title: Homosexuality in American football

text: Division II college football player Brian Sims came out as gay to his team in 2000 while playing for Bloomsburg University of Pennsylvania, and publicly told his story in 2009. Alan Gendreau was openly gay to his Middle Tennessee Blue Raiders football team from 2008 through 2011, but they made no mention of it to the media. Otherwise, he could have been the first publicly out gay active player in Division I college football. "Outsports", a Web site specializing in LGBTQ people in sports, released his story about being a gay football player on April 23, 2013. In January 2014, Conner Mertens of the Division III Willamette Bearcats publicly came out as bisexual, becoming the first active college football player at any level to publicly come out as bisexual.


title: Homosexuality in American football

text: After he retired, NFL player David Kopay in 1975 was the first major professional team-sport athlete to come out as gay. Prior to Carl Nassib's coming out, many experts believed that the first openly gay active NFL player would not be a current athlete, but instead an already out high school or college player who ends up in the NFL. CBSSports.com reported in April 2013 that one NFL team had a player that was not openly gay, but his teammates were aware that he was gay and did not care. That same month, Ayanbadejo said there were up to four NFL players who were considering coming out as gay on the same day with the hope that any backlash would be shared and the pressure on one person reduced. NFL commissioner Roger Goodell emphasized that sexual orientation discrimination was unacceptable in the NFL. His statement came after players said they were asked during the NFL Scouting Combine if they liked girls. In November 2018, former player Jeff Rohrer became the first known current or former NFL player to be in a same-sex marriage.


title: Homosexuality in American football

text: In February 2014, Sam publicly came out as gay after his college career had ended, and became the first publicly gay player drafted in the NFL when he was selected in the seventh round of the 2014 draft. Six months later, Chip Sarafin came out as gay, becoming the first active Division I player to come out as gay. The following season another Division I offensive lineman, Mason Darrow of Princeton, also came out as gay publicly. In August 2015, Sam became the first publicly gay player to play in a Canadian Football League (CFL) regular season game.


title: Homosexuality in American football

text: In 2017, Scott Frantz publicly came out as gay, joining My-King Johnson as two of the first openly gay players in the NCAA Division I Football Bowl Subdivision. Later that same year, Frantz became the first openly gay college football player to play in a game for an NCAA Division I Football Bowl Subdivision school.


title: Homosexuality in American football

text: In 2018, Bradley Kim of the Air Force Academy came out as gay, thus becoming the first openly gay football player to play for any military academy in the United States; open homosexuality was forbidden in the U.S. Armed Forces until 2012.


title: Homosexuality in American football

text: In August 2019, free agent Ryan Russell came out publicly as bisexual in an essay he penned for ESPN.


title: Homosexuality in American football

text: In June 2021, Raiders defensive end Carl Nassib came out as gay via Instagram. He announced a $100,000 donation to the Trevor Project as part of the post. Nassib was entering his sixth NFL season and the second year of his three-year contract with the Las Vegas Raiders. He became the first openly gay player to play in an NFL regular-season game.


title: Xeriscaping

text: Xeriscaping is the process of landscaping, or gardening, that reduces or eliminates the need for irrigation. It is promoted in regions that do not have accessible, plentiful, or reliable supplies of fresh water and has gained acceptance in other regions as access to irrigation water has become limited, though it is not limited to such climates. Xeriscaping may be an alternative to various types of traditional gardening.


title: Xeriscaping

text: In some areas, terms such as "water-conserving landscaping", "drought-tolerant landscaping", and "smart scaping" are used instead. The use of plants whose natural requirements are appropriate to the local climate is emphasized, and care is taken to avoid losing water to evaporation and runoff. However, the specific plants used in xeriscaping vary based on climate as this strategy can be used in xeric, mesic, and hydric environments. Xeriscaping is different from natural landscaping, because the emphasis in xeriscaping is on selection of plants for water conservation, not necessarily selecting native plants.


