title: Augustus Pugin

text: At the end of Pugin's life, in February 1852, Barry visited him in Ramsgate and Pugin supplied a detailed design for the iconic Palace clock tower, in 2012 dubbed the Elizabeth Tower but popularly known as Big Ben. The design is very close to earlier designs by Pugin, including an unbuilt scheme for Scarisbrick Hall, Lancashire. The tower was Pugin's last design before descending into madness. In her biography, Hill quotes Pugin as writing of what is probably his best-known building: "I never worked so hard in my life [as] for Mr Barry for tomorrow I render all the designs for finishing his bell tower & it is beautiful & I am the whole machinery of the clock." Hill writes that Barry omitted to give any credit to Pugin for his huge contribution to the design of the new Houses of Parliament. In 1867, after the deaths of both Pugin and Barry, Pugin's son Edward published a pamphlet, "Who Was the Art Architect of the Houses of Parliament, a statement of facts", in which he asserted that his father was the "true" architect of the building, and not Barry.


title: Augustus Pugin

text: Pugin was invited to Ireland by the Redmond family, initially to work in County Wexford. He arrived in Ireland in 1838 at a time of greater religious tolerance, when Catholic churches were permitted to be built. Most of his work in Ireland consisted of religious buildings. Pugin demanded the highest quality of workmanship from his craftsmen, particularly the stonemasons. His subsequent visits to the country were brief and infrequent. He was the main architect of St Aidan's Roman Catholic Cathedral for the diocese of Ferns in Enniscorthy, County Wexford. Pugin was the architect of the Russell Library at St. Patrick's College, Maynoooth, although he did not live to see its completion. Pugin did the initial design of St. Mary's Cathedral, Killarney.


title: Augustus Pugin

text: The first Catholic Bishop of New South Wales, Australia, John Bede Polding, met Pugin and was present when St Chad's Cathedral, Birmingham and St Giles' Catholic Church, Cheadle were officially opened. Although Pugin never visited Australia, Polding persuaded Pugin to design a series of churches for him. Although a number of churches do not survive, St Francis Xavier's in Berrima, New South Wales, is regarded as a fine example of a Pugin church. Polding blessed the foundation stone in February 1849, and the church was completed in 1851.


title: Augustus Pugin

text: St Stephen's Chapel, now in the cathedral grounds in Elizabeth Street, Brisbane, was built to a design of Pugin. Construction began in 1848, and the first Mass in the church was celebrated on 12 May 1850. In 1859 James Quinn was appointed Bishop of Brisbane, Brisbane becoming a diocese, and Pugin's small church became a cathedral. When the new cathedral of St Stephen was opened in 1874 the small Pugin church became a schoolroom, and later church offices and storage room. It was several times threatened with demolition before its restoration in the 1990s. In Sydney, there are several altered examples of his work, namely St Benedict's, Chippendale; St Charles Borromeo, Ryde; the former church of St Augustine of Hippo (next to the existing church), Balmain; and St Patrick's Cathedral, Parramatta, which was gutted by a fire in 1996


title: Augustus Pugin

text: According to Steve Meacham writing in the Sydney Morning Herald, Pugin's legacy in Australia is particularly of the idea of what a church should look like:


title: Augustus Pugin

text: After his death, Pugin's two sons, E. W. Pugin and Peter Paul Pugin, continued operating their father's architectural firm under the name Pugin & Pugin. Their work includes most of the "Pugin" buildings in Australia and New Zealand.


title: Augustus Pugin

text: Eastlake, writing in 1872, noted that the quality of construction in Pugin's buildings was often poor, and believed he was lacking in technical knowledge, his strength lying more in his facility as a designer of architectural detail.


title: Augustus Pugin

text: Pugin's legacy began to fade immediately after his death. This was partly due to the hostility of John Ruskin. In his appendix to "The Stones of Venice" (1851), Ruskin wrote of Pugin, "he is not a great architect but one of the smallest possible or conceivable architects". Contemporaries and admirers of Pugin, including Sir Henry Cole, protested at the viciousness of the attack and pointed out that Ruskin's idea on style had much in common with Pugin's. After Pugin's death, Ruskin "outlived and out-talked him by half a century". Sir Kenneth Clark wrote, "If Ruskin had never lived, Pugin would never have been forgotten."


title: Augustus Pugin

text: Nonetheless, Pugin's architectural ideas were carried forward by two young architects who admired him and had attended his funeral, W. E. Nesfield and Norman Shaw. George Gilbert Scott, William Butterfield and George Edmund Street were influenced by Pugin's designs, and continued to work out the implication of ideas he had sketched in his writings. In Street's office, Philip Webb met William Morris and they went on to become leading members of the English Arts and Crafts Movement. When the German critic Hermann Muthesius published his admiring and influential study of English domestic architecture, "Das englische Haus" (1904), Pugin was all but invisible, yet "it was he ... who invented the English House that Muthesius so admired".


title: Augustus Pugin

text: An armoire that he designed (crafted by frequent collaborator John Gregory Crace) is held at the Victoria and Albert Museum. It was shown at the Great Exhibition of 1851, but was not eligible for a medal, as it was shown under Crace's name and he was a judge for the Furniture Class at the exhibition.


title: Augustus Pugin

text: On 23 February 2012 the Royal Mail released a first class stamp featuring Pugin as part of its "Britons of Distinction" series. The stamp image depicts an interior view of the Palace of Westminster. Also in 2012, the BBC broadcast "God's Own Architect", an arts documentary program on his achievements hosted by Richard Taylor.


title: Augustus Pugin

text: Slightly less grand than the above are the railway cottages at Windermere railway station in Cumbria which have been loosely attributed to Pugin or a follower. Believed to date from 1849, and probably some of the first houses to be built in Windermere, the terrace of cottages was built for railway executives. One of the fireplaces is a copy of one of his in the Palace of Westminster.


title: Fitra

text: Fitra or fitrah (; ALA-LC: ) is either the state of purity and innocence in which Muslims believe all humans to be born, or the ability to choose or reject God's guidance, with which both humans and jinn are endowed. "Fitra" is an Arabic word that is usually translated as "original disposition", "natural constitution", or "innate nature of any Muslim."


title: Fitra

text: It has also been suggested that the religious meaning can be translated into the logical equivalent in philosophy, as Kant's concept of 'ought'.


title: Fitra

text: The root verb F-Ṭ-R means to split or cleave, also found in Iftar (breaking the fast), Eid al-Fitr, and in the 82nd chapter of the Quran (Surah Al-Infitar - The Splitting). Arabic lexicographers also relate it to "create". "Fatir" is usually translated as "originator" or "creator", and thus "fitra" is also considered to refer to the "state of creation".


title: Fitra

text: In surah 30 of the Quran, the word is used in the context of the following verse: "Set thy face to religion as a Hanif in the primordial nature from God upon which originated mankind there is no altering the creation of God; that is upright but most mankind know not." Seyyed Hossein Nasr links "fitra" in the Quran closely to the concept of "Hanif" (pre Islamic monotheist) and "Nabi al-Ummi" ("The Illiterate Prophet" or "The Aboriginal Prophet"), a notion also attested in older sources of Islamic tradition. If the term is understood to mean "divide", it might signify that God separates his creation into believers and unbelievers by means of the "true religion".


title: Fitra

text: In the prophetic traditions ("hadith"), the term gets new attention: “No one is born except according to intrinsic nature ["(fitra)"], but their parents make them Jews, or Christians, or Magians, just as a cow gives birth to a calf that is whole do you find it mutilated?'" The Muʿtazila argue that Islamic law is rational and given to every born child, thus "fitra" is identified with "Islam". This viewpoint was also adapted by several canonical traditions. In others however, "fitra" refers to the pre-Islamic religion, originating in Adam, before any religious obligations have been revealed. According to the Maturidi scholar ("ʿĀlim") Abu al-Layth al-Samarqandi, humans and jinn are created with "fitra", and thus obligated ("taklīf") to follow God's law.


title: Diffraction-limited system

text: The resolution of an optical imaging system a microscope, telescope, or camera can be limited by factors such as imperfections in the lenses or misalignment. However, there is a principal limit to the resolution of any optical system, due to the physics of diffraction. An optical system with resolution performance at the instrument's theoretical limit is said to be diffraction-limited.


title: Diffraction-limited system

text: The diffraction-limited angular resolution of a telescopic instrument is inversely proportional to the wavelength of the light being observed, and proportional to the diameter of its objective's entrance aperture. For telescopes with circular apertures, the size of the smallest feature in an image that is diffraction limited is the size of the Airy disk. As one decreases the size of the aperture of a telescopic lens, diffraction proportionately increases. At small apertures, such as f/22, most modern lenses are limited only by diffraction and not by aberrations or other imperfections in the construction.


title: Diffraction-limited system

text: For microscopic instruments, the diffraction-limited spatial resolution is proportional to the light wavelength, and to the numerical aperture of either the objective or the object illumination source, whichever is smaller.


title: Diffraction-limited system

text: In astronomy, a diffraction-limited observation is one that achieves the resolution of a theoretically ideal objective in the size of instrument used. However, most observations from Earth are seeing-limited due to atmospheric effects. Optical telescopes on the Earth work at a much lower resolution than the diffraction limit because of the distortion introduced by the passage of light through several kilometres of turbulent atmosphere. Advanced observatories have started using adaptive optics technology, resulting in greater image resolution for faint targets, but it is still difficult to reach the diffraction limit using adaptive optics.


title: Diffraction-limited system

text: Radio telescopes are frequently diffraction-limited, because the wavelengths they use (from millimeters to meters) are so long that the atmospheric distortion is negligible. Space-based telescopes (such as Hubble, or a number of non-optical telescopes) always work at their diffraction limit, if their design is free of optical aberration.


title: Diffraction-limited system

text: The beam from a laser with near-ideal beam propagation properties may be described as being diffraction-limited. A diffraction-limited laser beam, passed through diffraction-limited optics, will remain diffraction-limited, and will have a spatial or angular extent essentially equal to the resolution of the optics at the wavelength of the laser.


title: Diffraction-limited system

text: The observation of sub-wavelength structures with microscopes is difficult because of the Abbe diffraction limit. Ernst Abbe found in 1873 that light with wavelength formula_1, traveling in a medium with refractive index formula_2 and converging to a spot with half-angle formula_3 will have a minimum resolvable distance of


title: Diffraction-limited system

text: The portion of the denominator formula_5 is called the numerical aperture (NA) and can reach about 1.4–1.6 in modern optics, hence the Abbe limit is formula_6. Considering green light around 500 nm and a NA of 1, the Abbe limit is roughly formula_7 (0.25 μm), which is small compared to most biological cells (1 μm to 100 μm), but large compared to viruses (100 nm), proteins (10 nm) and less complex molecules (1 nm). To increase the resolution, shorter wavelengths can be used such as UV and X-ray microscopes. These techniques offer better resolution but are expensive, suffer from lack of contrast in biological samples and may damage the sample.


