film has received an average score of 62 out of 100, based on 4 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Mick LaSalle from "San Francisco Chronicle" praised the film for Madonna's ability to reimagine herself and come up with new ideas, and described it as "somewhere between a success and a triumph". Nick Levine from "NME" gave the concert film four out of five stars, stating: "Feels like an opportunity to end the experience on a positive and empowered note".


title: Madame X (2021 film)

text: Alexis Petridis of "The Guardian" gave the concert film three out of five stars describing it as a "fascinating behind-the-scenes documentary" and "beautifully shot". In his review, Petridis also asserts "the staging is impressive and wilfully arty". John DeFore from "The Hollywood Reporter" praised its visual variety, but described the setlist as "weighted toward lesser material". Writing for "USA Today", Melissa Ruggieri reported that "Madame X" "is artistically impressive but often confounding". Johnny Loftus from Decider opined that "the creative scope of Madame X is its most impressive thing" that "mixes high-concept [and] artfully constructed performance". In a negative review, Owen Gleiberman from "Variety" criticized the film's serious tone and the usage of songs from the "Madame X" album.


title: Madame X (2021 film)

text: The film was nominated for Best Long Form Video at the 2022 MTV Video Music Awards, but lost to Taylor Swift's "".


title: Madame X (2021 film)

text: Madame X: Music from the Theater Xperience is the sixth live album by Madonna, released by Warner Records on October 8, 2021, through all digital platforms, to accompany the film's release. The live album contains the audio of all performances from the film. It is Madonna's first release with Warner since "Sticky & Sweet Tour" (2010). In France, the album debuted outside the top 200, at number 212 with 516 equivalent units.


title: William Morris Agency

text: The William Morris Agency (WMA) was a Hollywood-based talent agency. It represented some of the best known 20th-century entertainers in film, television, and music. During its 109-year tenure it came to be regarded as the "first great talent agency in show business".


title: William Morris Agency

text: In April 2009, WMA announced it would merge with the Endeavor Talent Agency to form William Morris Endeavor. William Morris Endeavor was renamed Endeavor in October 2017.


title: William Morris Agency

text: In 1898, William Morris (born Zelman Moses), a German-Jewish immigrant to the US, posted a cross-hatch trademark above an office door in New York City four "X's", representing a W superimposed on an M and went into business as William Morris, Vaudeville Agent. By the time WMA formally incorporated in New York State on January 31, 1918, Morris' son William Morris Jr. and his assistant Abraham Lastfogel, who started out as an office boy and after becoming a talent agent in his own right, entered into a business partnership with Morris Sr.


title: William Morris Agency

text: As silent film grew into widely viewed entertainment, Morris encouraged his clients to experiment in the new medium. Stars such as Charlie Chaplin, Al Jolson, the Marx Brothers, and Mae West were all represented by the company.


title: William Morris Agency

text: By 1930, Morris had turned over leadership of the agency to his son and Lastfogel. In 1932, five years after his retirement, William Morris, Sr. died from heart failure. By that time, the Agency had begun the process of relocating from Hollywood and Vine to Canon Drive in Beverly Hills.


title: William Morris Agency

text: In December 1949, the William Morris Agency acquired the Berg-Allenberg Agency (founded by Phil Berg and Bert Allenberg). The senior agent in the motion picture department during the 1950s was Mike Zimring.


title: William Morris Agency

text: By 1965, WMA's Music Department was representing several clients including The Rolling Stones, Sonny & Cher, The Beach Boys, and The Byrds. In 1973, the Agency's newly established Nashville office provided another significant boost to the operations of William Morris, extending the Agency's reach into country music and beyond. In 1976, Nat Lefkowitz was named as co-chairman of the firm (he later hired his nephew, Ted Ashley who would go on to found the Ashley-Famous talent agency). In 1980, Morris Stoller was named chairman.


title: William Morris Agency

text: In the early 1980s, WMA built the William Morris Plaza located at 150 El Camino Drive, directly across the street from its main building at 151 El Camino. In 1989, WMA acquired the Jim Halsey Company.


