title: Stridor

text: Stridor (Latin for "creaking or grating noise") is a high-pitched extra-thoracic breath sound resulting from turbulent air flow in the larynx or lower in the bronchial tree. It is different from a stertor which is a noise originating in the pharynx. Stridor is a physical sign which is caused by a narrowed or obstructed airway. It can be inspiratory, expiratory or biphasic, although it is usually heard during inspiration. Inspiratory stridor often occurs in children with croup. It may be indicative of serious airway obstruction from severe conditions such as epiglottitis, a foreign body lodged in the airway, or a laryngeal tumor. Stridor should always command attention to establish its cause. Visualization of the airway by medical experts equipped to control the airway may be needed.


title: Stridor

text: Stridor is mainly diagnosed on the basis of history and physical examination, with a view to revealing the underlying problem or condition.


title: Stridor

text: Flexible fiberoptic bronchoscopy can also be very helpful, especially in assessing vocal cord function or in looking for signs of compression or infection.


title: Stridor

text: The first issue of clinical concern in the setting of stridor is whether or not tracheal intubation or tracheostomy is immediately necessary. A reduction in oxygen saturation is considered a late sign of airway obstruction, particularly in a child with healthy lungs and normal gas exchange. Some patients will need immediate tracheal intubation. If intubation can be delayed for a period, a number of other potential options can be considered, depending on the severity of the situation and other clinical details.


title: Desegregation busing

text: Race-integration busing in the United States (also known simply as busing, Integrated busing or by its critics as forced busing) was the practice of assigning and transporting students to schools within or outside their local school districts in an effort to diversify the racial make-up of schools. While the 1954 U.S. Supreme Court landmark decision in "Brown v. Board of Education" declared racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional, many American schools continued to remain largely uni-racial due to housing inequality. In an effort to address the ongoing "de facto" segregation in schools, the 1971 Supreme Court decision, "Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education", ruled that the federal courts could use busing as a further integration tool to achieve racial balance.


title: Desegregation busing

text: Busing met considerable opposition from both white and black people. The policy resulted in the movement of large numbers of white families to suburbs of large cities, a phenomenon known as white flight, which further reduced the effectiveness of the policy. Many whites who stayed moved their children into private or parochial schools; these effects combined to make many urban school districts predominantly nonwhite, reducing any effectiveness mandatory busing may have had.


title: Desegregation busing

text: Prior to World War II, most public schools in the country were "de jure" or "de facto" segregated. All Southern states had Jim Crow Laws mandating racial segregation of schools. Northern states and some border states were primarily white (in 1940, the populations of Detroit and Chicago were more than 90% white) and existing black populations were concentrated in urban ghettos partly as the result of restrictive covenants.


title: Desegregation busing

text: The origins of desegregation busing can be traced back to two major developments that occurred in the United States during the 1940s and 1950s.


title: Desegregation busing

text: Starting in 1940, the Second Great Migration brought five million blacks from the agrarian South to the urban and manufacturing centers in Northern and Western cities to fill in the labor shortages during the industrial buildup of World War II and for better opportunities during the post-war economic boom. "Shelley v. Kraemer" (1948) allowed them to settle in formerly white neighborhoods, contributing to racial tension. Meanwhile, the post-war housing boom and the rise of suburbia allowed whites to migrate into the suburbs. By 1960, all major Northern and Western cities had sizable black populations (e.g., 23% in Chicago, 29% in Detroit, and 32% in Los Angeles). Blacks tended to be concentrated in inner cities, whereas newer suburbs of most cities were almost exclusively white.


title: Desegregation busing

text: At the same time, the U.S. Supreme Court ruling in "Brown v. Board of Education" (1954) overturned racial segregation laws for public schools that had been in place in a number of states since the late 19th century, and ruled that separate but equal schools were "inherently unequal". Although the "Brown" decision affirmed principles of equality and justice, it did not specify how its ruling would promote equality in education. Thurgood Marshall and the NAACP wanted a speedy process for desegregating the school districts, but the Court waited until the following year to make its recommendations. Reasons for delaying had to do with the changes in the Court and with Chief Justice Earl Warren steering a careful course given the expected opposition from Southern states. In May 1955, the Court ruled in "Brown II" that the school districts desegregate "with all deliberate speed". Public school administrators had to begin the process of desegregating the schools through the development of policies that would promote racial mixing. A backlash of resistance and violence ensued. Even members of Congress refused to abide by the decision. In 1956 over a hundred congressmen signed the Southern Manifesto, promising to use all legal means to undermine and reverse the Court's ruling.


title: Desegregation busing

text: The momentum continued with two additional Supreme Court decisions aimed at implementation. In 1968, the Warren Court in "Green v. County School Board of New Kent County", rejected a freedom of choice plan. The Court ordered the county to desegregate immediately and eliminate racial discrimination "root and branch". Then in 1971, the Burger Court in "Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education" ruled that the school district must achieve racial balance even if it meant redrawing school boundaries and the use of busing as a legal tool. The impact of "Green" and "Swann" served to end all remnants of "de jure" segregation in the South. However, the consequence of the "Swann" decision ushered in new forms of resistance in subsequent decades. The decision failed to address "de facto" segregation.


title: Desegregation busing

text: Consequently, despite being found "inherently unequal" in "Brown v. Board of Education", by the late 1960s public schools remained "de facto" segregated in many cities because of demographic patterns, school district lines being intentionally drawn to segregate the schools racially, and, in some cases, due to conscious efforts to send black children to inferior schools. Thus, for example, by 1969, more than nine of every ten black students in Nashville still attended all-black schools. Evidence of such de facto segregation motivated early proponents of plans to engage in conscious "integration" of public schools, by busing schoolchildren to schools other than their neighborhood schools, with an objective to equalize racial imbalances. Proponents of such plans argued that with the schools integrated, minority students would have equal access to equipment, facilities, and resources that the cities' white students had, thus giving all students in the city equal educational opportunities.


title: Desegregation busing

text: A federal court found that in Boston, schools were constructed and school district lines drawn intentionally to segregate the schools racially. In the early 1970s, a series of court decisions found that the racially imbalanced schools trampled the rights of minority students. As a remedy, courts ordered the racial integration of school districts within individual cities, sometimes requiring the racial composition of each individual school in the district to reflect the composition of the district as a whole. This was generally achieved by transporting children by school bus to a school in a different area of the district.


title: Desegregation busing

text: The judge who instituted the Detroit busing plan said that busing "is a considerably safer, more reliable, healthful and efficient means of getting children to school than either carpools or walking, and this is especially true for younger children". He, therefore, included kindergarten children in the busing scheme: "Transportation of kindergarten children for upwards of forty-five minutes, one-way, does not appear unreasonable, harmful, or unsafe in any way." (Some research has shown however the deleterious effects of long bus rides on student health and academic achievement ). The resultant Supreme Court case, "Milliken v. Bradley", imposed limits on busing. The key issue was whether a district court could order a metropolitan-wide desegregation plan between urban Detroit and suburban school districts. Busing would play a key role in the implementation phase. The Court essentially declared that federal courts did not have the authority to order inter-district desegregation unless it could be proven that suburban school districts intentionally mandated segregation policies. The implication of the decision was that suburban school districts in the North were not affected by the principles established by "Brown". "De facto" segregation was allowed to persist in the North. The courts could order desegregation where segregation patterns existed, but only within municipalities, not suburban areas. The lasting consequence of the "Milliken" decision is that it opened the door for whites to flee to the suburbs and not be concerned about compliance with mandatory integration policies.


title: Desegregation busing

text: With waning public support, the courts began relaxing judicial supervision of school districts during the 1990s and 2000s, calling for voluntary efforts to achieve racial balance.


title: Desegregation busing

text: In the early 1990s, the Rehnquist Court ruled in three cases coming from Oklahoma City (in 1991), DeKalb County in Georgia (in 1992), and Kansas City (in 1995) that federal judges could ease their supervision of school districts "once legally enforced segregation had been eliminated to the extent practicable". With these decisions, the Rehnquist Court opened the door for school districts throughout the country to get away from under judicial supervision once they had achieved unitary status. Unitary Status meant that a school district had successfully eliminated segregation in dual school systems and thus was no longer bound to court-ordered desegregation policies.


title: Desegregation busing

text: Then in 2002, the Supreme Court upheld a lower court decision in "Belk v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education" which declared that the school system had achieved desegregation status and that the method to achieve integration, like busing, was unnecessary. The refusal of the Court to hear the challenges to the lower court decision effectively overturned the earlier 1971 "Swann" ruling.


title: Desegregation busing

text: Finally, in 2007, the Roberts Court produced a contentious 5–4 ruling in "Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1" (PICS). The decision prohibited the use of racial classifications in student assignment plans to maintain racial balance. Whereas the Brown case ruled that racial segregation violated the Constitution, now the use of racial classifications violated the equal protection clause of the 14th Amendment. Writing for the minority, Justice Breyer said the "ruling contradicted previous decisions upholding race-conscious pupil assignments and would hamper local school boards' efforts to prevent 'resegregation' in individual schools".


title: Desegregation busing

text: The struggle to desegregate the schools received impetus from the Civil Rights Movement, whose goal was to dismantle legal segregation in all public places. The movement's efforts culminated in Congress passing the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965. Signed by President Lyndon Johnson, the two laws were intended to end


title: Desegregation busing

text: discriminatory voting practices and segregation of public accommodations. The importance of these two laws was the injection of both the legislative and executive branches joining the judiciary to promote racial integration. In addition, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 authorized the federal government to cut off funding if Southern school districts did not comply and also to bring lawsuits against school officials who resisted.