title: Diffraction-limited system

text: In a digital camera, diffraction effects interact with the effects of the regular pixel grid. The combined effect of the different parts of an optical system is determined by the convolution of the point spread functions (PSF). The point spread function of a diffraction limited lens is simply the Airy disk. The point spread function of the camera, otherwise called the instrument response function (IRF) can be approximated by a rectangle function, with a width equivalent to the pixel pitch. A more complete derivation of the modulation transfer function (derived from the PSF) of image sensors is given by Fliegel. Whatever the exact instrument response function, it is largely independent of the f-number of the lens. Thus at different f-numbers a camera may operate in three different regimes, as follows:


title: Diffraction-limited system

text: The spread of the diffraction-limited PSF is approximated by the diameter of the first null of the Airy disk,


title: Diffraction-limited system

text: where λ is the wavelength of the light and "N" is the f-number of the imaging optics. For f/8 and green (0.5 μm wavelength) light, d = 9.76 μm. This is similar to the pixel size for the majority of commercially available 'full frame' (43mm sensor diagonal) cameras and so these will operate in regime 3 for f-numbers around 8 (few lenses are close to diffraction limited at f-numbers smaller than 8). Cameras with smaller sensors will tend to have smaller pixels, but their lenses will be designed for use at smaller f-numbers and it is likely that they will also operate in regime 3 for those f-numbers for which their lenses are diffraction limited.


title: Diffraction-limited system

text: There are techniques for producing images that appear to have higher resolution than allowed by simple use of diffraction-limited optics. Although these techniques improve some aspect of resolution, they generally come at an enormous increase in cost and complexity. Usually the technique is only appropriate for a small subset of imaging problems, with several general approaches outlined below.


title: Diffraction-limited system

text: In conventional microscopes such as bright-field or differential interference contrast, this is achieved by using a condenser. Under spatially incoherent conditions, the image is understood as a composite of images illuminated from each point on the condenser, each of which covers a different portion of the object's spatial frequencies. This effectively improves the resolution by, at most, a factor of two.


title: Diffraction-limited system

text: Simultaneously illuminating from all angles (fully open condenser) drives down interferometric contrast. In conventional microscopes, the maximum resolution (fully open condenser, at N = 1) is rarely used. Further, under partially coherent conditions, the recorded image is often non-linear with object's scattering potential—especially when looking at non-self-luminous (non-fluorescent) objects. To boost contrast, and sometimes to linearize the system, unconventional microscopes (with structured illumination) synthesize the condenser illumination by acquiring a sequence of images with known illumination parameters. Typically, these images are composited to form a single image with data covering a larger portion of the object's spatial frequencies when compared to using a fully closed condenser (which is also rarely used).


title: Diffraction-limited system

text: Another technique, 4Pi microscopy, uses two opposing objectives to double the effective numerical aperture, effectively halving the diffraction limit, by collecting the forward and backward scattered light. When imaging a transparent sample, with a combination of incoherent or structured illumination, as well as collecting both forward, and backward scattered light it is possible to image the complete scattering sphere.


title: Diffraction-limited system

text: Unlike methods relying on localization, such systems are still limited by the diffraction limit of the illumination (condenser) and collection optics (objective), although in practice they can provide substantial resolution improvements compared to conventional methods.


title: Diffraction-limited system

text: The diffraction limit is only valid in the far field as it assumes that no evanescent fields reach the detector. Various near-field techniques that operate less than ≈1 wavelength of light away from the image plane can obtain substantially higher resolution. These techniques exploit the fact that the evanescent field contains information beyond the diffraction limit which can be used to construct very high resolution images, in principle beating the diffraction limit by a factor proportional to how well a specific imaging system can detect the near-field signal. For scattered light imaging, instruments such as near-field scanning optical microscopes and nano-FTIR, which are built atop atomic force microscope systems, can be used to achieve up to 10-50 nm resolution. The data recorded by such instruments often requires substantial processing, essentially solving an optical inverse problem for each image.


title: Diffraction-limited system

text: Metamaterial-based superlenses can image with a resolution better than the diffraction limit by locating the objective lens extremely close (typically hundreds of nanometers) to the object.


title: Diffraction-limited system

text: In fluorescence microscopy the excitation and emission are typically on different wavelengths. In total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy a thin portion of the sample located immediately on the cover glass is excited with an evanescent field, and recorded with a conventional diffraction-limited objective, improving the axial resolution.


title: Diffraction-limited system

text: However, because these techniques cannot image beyond 1 wavelength, they cannot be used to image into objects thicker than 1 wavelength which limits their applicability.


title: Diffraction-limited system

text: Far-field imaging techniques are most desirable for imaging objects that are large compared to the illumination wavelength but that contain fine structure. This includes nearly all biological applications in which cells span multiple wavelengths but contain structure down to molecular scales. In recent years several techniques have shown that sub-diffraction limited imaging is possible over macroscopic distances. These techniques usually exploit optical nonlinearity in a material's reflected light to generate resolution beyond the diffraction limit.


title: Diffraction-limited system

text: Among these techniques, the STED microscope has been one of the most successful. In STED, multiple laser beams are used to first excite, and then quench fluorescent dyes. The nonlinear response to illumination caused by the quenching process in which adding more light causes the image to become less bright generates sub-diffraction limited information about the location of dye molecules, allowing resolution far beyond the diffraction limit provided high illumination intensities are used.


title: Diffraction-limited system

text: The limits on focusing or collimating a laser beam are very similar to the limits on imaging with a microscope or telescope. The only difference is that laser beams are typically soft-edged beams. This non-uniformity in light distribution leads to a coefficient slightly different from the 1.22 value familiar in imaging. However, the scaling with wavelength and aperture is exactly the same.


title: Diffraction-limited system

text: The beam quality of a laser beam is characterized by how well its propagation matches an ideal Gaussian beam at the same wavelength. The beam quality factor M squared (M) is found by measuring the size of the beam at its waist, and its divergence far from the waist, and taking the product of the two, known as the beam parameter product. The ratio of this measured beam parameter product to that of the ideal is defined as M, so that M=1 describes an ideal beam. The M value of a beam is conserved when it is transformed by diffraction-limited optics.


title: Diffraction-limited system

text: The outputs of many low and moderately powered lasers have M values of 1.2 or less, and are essentially diffraction-limited.


title: Diffraction-limited system

text: As opposed to light waves (i.e., photons), massive particles have a different relationship between their quantum mechanical wavelength and their energy. This relationship indicates that the effective "de Broglie" wavelength is inversely proportional to the momentum of the particle. For example, an electron at an energy of 10 keV has a wavelength of 0.01 nm, allowing the electron microscope (SEM or TEM) to achieve high resolution images. Other massive particles such as helium, neon, and gallium ions have been used to produce images at resolutions beyond what can be attained with visible light. Such instruments provide nanometer scale imaging, analysis and fabrication capabilities at the expense of system complexity.


title: DAZN Group

text: DAZN Group Limited (formerly Perform Group) is a British sports media company owned by Access Industries.


title: DAZN Group

text: Its flagship property is DAZN, a global sports subscription streaming platform. It also owns a significant minority stake in the leading football portal "Goal" after TPG's Integrated Media Company (IMC) acquired a majority stake in 2020.


title: DAZN Group

text: Perform Group was originally formed in 2007 via the merger of Premium TV Limited and Inform Group. It was originally involved in content distribution, subscription, advertising and sponsorship, and technology and production. In 2018, the business-to-business units of Perform Group were spun out as Perform Content, and later sold to Vista Equity Partners and merged into its own sports data company STATS.


title: DAZN Group

text: Perform Group was created in 2007 through the merger of Premium TV Limited, an event sport broadcasting network, and the Inform Group, a digital sports rights agency.


title: DAZN Group

text: In February 2011, Perform acquired Goal.com. In 2011 and 2013 the company bought sports data companies RunningBall and Opta Sports respectively.


title: DAZN Group

text: In 2013, Perform Group combined its U.S. businesses with "The Sporting News" to form Sporting News Media, in which it took a 65% stake. Sporting News' former owner American City Business Journals retained 35%.


title: DAZN Group

text: Perform Group was de-listed from the London Stock Exchange in November 2014 when Access Industries increased its stake in the company from 42.5% to 77%.


title: DAZN Group

text: In December 2014 Perform and the WTA announced a 10-year media deal, under which they would jointly form WTA Media to manage and distribute its media rights. In February 2016, Perform Group and the FIBA announced a partnership to distribute and sell broadcasting rights to its basketball competitions.


title: DAZN Group

text: In August 2016, Perform Group launched the online sports video streaming service DAZN, described by media as being a "Netflix for sport".


title: DAZN Group

text: On 8 May 2018, former ESPN president John Skipper was named executive chairman of Perform Group. He operated out of New York City.


title: DAZN Group

text: In September 2018, Perform Group was split into two companies; DAZN Group (named after its streaming service) for its consumer content operations, and Perform Content for its business-to-business services. It was reported that this was in preparation for a potential sale of the latter in order to help fund the DAZN operations. In April 2019, it was announced that Perform Content would be sold to Vista Equity Partners. It was subsequently merged into STATS LLC to form Stats Perform.


title: DAZN Group

text: In March 2019, DAZN re-organized the Perform Media division into DAZN Media. It handles advertising and sponsorship sales for DAZN's global operations, including the "DAZN+" program (which coordinates "personalised communications" between its partners and subscribers), and DAZN Player (formerly ePlayer), the group's syndicated video content service.


title: DAZN Group

text: In May 2020, the "Financial Times" reported that DAZN was seeking further investments in order to secure the future of the business, which had been affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. In October 2020, it reached a deal to sell stakes in "Goal", "Spox", "VoetbalZone" to Integrated Media Company (IMC), a portfolio of TPG Capital, and in December 2020 it sold "Sporting News" to PAX Holdings.


title: Mesoderm

text: The mesoderm is the middle layer of the three germ layers that develops during gastrulation in the very early development of the embryo of most animals. The outer layer is the ectoderm, and the inner layer is the endoderm.