title: Xeriscaping

text: Xeriscaping produces greenspaces that require low amounts of maintenance and irrigation, and promote biodiversity; however, due to societal norms and lack of landscape understanding, public perception of xeriscaping has frequently been negative, as some assume that these types of landscapes are ugly expanses of just cactus and gravel. However, studies have shown that education in water conservation practices and xeriscaping's benefits can greatly improve the public's perception of xeriscaping.


title: Xeriscaping

text: Denver Water coined the term "xeriscape" in 1981 by combining "landscape" with the Greek prefix "xero-", from (), meaning 'dry'. The term "zero-scaping" (or "zeroscaping") is sometimes substituted for "xeriscaping" due to phonetic similarity. When used seriously, zero-scaping usually refers to a different type of low-water landscaping that uses very few plants or none at all. Because "o" is the most common connecting vowel in Greco-Roman vocabulary, "xeriscaping" is sometimes misspelled as "xeroscaping". Similar terms and phrases include "water-conserving landscaping", "drought-tolerant landscaping", and "smart scaping".


title: Xeriscaping

text: Xeriscaping has the potential to reduce water usage and maintenance, improve biodiversity, lower pollution, as well as mitigate heat within urban areas; however, the effectiveness of this sustainable process has not been evaluated on a long-term large-scale basis. Xeriscaping utilizes native/indigenous vegetation as opposed to store bought grass and imported plants to retain water and minimize supplemental irrigation. Currently within the United States it was found that in arid climates (such as Arizona and Nevada) that 75% of households' potable water was used to water residential and urban lawns. Current climate conditions have increased the frequency of droughts, impacting the availability of fresh drinking water. Xeriscaping helps preserve water for people and animals as it is more reliant on natural rainfall and minimal maintenance when compared to the current practiced greenspaces.


title: Xeriscaping

text: Xeriscapes can reduce water consumption by 60% or more compared to regular lawn landscapes. In Turkey, one of the first large scale xeriscaping evaluations was conducted. It was found that switching an average city park to more native vegetation in the region can lower irrigation usage by 30–50%. Assuming a water usage reduction of 30% it was found that a city can save roughly $2 million annually (however, this exact value is dependent on location). The use of native plants lowers the necessity of watering as the vegetation has already adapted to thrive in the climate and does not require assistance with irrigation or fertilization.


title: Xeriscaping

text: The Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design program has recognized xeriscaping as an effective water reduction process and has started to incorporate credits in the certification process across all their programs for facilities that reduce their outside water use and irrigation. This credit can be met by using xeriscape strategies and efficient irrigation systems. This further validates the beneficial claims behind xeriscaping, and it is anticipated that more energy and environmental credit systems as well state ran programs will encourage and incentivize xeriscaping for greenspace development.


title: Xeriscaping

text: While evaluating the cost of annual maintenance and park construction, xeriscaping drastically lowers these costs by roughly 55% and 57%, respectively. Aside from occasional weeding and mulching Xeriscaping requires far less time and effort to maintain. This is the case because under xeriscaping principles the vegetation used for urban greenspaces are indigenous to the area; therefore, are less expensive and require less assistance to acclimate and survive in the environment when compared to imported vegetation. This means that the systems use less water as well as lower rates of pesticides, and fertilizers when compared to current urban and residential greenspaces; this further helps lower annual maintenance costs. Furthermore, maintenance waste, such as lawn clippings, contribute organic waste to landfills and fertilizers contribute to urban runoff pollution; however, xeriscaping eliminates these negative effects as clippings are encouraged to remain on the greenspace which allows for a lower use of fertilizers.


title: Xeriscaping

text: Often times when areas develop there is a loss of forestation, and animal populations dwindle as they are forced to relocate. Implementing native vegetation in green spaces helps improve the insect and wildlife found in the environment as the habitat is reestablished to a degree, offering food and shelter to the wildlife. One application of xeriscaping that drastically improves biodiversity is the implementation of pocket forests.