title: Desegregation busing

text: One argument against the Civil Rights Act of 1964 that opponents of the proposed legislation found particularly compelling was that the bill would require forced busing to achieve certain racial quotas in schools. Proponents of the bill, such as Emanuel Celler and Jacob Javits, said that the bill would not authorize such measures. Leading sponsor Sen. Hubert Humphrey wrote two amendments specifically designed to outlaw busing. Humphrey said "if the bill were to compel it, it would be a violation [of the Constitution], because it would be handling the matter on the basis of race and we would be transporting children because of race". While Javits said any government official who sought to use the bill for busing purposes "would be making a fool of himself", two years later the Department of Health, Education and Welfare said that Southern school districts would be required to meet mathematical ratios of students by busing.


title: Desegregation busing

text: Another catalyst for the development of busing was an influential sociological report on educational equality commissioned by the U.S. government in the 1960s. It was one of the largest studies in history, with more than 150,000 students in the sample. The result was a massive report of over 700 pages. That 1966 report—titled "Equality of Educational Opportunity" (or often simply called the "Coleman Report" after its author James Coleman)—contained many controversial findings. One conclusion from the study was that, while black schools in the South were not significantly underfunded as compared to white schools, and while per-pupil funding did not contribute significantly to differences in educational outcomes, socially disadvantaged black children still benefited significantly from learning in mixed-race classrooms. Thus, it was argued that busing (as opposed to simply increasing funding to segregated schools) was necessary for achieving racial equality.


title: Desegregation busing

text: The impact of the "Brown v. Board of Education" ruling was limited because whites and blacks tended to live in all-white or all-black communities. Initial integration in the South tended to be symbolic: for example, the integration of Clinton High School, the first public school in Tennessee to be integrated, amounted to the admission of twelve black students to a formerly all-white school.


title: Desegregation busing

text: "Forced busing" was a term used by many to describe the mandates that generally came from the courts. Court-ordered busing to achieve school desegregation was used mainly in large, ethnically segregated school systems, including Boston, Massachusetts; Cleveland and Columbus, Ohio; Kansas City, Missouri; Pasadena and San Francisco, California; Richmond, Virginia; Detroit, Michigan; and Wilmington, Delaware. From 1972 to 1980, despite busing, the percentage of blacks attending mostly-minority schools barely changed, moving from 63.6 percent to 63.3 percent. Forced busing was implemented starting in the 1971 school year, and from 1970 to 1980 the percentage of blacks attending mostly-minority schools decreased from 66.9 percent to 62.9 percent. The South saw the largest percentage change from 1968 to 1980 with a 23.8 percent decrease in blacks attending mostly-minority schools and a 54.8 percent decrease in blacks attending 90%-100% minority schools.


title: Desegregation busing

text: In some southern states in the 1960s and 1970s, parents opposed to busing created new private schools. The schools, called segregation academies, were sometimes organized with the support of the local White Citizen's Council.


title: Desegregation busing

text: For the 1975–76 school year, the Louisville, Kentucky school district, which was not integrated due to whites largely moving to the suburbs, was forced to start a busing program. The first day, 1,000 protestors rallied against the busing, and a few days into the process, 8,000 to 10,000 whites from Jefferson County, Kentucky, many teenagers, rallied at the district's high schools and fought with police trying to break up the crowds. Police cars were vandalized, 200 were arrested, and people were hurt in the melee, but despite further rallies being banned the next day by Louisville's mayor, demonstrators showed up to the schools the following day. Kentucky Governor Julian Carroll sent 1,800 members of the Kentucky National Guard and stationed them on every bus. On September 26, 1975, 400 protestors held a rally at Southern High School, which was broken up by police tear gas, followed by a rally of 8,000 the next day, who marched led by a woman in a wheelchair to prevent police reprisals while cameras were running. Despite the protests, Louisville's busing program continued.


title: Desegregation busing

text: Congressional opposition to busing continued. Delaware senator (and future 46th US President) Joe Biden said "I don't feel responsible for the sins of my father and grandfather," and that busing was "a liberal train wreck." In 1977, senators William Roth and Biden proposed the "Biden-Roth" amendment. This amendment "prevented judges from ordering wider busing to achieve actually-integrated districts." Despite Biden's lobbying of other senators and getting the support of Judiciary Committee Chairman James Eastland, "Biden-Roth" narrowly lost.


title: Desegregation busing

text: Civil rights advocates see the 2007 joint ruling on "Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School Dist. No. 1" and "Meredith v. Jefferson County Board of Education" of the Roberts court as the inevitable consequence of gradual court decisions dating back to the early 1970s to ease judicial supervision and limit important tools to achieve integrated schools. Even those school districts that voluntarily created race-conscious programs are under pressure to abandon these efforts as the white parents are refusing to participate in any pupil assignment programs. In some cases, white parents filed reverse discrimination lawsuits in court. Wherever the courts have backed away from mandating school districts to implement desegregation plans, resegregation of Blacks and Latinos has increased dramatically. In 1988, 44 percent of southern black students were attending majority-white schools. In 2005, 27 percent of black students were attending majority white schools. By restricting the tools by which schools can address school segregation, many fear that the PICS decision will continue to accelerate this trend. The ruling reflects the culmination of the conservatives' central message on education, as alleged by the liberal Civil Rights Project, that "race should be ignored, inequalities should be blamed on individuals and schools, and existing civil rights remedies should be dismantled". In 2001 Congress passed the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) which was promptly signed by President George W. Bush. The law put a premium on student testing, not integration, to measure academic progress. Financial penalties were incurred on schools if students did not demonstrate adequate academic performance. While initially supported by Democrats, critics say the law has failed to adequately address the achievement gap between whites and minorities and that there are problems with implementation and inflexible provisions.


title: Desegregation busing

text: Support for the practice is influenced by the methodology of the study conducted. In a Gallup poll taken in the early 1970s, very low percentages of whites (4 percent) and blacks (9 percent) supported busing outside of local neighborhoods. However, a longitudinal study has shown that support for desegregation busing among black respondents has only dropped below 50% once from 1972 to 1976 while support among white respondents has steadily increased. This increased support may be due to the diminished impact of desegregation policies over time. A 1978 study by the RAND Corporation set out to find why whites were opposed to busing and concluded that it was because they believed it destroyed neighborhood schools and camaraderie and increased discipline problems. It is said that busing eroded the community pride and support that neighborhoods had for their local schools. After busing, 60 percent of Boston parents, both black and white, reported more discipline problems in schools. In the 1968, 1972, and 1976 presidential elections, candidates opposed to busing were elected each time, and Congress voted repeatedly to end court-mandated busing.


title: Desegregation busing

text: Ultimately, many black leaders, from Wisconsin State Rep. Annette Polly Williams, a Milwaukee Democrat, to Cleveland Mayor Michael R. White led efforts to end busing.


title: Desegregation busing

text: Busing is claimed to have accelerated a trend of middle-class relocation to the suburbs of metropolitan areas. Many opponents of busing claimed the existence of "white flight" based on the court decisions to integrate schools. Such stresses led white middle-class families in many communities to desert the public schools and create a network of private schools.


title: Desegregation busing

text: During the 1970s, "60 Minutes" reported that some members of Congress, government, and the press who supported busing most vociferously sent their own children to private schools, including Senator Ted Kennedy, George McGovern, Thurgood Marshall, Phil Hart, Ben Bradlee, Senator Birch Bayh, Tom Wicker, Philip Geyelin, and Donald Fraser. Many of the judges who ordered busing also sent their children to private schools.


title: Desegregation busing

text: Some critics of busing cited increases in distance to schools. However, segregation of schools often entailed far more distant busing. For example, in Tampa, Florida, the longest bus ride was nine miles under desegregation whereas it was 25 miles during segregation.


title: Desegregation busing

text: Critics point out that children in the Northeast were often bused from integrated schools to less integrated schools. The percentage of Northeastern black children who attended a predominantly black school increased from 67 percent in 1968 to 80 percent in 1980 (a higher percentage than in 1954).


title: Desegregation busing

text: In 1978, a proponent of busing, Nancy St. John, studied 100 cases of urban busing from the North and did not find what she had been looking for; she found no cases in which significant black academic improvement occurred, but many cases where race relations suffered due to busing, as those in forced-integrated schools had worse relations with those of the opposite race than those in non-integrated schools. Researcher David Armour, also looking for hopeful signs, found that busing "heightens racial identity" and "reduces opportunities for actual contact between the races".


title: Desegregation busing

text: A 1992 study led by Harvard University Professor Gary Orfield, who supports busing, found black and Hispanic students lacked "even modest overall improvement" as a result of court-ordered busing.


title: Desegregation busing

text: Economist Thomas Sowell wrote that the stated premise for school busing was flawed, as "de facto" racial segregation in schools did not necessarily lead to poor education for black students.


title: Desegregation busing

text: Busing integrated school age ethnic minorities with the larger community. The "Milliken v. Bradley" Supreme Court decision that busing children across districts is unconstitutional limited the extent of busing to within metropolitan areas. This decision made suburbs attractive to those who wished to evade busing.


title: Desegregation busing

text: Some metropolitan areas in which land values and property-tax structures were less favorable to relocation saw significant declines in enrollment of whites in public schools as white parents chose to enroll their children in private schools. Currently, most segregation occurs across school districts as large cities have moved significantly toward racial balance among their schools.


title: Desegregation busing

text: Recent research by Eric Hanushek, John Kain, and Steven Rivkin has shown that the level of achievement by black students is adversely affected by higher concentrations of black students in their schools. Additionally, the impact of racial concentration appears to be greatest for high-achieving black students.


title: Desegregation busing

text: In 1965 Massachusetts passed into law the Racial Imbalance Act, which ordered school districts to desegregate or risk losing state educational funding. The first law of its kind in the nation, it was opposed by many in Boston, especially less-well-off white ethnic areas, such as the Irish-American neighborhoods of South Boston and Charlestown, Boston.