title: Mesoderm

text: The mesoderm forms mesenchyme, mesothelium, non-epithelial blood cells and coelomocytes. Mesothelium lines coeloms. Mesoderm forms the muscles in a process known as myogenesis, septa (cross-wise partitions) and mesenteries (length-wise partitions); and forms part of the gonads (the rest being the gametes). Myogenesis is specifically a function of mesenchyme.


title: Mesoderm

text: The mesoderm differentiates from the rest of the embryo through intercellular signaling, after which the mesoderm is polarized by an organizing center. The position of the organizing center is in turn determined by the regions in which beta-catenin is protected from degradation by GSK-3. Beta-catenin acts as a co-factor that alters the activity of the transcription factor tcf-3 from repressing to activating, which initiates the synthesis of gene products critical for mesoderm differentiation and gastrulation. Furthermore, mesoderm has the capability to induce the growth of other structures, such as the neural plate, the precursor to the nervous system.


title: Mesoderm

text: The mesoderm is one of the three germinal layers that appears in the third week of embryonic development. It is formed through a process called gastrulation. There are four important components, which are the axial mesoderm, the paraxial mesoderm, the intermediate mesoderm, and the lateral plate mesoderm. The axial mesoderm gives rise to the notochord. The paraxial mesoderm forms the somitomeres, which give rise to mesenchyme of the head, and organize into somites in occipital and caudal segments, and give rise to sclerotomes (cartilage and bone), and dermatomes (subcutaneous tissue of the skin). Signals for somite differentiation are derived from surroundings structures, including the notochord, neural tube, and epidermis. The intermediate mesoderm connects the paraxial mesoderm with the lateral plate. Eventually it differentiates into urogenital structures that consist of the kidneys, gonads, their associated ducts, and the adrenal glands. The lateral plate mesoderm gives rise to the heart, blood vessels, and blood cells of the circulatory system, as well as to the mesodermal components of the limbs.


title: Mesoderm

text: Some of the mesoderm derivatives include the muscle (smooth, cardiac, and skeletal), the muscles of the tongue (occipital somites), the pharyngeal arches muscle (muscles of mastication, muscles of facial expressions), connective tissue, the dermis and subcutaneous layer of the skin, bone and cartilage, dura mater, the endothelium of blood vessels, red blood cells, white blood cells, microglia, the dentin of teeth, the kidneys, and the adrenal cortex.


title: Mesoderm

text: During the third week, a process called gastrulation creates a mesodermal layer between the endoderm and the ectoderm. This process begins with the formation of a primitive streak on the surface of the epiblast. The cells of the layers move between the epiblast and the hypoblast, and begin to spread laterally and cranially. The cells of the epiblast move toward the primitive streak and slip beneath it, in a process called "invagination". Some of the migrating cells displace the hypoblast and create the endoderm, and other cells migrate between the endoderm and the epiblast to create the mesoderm. The remaining cells form the ectoderm. After that, the epiblast and the hypoblast establish contact with the extraembryonic mesoderm until they cover the yolk sac and amnion. They move onto either side of the prechordal plate. The prechordal cells migrate to the midline to form the notochordal plate. The chordamesoderm is the central region of trunk mesoderm. This forms the notochord, which induces the formation of the neural tube, and establishes the anterior-posterior body axis. The notochord extends beneath the neural tube from the head to the tail. The mesoderm moves to the midline until it covers the notochord. When the mesoderm cells proliferate, they form the paraxial mesoderm. In each side, the mesoderm remains thin, and is known as the lateral plate. The intermediate mesoderm lies between the paraxial mesoderm and the lateral plate.


title: Mesoderm

text: Between days 13 and 15, the proliferation of extraembryonic mesoderm, primitive streak, and embryonic mesoderm take place. The notochord process occurs between days 15 and 17. Eventually, the development of the notochord canal and the axial canal takes place between days 17 and 19, when the first three somites are formed.


title: Mesoderm

text: During the third week, the paraxial mesoderm is organized into segments. If they appear in the cephalic region and grow with cephalocaudal direction, they are called somitomeres. If they appear in the cephalic region but establish contact with the neural plate, they are known as neuromeres, which later will form the mesenchyme in the head. The somitomeres organize into somites which grow in pairs. In the fourth week the somites lose their organization and cover the notochord and spinal cord to form the backbone. In the fifth week, there are 4 occipital somites, 8 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral and 8 to 10 coccygeal that will form the axial skeleton. Somitic derivatives are determined by local signaling between adjacent embryonic tissues, in particular the neural tube, notochord, surface ectoderm and the somitic compartments themselves. The correct specification of the deriving tissues, skeletal, cartilage, endothelia and connective tissue is achieved by a sequence of morphogenic changes of the paraxial mesoderm, leading to the three transitory somitic compartments: dermomyotome, myotome and sclerotome. These structures are specified from dorsal to ventral and from medial to lateral. each somite will form its own sclerotome that will differentiate into the tendon cartilage and bone component. Its myotome will form the muscle component and the dermatome that will form the dermis of the back. The myotome and dermatome have a nerve component.


title: Mesoderm

text: Surrounding structures such as the notochord, neural tube, epidermis and lateral plate mesoderm send signals for somite differentiation Notochord protein accumulates in presomitic mesoderm destined to form the next somite and then decreases as that somite is established. The notochord and the neural tube activate the protein SHH which helps the somite to form its sclerotome. The cells of the sclerotome express the protein PAX1 that induces the cartilage and bone formation. The neural tube activates the protein WNT1 that expresses PAX 2 so the somite creates the myotome and dermatome. Finally, the neural tube also secretes neurotrophin 3 (NT-3), so that the somite creates the dermis. Boundaries for each somite are regulated by retinoic acid (RA) and a combination of FGF8 and WNT3a. So retinoic acid is an endogenous signal that maintains the bilateral synchrony of mesoderm segmentation and controls bilateral symmetry in vertebrates. The bilaterally symmetric body plan of vertebrate embryos is obvious in somites and their derivates such as the vertebral column. Therefore, asymmetric somite formation correlates with a left-right desynchronization of the segmentation oscillations.


title: Mesoderm

text: Many studies with "Xenopus" and zebrafish have analyzed the factors of this development and how they interact in signaling and transcription. However, there are still some doubts in how the prospective mesodermal cells integrate the various signals they receive and how they regulate their morphogenic behaviours and cell-fate decisions. Human embryonic stem cells for example have the potential to produce all of the cells in the body and they are able to self-renew indefinitely so they can be used for a large-scale production of therapeutic cell lines. They are also able to remodel and contract collagen and were induced to express muscle actin. This shows that these cells are multipotent cells.


title: Mesoderm

text: The intermediate mesoderm connects the paraxial mesoderm with the lateral plate mesoderm, and differentiates into urogenital structures. In upper thoracic and cervical regions, this forms the nephrotomes. In caudal regions, it forms the nephrogenic cord. It also helps to develop the excretory units of the urinary system and the gonads.


title: Mesoderm

text: The lateral plate mesoderm splits into the parietal (somatic) and visceral (splanchnic) layers. The formation of these layers starts with the appearance of intercellular cavities. The somatic layer depends upon a continuous layer with mesoderm that covers the amnion. The splanchnic layer depends upon a continuous layer that covers the yolk sac. The two layers cover the intraembryonic cavity. The parietal layer, together with overlying ectoderm, forms the lateral body wall folds. The visceral layer forms the walls of the gut tube. Mesoderm cells of the parietal layer form the mesothelial membranes or serous membranes, which line the peritoneal, pleural, and pericardial cavities.


title: Dexter (season 4)

text: On October 21, 2008, Showtime commissioned a fourth and fifth season of "Dexter", each consisting of 12 episodes. The show's writers convened during February and March 2009 to brainstorm ideas for the fourth season, and filming was scheduled to begin in June 2009. On May 27, 2009, Showtime announced that John Lithgow would guest star in all 12 episodes as Miami's latest and deadliest serial killer, and Keith Carradine would return as Lundy. The fourth season premiered on September 27, 2009, and focused on Dexter attempting to find his way to balance his family life, the birth of his son, and his "extra-curricular" activities.


title: Dexter (season 4)

text: The season received critical acclaim before airing, including that from Michael Ausiello of "Entertainment Weekly", who saw the fourth season as being "bloody promising". The season opener was leaked to the Internet ahead of schedule in late August 2009. The fourth season premiered in the UK on the FX channel on August 20, 2010.


title: Dexter (season 4)

text: Dexter has married Rita and settled down to domestic life with her two children and their new baby Harrison. Dexter continues to act on the urge to kill, but the strain of his double life affects both his job at Miami Metro Police and his home life. Rita becomes upset that Dexter appears to be lying to her, including keeping his old waterfront condo where he has stashed his blood drop trophies, and their marriage goes through troubling times.


title: Dexter (season 4)

text: As the police investigate a series of small-time crimes and killings in the so-called "Vacation Murders" with the help of investigative journalist Christine Hill, retired FBI Special Agent Frank Lundy returns to Miami; Debra initially worries he has come back to get closer to her, but he later reveals that he is following a case that the FBI refused to handle. The "Trinity Killer", believed to be an older Caucasian male, kills three people in the same city roughly once each year and in a specific sequence: one young woman killed in a bathtub, a mother killed by falling, and a father bludgeoned. The first two of this pattern have recently happened in Miami, and Lundy believes he knows when and where the last will be, but he is powerless to act on this. After rekindling their relationship, both Lundy and Debra are shot by an unknown assailant; Debra survives but Lundy's wounds are fatal, and the police initially assume that this was another random killing committed by the "Vacation Murderer".


title: Dexter (season 4)

text: Dexter learns of Lundy's analysis, steals his records, and uses his own skills to sneak into the building and catch sight of the Trinity Killer in the act of dispatching his third victim. Dexter follows the killer to his home, and is very surprised to learn that he is Arthur Mitchell: husband and father, deacon at a local church, and leader of the "Four Walls One Heart" homebuilding charity organization. Dexter continues to watch him and comes to admire his ability to balance his killings along with his family and work lives. Using the alias "Kyle Butler", Dexter joins Arthur's church, befriends him, and learns from him how to improve his own relationship with Rita and his family, giving over his condo to Debra while transferring his killing implements into a shed behind their house. Meanwhile, the Miami police learn that the Trinity Killer places a small amount of cremation ashes at each murder scene, and identify that Trinity and the ash share similar genetics but otherwise cannot match Trinity to any criminal records.