title: William Morris Agency

text: In the early 1990s, WMA's Literary Department announced the largest book-to-screen deal ever inked when it sold the television rights for "Scarlett", the sequel to Margaret Mitchell's "Gone With the Wind". In 2000, WMA acquired The Writers Shop, which was owned by Jennifer Rudolph Walsh.


title: William Morris Agency

text: In 2003, WMA opened an office in Miami Beach, and in 2004 they opened an office in Shanghai. In 2007, the Agency expanded its London music operation, underscoring WMA's continued commitment to the international marketplace. Along with the addition of new personnel, the London office moved into the iconic Centre Point Tower.


title: William Morris Agency

text: In 2003, a seismic shift occurred in the agency landscape when WMA's SVP and Theatre topper, George Lane, and fellow agent in charge of foreign rights, Michael Cardonick, left WMA to open Creative Artists Agency's New York City office and Theatrical Department.


title: William Morris Agency

text: On April 27, 2009, WMA and the Endeavor Talent Agency announced that they were merging to form William Morris Endeavor. Endeavor executives Ari Emanuel and Patrick Whitesell were widely recognized as the architects of the deal and ultimately took the roles of WME Co-CEOs. Following the official announcement of the merger, nearly 100 WMA employees and former board members were let go. One of those leaving was Jim Wiatt, who came to WMA in 1999 from International Creative Management, where he was Vice-Chairman, in 1999. He had joined WMA as President and Co-Chief Executive Officer, and had risen to Board Chairman.


title: William Morris Agency

text: After the merger, WMA relocated its offices to the Endeavor building at 9601 Wilshire Boulevard in Beverly Hills, California.


title: William Morris Agency

text: The WMA Agent Training Program, often referred to as the "mailroom", was established in the 1940s and is well known for its roster of successful alumni. Since the 1970s the program has been replicated at other talent agencies and studios, many of which were headed by former mailroom trainees. Once accepted, trainees rotate through different departments, starting with the mailroom, before becoming a full-time assistant or coordinator.


title: William Morris Agency

text: WMA's longtime competitor, Creative Artists Agency, was founded in 1975 by Michael Ovitz, Ronald Meyer, William Haber, Michael S. Rosenfeld, and Rowland Perkins, all former WMA agent trainees. David Geffen once called the WMA Agent Training Program "The Harvard School of Show Business – only better: no grades, no exams, a small stipend and great placement opportunities." Graduates from the Training Program were perceived at a high level of prestige within the entertainment industry, because of the caliber of notable alums that have graduated from the program.


title: William Morris Agency

text: Former Chairman Norman Brokaw became the first mailboy in the Beverly Hills Mailroom at age 15. The Agent Training program still exists today at William Morris Endeavor. It was famously documented in David Rensin's 2003 book, "".


title: Armenians in the Ottoman Empire

text: Armenians in the Ottoman Empire (or Ottoman Armenians) mostly belonged to either the Armenian Apostolic Church or the Armenian Catholic Church. They were part of the Armenian millet until the Tanzimat reforms in the nineteenth century equalized all Ottoman citizens before the law. Armenians were a significant minority in the Empire. They played a crucial role in Ottoman industry and commerce, and Armenian communities existed in almost every major city of the empire. Despite their importance, Armenians were heavily persecuted by the Ottoman authorities especially from the latter half of the 19th century, culminating in the Armenian Genocide.


title: Armenians in the Ottoman Empire

text: The Ottomans introduced a number of unique approaches to governing into the traditions of Islam. Islamic culture did not separate religious and secular matters. At first, the Sultan was the highest power in the land and had control over almost everything. However, a state organization began to take a more definite shape in the first half of the sixteenth century under Suleyman I, also known as "Lawgiver". The Ottomans visualized two separate "establishments" to share state power, one responsible for governing a nation's citizens and the other its military. "The Ottomans left civic control to the civic institutions. Historians often label the Ottoman sociopolitical construct the "Ottoman System". Noteworthy, however, the term "Ottoman System" conveys a sense of structural rigidity that probably was nonexistent throughout the Ottoman period.