title: Desegregation busing

text: Unlike Boston, which experienced a large degree of racial violence following Judge Arthur Garrity's decision to desegregate the city's public schools in 1974, Springfield quietly enacted its own desegregation busing plans. Although not as well-documented as Boston's crisis, Springfield's situation centered on the city's elementary schools. Much of the primary evidence for Springfield's busing plans stemmed from a March 1976 report by a committee for the Massachusetts Commission on Civil Rights (MCCR). According to the report, 30 of the city's 36 elementary schools were grouped into six separate districts during the 1974–75 school year, and each district contained at least one racially imbalanced school. The basic idea behind the "six-district" plan was to preserve a neighborhood feeling for school children while busing them locally to improve not only racial imbalances, but also educational opportunities in the school system.


title: Desegregation busing

text: Charlotte operated under "freedom of choice" plans until the Supreme Court upheld Judge McMillan's decision in Swann v. Mecklenburg 1971. The NAACP won the Swann case by producing evidence that Charlotte schools placed over 10,000 white and black students in schools that were not the closest to their homes. Importantly, the Swann v. Mecklenburg case illustrated that segregation was the product of local policies and legislation rather than a natural outcome. In response, an anti-busing organization titled Concerned Parents Association (CPA) was formed in Charlotte. Ultimately, the CPA failed to prevent busing. In 1974, West Charlotte High school even hosted students from Boston to demonstrate the benefits of peaceful integration. Since Capacchione v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Schools in 1999, however, Charlotte has once again become segregated. A report in 2019 shows that Charlotte-Mecklenburg schools are as segregated as they were before the Brown v. Board of Education decision in 1954.


title: Desegregation busing

text: In 1985, a federal court took partial control of the Kansas City, Missouri School District (KCMSD). Since the district and the state had been found severally liable for the lack of integration, the state was responsible for making sure that money was available for the program. It was one of the most expensive desegregation efforts attempted and included busing, a magnet school program, and an extensive plan to improve the quality of inner city schools. The entire program was built on the premise that extremely good schools in the inner-city area combined with paid busing would be enough to achieve integration.


title: Desegregation busing

text: In May 1968, the Southern Nevada chapter of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) filed a lawsuit against the Clark County School District (CCSD). The NAACP wanted the CCSD to acknowledge publicly, and likewise, act against the "de facto" segregation that existed in six elementary schools located on the city's Westside. This area of Las Vegas had traditionally been a black neighborhood. Therefore, the CCSD did not see the need to desegregate the schools, as the cause of segregation appeared to result from factors outside of its immediate control.


title: Desegregation busing

text: The case initially entered the Eighth Judicial District Court of Nevada, but quickly found its way to the Nevada Supreme Court. According to Brown II, all school desegregation cases had to be heard at the federal level if they reached a state's highest court. As a result, the Las Vegas case, which became known as "Kelly v. Clark County School District", was eventually heard by the U.S. Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals. On May 10, 1972, the Ninth Circuit handed down its decision in favor of the NAACP, which therefore required the CCSD to implement a plan for integration. The CCSD then instituted its "Sixth Grade Center Plan", which converted the Westside's six elementary schools into sixth-grade classrooms where nearly all of the school district's sixth graders (black and white alike) would be bused for the 1972–73 school year.


title: Desegregation busing

text: In 1963, a lawsuit, "Crawford v. Board of Education of the City of Los Angeles", was filed to end segregation in the Los Angeles Unified School District. The California Supreme Court required the district to come up with a plan in 1977. The board returned to court with what the court of appeal years later would describe as "one of if not the most drastic plan of mandatory student reassignment in the nation". A desegregation busing plan was developed, to be implemented in the 1978 school year. Two suits to stop the enforced busing plan, both titled "Bustop, Inc. v. Los Angeles Board of Education", were filed by the group Bustop Inc., and were petitioned to the United States Supreme Court. The petitions to stop the busing plan were subsequently denied by Justice Rehnquist and Justice Powell. California Constitutional Proposition 1, which mandated that busing follow the Equal protection clause of the U.S. Constitution, passed in 1979 with 70 percent of the vote. The "Crawford v. Board of Education of the City of Los Angeles" lawsuit was heard in the Supreme Court in 1982. The Supreme Court upheld the decision that Proposition 1 was constitutional, and that, therefore, mandatory busing was not permissible.


title: Desegregation busing

text: In comparison with many other cities in the nation, Nashville was not a hotbed of racial violence or massive protest during the civil rights era. In fact, the city was a leader of school desegregation in the South, even housing a few small schools that were minimally integrated before the "Brown v. Board of Education" decision in 1954. Despite this initial breakthrough, however, full desegregation of the schools was a far cry from reality in Nashville in the mid-1950s, and thus 22 plaintiffs, including black student Robert Kelley, filed suit against the Nashville Board of Education in 1955.


title: Desegregation busing

text: The result of that lawsuit was what came to be known as the "Nashville Plan", an attempt to integrate the public schools of Nashville (and later all of Davidson County when the district was consolidated in 1963). The plan, beginning in 1957, involved the gradual integration of schools by working up through the grades each year starting in the fall of 1957 with first graders. Very few black children who had been zoned for white schools showed up at their assigned campus on the first day of school, and those who did met with angry mobs outside several city elementary schools. No white children assigned to black schools showed up to their assigned campuses.


title: Desegregation busing

text: After a decade of this gradual integration strategy, it became evident that the schools still lacked full integration. Many argued that Housing Segregation was the true culprit in the matter. In 1970 the "Kelley" case was reintroduced to the courts. Ruling on the case was Judge Leland Clure Morton, who, after seeking advice from consultants from the United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, decided the following year that to correct the problem, forced busing of the children was to be mandated, among the many parts to a new plan that was finally decided on. This was a similar plan to that enacted in Charlotte-Mecklenburg Schools in Charlotte, North Carolina, the same year.


title: Desegregation busing

text: What followed were mixed emotions from both the black and white communities. Many whites did not want their children to share schools with black children, arguing that it would decrease the quality of their education. While a triumph for some, many blacks believed that the new plan would enforce the closure of neighborhood schools such as Pearl High School, which brought the community together. Parents from both sides did not like the plan because they had no control over where their children were going to be sent to school, a problem that many other cities had during the 1970s when busing was mandated across the country. Despite the judge's decision and the subsequent implementation of the new busing plan, the city stood divided.


title: Desegregation busing

text: As in many other cities across the country at this time, many white citizens took action against the desegregation laws. Organized protests against the busing plan began before the order was even official, led by future mayoral candidate Casey Jenkins. While some protested, many other white parents began pulling their children out of the public schools and enrolling them in the numerous private schools that began to spring up almost overnight in Nashville in the 1960s and 1970s. Many of these schools continued to be segregated through the 1970s. Other white parents moved outside of the city limits and eventually outside the Davidson County line so as not to be part of the Metropolitan District and thus not part of the busing plan.


title: Desegregation busing

text: In 1979 and 1980, the "Kelley" case was again brought back to the courts because of the busing plan's failure to fully integrate the Metropolitan Nashville Public Schools (MNPS). The plan was reexamined and reconfigured to include some concessions made by the school board and the Kelley plaintiffs and in 1983 the new plan, which still included busing, was introduced. However, problems with "white flight" and private schools continued to segregate MNPS to a certain degree, a problem that has never fully been solved.


title: Desegregation busing

text: In 1970 a federal court ordered the desegregation of the public schools in Pasadena, California. At that time, the proportion of white students in those schools reflected the proportion of whites in the community, 54 percent and 53 percent, respectively. After the desegregation process began, large numbers of whites in the upper and middle classes who could afford it pulled their children from the integrated public school system and placed them into private schools instead. As a result, by 2004 Pasadena became home to 63 private schools, which educated one-third of all school-aged children in the city, and the proportion of white students in the public schools had fallen to 16 percent. In the meantime, the proportion of whites in the community has declined somewhat as well, to 37 percent in 2006. The superintendent of Pasadena's public schools characterized them as being to whites "like the bogey-man", and mounted policy changes, including a curtailment of busing, and a publicity drive to induce affluent whites to put their children back into public schools.


title: Desegregation busing

text: In 1974, Prince George's County, Maryland, became the largest school district in the United States forced to adopt a busing plan. The county, a large suburban school district east of Washington, D.C., was over 80 percent white in population and in the public schools. In some county communities close to Washington, there was a higher concentration of black residents than in more outlying areas. Through a series of desegregation orders after the "Brown" decision, the county had a neighborhood-based system of school boundaries. However, the NAACP argued that housing patterns in the county still reflected the vestiges of segregation. Against the will of the Board of Education of Prince George's County, the federal court ordered that a school busing plan be set in place. A 1974 Gallup poll showed that 75 percent of county residents were against forced busing and that only 32 percent of blacks supported it.


title: Desegregation busing

text: The transition was very traumatic as the court ordered that the plan be administered with "all due haste". This happened during the middle of the school term, and students, except those in their senior year in high school, were transferred to different schools to achieve racial balance. Many high school sports teams' seasons and other typical school activities were disrupted. Life in general for families in the county was disrupted by things such as the changes in daily times to get children ready and receive them after school, transportation logistics for extracurricular activities, and parental participation activities such as volunteer work in the schools and PTA meetings.


title: Desegregation busing

text: The federal case and the school busing order was officially ended in 2001, as the "remaining vestiges of segregation" had been erased to the court's satisfaction. Unfortunately, the ultimate result has been resegregation through changes to county demographics, as the percentage of white county residents dropped from over 80% in 1974 to 27% in 2010. Neighborhood-based school boundaries were restored. The Prince George's County Public Schools was ordered to pay the NAACP more than $2 million in closing attorney fees and is estimated to have paid the NAACP over $20 million over the course of the case.