title: Dexter (season 4)

text: Arthur takes Dexter on a weekend trip to Tampa, taking him to the house in which he grew up. This is where he, at age ten, saw his older sister die after he inadvertently surprised her in the bathroom; she fell through the glass shower door and severed her femoral artery, killing her almost immediately. This drove his mother to suicide and his father to be abusive, eventually forcing Arthur to kill him. Arthur's trauma is analogous to the event that transformed Dexter and his brother into killers. Dexter later stops Arthur from trying to commit suicide. Dexter discovers that the Trinity series represents the deaths of Arthur's sister, mother and father, and that Arthur has likely been using the Four Walls One Heart program to cover his tracks. Dexter discovers that Arthur's home life is not as pleasant as it appeared, as Arthur abuses his son and locks his daughter in her bedroom, and when things get violent at Thanksgiving dinner, Dexter is forced to subdue Arthur to prevent him from hurting his family. Now assured of Arthur's guilt, Dexter begins to make plans to kill him.


title: Dexter (season 4)

text: Debra recovers from her wound but Lieutenant LaGuerta removes her from the case because of Debra's personal involvement. Still obsessed with solving Lundy's murder, Debra notices that the angle of her wound indicates that the shooter cannot be as tall as Trinity is believed to be. Trace evidence determines that Christine is genetically similar to Trinity and is Arthur Mitchell's illegitimate child. She has been following her father around in an effort to try to clean up after his killings, and so took it on herself to shoot Lundy and Debra when they got too close to Trinity's next target. After Arthur rejects her, Christine kills herself after confessing to the crime in front of Debra. With information collected from Christine, the police start to narrow down the list of possible suspects for Trinity, and Dexter realizes he needs to move fast to get him before the police do.


title: Dexter (season 4)

text: Dexter follows Arthur around but is surprised when he abducts a young boy from a family at an arcade. Dexter goes back to find that Lundy has missed this part of Arthur's pattern: each Trinity series was preceded, five days before, by the abduction of a ten-year-old boy – and since the bodies were never found, they were not recorded as killings. With the help of Arthur's son Jonah, Dexter tracks down a bomb shelter at a vacant home where Arthur had stowed the child, and is able to stop Arthur from drowning the boy in cement at a nearby Four Walls One Heart construction site. But Arthur gets away. Dexter, as "Kyle", blackmails Arthur with the threat of exposing him as a pedophile, as a way to meet Arthur in secret. Instead, Arthur tries to find and kill "Kyle", in the process killing an innocent with the same name. Arthur then tricks Dexter to reveal himself, follows him back to the police station where they confront each other and he learns Dexter's true identity.


title: Dexter (season 4)

text: Thus revealed, Dexter tails Arthur to a bank parking lot. He drugs him and prepares to take him elsewhere but, having sideswiped another car during the pursuit, he is confronted and taken to jail. Dexter is shortly released, but finds that Arthur has disappeared. Dexter arranges a getaway for Rita and his children to the Florida Keys as a means to protect them from Arthur, promising to meet them later in the day. Dexter eventually finds Arthur, chokes him until he faints, and takes him to the same bomb shelter to kill him. After disposing of the evidence, Dexter returns home, and finds a voice mail from Rita. He proceeds to call her back, but is surprised to hear her phone ringing in the house. Hearing baby Harrison's cries, he races to the bathroom to find Arthur's last victim, Rita, dead in the bathtub, and Harrison bawling in the pool of blood on the floor.


title: Dexter (season 4)

text: Third season executive producers John Goldwyn, Sara Colleton, Clyde Phillips and Charles H. Eglee all returned to their roles. Third season co-executive producers Scott Buck, Melissa Rosenberg and Michael C. Hall were all promoted to executive producers for the fourth season. Third season producer Timothy Schlattmann was promoted to supervising producer for the fourth season. Wendy West also joined the crew as a supervising producer and writer. Third season co-producer Lauren Gussis was promoted to producer. Robert Lloyd Lewis remained the on set producer.


title: Dexter (season 4)

text: Gary Law remained a co-producer. Associate producer Chad Tomasoski returned and was promoted to co-producer mid-season.


title: Dexter (season 4)

text: "The New Yorker"s Emily Nussbaum called Lithgow's characterization of Arthur as "so creepy I’m still not over it" in 2011 and also said the character was "modelled on the BTK Killer".


title: Dexter (season 4)

text: In the 2016 book titled "TV (The Book)", co-written by critics Alan Sepinwall and Matt Zoller Seitz, Sepinwall included the fourth season of "Dexter" in the section "A Certain Regard", which consisted of shows they loved but were not able to reach their list of the 100 greatest American television series. Sepinwall praised the season as the entire series' best, stating that "[s]tructurally, the Trinity season was a rehash of the first, but Lithgow was mesmerizing as a kindly old man who was cruel underneath. And the climax... was such a perfect ending not only to that season, but to "Dexter" as a whole, that continuing the series felt redundant."


title: California Consumer Privacy Act

text: The California Consumer Privacy Act (CCPA) is a state statute intended to enhance privacy rights and consumer protection for residents of California, United States. The bill was passed by the California State Legislature and signed into law by Jerry Brown, Governor of California, on June 28, 2018, to amend Part 4 of Division 3 of the California Civil Code. Officially called AB-375, the act was introduced by Ed Chau, member of the California State Assembly, and State Senator Robert Hertzberg.


title: California Consumer Privacy Act

text: Amendments to the CCPA, in the form of Senate Bill 1121, were passed on September 13, 2018. Additional substantive amendments were signed into law on October 11, 2019. The CCPA became effective on January 1, 2020. In November 2020, California voters passed Proposition 24, also known as the California Privacy Rights Act, which amends and expands the CCPA.


title: California Consumer Privacy Act

text: The CCPA applies to any business, including any for-profit entity that collects consumers' personal data, does business in California, and satisfies at least one of the following thresholds:


title: California Consumer Privacy Act

text: Organizations are required to "implement and maintain reasonable security procedures and practices" in protecting consumer data.


title: California Consumer Privacy Act

text: CCPA defines personal information as information that identifies, relates to, describes, is reasonably capable of being associated with, or could reasonably be linked (directly or indirectly) with a particular consumer or household such as a real name, alias, postal address, unique personal identifier, online identifier, Internet Protocol address, email address, account name, social security number, driver's license number, license plate number, passport number, or other similar identifiers.


title: California Consumer Privacy Act

text: An additional caveat identifies, relates to, describes, or is capable of being associated with, a particular individual, including, but not limited to, their name, signature, Social Security number, physical characteristics or description, address, telephone number, passport number, driver's license or state identification card number, insurance policy number, education, employment, employment history, bank account number, credit card number, debit card number, or any other financial information, medical information, or health insurance information.


title: California Consumer Privacy Act

text: Key differences between CCPA and the European Union's General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) include the scope and territorial reach of each, definitions related to protected information, levels of specificity, and an opt-out right for sales of personal information. CCPA differs in definition of personal information from GDPR as in some cases the CCPA only considers data that was provided by a consumer. The GDPR does not make that distinction and covers all personal data regardless of source. In the event of sensitive personal information, this does not apply if the information was manifestly made public by the data subject themselves, following the exception under Art.9(2),e). As such, the definition in GDPR is much broader than defined in the CCPA.


title: California Consumer Privacy Act

text: Personal data can also include online or social media profile information. Personal data is not limited to a number or a physical document but can also be online identities, accounts, and other personal information.


title: California Consumer Privacy Act

text: The California Consumer Privacy Act of 2018 was originally proposed as a ballot proposition by a privacy group known as Californians for Consumer Privacy. The California DOJ approved the initiative's official language on December 18, 2017, allowing the group to begin collecting signatures. In June 2018, the proponents gathered enough signatures to qualify the CCPA initiative for the November 2018 election. In California, the state legislature cannot repeal or amend a ballot proposition once it is passed by voters. In response to the CCPA ballot proposition, state legislators negotiated with Californians for Consumer Privacy to pass a less restrictive version of the CCPA in exchange for the withdrawal of the ballot proposition.


title: California Consumer Privacy Act

text: The CCPA was passed by the state legislature and signed by Gov. Brown on June 28, 2018; it became effective on January 1, 2020. The act's effect was dependent upon the withdrawal of initiative 17–0039, the Consumer Right to Privacy Act. Five amendments were enacted and signed by Gov. Newsom on October 11, 2019. Notice of DOJ's proposed regulations was also published October 11 in the Z Register; the OAL had not yet filed the final regulations with the Secretary of State, as required for the regulations to become effective.


title: California Consumer Privacy Act

text: The California Privacy Rights Act of 2020 proposed several changes to the CCPA. The Act, also known as 2020 California Proposition 24, expands existing data privacy laws by allowing consumers greater control of their personal data and establishing the California Privacy Protection Agency. It passed, with a majority of voters approving the measure.


title: California Consumer Privacy Act

text: A big area of the CCPA exemption is the personal health information (PHI) that is gathered. Rather than the data being treated with the CCPA guidelines in mind, it is expected for PHI to adhere to the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act, otherwise known as HIPAA. If the business collecting the data is related to clinical trials, then it must adhere to the "Common Rule".


title: California Consumer Privacy Act

text: As for the information that is gathered by financial institutions, the institutions follow the California Financial Information Privacy act or the Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act depending on the situation.


title: Edmund Crouchback

text: Edmund, Earl of Lancaster and Earl of Leicester (16 January 12455 June 1296) nicknamed Edmund Crouchback was a member of the House of Plantagenet. He was the second surviving son of King Henry III of England and Eleanor of Provence. In his childhood he had a claim on the Kingdom of Sicily; however, he never ruled there. He was granted all the lands of Simon de Montfort in 1265, and from 1267 he was titled Earl of Leicester. In that year he also began to rule Lancashire, but he did not take the title Earl of Lancaster until 1276. Between 1276 and 1284 he governed the counties of Champagne and Brie with his second wife, Blanche of Artois, in the name of her daughter Joan, and he was described in the English patent rolls as earl of Lancaster and Champagne. His nickname, "Crouchback", may be a corruption of 'crossback' and refer to his participation in the Ninth Crusade.


title: Edmund Crouchback

text: Edmund was born in London, a son of Henry III of England and Eleanor of Provence. He was a younger brother of Edward I, Margaret, and Beatrice, and an elder brother of Catherine.


title: Edmund Crouchback

text: He was invested ruler of the Kingdom of Sicily by the Bishop of Bologna in 1255, on behalf of Pope Alexander IV. In return, his father undertook to pay the papacy 135,541 marks and fight a war to dislodge the Hohenstaufen king Manfred. Henry's barons refused to contribute to what they called the "Sicilian business", and ultimately Henry was only able to pay 60,000 marks. Steven Runciman says the grant of the kingdom was revoked by Pope Alexander IV on 18 December 1258; Baines and Harland state that this occurred in 1263, under Pope Urban IV.