title: Armenians in the Ottoman Empire

text: The Armenian population's integration was partly due to the nonexistent structural rigidity throughout the initial period. Armenian people, related to the issues of their own internal affairs were administered by the civil administration. Townspeople, villagers and farmers formed a class called the flock/reaya, including Armenian reaya. Civil and judicial administration was carried out under a separate parallel system of small municipal or rural units called "kazas." The civil system was considered a check on the military system since beys, who represented executive authority on reaya, could not carry out punishment without a sentence from the religious leader of the person. Also, the Sultan was beyond the mentioned control. The Ecumenical Patriarchate was the leader of the Armenian People. This whole structure was named in the Armenian case Armenian Millet.


title: Armenians in the Ottoman Empire

text: During the Byzantine period, the Armenian Church was not allowed to operate in Constantinople, because the Greek Orthodox Church regarded the Armenian Church as heretical. With the establishment of Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople, Armenians became religious leaders, and bureaucrats under the Ottoman Empire became more influential than just their own community. The idea that two separate "establishments" shared state power gave people a chance to occupy important positions, administrative, the religious-legal, and the social-economic.


title: Armenians in the Ottoman Empire

text: Armenians occupied important posts within the Ottoman Empire, Artin Dadyan Pasha, who served as minister of foreign affairs from 1876 to 1901, is one of many examples of Armenian citizens who played a fundamental role in the sociopolitical sphere of the Ottoman Empire.


title: Armenians in the Ottoman Empire

text: Certain elite Armenian families in the Ottoman Empire gained the trust of the Sultans and were able to achieve important positions in the Ottoman government and the Ottoman economy. Even though their numbers were small compared to the whole Ottoman Armenian population, this caused some resentment among Ottoman nationalists. The life of the rest of the common Armenians was a very difficult existence because they were treated as second class citizens.


title: Armenians in the Ottoman Empire

text: Those elite Armenians that did achieve great success were individuals such as Abraham Pasha, and Gabriel Noradunkyan who became secretary of State for Foreign Affairs. The Dadian family controlled the entire munitions industry in the Ottoman Empire. Calouste Gulbenkian became one of the main advisors of the National Bank of Turkey and the Turkish Petroleum Corporation, which later became the Iraqi Oil Corporation.


title: Armenians in the Ottoman Empire

text: Historian A. Tchamkerten writes "Armenian achievements in the Empire was not only in trade, however. They were involved in almost all economic sectors and held the highest levels of responsibility. In the 19th century, various Armenian families became the Sultan's goldsmiths, Sultan's architects and took over the currency reserves and the reserves of gold and silver, including customs duty. Sixteen of the eighteen most important bankers in the Ottoman Empire were Armenian". (Calouste Sarkis Gulbenkian: The man and his work. Lisbon: Gulbenkian Foundation Press.2010) Ottoman Armenians were overrepresented in commerce. As middleman minorities, despite the wealth of some Armenians, their overall political power was low, making them especially vulnerable.


title: Armenians in the Ottoman Empire

text: After Constantinople fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453, the patriarchate came to care more directly for all the Orthodox living in the Ottoman Empire. Hovagim I was at the time the Metropolitan of Bursa. In 1461, Hovagim I was brought to Constantinople by Sultan Mehmed II and established the Armenian Patriarch of Constantinople for political reasons. Sultan Mehmed II wanted Armenian-Greek separation. Constantinople become the real center of their ecclesiastical and national life. The Armenian patriarch and not the Catholicos of Etchmiadzin, was their most important national dignitary, as part of Mehmed's wish. The largest Armenian community in the world lived in the Sultan's capital and his civil-ecclesiastical authority made the Sultan the most powerful official for Armenians in practice. Probably, before the Ottoman conquest in 1453 there had been no Armenian churches in Constantinople. After 1453, 55 Armenian churches were built in Istanbul.