title: Desegregation busing

text: In April 1971, in the case "Bradley v. Richmond School Board", Federal District Judge Robert R. Merhige, Jr., ordered an extensive citywide busing program in Richmond, Virginia. When the massive busing program began in the fall of 1971, parents of all races complained about the long rides, hardships with transportation for extracurricular activities, and the separation of siblings when elementary schools at opposite sides of the city were "paired", (i.e., splitting lower and upper elementary grades into separate schools). The result was further white flight to private schools and to suburbs in the neighboring counties of Henrico and Chesterfield that were predominantly white. In January 1972, Merhige ruled that students in Henrico and Chesterfield counties would have to be bused into the City of Richmond in order to decrease the high percentage of black students in Richmond's schools. This order was overturned by the Fourth Circuit Court of Appeals on June 6, 1972, barring forced busing schemes that made students cross county/city boundaries. (Note: Since 1871, Virginia has had independent cities which are not politically located within counties, although some are completely surrounded geographically by a single county. This distinctive and unusual arrangement was pivotal in the Court of Appeals decision overturning Merhige's ruling). The percentage of white students in Richmond city schools declined from 45 to 21 percent between 1960 and 1975 and continued to decline over the next several decades. By 2010 white students accounted for less than 9 percent of student enrollment in Richmond. This so-called "white flight" prevented Richmond schools from ever becoming truly integrated. A number of assignment plans were tried to address the non-racial concerns, and eventually, most elementary schools were "unpaired".


title: Desegregation busing

text: In Wilmington, Delaware, located in New Castle County, segregated schools were required by law until 1954, when, due to "Belton v. Gebhart" (which was later rolled into "Brown v. Board of Education" on appeal), the school system was forced to desegregate. As a result, the school districts in the Wilmington metropolitan area were split into eleven districts covering the metropolitan area (Alfred I. duPont, Alexis I. duPont, Claymont, Conrad, De La Warr, Marshallton-McKean, Mount Pleasant, New Castle-Gunning Bedford, Newark, Stanton, and Wilmington school districts). However, this reorganization did little to address the issue of segregation, since the Wilmington schools (Wilmington and De La Warr districts) remained predominantly black, while the suburban schools in the county outside the city limits remained predominantly white.


title: Desegregation busing

text: In 1976, the U.S. District Court, in "Evans v. Buchanan", ordered that the school districts of New Castle County all be combined into a single district governed by the New Castle County Board of Education. The District Court ordered the Board to implement a desegregation plan in which the students from the predominantly black Wilmington and De La Warr districts were required to attend school in the predominantly white suburb districts, while students from the predominantly white districts were required to attend school in Wilmington or De La Warr districts for three years (usually 4th through 6th grade). In many cases, this required students to be bused a considerable distance (12–18 miles in the Christina School District) because of the distance between Wilmington and some of the major communities of the suburban area (such as Newark).


title: Desegregation busing

text: However, the process of handling an entire metropolitan area as a single school district resulted in a revision to the plan in 1981, in which the New Castle County schools were again divided into four separate districts (Brandywine, Christina, Colonial, and Red Clay). However, unlike the 1954 districts, each of these districts was racially balanced and encompassed inner city and suburban areas. Each of the districts continued a desegregation plan based upon busing.


title: Desegregation busing

text: The requirements for maintaining racial balance in the schools of each of the districts was ended by the District Court in 1994, but the process of busing students to and from the suburbs for schooling continued largely unchanged until 2001, when the Delaware state government passed House Bill 300, mandating that the districts convert to sending students to the schools closest to them, a process that continues . In the 1990s, Delaware schools would utilize the Choice program, which would allow children to apply to schools in other school districts based on space.


title: Desegregation busing

text: Wilmington High, which, many felt, was a victim of the busing order, closed in 1998 due to dropping enrollment. The campus would become home to Cab Calloway School of the Arts, a magnet school focused on the arts that was established in 1992. It would also house Charter School of Wilmington, which focuses on math and science, and opened up in 1996.


title: Desegregation busing

text: Delaware currently has some of the highest rates in the nation of children who attend private schools, magnet schools, and charter schools, due to the perceived weaknesses of the public school system.


title: Desegregation busing

text: Institutional racial segregation was coming to light in Indianapolis in the late 1960s as a result of Civil Rights reformation. U.S. District Judge S. Hugh Dillin issued a ruling in 1971 which found the Indianapolis Public Schools (IPS) district guilty of "de jure" racial segregation. Beginning in 1973, due to federal court mandates, some 7,000 African-American students began to be bused from the IPS district to neighboring township school corporations within Marion County. These townships included Decatur, Franklin, Perry, Warren, Wayne, and Lawrence townships. This practice continued on until 1998, when an agreement was reached between IPS and the United States Department of Justice to phase out inter-district, one-way busing. By 2005, the six township school districts no longer received any new IPS students.


title: Desegregation busing

text: According to the Civil Rights Project at Harvard University, the desegregation of U.S. public schools peaked in 1988; since then, schools have become more segregated because of changes in demographic residential patterns with continuing growth in suburbs and new communities. Jonathan Kozol has found that as of 2005, the proportion of black students at majority-white schools was at "a level lower than in any year since 1968". Changing population patterns, with dramatically increased growth in the South and Southwest, decreases in old industrial cities, and much increased immigration of new ethnic groups, have altered school populations in many areas.


title: Desegregation busing

text: School districts continue to try various programs to improve student and school performance, including magnet schools and special programs related to the economic standing of families. Omaha proposed incorporating some suburban districts within city limits to enlarge its school-system catchment area. It wanted to create a "one tax, one school" system that would also allow it to create magnet programs to increase diversity in now predominantly white schools. Ernest Chambers, a 34-year-serving black state senator from North Omaha, Nebraska, believed a different solution was needed. Some observers said that in practical terms, public schools in Omaha had been re-segregated since the end of busing in 1999.


title: Desegregation busing

text: In 2006, Chambers offered an amendment to the Omaha school reform bill in the Nebraska State Legislature which would provide for creation of three school districts in Omaha according to current racial demographics: black, white, and Hispanic, with local community control of each district. He believed this would give the black community the chance to control a district in which their children were the majority. Chambers' amendment was controversial. Opponents to the measure described it as "state-sponsored segregation".


title: Desegregation busing

text: The authors of a 2003 Harvard study on re-segregation believe current trends in the South of white teachers leaving predominantly black schools is an inevitable result of federal court decisions limiting former methods of civil rights-era protections, such as busing and affirmative action in school admissions. Teachers and principals cite other issues, such as economic and cultural barriers in schools with high rates of poverty, as well as teachers' choices to work closer to home or in higher-performing schools. In some areas black teachers are also leaving the profession, resulting in teacher shortages.


title: Desegregation busing

text: Education conservatives argue that any apparent separation of races is due to patterns of residential demographics not due to court decisions. They argue that the "Brown" decision has been achieved and that there is no segregation in the way that existed before the ruling. They further argue that employing race to impose desegregation policies discriminates and violates "Brown"s central warning of using racial preferences.


title: 7th century

text: The 7th century is the period from 601 (DCI) through 700 (DCC) in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Common Era. The spread of Islam and the Muslim conquests began with the unification of Arabia by Muhammad starting in 622. After Muhammad's death in 632, Islam expanded beyond the Arabian Peninsula under the Rashidun Caliphate (632–661) and the Umayyad Caliphate (661–750). The Muslim conquest of Persia in the 7th century led to the downfall of the Sasanian Empire. Also conquered during the 7th century were Syria, Palestine, Armenia, Egypt, and North Africa.


title: 7th century

text: The Byzantine Empire suffered setbacks during the rapid expansion of the Caliphate, a mass incursion of Slavs in the Balkans which reduced its territorial limits. The decisive victory at the Siege of Constantinople in the 670s led the empire to retain Asia Minor which assured the existence of the empire.


title: 7th century

text: In the Iberian Peninsula, the 7th century was known as the "Siglo de Concilios" (century of councils) referring to the Councils of Toledo. Northumbria established dominance in the British Isles from Mercia, while the Lombards maintained its hold in most of Italy.


title: 7th century

text: In China, the Sui dynasty was replaced by the Tang dynasty, which set up its military bases from Korea to Central Asia. China began to reach its height. Silla allied itself with the Tang dynasty, subjugating Baekje and defeating Goguryeo to unite the Korean Peninsula under one ruler. While the Asuka period persisted in Japan throughout the 7th century.


title: 7th century

text: Harsha united Northern India, which had reverted to small republics and states after the fall of the Gupta Empire in the 6th century.


title: West Coast Customs

text: West Coast Customs (abbreviated by the company as WCC) is an automobile repair shop focusing on the customization of vehicles. It was started by co-founders Ryan Friedlinghaus and Quinton Dodson in 1993. According to Friedlinghaus, he began the business with a $5,000 loan from his grandfather, but other sources claim that he raised the seed money for the business while working at his father's liquor store. Owing to the patronage of celebrities such as Shaquille O'Neal and Sean Combs, along with appearances in the reality television programs "Pimp My Ride" and "Street Customs", the company has gained a high degree of notoriety and has become a multimillion-dollar business.


title: West Coast Customs

text: Besides celebrities, West Coast Customs has also created vehicles for global brands such as Virgin, Nintendo, and Microsoft. It is frequently characterized as one of the best custom car shops in the United States. However, the company has also at times been accused of missing deadlines, using aggressive sales tactics, and producing low quality and potentially unsafe customized vehicles. Some observers and past employees have also criticized the company's employment practices.


title: West Coast Customs

text: It has had some success franchising outside of the United States; it has opened franchises in Dubai, and Shanghai (as ). Other franchises, however, such as the one in Berlin, closed shortly after opening due to becoming insolvent. With a long history of different locations within the U.S. state of California, its current flagship and largest facility of is headquartered in Burbank, California.


title: West Coast Customs

text: According to two contradictory statements in the "Los Angeles Times", West Coast Customs was founded in either 1994 or 1998 by auto enthusiast Ryan Friedlinghaus. In a 2008 article, "USA Today" put the foundation year as 1997. The legal entity, West Coast Customs International, LLC, was incorporated in California on October 20, 2000. A young Friedlinghaus had gotten his custom vehicles featured on the covers of auto magazines by age 14, but he became frustrated with the tedium of dealing with multiple specialty shops, which led to longer times to build the vehicles. According to "Entrepreneur", this frustration, coupled with his love for custom cars, was what led to his opening of his own shop.