title: Edmund Crouchback

text: However, Edmund soon obtained important possessions and dignities, for soon after the forfeiture of Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester on 25 October 1265, Edmund received the Earldom of Leicester and later that of Lancaster. He was granted the honour of the Stewardship of England and the lands of Nicolas de Segrave. He also acquired the estates of Robert de Ferrers, 6th Earl of Derby, which included the Honour of Hinckley Castle.


title: Edmund Crouchback

text: In 1267, Edmund was granted lands in Lancashire and Wales including the royal demesne lands in Lancashire, and the lordships of Lancaster, Three Castles, and Monmouth (the latter two in Wales). After the civil war in 1267, he was appointed High Sheriff of Lancashire. Henry III created his second son Earl of Leicester in 1267, granting the honour and privileges of that city. The following year he was made Constable of Leicester Castle, a royal possession in the king's name. Crouchback by now had a reputation as a ruthless and ferocious warrior, but he was not in England fighting de Montfort.


title: Edmund Crouchback

text: In 1271, Edmund accompanied his elder brother Edward on the Ninth Crusade to Palestine. Although taking a different route to the Holy Land, Edmund is recorded as being in Savoy on 16 August 1271. Some historians, including the authors of the "Encyclopædia Britannica" article on him, state that it was because of this that he received the nickname 'Crouchback' (meaning "cross-back"), indicating that he was entitled to wear a cross, stitched into the back of his garments. If this is true, his nickname does not mean "hunched-back".


title: Edmund Crouchback

text: Edmund remained loyal to his brother, Edward I; the Charter grants of 1265, 1267, and 1268–9 were confirmed by the King in a document of "Inspeximus" in 1284, and by Parliament in the Great Charter of Leicester. Also in 1284, on the marriage of his stepdaughter, he renounced the title of Earl of Champagne, although he continued in possession of his wife's dowerlands. Edmund frequently acted as an ambassador abroad. He was sent as Governor of Ponthieu in 1291, on behalf of his second wife, Blanche of Artois.


title: Edmund Crouchback

text: His duty to the church included the foundation of a Nuns of Clara or Poor Clares nunnery at Minories, St Aldate's. In 1291, his estate paid for the establishment for the Chapel of Savoy, in memory of his mother, near St Clement Danes. Filial piety was part of the chivalric code of an honourable knight. Edmund was a generous benefactor to the monastery of Grace Dieu in Leicestershire, and to the nuns at Tarrant Crawford. He also helped establish a major Greyfriars monastery at Preston in the duchy of Lancaster.


title: Edmund Crouchback

text: In 1281, he supervised the construction of Aberystwyth Castle for King Edward I to subjugate the Welsh. The following year Edmund accompanied Roger Mortimer on the campaign against Llywelyn, defeating and capturing the prince.


title: Edmund Crouchback

text: In 1294 the French king, Philip IV, through trickery, defrauded King Edward out of his lands in Gascony. Edward immediately began to plan an invasion but ran into difficulties. First, some of the Welsh rebelled against him, then the Scots rebelled. Finally, by the end of 1295, he was ready to take up the conflict with Philip. He wanted to send Edmund to lead a small force ahead of the main army he was gathering, but Edmund fell ill in that autumn and was unwell until Christmas. Finally, Edmund was able to go to Bordeaux for his brother. Amongst the nobles was the Earl of Lincoln and 26 banneret knights. During the siege of Bayonne the English ran out of money, so the army melted into the countryside. Broken-hearted, the warrior-prince Edmund Crouchback died on 5 June. His body was carried to England and was interred on 15 July 1296 at Westminster Abbey, London.


title: Edmund Crouchback

text: Edmund married firstly on 8 April 1269 Aveline de Forz, daughter of William de Forz, 4th Earl of Albemarle and Isabella de Fortibus, Countess of Devon. She died just four years after the marriage, at the age of 15, and was buried at Westminster Abbey. The couple had no children, though some sources believe she may have died in childbirth or shortly after a miscarriage.


title: Edmund Crouchback

text: He married secondly on 3 February 1276 Blanche of Artois, in Paris, widow of King Henry I of Navarre, and daughter of Robert I of Artois and Matilda of Brabant. With Blanche he had three children:


title: Poltergeist (franchise)

text: Poltergeist is an American horror film franchise distributed by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer during the 1980s. The original trilogy revolves around the members of the Freeling family, who are stalked and terrorized by a group of ghosts, led by a demon known as the Beast, that are attracted to the youngest daughter, Carol Anne. The original film was co-written and produced by Steven Spielberg. The "Poltergeist" films collected a total of approximately $132 million at the United States box office.


title: Poltergeist (franchise)

text: Fox 2000 Pictures and Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer released a "revisionist" reboot of the series on May 22, 2015.


title: Poltergeist (franchise)

text: "Poltergeist" is the original film in the trilogy, directed by Tobe Hooper, co-written by Steven Spielberg and released on June 4, 1982. The story focuses on the Freeling family, which consists of parents Steve (Craig T. Nelson) and Diane (JoBeth Williams); teenage daughter Dana (Dominique Dunne); eight-year-old Robbie (Oliver Robins); and five-year-old Carol Anne (Heather O'Rourke), who live in Cuesta Verde, a California housing development which comes to be haunted by ghosts. The apparitions, under the control of a demon known as the "Beast", communicate through the family's television set and can only be heard by Carol Anne. Attracted to her life force and believing she will help lead them into the "Light", the specters abduct Carol Anne through her bedroom closet, which acts as a portal to their dimension. Much of the film involves the family's efforts to rescue their daughter, aided by a group of parapsychologists (Beatrice Straight, Martin Casella, Richard Lawson) and spiritual medium Tangina Barrons (Zelda Rubinstein). Carol Anne is eventually rescued from the other side and, following a second attack by the Beast that reveals the ghosts had originated from an improperly relocated cemetery beneath the neighborhood, the Freelings flee Cuesta Verde just before the house implodes and disappears into another dimension.


title: Poltergeist (franchise)

text: The first sequel, "", directed by Brian Gibson and released on May 23, 1986, takes place one year after the events in "Poltergeist" and offers an alternate explanation of the ghosts' origin. The film also develops the identity and backstory of the Beast, who lived during the 19th century as a religious zealot named Reverend Henry Kane (Julian Beck). Kane was the leader of a utopian cult, who in anticipation of the end of the world, sealed themselves in a cavern located directly below what later became the Freeling property. Kane is anxious to possess Carol Anne to continue manipulating his followers after death. The ghosts follow and attack the Freelings at their current household. Aided by an American Indian shaman named Taylor (Will Sampson), the Freelings manage to escape from Kane and his followers a second time.


title: Poltergeist (franchise)

text: The final film in the original trilogy, "Poltergeist III", directed and co-written by Gary Sherman, was released on June 10, 1988. To protect Carol Anne, the Freelings have sent her to live temporarily in a Chicago skyscraper with skeptical relatives Pat and Bruce Gardner (Nancy Allen and Tom Skerritt) and their daughter Donna (Lara Flynn Boyle). However, during psychiatric sessions, Carol Anne's recollection of her experiences enables Kane and his followers to locate her and make contact through the building's ubiquitous mirrors. The ghosts abduct Carol Anne and then Donna, prompting Pat, Bruce, and Donna's boyfriend Scott (Kipley Wentz) to enlist the help of Tangina, who eventually escorts Kane into the spectral Light, thereby sacrificing herself to save the family.


title: Poltergeist (franchise)

text: A reboot of the original film, "Poltergeist" was directed by Gil Kenan and released on May 22, 2015. It centers on a family struggling to make ends meet who relocate to a suburban home. As in the original, the youngest daughter is kidnapped by spirits that inhabit the house. Sam Rockwell and Rosemarie DeWitt star as the married couple, Kennedi Clements plays the daughter, and Jared Harris plays the host of a paranormal-themed TV show who comes to the aid of the family.


title: Poltergeist (franchise)

text: On February 6, 1989, following the release of "Poltergeist III" on home video, MGM/UA Telecommunications planned to co-finance 90 episodes of ""Poltergeist: The Series"" at a cost of $60 million with two foreign partners. However, the series would never materialize. In the early 1990s a rumor surrounding a possible "Poltergeist IV" being written came into fruition. The rumored film would serve as a prequel about the antagonist of "" and "Poltergeist III" in the past, expanding on the story in the second film.


title: Poltergeist (franchise)

text: Sometime around 2000 after "" ended, MGM Television was rumored to be interested or negotiating to produce a spin-off to the show.


title: Poltergeist (franchise)

text: In October 2005, internet rumors surrounding a possible "Poltergeist IV" began circulating. This was later confirmed as a sequel titled "Poltergeist: Kayeri" that was being written by Clint Morris which would focus on Steven Freeling from the first two films and disregard the events of "Poltergeist III". However after Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer was purchased by Sony Entertainment, the project eventually died.


title: Poltergeist (franchise)

text: In May 2007, more rumors about Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer developing a fourth film began floating around. Another Poltergeist sequel which was being written by Michael Grais the co-writer of the first two films in the series, was tentatively titled "Poltergeist: In The Shadows". This sequel also never materialized.


title: Poltergeist (franchise)

text: On April 10, 2019, it was announced that the Russo brothers would helm a new remake of the franchise. In September 2019, after the Russo Brothers announced their reboot of the Poltergeist films, they expressed interest in developing the films into a series rather than a film. However Joe Russo stated that the project seemed to be on hold for the time-being.


title: Poltergeist (franchise)

text: "“That was something that we were talking about, I don’t know that that ultimately came to fruition, but it was something that I loved as a kid… I was interested in turning it into a television series.”"


title: Poltergeist (franchise)

text: A spin-off television series, "", ran from 1996 to 1999, though it does not have any connection to the films other than the title.


title: Poltergeist (franchise)

text: The ""Poltergeist" curse" is a rumored curse attached to the "Poltergeist" trilogy and its crew, derived from the deaths of two young cast members in the six years between the releases of the first and third films. The rumor and the surrounding deaths were explored in a 2002 episode of "E! True Hollywood Story" titled "Curse of "Poltergeist"".


title: Poltergeist (franchise)

text: "The Curse of Poltergeist", a documentary film based on the mystery of the franchise, was set to begin shooting in November 2015, with Adam Ripp as director; financing and production was to be provided by his company Vega Baby, alongside Indonesia-based MD Pictures. The documentary intended to focus on the life and experiences of actor Oliver Robins, who played Robbie Freeling in the first and second installments of the franchise, as a way to explore the tragedies that have befallen those involved with the films. The movie has yet to be produced.