title: Armenians in the Ottoman Empire

text: Until the promulgation of the Hatt-i Sherif of 1839, the patriarch and his clients, within limits, possessed penal authority over the Armenian people. At the capital the patriarch had his own jail, and maintained a small police force. His authority over his clergy being absolute, he could imprison or exile them at will; and while he was compelled to secure the consent of the Sultan to imprison or exile laymen of his community, the necessary firman was very easily obtained. The patriarchal system of government, in placing civil powers in the hands of high ecclesiastics, was an outcome of the fact that the Sultan made no distinction between church and community, and often lent the weight of its authority to maintain the integrity of the church.


title: Armenians in the Ottoman Empire

text: In villages, including those of which the population was chiefly Muslim, the Armenian quarters were settled in groups among other parts of the population. Compared to others, Armenians lived in well-built homes. The houses were arranged one above the other, so that the flat roof of the lower house serves as the front yard of the one above it. For safety, the houses were huddled together. Armenian dwellings were adapted to the extremes of temperature in the highlands of Western Armenia (renamed Eastern Anatolia in 1941). In summer the thick walls and earth-covered roofs kept the rooms cool. The natural and agricultural traditions of Armenians were similar to others, but characteristics can also be found in Xenophon, who described many aspects of Armenian village life and hospitality. He related that the people spoke a language that to his ear sounded like the language of the Persians.


title: Armenians in the Ottoman Empire

text: The Bey or elder was something of a leader for the village, and his house was typically the most luxurious dwelling in a village. It was not uncommon to have three priests for thirty-five families. Most Armenians travelled on horseback to neighbouring villages, sometimes for religious ceremonies (like the Van festival), sometimes to fetch a bride, accompanying her, with musical instruments and clapping of hands, to their own village.


title: Armenians in the Ottoman Empire

text: Armenians preserved their culture, history, and language through the course of time, largely thanks to their distinct religious identity among the neighboring Turks and Kurds. Like the Greek Orthodox and Jewish minorities of the Ottoman Empire, they constituted a distinct millet, led by the Armenian Patriarch of Constantinople. Under this system, Christians and Jews were considered religious minorities/second-class citizens; they were subjected to elevated taxation, but in return they were granted autonomy within their own religious communities and were exempted from military service. Growing religious and political influence from neighboring communities necessitated implementation of security measures that often required a longer waiting period for minorities to seek legal recourse in the courts. Under Ottoman rule, Armenians formed three distinct "millet"s: Armenian Orthodox Gregorians, Armenian Catholics, and Armenian Protestants (in the 19th century).


title: Armenians in the Ottoman Empire

text: After many centuries of Turkish rule in Anatolia and Armenia (at first by the Seljuks, then a variety of Anatolian beyliks and finally the Ottomans), the centres with a high concentration of Armenians lost their geographic continuity (parts of Van, Bitlis, and Kharput vilayets). Over the centuries, tribes of Turks and Kurds settled into Anatolia and Armenia, which was left severely depopulated by a slew of devastating events such as the Byzantine-Persian Wars, Byzantine-Arab Wars, Turkish migration, Mongol Invasions and finally the bloody campaigns of Tamerlane.


title: Armenians in the Ottoman Empire

text: In addition, there were the century-long Ottoman-Persian Wars between the rival empires, the battlegrounds of which ranged over Western Armenia (therefore large parts of the native lands of the Armenians), causing the region and its peoples to be passed between the Ottomans and Persians numerous times. The wars between the arch-rivals started from the early 16th century and lasted till well into the 19th century, having disastrous effects for the native inhabitants of these regions, including the Armenians of Western Armenia.


title: Armenians in the Ottoman Empire

text: Owing to these events, the composition of the population had undergone (ever since the second half of the medieval period) a transformation so profound that the Armenians constituted, over the whole extent of their ancient homeland, no more than a quarter of the total inhabitants. Despite this they kept and defended factual autonomy in certain isolated areas like Sassoun, Shatakh, and parts of Dersim. An Armenian stronghold and a symbol of factual Armenian autonomy, Zeitoun (Ulnia) was located between the Six Vilayets and Cilicia, which also had a strong Armenian presence ever since the creation of the Principality (and then Kingdom) of Lesser Armenia. However, the destruction of the Kingdom by the Ramadanid tribe and the subsequent rule by Muslim powers such as the Dulkadirids, the Mamluks and the Ottomans led to ever increasing numbers of Muslims in the region until finally the genocide removed the remaining vestiges of the Armenian people.