title: West Coast Customs

text: The company moved many times in its early years, but it was at its Inglewood location that WCC began to gain a reputation for quality, which caused celebrities to have their cars modified there. According to Friedlinghaus, one of his first customers was Shaquille O'Neal, who wanted a customized Chevrolet Suburban, and this relationship helped him get contacts with other celebrities who were looking for custom automobiles. Owing to this, Music Television (MTV) offered Friedlinghaus the opportunity to have a reality television show filmed at his business with co-founder Quinton "Q" Dodson as the star and rapper Xzibit as the host; his acceptance of this deal led to the 2004 TV show "Pimp My Ride".


title: West Coast Customs

text: "Pimp My Ride" was extremely successful, spawning international spin-offs, and its success increased the profile of West Coast Customs substantially. The show's format was that the Film producer at MTV would find typical Americans with junk cars, they would be given a short interview with Xzibit, Friedlinghaus and the WCC crew to determine their interests and hobbies, and then WCC staff would fix their junk car and also transform it into a custom car embodying the interests and personality of its owner. In 2004, CBS News reported that the show consistently ranked first place in the 12 to 34-year-old demographic for its 9:30 pm time slot.


title: West Coast Customs

text: According to a former employee of the company at the time "Pimp My Ride" was filmed, most of the work on the vehicles was done behind the scenes. Cars and expectations for the final product would arrive on Monday, and employees had until the following Friday to complete a project, sometimes necessitating twelve hour work days. According to this employee, much of the off-screen labor was done by illegal immigrants from Mexico, around eleven in total. As the employees were of WCC and not MTV, MTV was apparently unconcerned about possible ramifications of this for them.


title: West Coast Customs

text: Owing to the popularity of "Pimp My Ride", West Coast Customs was prominently featured in the 2005 street racing video game "L.A. Rush" as the car upgrade mechanism. According to the "Chicago Tribune", Midway, the developer of the game, paid "handsomely" to be able to use the brand.


title: West Coast Customs

text: As early as 2005, during airing of the second season of "Pimp My Ride", rumors circulated that the location of the show would change and Friedlinghaus would part with MTV to host a show on a different network. These rumors were confirmed with simultaneous announcements by MTV and Friedlinghaus in 2007, after the fourth and final season with WCC as the shop.


title: West Coast Customs

text: In a 2007 interview in the "Los Angeles Times" that Friedlinghaus gave after the "Pimp My Ride" relocation from West Coast Customs to Galpin Auto Sports, Friedlinghaus credited "Pimp My Ride" with helping him build his brand, but said that he felt that his focus on building cars for the television show damaged his relationships with his other customers.


title: West Coast Customs

text: Nevertheless, after leaving "Pimp My Ride", Friedlinghaus would almost immediately begin a new television program that aired simultaneously on Discovery Channel and The Learning Channel, "Street Customs", produced by Pilgrim Films & Television. Instead of building the cars for the people chosen by MTV, the new show followed ongoing customizations being done for consenting customers of West Coast Customs. Friedlinghaus described the difference between the two shows thus: "I want to build cars on TV, not for TV." While the breakup was described as amicable, others at WCC were not so subdued: Sean Mahaney, a then-employee of WCC, reportedly said "Most of the MTV people are not real car guys... They pay us to build the cars, so we do what they want even if it sucks."


title: West Coast Customs

text: "Street Customs" would change names twice and networks four times, but its format remained constant. While cars would still be built for individuals, more and more episodes were devoted to brands as the show ran on. Because MTV was no longer footing the bill, all episodes of the new series were about cars built for people who could afford the high cost of customization. Some notable vehicles built for celebrities in "Street Customs" include one for Carroll Shelby, a Cadillac for Shaquille O'Neal (according to Friedlinghaus, O'Neal had already had 30 cars built for him by WCC by July 2007), a modified Range Rover for an unnamed member of the royal family of Dubai, and a Cadillac CTS-V for Justin Bieber. Brands built for included Chronic Tacos and Vans.


title: West Coast Customs

text: According to Friedlinghaus in an interview with "The Press-Enterprise", the 2008 global financial crisis affected his business heavily: he had to lay off half of the company's employees, orders decreased, and customers opted to have used cars repaired instead of buying brand new cars to be customized.


title: West Coast Customs

text: In 2010, West Coast Customs designed three identical customized 1955 Ford F-100 pick up trucks that were prominently featured in the film "The Expendables". One of these cars was for Sylvester Stallone, who sold it at auction in 2011 for $132,000. In 2015, WCC created a car by combining the body of a Ford Maverick and the internals of a Ford Ranger for another film, "".


title: West Coast Customs

text: After the 2009 season, the show was renamed "Inside West Coast Customs". Along with this change, it was also moved to Discovery HD Theater, which later became a different specifically automotive related cable channel, Velocity.


title: West Coast Customs

text: In 2012, "Jalopnik" reported that the rapper will.i.am and Friedlinghaus organized a publicity stunt wherein will.i.am pretended that his car, a DeLorean modified by West Coast Customs at a cost of $700,000, was stolen. Friedlinghaus then pretended to find the supposedly stolen car. No police report was filed, nor were the police even called; "Jalopnik" describes the event as a "viral marketing stunt gone badly".


title: West Coast Customs

text: In June 2013, Fox Sports Network took over the production of the show, dropping the word "Inside" from the show's name, and continued to produce new seasons of the show until 2016. In March 2017, the television show moved back to Velocity with a new season; Velocity then renewed the show in January 2018.


title: West Coast Customs

text: On August 29, 2018, it was announced Six Flags Magic Mountain was in the process of constructing a roller coaster named West Coast Racers, which was designed in part by West Coast Customs.


title: West Coast Customs

text: The company has moved several times in its history, each time to larger spaces. According to Friedlinghaus, the first shop was in Laguna Niguel, California, after which it moved to Compton, California, in 1998. In 2000, it moved again to a location on Olive Street in Inglewood, California. After the first season of "Pimp My Ride", the company moved yet another time to a larger location near Los Angeles International Airport that had a room specifically for the filming. After "Pimp My Ride" left the company, it moved to a location in Corona, California, in preparation for the "Street Customs" television show.


title: West Coast Customs

text: During filming of Season 5 Episode 12 "WCC's New Zip Part 1" of "West Coast Customs", Friedlinghaus began moving the shop to its current location, a auto shop on West Empire Avenue in Burbank, Los Angeles County, California. The grand opening of the new facility occurred in December 2014.


title: West Coast Customs

text: As early as 2008, "USA Today" noted that Friedlinghaus's auto shop routinely had 60-hour work weeks and employees had "insane deadlines" working for Friedlinghaus, a "self-described micromanager". One former employee, Mauricio Hernández, who would go on to co-found the Mexican franchise of WCC, claimed in an interview with "NPR" that during the period of his employment at the California branch (2004–2009), he worked ten to twelve hours per day, six days per week as an undocumented worker, without Social Security or any other benefits, and that by so doing he "missed...the childhood of [his] kids."


title: West Coast Customs

text: In an interview with "Entertainment Scoop", when asked "What does it take to be an employee at West Coast Customs?" Friedlinghaus replied, "Not saying, 'when do I go home?' The guys who want to stay and work and get things done...it's hard to find people that are good...[people who will do] whatever we ask them to do."


title: West Coast Customs

text: On April 23, 2014, after an investigation by the United States Department of Labor (USDOL), the company was found to have violated the provisions of the Fair Labor Standards Act. The government found that the company was not paying employees overtime or minimum wage nor keeping proper records. During the investigation, the government found that all employees were paid a weekly salary, regardless of how many hours they worked. Because employees were frequently coerced to work overtime, this resulted in a wage of $6/hour for some employees. Furthermore, until 2011, the company attempted to skirt minimum wage and overtime laws by classifying their on-site exclusive long-term employees as independent contractors, which is illegal in the United States.


title: West Coast Customs

text: When presented with the opportunity to go to court or pay the fine assessed by USDOL, Friedlinghaus chose to pay the fine, which amounted to $157,592 in back wages for the wronged employees and $16,830 in civil penalties. In an interview with "The Press-Enterprise" after the fine was paid, Daniel Pasquil, the director for the wages and hour division of the West Covina office of the USDOL, noted that "the most important thing is that the company did correct the violations" and stressed that the company is now in full compliance.


title: West Coast Customs

text: In 2015, "The Huffington Post" interviewed three people who were participants on "Pimp My Ride", one of whom had a vehicle that was "pimped" during the time that the location of the show was West Coast Customs, Jake Glazier (featured in Season 4 Episode 7, "Jake's Buick Century").


title: West Coast Customs

text: During the episode, the team at West Coast Customs were told that Glazier had recently graduated from a degree program in audio engineering, so they installed an MTX Jackhammer high fidelity sound system (with accompanying decibel meter and warning light, in the words of Xzibit, to stave off deafness) and a record player inside the dashboard. Other customizations were a flat black paint job (with a red metal flake paint job on the roof with scallops on the sides and hood to match), four-inch whitewall tires, removal of the muffler and installation of exhaust pipes, and black and white vinyl interior.