title: Alkyne

text: In organic chemistry, an alkyne is an unsaturated hydrocarbon containing at least one carbon—carbon triple bond. The simplest acyclic alkynes with only one triple bond and no other functional groups form a homologous series with the general chemical formula . Alkynes are traditionally known as acetylenes, although the name "acetylene" also refers specifically to , known formally as ethyne using IUPAC nomenclature. Like other hydrocarbons, alkynes are generally hydrophobic.


title: Alkyne

text: In acetylene, the H–C≡C bond angles are 180°. By virtue of this bond angle, alkynes are rod-like. Correspondingly, cyclic alkynes are rare. Benzyne cannot be isolated. The C≡C bond distance of 121 picometers is much shorter than the C=C distance in alkenes (134 pm) or the C–C bond in alkanes (153 pm).


title: Alkyne

text: The triple bond is very strong with a bond strength of 839 kJ/mol. The sigma bond contributes 369 kJ/mol, the first pi bond contributes 268 kJ/mol and the second pi-bond of 202 kJ/mol bond strength. Bonding usually discussed in the context of molecular orbital theory, which recognizes the triple bond as arising from overlap of s and p orbitals. In the language of valence bond theory, the carbon atoms in an alkyne bond are sp hybridized: they each have two unhybridized p orbitals and two sp hybrid orbitals. Overlap of an sp orbital from each atom forms one sp–sp sigma bond. Each p orbital on one atom overlaps one on the other atom, forming two pi bonds, giving a total of three bonds. The remaining sp orbital on each atom can form a sigma bond to another atom, for example to hydrogen atoms in the parent acetylene. The two sp orbitals project on opposite sides of the carbon atom.


title: Alkyne

text: Internal alkynes feature carbon substituents on each acetylenic carbon. Symmetrical examples include diphenylacetylene and 3-hexyne.


title: Alkyne

text: Terminal alkynes have the formula . An example is methylacetylene (propyne using IUPAC nomenclature). Terminal alkynes, like acetylene itself, are mildly acidic, with p"K" values of around 25. They are far more acidic than alkenes and alkanes, which have p"K" values of around 40 and 50, respectively. The acidic hydrogen on terminal alkynes can be replaced by a variety of groups resulting in halo-, silyl-, and alkoxoalkynes. The carbanions generated by deprotonation of terminal alkynes are called acetylides.


title: Alkyne

text: In systematic chemical nomenclature, alkynes are named with the Greek prefix system without any additional letters. Examples include ethyne or octyne. In parent chains with four or more carbons, it is necessary to say where the triple bond is located. For octyne, one can either write 3-octyne or oct-3-yne when the bond starts at the third carbon. The lowest number possible is given to the triple bond. When no superior functional groups are present, the parent chain must include the triple bond even if it is not the longest possible carbon chain in the molecule. Ethyne is commonly called by its trivial name acetylene.


title: Alkyne

text: In chemistry, the suffix -yne is used to denote the presence of a triple bond. In organic chemistry, the suffix often follows IUPAC nomenclature. However, inorganic compounds featuring unsaturation in the form of triple bonds may be denoted by substitutive nomenclature with the same methods used with alkynes (i.e. the name of the corresponding saturated compound is modified by replacing the "-ane" ending with "-yne"). "-diyne" is used when there are two triple bonds, and so on. The position of unsaturation is indicated by a numerical locant immediately preceding the "-yne" suffix, or 'locants' in the case of multiple triple bonds. Locants are chosen so that the numbers are low as possible. "-yne" is also used as an infix to name substituent groups that are triply bound to the parent compound.


title: Alkyne

text: Sometimes a number between hyphens is inserted before it to state which atoms the triple bond is between. This suffix arose as a collapsed form of the end of the word "acetylene". The final "-e" disappears if it is followed by another suffix that starts with a vowel.


title: Alkyne

text: Alkynes having four or more carbon atoms can form different structural isomers by having the triple bond in different positions or having some of the carbon atoms be substituents rather than part of the parent chain. Other non-alkyne structural isomers are also possible.


title: Alkyne

text: Commercially, the dominant alkyne is acetylene itself, which is used as a fuel and a precursor to other compounds, e.g., acrylates. Hundreds of millions of kilograms are produced annually by partial oxidation of natural gas:


title: Alkyne

text: Alkynes are prepared from 1,2- and 1,1-alkyl dihalides by double dehydrohalogenation. The reaction provides a means to generate alkynes from alkenes, which are first halogenated and then dehydrohalogenated. For example, phenylacetylene can be generated from styrene by bromination followed by treatment of the resulting of styrene dibromide with sodium amide in ammonia:


title: Alkyne

text: Via the Fritsch–Buttenberg–Wiechell rearrangement, alkynes are prepared from vinyl bromides. Alkynes can be prepared from aldehydes using the Corey–Fuchs reaction and from aldehydes or ketones by the Seyferth–Gilbert homologation.


title: Alkyne

text: Vinyl chlorides are susceptible to dehydrochlorination. Vinyl chlorides are available from aldehydes using the reagent (chloromethylene)triphenylphosphorane.


title: Alkyne

text: Featuring a reactive functional group, alkynes participate in many organic reactions. Such use was pioneered by Ralph Raphael, who in 1955 wrote the first book describing their versatility as intermediates in synthesis.


title: Alkyne

text: Being more unsaturated than alkenes, alkynes characteristically undergo reactions that show that they are "doubly unsaturated". Alkynes are capable of adding two equivalents of , whereas an alkene adds only one equivalent. Depending on catalysts and conditions, alkynes add one or two equivalents of hydrogen. Partial hydrogenation, stopping after the addition of only one equivalent to give the alkene, is usually more desirable since alkanes are less useful:


title: Alkyne

text: The largest scale application of this technology is the conversion of acetylene to ethylene in refineries (the steam cracking of alkanes yields a few percent acetylene, which is selectively hydrogenated in the presence of a palladium/silver catalyst). For more complex alkynes, the Lindlar catalyst is widely recommended to avoid formation of the alkane, for example in the conversion of phenylacetylene to styrene. Similarly, halogenation of alkynes gives the alkene dihalides or alkyl tetrahalides:


title: Alkyne

text: The addition of nonpolar bonds across is general for silanes, boranes, and related hydrides. The hydroboration of alkynes gives vinylic boranes which oxidize to the corresponding aldehyde or ketone. In the thiol-yne reaction the substrate is a thiol.


title: Alkyne

text: Addition of hydrogen halides has long been of interest. In the presence of mercuric chloride as a catalyst, acetylene and hydrogen chloride react to give vinyl chloride. While this method has been abandoned in the West, it remains the main production method in China.


title: Alkyne

text: The hydration reaction of acetylene gives acetaldehyde. The reaction proceeds by formation of vinyl alcohol, which undergoes tautomerizes to form the aldehyde. This reaction was once a major industrial process but it has been displaced by the Wacker process. This reaction occurs in nature, the catalyst being acetylene hydratase.


title: Alkyne

text: The hydration of phenylacetylene gives acetophenone, and the catalyzed hydration of 1,8-nonadiyne to 2,8-nonanedione:


title: Alkyne

text: Alkynes undergo diverse cycloaddition reactions. The Diels–Alder reaction with 1,3-dienes give 1,4-cyclohexadienes. This general reaction has been extensively developed. Electrophilic alkynes are especially effective dienophiles. The "cycloadduct" derived from the addition of alkynes to 2-pyrone eliminates carbon dioxide to give the aromatic compound. Other specialized cycloadditions include multicomponent reactions such as alkyne trimerisation to give aromatic compounds and the [2+2+1]-cycloaddition of an alkyne, alkene and carbon monoxide in the Pauson–Khand reaction. Non-carbon reagents also undergo cyclization, e.g. Azide alkyne Huisgen cycloaddition to give triazoles. Cycloaddition processes involving alkynes are often catalyzed by metals, e.g. enyne metathesis and alkyne metathesis, which allows the scrambling of carbyne (RC) centers:


title: Alkyne

text: Oxidative cleavage of alkynes proceeds via cycloaddition to metal oxides. Most famously, potassium permanganate converts alkynes to a pair of carboxylic acids.


title: Alkyne

text: Terminal alkynes are readily converted to many derivatives, e.g. by coupling reactions and condensations. Via the condensation with formaldehyde and acetylene is produced butynediol:


title: Alkyne

text: This reactivity exploits the fact that terminal alkynes are weak acids, whose typical p"K" values around 25 place them between that of ammonia (35) and ethanol (16):


title: Alkyne

text: The reactions of alkynes with certain metal cations, e.g. and also gives acetylides. Thus, few drops of diamminesilver(I) hydroxide () reacts with terminal alkynes signaled by formation of a white precipitate of the silver acetylide. This reactivity is the basis of alkyne coupling reactions, including the Cadiot–Chodkiewicz coupling, Glaser coupling, and the Eglinton coupling:


title: Alkyne

text: In the Favorskii reaction and in alkynylations in general, terminal alkynes add to carbonyl compounds to give the hydroxyalkyne.


title: Alkyne

text: Alkynes form complexes with transition metals. Such complexes occur also in metal catalyzed reactions of alkynes such as alkyne trimerization. Terminal alkynes, including acetylene itself, react with water to give aldehydes. The transformation typically requires metal catalysts to give this anti-Markovnikov addition result.


title: Alkyne

text: According to Ferdinand Bohlmann, the first naturally occurring acetylenic compound, dehydromatricaria ester, was isolated from an "Artemisia" species in 1826. In the nearly two centuries that have followed, well over a thousand naturally occurring acetylenes have been discovered and reported. Polyynes, a subset of this class of natural products, have been isolated from a wide variety of plant species, cultures of higher fungi, bacteria, marine sponges, and corals. Some acids like tariric acid contain an alkyne group. Diynes and triynes, species with the linkage RC≡C–C≡CR′ and RC≡C–C≡C–C≡CR′ respectively, occur in certain plants ("Ichthyothere", "Chrysanthemum", "Cicuta", "Oenanthe" and other members of the Asteraceae and Apiaceae families). Some examples are cicutoxin, oenanthotoxin, and falcarinol . These compounds are highly bioactive, e.g. as nematocides. 1-Phenylhepta-1,3,5-triyne is illustrative of a naturally occurring triyne.