title: Armenians in the Ottoman Empire

text: There were also significant communities in parts of Trebizond and Ankara vilayets bordering Six vilayets (such as in Kayseri). After the Ottoman conquests many Armenians also moved west and settled in Anatolia, in large and prosperous Ottoman cities like Istanbul and Izmir.


title: Armenians in the Ottoman Empire

text: The remaining Ottoman Armenia, composed of the Six vilayets (Erzurum, Van, Bitlis, Diyarbekir, Kharput, and Sivas) up to World War I, under Ottoman rule, was also referred to as Western Armenia.


title: Armenians in the Ottoman Empire

text: Aside from the learned professions taught at the schools that had opened throughout the Ottoman Empire, the chief occupations were trade and commerce, industry, and agriculture. The peasants were agriculturists. In the empire, Armenians were raised to higher occupations, like Calouste Sarkis Gulbenkian was a businessman and philanthropist. He played a major role in making the petroleum reserves of the Middle East available to Western development. The Armenian Press and literature during this period established institutions that were critical; this attitude has been invaluable in reforming abuses and introducing improvements in Armenian communities. Thus their critical instinct was positive, rather than negative. Armenians organized themselves for different objects; witness their numerous societies, clubs, political parties, and other associations. Hovsep Pushman was a painter who became very famous in the Empire. During this period Armenians would establish a church, a school, a library, and a newspaper. Sargis Mubayeajian was a prolific and multifarious writer educated in Constantinople. Many of his works are still scattered in Armenian periodicals.


title: Armenians in the Ottoman Empire

text: Many Armenians, who after having emigrated to foreign countries and becoming prosperous there, returned to their native land. Alex Manoogian who became a philanthropist and active member of the Armenian General Benevolent Union was from Ottoman lands (modern Izmir), Arthur Edmund Carewe, born Trebizond, become an actor in the silent film era.


title: Armenians in the Ottoman Empire

text: Armenians occupied important posts within the Ottoman Empire, Artin Dadyan Pasha served as Minister of foreign affairs of the Ottoman Empire from 1876 to 1901 and is an example that Armenian citizens served the Ottoman Empire.


title: Armenians in the Ottoman Empire

text: The Eastern Question (normally dated to 1774) is used in European history to refer to the diplomatic and political problems posed by the decay of the Ottoman Empire during the 18th century; including instability in the territories ruled by the Ottoman Empire. The position of educated and privileged Christians within the Ottoman Empire improved in the 17th and 18th centuries, and the Ottomans increasingly recognized the missing skills which the larger Ottoman population lacked, and as the empire became more settled it began to feel its increasing backwardness in relation to the European powers. European powers on the other side, engaged in a power struggle to safeguard their militaristic, strategic and commercial interests in the Empire, this gave motivation to the powers to help people in need. The rise of nationalism under the Ottoman Empire as a direct result of enlightenment of Christian millets through education, was the dominant theme. Armenians, However, for the most part, remained passive during these years, earning them the title of "millet-i sadıka" or the "loyal millet".


title: Armenians in the Ottoman Empire

text: The Eastern Question gained even more traction by the late 1820s, due to the Greek Enlightenment and Greek War of Independence setting an example for making independence against the Ottomans, and along with several countries of the Balkans, frustrated with conditions, had, often with the help of the Powers, broken free of Ottoman rule. The Great Power Imperial Russia stood to benefit from the decline of the Ottoman Empire; on the other hand, Austria and the United Kingdom deemed the preservation of Empire to be in their best interests. The position of France changed several times over the centuries. Armenian involvement on the international stage would have to wait until the Armenian national awakening, which the Armenian Question as used in European history, became commonplace among diplomatic circles and in the popular press after the Congress of Berlin (1878). The Armenian national ideology developed long after the Greek movement. However, the factors contributing to the emergence of Armenian nationalism made the movement far more similar to that of the Greeks than those of other ethnic groups.