title: West Coast Customs

text: Besides problems caused by the long period of time that the vehicle was in the shop, for around one half of a year, Glazier claimed that the quality of the vehicle he received was also severely compromised. According to Glazier, when the muffler was removed, three "fake" exhaust pipes were substituted instead: these were used to make the engine sound much more powerful to viewers of the television show, but they made the car needlessly loud. He also claimed that very little or no mechanical work was done to the car, to the extent that he had trouble driving it home from the show's set. Due to all of the mechanical trouble, one month after acquiring the car from West Coast Customs, he sold it to MTX Audio for $18,000. According to Glazier, MTX did not buy the car to drive it, but merely to prevent it from falling into the hands of their competitors. Glazier further claimed that when it was time to receive the car, Dana "Big Dane" Florence intimidated him to act more enthusiastic for the cameras, saying "Listen, we put a lot of work into this. We expect you to be a little more fucking enthusiastic." Larry Hochberg, an executive producer for MTV at the time, disputed Glazier's statements, saying that in reality great lengths were taken to provide the participants in the show with automobiles in good driving condition, and that MTV even paid for some further repairs and tows after the cameras were rolling.


title: West Coast Customs

text: Despite the problems he faced with the vehicle, and with the caveat that he appear on a show with the same format as "Pimp My Ride" where MTV paid for all work done until the car was delivered (and for some afterwards, depending on who one believes), Glazier said he would happily participate in the program again if given the chance.


title: West Coast Customs

text: There have been several high-profile incidents of quality issues outside of the context of the MTV program. In 2015, Trisha Paytas, a singer-songwriter and internet personality, had their three-week-old 2014 Mercedes-Benz G-Wagen customized by WCC. Among other customizations, they requested that the car be painted pink, that Swarovski crystals be integrated into the headrests and steering wheel, and that the floormats be changed out with customized ones. According to Paytas, after bringing in their vehicle, they were promised that it would be ready by November 17, but the company missed both that deadline and a further one on December 9. After the second deadline was missed, they uploaded a vlog to YouTube about their experience, and thereafter claimed that WCC threatened them with a lawsuit if they refused to remove it. December 17 became the deadline that the company would ultimately keep, but when Paytas came to pick up the vehicle, they found that none of the electronic components worked, including those that are required for safety in the United States, such as turn signals, headlights, and windshield wipers. Furthermore, the dashboard instruments did not function. To their complaints about these issues, Paytas claims that the company told them to drive the car home and then to the Mercedes-Benz dealership from which they bought it to ask them for an in-warranty repair. Paytas uploaded yet another vlog five days after this incident, after which point WCC uploaded its own video in the form of a scrolling text public relations statement. In the statement, besides denying that they had "talked down" to Paytas, WCC denied that its customization was the reason for the issues with their vehicle, claimed that the vehicle was late because they had changed what they had ordered "several times", denied that they had ignored Paytas as Paytas claimed, and invited Paytas to contact them with any further requests or complaints for an "immediate resolution," noting that they had already committed to fix the problem (which, though they wrote it was "unrelated to their services", they would do it anyway "as part of providing excellent customer service"). The company also noted its track record, but did not provide any concrete details. As of December 23, 2016, the statement-as-YouTube video, which has had its comments disabled, had 261 "likes" and 1,652 "dislikes", or a ratio of 6.32 dislikes for every 1 like.


title: West Coast Customs

text: After receiving the repaired vehicle, Paytas wrote on Instagram that although "it was a bit of a struggle getting [it] [...] I do love my [car] so very very much."


title: West Coast Customs

text: In 2010, Chinese online game operator The9 Limited announced "Firefall", an MMO first-person shooter to be developed by Red 5 Studios as their first game. The game would enter closed beta in 2011, and open beta in 2013. Mark Kern, a video game designer, was appointed by The9 as CEO of the new Red 5 Studios. As CEO, one of Kern's major tasks was promoting the game, and he chose to do this in part with a custom designed tour bus worth 3 million made to look like one of the vehicles in the videogame and to be converted into a game room on wheels. The customization of the bus was featured on "Inside West Coast Customs" in Season 3 Episode 4. While in the episode itself it is made to appear that the bus was on-time, arriving at the Los Angeles 2012 Anime Expo which took place between June 29 and July 2, in reality it arrived much later than anticipated, according to both then-CEO Mark Kern and a report by "Tech in Asia". Kern also accused WCC of not delivering what he wanted and of going over budget, while "Tech in Asia" noted that the bus was delivered missing some of its key features, and that it missed all of the key video game conferences for the year 2011 (such as the Electronic Entertainment Expo 2012, which was held between June 5 and 7). According to their report, it now "sits in a warehouse somewhere, collecting dust." A Twitter parody of the bus describes itself as a "gross demonstration of capitalistic overindulgence."


title: West Coast Customs

text: West Coast Customs has attempted to franchise its brand to other parts of the world with limited success.


title: Log cabin

text: A log cabin is a small log house, especially a less finished or less architecturally sophisticated structure. Log cabins have an ancient history in Europe, and in America are often associated with first generation home building by settlers.


title: Log cabin

text: Construction with logs was described by Roman architect Vitruvius Pollio in his architectural treatise "De Architectura". He noted that in Pontus (modern-day northeastern Turkey), dwellings were constructed by laying logs horizontally overtop of each other and filling in the gaps with "chips and mud".


title: Log cabin

text: Historically log cabin construction has its roots in Scandinavia and Eastern Europe. Although their origin is uncertain, the first log structures were probably being built in Northern Europe by the Bronze Age (about 3500 BC). C. A. Weslager describes Europeans as having:


title: Log cabin

text: Nevertheless, a medieval log cabin was considered movable property (a chattel house), as evidenced by the relocation of Espåby village in 1557: the buildings were simply disassembled, transported to a new location and reassembled. It was also common to replace individual logs damaged by dry rot as necessary.


title: Log cabin

text: The Wood Museum in Trondheim, Norway, displays fourteen different traditional profiles, but a basic form of log construction was used all over North Europe and Asia and later imported to America.


title: Log cabin

text: Log construction was especially suited to Scandinavia, where straight, tall tree trunks (pine and spruce) are readily available. With suitable tools, a log cabin can be erected from scratch in days by a family. As no chemical reaction is involved, such as hardening of mortar, a log cabin can be erected in any weather or season. Many older towns in Northern Scandinavia have been built exclusively out of log houses, which have been decorated by board paneling and wood cuttings. Today, construction of modern log cabins as leisure homes is a fully developed industry in Finland and Sweden. Modern log cabins often feature fiberglass insulation and are sold as prefabricated kits machined in a factory, rather than hand-built in the field like ancient log cabins.


title: Log cabin

text: Log cabins are mostly constructed without the use of nails and thus derive their stability from simple stacking, with only a few dowel joints for reinforcement. This is because a log cabin tends to compress slightly as it settles, over a few months or years. Nails would soon be out of alignment and torn out.


title: Log cabin

text: In the present-day United States, settlers may have first constructed log cabins by 1640. Historians believe that the first log cabins built in North America were in the Swedish colony of Nya Sverige (New Sweden) in the Delaware River and Brandywine River valleys. Most of the settlers were actually Forest Finns, a heavily oppressed Finnish ethnic group originally from Savonia and Tavastia, who starting from the 1500s were displaced or persuaded to go inhabit and practice slash and burn agriculture (which they were famous for in eastern Finland) in the deep forests of inland Sweden and Norway, during Sweden's 600+ year colonial rule over Finland, who since 1640 were being captured and displaced to the colony. After arriving, they would escape the Fort Christina center where the Swedes lived, to go and live in the forest as they did back home. There they encountered the Lenni Lenape tribe of Delaware, whom they found a lot of cultural similarities with (slash & burn agriculture, sweat lodges/saunas, love of forests, etc.), thus they ended up living alongside and even culturally assimilating with them (they are the earlier and lesser-known Findian tribe, being overshadowed by the Ojibwe Findians of Minnesota, Michigan and Ontario, Canada). In those forests, the first log cabins of America were built, using traditional Finnish methods. Even though New Sweden only existed briefly before it was absorbed by the Dutch colony of New Netherland, which was eventually taken over by the English, these quick and easy construction techniques of the Finns not only remained, but spread.


title: Log cabin

text: Later German and Ukrainian immigrants also used this technique. The contemporaneous British settlers had no tradition of building with logs, but they quickly adopted the method. The first English settlers did not widely use log cabins, building in forms more traditional to them. Few log cabins dating from the 18th century still stand, but they were often not intended as permanent dwellings. Possibly the oldest surviving log house in the United States is the C. A. Nothnagle Log House () in New Jersey. Settlers often built log cabins as temporary homes to live in while constructing larger, permanent houses; then they either demolished the log structures or used them as outbuildings, such as barns or chicken coops.


title: Log cabin

text: Log cabins were sometimes hewn on the outside so that siding might be applied; they also might be hewn inside and covered with a variety of materials, ranging from plaster over lath to wallpaper.


title: Log cabin

text: Log cabins were built from logs laid horizontally and interlocked on the ends with notches (British English "cog joints"). Some log cabins were built without notches and simply nailed together, but this was not as structurally sound. Modern building methods allow this shortcut.


title: Log cabin

text: The most important aspect of cabin building is the site upon which the cabin was built. Site selection was aimed at providing the cabin inhabitants with both sunlight and drainage to make them better able to cope with the rigors of frontier life. Proper site selection placed the home in a location best suited to manage the farm or ranch. When the first pioneers built cabins, they were able to "cherry pick" the best logs for cabins. These were old-growth trees with few limbs (knots) and straight with little taper. Such logs did not need to be hewn to fit well together. Careful notching minimized the size of the gap between the logs and reduced the amount of chinking (sticks or rocks) or daubing (mud) needed to fill the gap. The length of one log was generally the length of one wall, although this was not a limitation for most good cabin builders.


title: Log cabin

text: Decisions had to be made about the type of cabin. Styles varied greatly from one part of North America to another: the size of the cabin, the number of stories, type of roof, the orientation of doors and windows all needed to be taken into account when the cabin was designed. In addition, the source of the logs, the source of stone and available labor, either human or animal, had to be considered. If timber sources were further away from the site, the cabin size might be limited.