title: Alkyne

text: Alkynes occur in some pharmaceuticals, including the contraceptive noretynodrel. A carbon–carbon triple bond is also present in marketed drugs such as the antiretroviral Efavirenz and the antifungal Terbinafine. Molecules called ene-diynes feature a ring containing an alkene ("ene") between two alkyne groups ("diyne"). These compounds, e.g. calicheamicin, are some of the most aggressive antitumor drugs known, so much so that the ene-diyne subunit is sometimes referred to as a "warhead". Ene-diynes undergo rearrangement via the Bergman cyclization, generating highly reactive radical intermediates that attack DNA within the tumor.


title: Paul Greene (actor)

text: Greene's first notable role was in the MyNetworkTV telenovela "Wicked Wicked Games", where he was a series regular appearing in 40 episodes (out of 65) as attorney Benjamin Gray. His other acting credits include guest roles in series such as "Freddie", "Shark", "The Wedding Bells", "My Own Worst Enemy", and "NCIS". Greene made his major-picture debut in Sofia Coppola's 2010 film "Somewhere". He also has appeared in over 100 television commercials. Green has also starred in several Hallmark movies over the past several years. He is now a regular on Hallmark’s When Calls the Heart, playing Hope Valley’s town doctor.


title: Paul Greene (actor)

text: Greene lives in Los Angeles with his son Oliver (he is co-parenting with his ex-wife Angi Greene) and is engaged to his girlfriend, Kate Austin, to whom he proposed in May 2019 in Italy. He and Kate had a son (his second child) they named Austin together on December 12, 2021. He loves playing beach volleyball with Ollie and watching the sunset; he also loves playing the guitar and singing (he writes his own songs). His mother is from the Netherlands; she was a nurse and has played in some of Paul's movies as an extra. His father died of ALS (Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, also known as motor neurone disease or Lou Gehrig's disease) in 2014.


title: Acoma Pueblo

text: Acoma Pueblo (, ) is a Native American pueblo approximately west of Albuquerque, New Mexico, in the United States. Four communities make up the village of Acoma Pueblo: Sky City (Old Acoma), Acomita, Anzac, and McCartys. These communities are located near the expansive Albuquerque metropolitan area, which includes several large cities and towns, including neighboring Laguna Pueblo. The Acoma Pueblo tribe is a federally recognized tribal entity, whose historic land of Acoma Pueblo totaled roughly . Today, much of the Acoma community is primarily within the Acoma Indian Reservation. Acoma Pueblo is a National Historic Landmark.


title: Acoma Pueblo

text: According to the 2010 United States Census, 4,989 people identified as Acoma. The Acoma have continuously occupied the area for over 2000 years, making this one of the oldest continuously inhabited communities in the United States (along with Taos and Hopi pueblos). Acoma tribal traditions estimate that they have lived in the village for more than two thousand years.


title: Acoma Pueblo

text: The English name "Acoma" was borrowed from Spanish (1583) or (1598). The Spanish name was borrowed from the Acoma word meaning 'person from Acoma Pueblo'. itself is derived from (singular; plural: ). The name does not have any meaning in the modern Acoma language. Some tribal authorities connect it to the similar word , 'preparedness, place of preparedness', and suggest that this might be the origin of the name. The name does not mean 'sky city'. Other tribal elders assert that it means 'place that always was', while outsiders say it means 'people of the white rock'.


title: Acoma Pueblo

text: "Acoma" has been spelled in various other ways in historical documents, including "ákuma, ákomage, Acus, Acux, Aacus, Hacús, Vacus, Vsacus, Yacco, Acco, Acuca, Acogiya, Acuco, Coco, Suco, Akome, Acuo, Ako," and "A’ku-me." The Spanish mission name was .


title: Acoma Pueblo

text: The Acoma language is classified in the western division of the Keresan languages. In contemporary Acoma Pueblo culture, most people speak both Acoma and English. Elders were forced to speak Spanish.


title: Acoma Pueblo

text: Pueblo people are believed to have descended from the Ancestral Puebloans, Mogollon, and other ancient peoples. These influences are seen in the architecture, farming style, and artistry of the Acoma. In the 13th century, the Ancestral Puebloans abandoned their canyon homelands due to climate change and social upheaval. For more than two centuries, there were migrations in the area. The Acoma Pueblo emerged by the 13th century. However, the Acoma themselves say the Sky City Pueblo was established in the 11th century, with brick buildings as early as 1144 on the mesa. Evidence for their antiquity is the unique lack of adobe in their construction. This early founding date makes Acoma Pueblo one of the earliest continuously inhabited communities in the United States.


title: Acoma Pueblo

text: The Pueblo is situated on a mesa, about west of Albuquerque, New Mexico. The isolation and location of the Pueblo has sheltered the community for more than 1,200 years as they sought protection from the raids of the neighboring Navajo and Apache peoples.


title: Acoma Pueblo

text: The first mention of Acoma was in 1539. Estevanico, a slave, was the first non-Indian to visit Acoma and reported it to Marcos de Niza, who related the information to the viceroy of New Spain after the end of his expedition. Acoma was called the independent Kingdom of Hacus. He called the Acoma people "encaconados," which meant that they had turquoise hanging from their ears and noses.


title: Acoma Pueblo

text: Lieutenant Hernando de Alvarado of conquistador Francisco Vázquez de Coronado's expedition described the Pueblo (which they called "Acuco") in 1540 as "a very strange place built upon solid rock" and "one of the strongest places we have seen." Upon visiting the Pueblo, the expedition "repented having gone up to the place." Further from Alvarado's report:


title: Acoma Pueblo

text: It is believed Coronado's expedition were the first Europeans to encounter the Acoma (Estevan was a native Moroccan). Alvarado reported that first the Acoma refused entry even after persuasions, but after Alvarado showed threats of an attack, the Acoma guards welcomed the Spaniards peacefully, noting that they and their horses were tired. The encounter shows that the Acoma had clothing made of deerskin, buffalohide, and woven cotton, as well as turquoise jewelry, domestic turkeys, bread, pine nuts, and maize. The village seemed to contain about 200 men.


title: Acoma Pueblo

text: Acoma was next visited by the Spanish 40 years later in 1581 by Fray Agustín Rodríguez and Francisco Sánchez Chamuscado, with 12 soldiers, 3 other friars, and 13 others, including Indian servants. The Acoma at this time were reported to be somewhat defensive and fearful. This response may have been due to the knowledge of the Spanish enslavement of other Indians to work in silver mines in the area. However, eventually the Rodríguez and Chamuscado party convinced them to trade goods for food. The Spaniard reports say the pueblo had about 500 houses of either three or four stories high.


title: Acoma Pueblo

text: In 1582, Acoma was visited again by Antonio de Espejo for three months. The Acoma were reported to be wearing mantas. Espejo also noted irrigation in Acomita, the farming village in the north valley near San Jose River, which was two leagues from the mesa. He saw evidence of intertribal trade with "mountain Querechos". Acoma oral history does not confirm this trade but only tells of common messengers to and from the mesa and Acomita, McCartys Village, and Seama.


title: Acoma Pueblo

text: Juan de Oñate intended to colonize New Mexico starting from 1595 (he formally held the area by April 1598). The Acoma warrior Zutacapan heard of this plan and warned the mesa and organized a defense. However, a pueblo elder, Chumpo, dissuaded war, partly to prevent deaths and partly based on Zutancalpo's (Zutacapan's son) mentioning of the widespread belief that the Spaniards were immortal. Thus, when Oñate visited on October 27, 1598, Acoma met him peacefully, with no resistance to Oñate's demand of surrender and obedience reported. Oñate demonstrated his military power by firing a gun salute. Zutacapan offered to meet Oñate formally in the religious kiva, which is traditionally used as the place to make sacred oaths and pledges. However, Oñate was scared of death and in suspicious ignorance of Acoma customs refused to enter via ladder from the roof into the dark kiva chambers. Purguapo was another Acoma man out of four chosen for Spaniard negotiations.


title: Acoma Pueblo

text: Soon after Oñate's departure, Gaspar Pérez de Villagrá visited Acoma by himself with a dog and a horse and asked for other supplies. Villagrá refused to get off his horse and left to follow Oñate's party. However, Zutacapan convinced him to return to receive supplies. In questioning by Zutacapan, Villagrá said that 103 armed men were two days away from Acoma. Zutacapan then told Villagrá to leave Acoma.


title: Acoma Pueblo

text: On December 1, 1598, Juan de Zaldívar, Oñate's nephew, reached Acoma with 20–30 men and peacefully traded with them and had to wait some days for their order of ground corn. On December 4, Zaldívar went with 16 armored men to Acoma to find out about the corn. Zutacapan met them and directed them to the homes with the corn. Zaldívar's people then divided into groups to collect the corn. The traditional oral Acoma narrative tells that a group attacked some Acoma women, leading Acoma warriors to retaliate. The Spanish documents do not report an attack on the women and say that the division of the men was a reaction to Zutacapan's plan to kill Zaldívar's party. The Acoma killed 12 of the Spaniards, including Zaldívar. Five men escaped, although one died from jumping over the citadel, leaving four to escape with the remaining camp.


title: Acoma Pueblo

text: On December 20, 1598, Oñate learned of Zaldívar's death and, after receiving encouraging advice from the friars, planned an attack in revenge, as well to teach a lesson to other pueblos. Acomas requested help from other tribes to defend against the Spanish. Among the leaders were Gicombo, Popempol, Chumpo, Calpo, Buzcoico, Ezmicaio, and Bempol (a recruited Apache war leader). On January 21, 1599, Vicente de Zaldívar (Juan de Zaldívar's brother) reached Acoma with 70 soldiers. The Acoma Massacre started the next day and lasted for three days. On January 23, men were able to climb the southern mesa unnoticed by Acoma guards and breach the pueblo. The Spanish dragged a cannon through the streets, toppling adobe walls and burning most of the village, killing 800 people (decimating 20% of the 4,000 population) and imprisoning approximately 500 others. Almost all of the remaining inhabitants were enslaved or left the town. The pueblo surrendered at noon on January 24. Zaldívar lost only one of his men. The Spanish amputated the right feet of men over 25 years old and forced them into slavery for 20 years. They also took males aged 12–25 and females over 12 away from their parents, putting most of them in slavery for 20 years. The enslaved Acoma were given to government officials and various missions. Two other Indian men visiting Acoma at the time had their right hands cut off and were sent back to their respective Pueblos as a warning of the consequences for resisting the Spanish. On the north side of the mesa, a row of houses still retains marks from the fire started by a cannon during this Acoma War. (Oñate was later exiled from New Mexico for mismanagement, false reporting, and cruelty by Philip III of Spain.)