title: Armenians in the Ottoman Empire

text: The three major European powers: Great Britain, France and Russia (known as the Great Powers), took issue with the Empire's treatment of its Christian minorities and increasingly pressured the Ottoman government (also known as the Sublime Porte) to extend equal rights to all its citizens.


title: Armenians in the Ottoman Empire

text: Beginning in 1839, the Ottoman government implemented the Tanzimat reforms to improve the situation of minorities, although these would prove largely ineffective. In 1856, the "Hatt-ı Hümayun" promised equality for all Ottoman citizens irrespective of their ethnicity and confession, widening the scope of the 1839 "Hatt-ı Şerif" of Gülhane. The reformist period peaked with the Constitution, called the "Kanûn-ı Esâsî" (meaning "Basic Law" in Ottoman Turkish), written by members of the Young Ottomans, which was promulgated on 23 November 1876. It established freedom of belief and equality of all citizens before the law. "Firman of the Reforms" gave immense privileges to the Armenians, which formed a "governance in governance" to eliminate the aristocratic dominance of the Armenian nobles by development of the political strata in the society.


title: Armenians in the Ottoman Empire

text: In 1863, the Armenian National Constitution (Ottoman Turkish:"Nizâmnâme-i Millet-i Ermeniyân") was Ottoman Empire approved. It was a form of the "Code of Regulations" composed of 150 articles drafted by the "Armenian intelligentsia", which defined the powers of Patriarch (a position in the Ottoman Millet) and newly formed "Armenian National Assembly". Mikrtich issued a decree permitting women to have equal votes with men and asking them to take part in all elections.


title: Armenians in the Ottoman Empire

text: The Armenian National Assembly had wide-ranging functions. Muslim officials were not employed to collect taxes in Armenian villages, but the taxes in all the Armenian villages collected by Armenian tax-gatherers appointed by the Armenian National Assembly. Armenians were allowed to establish their own courts of justice for the purpose of administering justice and conducting litigation between Armenians, and for deciding all questions relating to marriage, divorce, estate, inheritance, etc., appertaining to themselves. Also Armenians were allowed the right to establish their own prisons for the incarceration of offending Armenians, and in no case should an Armenian be imprisoned in an Ottoman prison.


title: Armenians in the Ottoman Empire

text: The Armenian National Assembly also had the power to elect the Armenian Governor by a local Armenian legislative council. The councils later will be part of elections during second constitutional era. Local Armenian legislative councils were composed of six Armenians elected by the Armenian National Assembly.


title: Armenians in the Ottoman Empire

text: Beginning in 1863, education was available to all subjects, as far as funds permitted it. Such education was under the direction of lay committees. During this period in Russian Armenia, the association of the schools with the Church was close, but the same principle obtains. This became a problem for the Russian administration, which peaked during 1897 when Tsar Nicholas appointed the Armenophobic Grigory Sergeyevich Golitsin as governor of Transcaucasia, and Armenian schools, cultural associations, newspapers and libraries were closed.


title: Armenians in the Ottoman Empire

text: The Armenian charitable works, hospitals, and provident institutions were organized along the explained perspective. The Armenians, in addition to paying taxes to the State, voluntarily imposed extra burdens on themselves in order to support these philanthropic agencies. The taxes to the State did not have direct return to Armenians in such cases.


title: Armenians in the Ottoman Empire

text: The Armenian Question, as used in European history, became common place among diplomatic circles and in the popular press after the Congress of Berlin (1878); that in like Eastern Question (normally dated to 1774), refers to powers of Europe's involvement to the Armenian subjects of the Ottoman Empire beginning with the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78. However, in specific terms, the Armenian question refers to the protection and the freedoms of Armenians from their neighboring communities. The "Armenian question" explains the forty years of Armenian-Ottoman history in the context of English, German, Russian politics between 1877 and 1914.


title: Armenians in the Ottoman Empire

text: The national liberation movement of the Balkan peoples (see: national awakenings in Balkans) and the immediate involvement of the European powers in the Eastern question had a powerful effect on the hitherto suppressed national movement among the Armenians of the Ottoman Empire – on the development of a national liberation ideology. The Armenian national liberation movement was the Armenian national effort to free the historic Armenian homeland of eastern Asia Minor and Transcaucasus from Russian and Ottoman rule and re-establish the independent Armenian state. Those Armenians who did not support national liberation aspirations or who were neutral were called "chezoks".