title: Log cabin

text: Cabin corners were often set on large stones; if the cabin was large, other stones were used at other points along the sill (bottom log). Since they were usually cut into the sill, thresholds were supported with rock as well. These stones are found below the corners of many 18th-century cabins as they are restored. Cabins were set on foundations to keep them out of damp soil but also to allow for storage or basements to be constructed below the cabin. Cabins with earth floors had no need for foundations.


title: Log cabin

text: Cabins were constructed using a variety of notches. Notches can vary within ethnic groups as well as between them. Notches often varied on a single building, so their styles were not conclusive.


title: Log cabin

text: One method common in the Ohio River Valley in southwestern Ohio and southeastern Indiana is the Block House End Method. An example of this is found in the David Brown House.


title: Log cabin

text: Some older buildings in the United States Midwest and the Canadian Prairies are log structures covered with clapboards or other materials. Nineteenth-century cabins used as dwellings were occasionally plastered on the interior. The O'Farrell Cabin () in Boise, Idaho, had backed wallpaper used over newspaper. The C.C.A. Christenson Cabin in Ephraim, Utah () was plastered over willow lath.


title: Log cabin

text: Log cabins reached their peak of complexity and elaboration with the Adirondack-style cabins of the mid-19th century. This style was the inspiration for many United States Park Service lodges built at the end of the 19th century and beginning of the 20th century. Log cabin building never died out or fell out of favor. It was surpassed by the needs of a growing urban United States. During the 1930s and the Great Depression, the Roosevelt Administration directed the Civilian Conservation Corps to build log lodges throughout the west for use by the Forest Service and the National Park Service. Timberline Lodge on Mount Hood in Oregon was such a log structure, and it was dedicated by President Franklin D. Roosevelt.


title: Log cabin

text: In 1930, the world's largest log cabin was constructed at a private resort in Montebello, Quebec, Canada. Often described as a "log château", it serves as the Château Montebello hotel.


title: Log cabin

text: The modern version of a log cabin is the log home, which is a house built usually from milled logs. The logs are visible on the exterior and sometimes interior of the house. These cabins are mass manufactured, traditionally in Scandinavian countries and increasingly in eastern Europe. Squared milled logs are precut for easy assembly. Log homes are popular in rural areas, and even in some suburban locations. In many resort communities in the United States West, homes of log and stone measuring over are not uncommon. These "kit" log homes are one of the largest consumers of logs in the Western United States.


title: Log cabin

text: In the United States, log homes have embodied a traditional approach to home building, one that has resonated throughout American history. It is especially interesting to discover that, in today's world, log homes represent a technology that allows a home to be built with a high degree of sustainability. In fact, log homes are frequently considered to be on the leading edge of the green building movement.


title: Log cabin

text: Crib barns were a popular type of barn found throughout the U.S. south and southeast regions. Crib barns were especially ubiquitous in the Appalachian and Ozark Mountain states of North Carolina, Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee and Arkansas.


title: Log cabin

text: In Europe, modern log cabins are often built in gardens and used as summerhouses, home offices or as an additional room in the garden. Summer houses and cottages are often built from logs in northern Europe.


title: Log cabin

text: Chinking refers to a broad range of mortar or other infill materials used between the logs in the construction of log cabins and other log-walled structures. Traditionally, dried mosses, such as "Pleurozium schreberi" or "Hylocomium splendens", were used in the Nordic countries as an insulator between logs. In the United States, "Chinks" were small stones or wood or corn cobs stuffed between the logs.


title: Log cabin

text: Log cabins were constructed with either a purlin roof structure or a rafter roof structure. A purlin roof consists of horizontal logs that are notched into the gable-wall logs. The latter are progressively shortened to form the characteristic triangular gable end. The steepness of the roof was determined by the reduction in size of each gable-wall log as well as the total number of gable-wall logs. Flatter roofed cabins might have had only 2 or 3 gable-wall logs while steeply pitched roofs might have had as many gable-wall logs as a full story. Issues related to eave overhang and a porch also influenced the layout of the cabin.


title: Log cabin

text: The decision about roof type often was based on the material for roofing like bark. Milled lumber was usually the most popular choice for rafter roofs in areas where it was available. These roofs typify many log cabins built in the 20th century, having full-cut 2×4 rafters covered with pine and cedar shingles. The purlin roofs found in rural settings and locations, where milled lumber was not available, often were covered with long hand-split shingles.


title: Log cabin

text: The log cabin has been a symbol of humble origins in US politics since the early 19th century. At least seven United States presidents were born in log cabins, including Andrew Jackson, James K. Polk, Millard Fillmore, Franklin Pierce, James Buchanan, Abraham Lincoln, and James A. Garfield. Although William Henry Harrison was not one of them, he and the Whigs during the 1840 presidential election were the first to use a log cabin as a symbol to show Americans that he was a man of the people. Other candidates followed Harrison's example, making the idea of a log cabin—and, more generally, a non-wealthy background—a recurring theme in campaign biographies.


title: Log cabin

text: More than a century after Harrison, Adlai Stevenson acknowledged: "I wasn't born in a log cabin. I didn't work my way through school nor did I rise from rags to riches, and there's no use trying to pretend I did." Stevenson lost the 1952 presidential election in a landslide to Dwight D. Eisenhower.


title: Log cabin

text: A popular children's toy in the US is Lincoln Logs, consisting of various notched dowel rods that can be fitted together to build scale miniature-sized structures.


title: Just Dance 2019

text: Just Dance 2019 is a 2018 dance rhythm game developed and published by Ubisoft. It was unveiled on June 11, 2018, during its E3 press conference as the tenth main installment of the series, and was released on October 23, 2018 on Nintendo Switch, Wii, Wii U, PlayStation 4, Xbox One and Xbox 360 in North America. It was also released on October 25, 2018 in Europe and Australia. A demo for the game was released on November 12, 2018, on Xbox One, PlayStation 4, Wii U, and Nintendo Switch.


title: Just Dance 2019

text: "Just Dance 2019" was the last known game overall to be released for the Xbox 360 worldwide. It was also the last "Just Dance" game released on the Wii U console, and by extension, the final Wii U game to be published by Ubisoft.


title: Just Dance 2019

text: As with the previous installments of the franchise, players must mimic the on-screen dancer's choreography to a chosen song using either motion controllers or the game's associated smartphone app.


title: Just Dance 2019

text: The game's user interface received a significant redesign, with a focus on recommendations and curated playlists. It merged the World Dance Floor into the main "Just Dance" mode. Support for the Just Dance Controller app was absent on the Nintendo Switch version of the game, the only such occurrence in the entire series.


title: Just Dance 2019

text: Alongside of the brand new seasonal mechanic, the "World Dance Floor" mode has a brand new feature entitled seasonal points, where players earn points throughout the season.


title: Just Dance 2019

text: The online features from "Just Dance 2015" (the "Just Dance Wall" feature, the "challenge" feature, the online Autodance sharing feature and the "World Dance Floor" mode) were removed from the Wii, and Xbox 360 versions of the game, in which that said game was continued to be used as its basis.


title: Just Dance 2019

text: Drake's "Nice for What" was included in initial pressings of the game, but was removed from versions on eighth generation consoles via patches shortly after the release of the game itself due to licensing issues. However, the song can still be played on the Wii and Xbox 360 versions.


title: Just Dance 2019

text: "Just Dance Unlimited" is a subscription-based service for accessing a streaming library of songs, including new exclusives and songs from previous "Just Dance" games. As with all previous releases to include "Unlimited", the feature is only supported on eighth-generation consoles. As of the release of "2019", all future songs added to the service will be exclusive to it.


title: Just Dance 2019

text: "Nintendo Life" gave "Just Dance 2019" a 7 out of 10, noting that its stripped-down experience was "a strange shift to behold, suggesting that the game is trying to adapt to a new Spotify-using, social media-loving, older teen audience, or maybe growing up alongside those who have supported it from the beginning", and also acknowledged Ubisoft's continued emphasis on pushing its subscription-based offerings for the franchise, as well as performance issues and the removal of "Just Dance" Controller app support on the Nintendo Switch version.


title: Just Dance 2019

text: The game won the award for "Favorite Video Game" at the 2019 Kids' Choice Awards, and was nominated for "People's Choice" at the Italian Video Game Awards.


title: May It Be

text: "May It Be" is a song by Irish recording artist Enya. It was composed by Enya and Roma Ryan for Peter Jackson's 2001 film "". The song entered the German Singles Chart at number one in 2002 and was performed by Enya at the 74th Academy Awards. "May It Be" was acclaimed by music critics and received nominations for the Academy Award for Best Original Song, the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song, and the Grammy Award for Best Song Written for Visual Media.


title: May It Be

text: Director Peter Jackson approached Enya (under the suggestion of Howard Shore), asking if she would be interested in writing a song for "The Lord of the Rings". Thrilled at the prospect, Enya headed to New Zealand to see the preliminary edits of the film. Enya worked on the song with Nicky Ryan, her producer, and Roma Ryan, her lyricist. Nicky produced Enya's vocals and arranged the music while Roma wrote the lyrics. They recorded the song through Enya's contract with Warner Music in the Ryans' Dublin studio, Aigle Studio.


title: May It Be

text: The vocals were recorded in "Aigle Studios", Enya's Studio near Dublin and the orchestration was recorded in London, directed by Howard Shore and performed by the London Voices and London Philharmonic Orchestra. Compositionally, the piece is simple, featuring a backdrop of choir and strings. As Doug Adams commented, Enya's contributions "coexist so neatly," with Shore's score, that "neither Enya song is relegated to its own track."


title: May It Be

text: The lyrics of this theme song include English words, as well as words in the fictional Elvish language, Quenya, created by J.R.R. Tolkien. While Enya wrote music, Roma Ryan studied the languages and wrote the lyrics in English and Quenya. There are two lines with phrases written in Quenya. The first, "Mornië utúlië", translates to "Darkness has come." "Mornië alantië" translates as "Darkness has fallen." Each line repeats twice in the song, with the remaining song lyrics written in English. They are intermingled with the Quenya lyrics, as in the second stanza; ""Mornië utúlië", believe and you will find your way; "Mornië alantië", a promise lives within you now." Enya also performed another song "Aníron" for "The Lord of the Rings", which is sung in another of Tolkien's Elvish languages, Sindarin.