title: Acoma Pueblo

text: Survivors of the Acoma Massacre rebuilt their community between 1599 and 1620. The town remained uninhabited for several months, out of fear of more attacks, until it began to be rebuilt in December 1599. Oñate forced the Acoma and other local Indians to pay taxes in crops, cotton, and labor. Spanish rule also brought Catholic missionaries into the area. The Spanish renamed the pueblos with the names of saints and started to construct churches in them. They introduced new crops to the Acoma, including peaches, peppers, and wheat. A 1620 royal decree created Spanish civil offices in each pueblo, including Acoma, with an appointed governor to take command. In 1680, the Pueblo Revolt took place, with Acoma participating. The revolt brought refugees from other pueblos. Those who eventually left Acoma moved elsewhere to form Laguna Pueblo.


title: Acoma Pueblo

text: The Acoma suffered high mortality from smallpox epidemics, as they had no immunity to such Eurasian infectious diseases. They also suffered raiding from the Apache, Comanche, and Ute. On occasion, the Acoma would side with the Spanish to fight against these nomadic tribes. Forced to formally adopt Catholicism, the Acoma proceeded to practice their traditional religion in secrecy, and combined elements of both in a syncretic blend. Intermarriage and interaction became common among the Acoma, other pueblos, and Hispanic villages. These communities would intermingle in a kind of creolization to form the culture of New Mexico.


title: Acoma Pueblo

text: Between 1629 and 1641 Father Juan Ramirez oversaw construction of the San Estevan Del Rey Mission Church. The Acoma were ordered to build the church, moving of adobe, straw, sandstone, and mud to the mesa for the church walls. Ponderosa pine was brought in by community members from Mount Taylor, over away. The church has an altar flanked by -high wood pillars. These are hand carved in red and white designs, representing Christian and Indigenous beliefs. The Acoma know their ancestors' hands built this structure, and they consider it a cultural treasure.


title: Acoma Pueblo

text: In 1970, it was placed on the National Register of Historic Places. In 2007, the mission church was designated a National Trust Historic Site, the only Native American site in that ranking as identified by the National Trust for Historic Preservation, a non-profit organization.


title: Acoma Pueblo

text: During the 19th century, the Acoma people, while trying to uphold traditional life, also adopted aspects of the once-rejected Spanish culture and religion. By the 1880s, railroads brought increased numbers of settlers and ended the pueblos' isolation.


title: Acoma Pueblo

text: In the 1920s, the All Indian Pueblo Council gathered for the first time in more than 300 years. Responding to congressional interest in appropriating Pueblo lands, the U.S. Congress passed the Pueblo Lands Act in 1924. Despite successes in retaining their land, the Acoma had difficulty in preserving their cultural traditions in the 20th century. Protestant missionaries established schools in the area, and the Bureau of Indian Affairs forced Acoma children into boarding schools. By 1922, most children from the community were in boarding schools, where they were forced to use English and practice Christianity. Several generations became cut off from their culture and language, with harsh effects on their families and societies.


title: Acoma Pueblo

text: About 300 two- and three-story adobe buildings stand on the mesa, with exterior ladders used to access the upper levels where residents live. Access to the mesa is by a road blasted into the rock face during the 1950s, navigable by car and bus. Footpaths down the mesa can still be used. Approximately 30 or so people live permanently on the mesa, with the population increasing on the weekends, as family members come to visit, and tourists, some 55,000 annually, visit for the day.


title: Acoma Pueblo

text: Acoma Pueblo has no electricity, running water, or sewage disposal. Reservation lands surround the mesa, totaling . Tribal members live both on the reservation and outside it. Contemporary Acoma culture remains relatively closed. According to the 2000 United States census, 4,989 people identify themselves as Acoma.


title: Acoma Pueblo

text: Acoma government was maintained by two individuals: a "cacique", or head of the Pueblo, and a war captain, who would serve until their deaths. Both individuals maintained strong religious connections to their work, representing the theocracy of Acoma governance. The Spanish imposed a group to oversee the Pueblo, but their power was not taken seriously by the Acoma. The Spanish group would work with external situations and comprised a governor, two lieutenant governors, and a council. The Acoma also participated in the All Indian Pueblo Council, which started in 1598 and arose again in the 20th century.


title: Acoma Pueblo

text: The Acoma control approximately of their traditional land. Mesas, valleys, hills, and arroyos dot the landscape that averages about in altitude, with about of rain each year. Since 1977, the Acoma have increased their domain through several land purchases. On the reservation, only tribal members may own land and almost all enrolled members live on the property. The cacique is still active in the community and is from the Antelope clan. The cacique appoints tribal council members, staff, and the governor.


title: Acoma Pueblo

text: In 2011, Acoma Pueblo and the Pueblo of Santa Clara were victims of heavy flooding. New Mexico supplied more than $1 million to fund emergency preparedness and damage repair for victims, and governor Susana Martinez requested additional funding from the Federal Emergency Management Agency.


title: Acoma Pueblo

text: Historically, engagements in warfare were common for Acoma, like other Pueblos. Weapons used included clubs, stones, spears, and darts. The Acoma later would serve as auxiliaries for forces under Spain and Mexico, fighting against raids and protecting merchants on the Santa Fe Trail. After the 19th century, raiding tribes were less of a threat and Acoma military culture began to decline. The war captain position eventually would change to a civil and religious function.


title: Acoma Pueblo

text: Acoma Pueblo has three rows of three-story, apartment-style buildings, which face south on top of the mesa. The buildings are constructed from adobe brick, with beams across the roof that were covered with poles, brush, and then plaster. The roof for one level would serve as the floor for another. Each level is connected to others by ladders, serving as a unique defensive aid; the ladders are the only way to enter the buildings, as the traditional design has no windows or doors. The lower levels of the buildings were used for storage. Baking ovens are outside the buildings, with water being collected from two natural cisterns. Acoma also has seven rectangular kivas and a village plaza, which serves as the spiritual center for the village.


title: Acoma Pueblo

text: About 20 matrilineal clans were recognized by the Acoma. Traditional child rearing involved very little discipline. Couples were generally monogamous, and divorce was rare. A quick burial followed death, then four days and nights of vigil. Women wore cotton dresses and sandals or high moccasin boots. Men wore cotton kilts and leather sandals. Rabbit and deer skin was also used for clothing and robes. In the 17th century, horses were introduced to the Pueblo by the Spanish. Education was overseen by kiva headmen, who taught about human behavior, spirit and body, astrology, ethics, child psychology, oratory, history, dance, and music.


title: Acoma Pueblo

text: Since the 1970s, Acoma Pueblo has retained control over education services, which have been keys in maintaining traditional and contemporary lifestyles. They share a high school with Laguna Pueblo. Alcoholism, drug use, and other health issues are prominent on the reservation and Indian Health Service hospitals and native healers cooperate to battle health problems. Alcohol is banned on the Pueblo. The community is served by the Acoma-Canoncito-Laguna (ACL) Hospital run by the Indian Health Services and located in Acoma. Today, 19 clans still remain active.


title: Acoma Pueblo

text: Traditional Acoma religion stresses harmony between life and nature. The sun is a representative of the Creator deity. Mountains surrounding the community, the sun above, and the earth below help to balance and define the Acoma world. Traditional religious ceremonies may revolve around the weather, including seeking to ensure healthy rainfall. The Acoma also use kachinas in rituals. The Pueblos also had one or more kivas, which served as religious chambers. The leader of each Pueblo would serve as the community religious leader, or "cacique". The cacique would observe the sun and use it as a guide for scheduling ceremonies, some which were kept secret.


title: Acoma Pueblo

text: Many Acoma are Catholic, but blend aspects of Catholicism and their traditional religion. Many old rituals are still performed. In September, the Acoma honor their patron saint, Saint Stephen. For feast day, the mesa is opened to the public for the celebration. More than 2,000 pilgrims attend the San Esteban Festival. The celebration begins at San Esteban Del Rey Mission, and a carved pine effigy of Saint Stephen is removed from the altar and carried into the main plaza with people chanting, shooting rifles, and ringing steeple bells. The procession then proceeds past the cemetery, down narrow streets, and to the plaza. Upon arriving at the plaza, the effigy is placed in a shrine lined with woven blankets and guarded by two Acoma men. A celebration follows with dancing and feasting. During the festival, vendors sell goods, such as traditional pottery and cuisine.


title: Acoma Pueblo

text: Before contact with the Spanish, Acoma people primarily ate corn, beans, and squash. "Mut-tze-nee" was a popular thin corn bread. They also raised turkeys, tobacco, and sunflowers. The Acoma hunted antelope, deer, and rabbits. Wild seeds, berries, nuts, and other foods were gathered. After 1700, new foods were noted in the historical record. Staples included blue corn drink, pudding, corn mush, corn balls, wheat cake, peach-bark drink, paper bread, flour bread, wild berries, and prickly pear fruit. After contact with the Spanish, goats, horses, sheep and donkeys were raised.


title: Acoma Pueblo

text: In contemporary Acoma, other foods are also popular, such as apple pastries, corn tamales, green-chili stew with lamb, fresh corn, and wheat pudding with brown sugar.


title: Acoma Pueblo

text: Irrigation techniques such as dams and terraces were used for agriculture. Farming tools were made of wood and stone. Harvested corn would be ground with hands and mortar.


title: Acoma Pueblo

text: In 1932, George R. Swank published a Master's thesis titled "The Ethnobotany of the Acoma and Laguna Indians," containing short sections on the Puebloans' history, culture and mythology as well as an extensive treatment of plant uses and names.


title: Acoma Pueblo

text: Historical Acoma economic practices are described as socialistic or communal. Labor was shared and produce was distributed equally. Trading networks were extensive, spreading thousands of miles throughout the region. During fixed times in the summer and fall, trading fairs were held. The largest fair was held in Taos by the Comanche. Nomadic traders would exchange slaves, buckskins, buffalo hide, jerky, and horses. Pueblo people would trade for copper and shell ornaments, macaw feathers, and turquoise. Since 1821, the Acoma traded via the Santa Fe Trail. The arrival of railroads in the 1880s made the Acoma dependent on American-made goods, which suppressed traditional arts such as weaving and pottery.


title: Acoma Pueblo

text: Today, the Acoma produce a variety of goods. They grow alfalfa, oats, wheat, chilies, corn, melon, squash, vegetables, and fruit, and they raise cattle. They have natural reserves of gas, geothermal, and coal resources. Uranium mines in the area provided work for the Acoma until their closings in the 1980s. After that, the tribe provided most employment. However, high unemployment rates trouble the Pueblo. The uranium mines left radiation pollution, causing the tribal fishing lake to be drained and some health problems within the community.