title: Armenians in the Ottoman Empire

text: Abdul Hamid II was the 34th Sultan and oversaw a period of decline in the power and extent of the Empire, ruling from 31 August 1876 until he was deposed on 27 April 1909. He was the last Ottoman Sultan to rule with absolute power.


title: Armenians in the Ottoman Empire

text: The Bashkaleh clash was the bloody encounter between the Armenakan Party and the Ottoman Empire in May 1889. Its name comes from Başkale, a border town of Van Eyalet of the Ottoman Empire. The event was important, as it was reflected in main Armenian newspapers as the recovered documents on the Armenakans showed an extensive plot for a national movement. Ottoman officials believed that the men were members of a large revolutionary apparatus and the discussion was reflected on newspapers, (Eastern Express, Oriental Advertiser, Saadet, and Tarik) and the responses were on the Armenian papers. In some Armenian circles, this event was considered as a martyrdom and brought other armed conflicts. The Bashkaleh Resistance was on the Persian border, which the Armenakans were in communication with Armenians in the Persian Empire. The Gugunian Expedition, which followed within the couple months, was an attempt by a small group of Armenian nationalists from the Russian Armenia to launch an armed expedition across the border into the Ottoman Empire in 1890 in support of local Armenians.


title: Armenians in the Ottoman Empire

text: The Kum Kapu demonstration occurred at the Armenian quarter of Kum Kapu, the seat of the Armenian Patriarch, was spared through the prompt action of the commandant, Hassan Aga. On 27 July 1890, Harutiun Jangülian, Mihran Damadian and Hambartsum Boyajian interrupted the Armenian mass to read a manifesto and denounce the indifference of the Armenian patriarch and Armenian National Assembly. Harutiun Jangülian (member from Van) tried to assassinate the Patriarch of Istanbul. The goal was to persuade the Armenian clerics to bring their policies into alignment with the national politics. They soon forced the patriarch to join the procession heading to the Yildiz Palace to demand implementation of Article 61 of the Treaty of Berlin. It is significant that this massacre, in which 6000 Armenians are said to have perished, was not the result of a general rising of the Muslim population. The Softas took no part in it, and many Armenians found refuge in the Muslim sections of the city.


title: Armenians in the Ottoman Empire

text: The first notable battle in the Armenian resistance movement took place in Sassoun, where nationalist ideals were proliferated by Hunchak activists, such as Mihran Damadian and Hampartsoum Boyadjian. The Armenian Revolutionary Federation also played a significant role in arming the people of the region. The Armenians of Sassoun confronted the Ottoman army and Kurdish irregulars at Sassoun, succumbing to superior numbers. This was followed by Zeitun Rebellion (1895–96), which took place between 1891 and 1895, Hunchak activists toured various regions of Cilicia and Zeitun to encourage resistance, and established new branches of the Social Democrat Hunchakian Party.


title: Armenians in the Ottoman Empire

text: The 1896 Ottoman Bank takeover was perpetrated by an Armenian group armed with pistols, grenades, dynamite and hand-held bombs against the Ottoman Bank in Istanbul. The seizure of the bank lasted 14 hours, resulting in the deaths of 10 of the Armenian men and Ottoman soldiers. The Ottoman reaction to takeover saw further massacres and pogroms of the several thousand Armenians living in Constantinople and Sultan Abdul Hamid II threatening to level the entire building itself. However, intervention on part of the European diplomats in the city managed to persuade the men to give, assigning safe passage to the survivors to France. Despite the level of violence the incident had wrought, the takeover was reported positively in the European press, praising the men for their courage and the objectives they attempted to accomplish. The years between 1894 and 1896 ended, with estimates of the dead ranging from 80,000 to 300,000. The Hamidian massacres are named for Sultan Abdul Hamid II, whose efforts to reinforce the territorial integrity of the embattled Ottoman Empire resulted in the massacres.