title: May It Be

text: "May It Be" was nominated for the 2002 Academy Award for Best Original Song, but lost to Randy Newman's "If I Didn't Have You" from "Monsters, Inc.", sung by John Goodman and Billy Crystal. It won the Las Vegas Film Critics Society Award for Best Song and the 2002 Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Song. It was nominated for the 2002 Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song, but lost to "Until" from "Kate & Leopold". The song received a 2003 Grammy Award nomination for Best Song Written for Visual Media.


title: May It Be

text: Enya performed her song at the Academy Awards on 24 March 2002. She was "absolutely" excited about the performance. For her it was the "first time to be nominated, and to get to perform, it's just wonderful, absolutely wonderful."


title: May It Be

text: Enya's "May It Be" has been featured on various albums. On 20 November 2001, it was released on "The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring" soundtrack, along with composer Howard Shore's original score "The Road Goes Ever On (Part 2)". It also came out as a single in Europe on 10 December 2001 and in the United Kingdom on 21 January 2002. "May It Be" entered the German Singles Chart at number one. It was Enya's second consecutive single to do so, following her song "Only Time". In 2005, it was released as part of the compilation "The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring: The Complete Recordings". This time, the version of the song was identical as featured in the movie's ending titles. Enya also included the song on her 2009 album, "The Very Best of Enya".


title: May It Be

text: The music video was directed by Peter Nydrle. It features clips from the film as well as Enya singing the song. The video runs for 3 minutes and 32 seconds.


title: May It Be

text: Many other artists have covered the song since Enya's original recording. Tara Scammell did so on 2004 album "Music from the Lord of the Rings Trilogy" by the Prague Symphony Orchestra, which consists of songs from all three movies. Celtic Woman performed "May It Be" on their 2005 self-titled album. Lisa Kelly of Celtic Woman included it on her 2006 album, "Lisa". Hayley Westenra recorded it in 2005 on her second international album, "Odyssey". It was also covered in 2006 by Lex van Someren for "Christmas Every Day" and Angelis for their self-titled album. It was sung on Cecelia’s 2007 album, "Amazing Grace". Sofia Källgren featured it on her 2008 album, "Cinema Paradiso". Other artists who have covered it include Uruk-hai, Hayley Griffiths (on Celtic Rose), and Kiri Te Kanawa. It was performed on 14 January 2012 by Faroese artist Eivør Pálsdóttir as part of the celebration of Margrethe II's 40th anniversary as Queen of Denmark. Jackie Evancho covered "May It Be" on her 2017 album "Two Hearts". Voces8 covered "May It Be" in their album Enchanted Isle in 2018. "May It Be" was sampled by Swiss DJ Dinka in her 2010 track "The Celtic of Scotland".


title: Hotchkiss School

text: The Hotchkiss School is a coeducational preparatory school in Lakeville, Connecticut, United States. Hotchkiss is a member of the Eight Schools Association and Ten Schools Admissions Organization. It is also a former member of the G30 Schools group.


title: Hotchkiss School

text: In 1891, Maria Harrison Bissell Hotchkiss, with guidance from Yale President Timothy Dwight V, founded the school to prepare young men for Yale University. In 1892, The Hotchkiss School opened its doors to 50 male boarding students for $600. Hotchkiss's endowment also precipitated scholarship aid to deserving students. In 1974, the school became coeducational.


title: Hotchkiss School

text: George Van Santvoord (g. 1908, Yale 1912), a headmaster hailed as the Duke with an honorary dorm, claimed there was only one school rule: "Be a gentleman." In 1954, "Time" recognized in "Education: The Duke Steps Down", that "of all U.S. prep schools, few, if any, can beat the standards Hotchkiss has set."


title: Hotchkiss School

text: Maria Hotchkiss was uninterested in establishing "a school for the pampered sons of rich gentlemen". The school has enrolled international students since 1896. In 1928, the school joined the English-Speaking Union and established the International Schoolboy Exchange. Established by the class of 1948, the Fund for Global Understanding enables student participation in summer service projects across the world. In 1953, Hotchkiss alumnus Eugene Van Voorhis (g. 1951, Yale '55, Yale Law ‘58) incorporated the Ulysses S. Grant Foundation program to assist minority New Haven students with boarding school admission, with Hotchkiss formally participating in addition to other recruitment initiatives from the 1960s onward, such as A Better Chance (ABC), Greater Opportunity (GO) summer program for inner-city students, and Prep for Prep to foster minority leaders.


title: Hotchkiss School

text: The school has a 43% diverse student body (21% international students), offers a School Year Abroad program, and is a member of the Global Education Benchmark Group (GEBG), Round Square, and Confucius Institute International Division (Hanban). In 2010, Hotchkiss partnered with Peking University High School to establish its study abroad, international division called Dalton Academy.


title: Hotchkiss School

text: in September 1974, 88 young women entered Hotchkiss as preps, lower-mids, upper-mids, and seniors. Since that beginning of coeducation the student body has grown to approximately a 50-50 gender balance in the student body.


title: Hotchkiss School

text: In 2015, a male student sued the school, alleging that he had been raped and sexually harassed in "an environment of well-known and tolerated sexual assaults, sexually violent hazing, and pedophilia". In the suit, he said the Dormitory Master and instructor had drugged him and lured him to his quarters where he was raped.


title: Hotchkiss School

text: In the lawsuit, he said he wrote an article for the student newspaper about the failure of the school to appropriately respond to complaints. The suit said the headmaster blocked publication and "conspired to prevent (the plaintiff) from informing the students, parents and the school community about the faculty members's sexual assault and his aberrant and predatory propensities and behavior."


title: Hotchkiss School

text: As a result of this complaint and others, the school hired a law firm to investigate. The law firm interviewed more than 150 people and reviewed more than 200,000 pages of documents.


title: Hotchkiss School

text: On August 16, 2018, the firm released its report, which found that seven former faculty members had abused students for years, yet school administrators took no action, even when made aware of the sexual misconduct. The report said that the abuse, stretching from 1969 through 1992, involved at least 16 students and consisted of intercourse and unnecessary "medical gynecological" exams.


title: Hotchkiss School

text: A former headmaster who had been serving on the board of trustees resigned after cooperating with investigators. Board of trustee representatives said the information would be turned over to law enforcement officials.


title: Hotchkiss School

text: Operating on a semester schedule, Hotchkiss offers a classical education, 224 courses, 7 foreign languages (Chinese, French, German, Greek, Latin, Russian, and Spanish), and study-abroad programs. In 1991, the "New York Times" recognized Hotchkiss' summer program as "Summer School for the Very Ambitious" and in 2011 as a private school leader in the farm-to-table movement, by incorporating agriculture into the curriculum since 2008. The year prior, the "Deerfield Scroll" featured that "many consider The Hotchkiss School to be the leader in environmental awareness among the top prep schools in the country."


title: Hotchkiss School

text: In 2007, "The Wall Street Journal" listed Hotchkiss as among the schools with a higher success rate (than Choate and Deerfield) in matriculation at Harvard, Princeton, and six others (excluding Yale).


title: Hotchkiss School

text: Hotchkiss fields 19 interscholastic sports teams that compete in the Founders League, Eight Schools Athletic Council, New England Preparatory School Athletic Council (NEPSAC), and Interscholastic Sailing Association's New England Schools Sailing Association (NESSA) district. Its colors are Yale Blue and white, with the mascot being the bearcat.


title: Hotchkiss School

text: In 1933, Samuel Gottscho photographed the Hotchkiss baseball team, which appears in the Library of Congress' Gottscho-Schleisner Collection.


title: Hotchkiss School

text: Despite Kent School's location in the same county, Hotchkiss and Taft School have a long-standing rivalry, where on the final Saturday of the fall sport season, called Taft Day at Hotchkiss and Hotchkiss Day at Taft, the two schools compete against each other in every sport. Similar boarding school traditions include the Andover–Exeter rivalry and Choate–Deerfield rivalry.


title: Hotchkiss School

text: Hotchkiss offers more than 65 clubs, including "The Record", a biweekly, student-run newspaper circulated on campus and among alumni, "The Mischianza" yearbook, the Hotchkiss Chorus music ensemble, and extensive service organizations such as the St. Luke's Society. Other notable organizations include Callioupe, the all-girls a cappella group; Bluenotes, the all-boys a cappella group; the Hotchkiss Speech and Debate Team; and Food for Thought, the school's philosophy club. The school also hosts an annual student-run film festival, The Hotchkiss Film Festival, that attracts student filmmakers from all over the world to compete for prizes and a scholarship.


title: Hotchkiss School

text: The school overlooks the Berkshires on a rural, campus featuring 12 single-sex dorms (Baechle-Ayres, Buehler, Coy, Dana, Edelman, Flinn, Garland, Memorial, Tinker, Van Santvoord, Wieler, and Redlich, opened in 2016) and 1 all-gender dorm (Watson), two lakes, and one forest. The Main Building serves as the academic and social center, featuring 30 SmartBoard classrooms, the Edsel Ford Memorial Library with 87,000-volumes occupying 25,000 square feet, and dining halls.


title: Hotchkiss School

text: An EPA Green Power Partner and Green Schools Ally, Hotchkiss requires all campus buildings to acquire LEED certification and was renovated to achieve the second highest, LEED Gold certification in 2008 and use 34% green power (ranked eighth largest, green K–12 school in 2009 by EPA), while upholding the Georgian architecture tradition from Bruce Price, Cass Gilbert, and Delano and Aldrich. The school renovation project earned Robert A.M. Stern Architects the 2010 Palladio Award, with Paul Rudolph and Butler Rogers Basket contributing elements of modern architecture.