title: Xeriscaping

text: Additionally, xeriscaping has been theorized to help offset the urban heating island (UHI) effect. UHI refers to the phenomenon in which urban areas are found to be hotter than neighboring rural sites due to large amounts of human activity. This temperature difference of a city area and its surroundings is usually higher at night as winds are lower and cannot dissipate the large amounts of heat generated in an urban area’s boundaries as readily. Upon investigating xeriscaping strategies in Phoenix, AZ, it was found that dry areas that utilized xeriscaping with shade trees were found to mitigate UHI effects during the day and night with an average temperature difference of roughly 2.5 C (4.5 F) cooler. However, when these same strategies were implemented in a mesic area, an environment with moderate amounts of moisture, it was found that thermal discomfort increased for residents and that these strategies had opposite effects to their intentions. Although xeriscaping strategies were found to mitigate UHI effects, it remains important to consider the climate and current landscape in which it is implemented in, in order to maximize its benefits and effectiveness.


title: Xeriscaping

text: Some homeowners associations (HOAs) have strict rules requiring a certain percentage of land to be used as lawns but these rules either have been or are in the process of being overturned in many areas. As it stands most states in arid and hot climate regions in the US have started to pass legislation that allows homeowners to design lawns using xeriscaping methods. These states are currently Texas, Nevada, Arizona, California, Colorado, Louisiana, and Florida. Most states currently do not have direct legislation regarding a homeowner’s right to landscape in relation to existing HOAs; however, most allow residents to at least protest HOA requirements and landscape their lawn with "reasonable" designs.


title: Xeriscaping

text: Originally conceived by Denver Water, the seven design principles of xeriscaping have since expanded into simple and applicable concepts to creating landscapes that use less water. The principles are appropriate for multiple regions and can serve as a guide to creating a water conserving landscape that is regionally appropriate.


title: Xeriscaping

text: Create a diagram, drawn to scale, that shows the major elements of the landscape, such as impervious surfaces, existing vegetation, and other permanent elements.


title: Xeriscaping

text: Once a base plan of an existing site has been determined, the creation of a conceptual plan (bubble diagram) is done which shows the areas for turf, perennial beds, views, screens, slopes, etc. Once finished, the development of a planting plan that integrates plants into zones is done.


title: Xeriscaping

text: Most plants will benefit from the use of a soil conditioner such as compost, which will help the soil retain water. However, some desert plants prefer gravel soils instead of well-amended soils.


title: Xeriscaping

text: Plants can either fit the soil or the soil should be amended to fit the plants. Soil is essential to most plant growth, so it is important that this step is not overlooked or undervalued.


title: Xeriscaping

text: A xeriscape can be irrigated efficiently by hand or with an automatic sprinkler system. In the design process it is recommended that turf areas are zoned separately from other plant sections, and that efficient irrigation methods used appropriately for each zone. For grass, use gear-driven rotors, or rotary spray nozzles, that have larger droplets and low angles to avoid wind drift. While drip line or bubbler emitters are most efficient for watering trees, shrubs, flowers and groundcovers.


title: Xeriscaping

text: If watering by hand, avoid oscillating sprinklers and other devices that throw water high in the air or release a fine mist. The most efficient sprinklers release big drops close to the ground.


title: Xeriscaping

text: When irrigating it is important to water deeply and infrequently to develop deep roots and healthy plants. To reduce water lost to evaporation, watering should be avoided during the day. The use of automatic sprinkling systems is highly encouraged as well as adjusting the controller monthly to accommodate weather conditions. It is often recommended to also install a rain sensor to shut off the device when it rains.


title: Xeriscaping

text: Greenspaces often have differing environmental conditions when considering amount of light per day (due to building shadows), wind, and moisture. To minimize water waste, it is essential to group together plants with similar light and water needs, and place them in areas of the greenspace that match these requirements; for example, moderate-water-use plants should be placed in low-lying drainage areas, near downspouts, or in the shade of other plants. Turf typically requires the most water and shrub/perennial beds will require approximately half the amount of water as the turf. Planting a variety of plants with different heights, color, and textures creates interest and beauty as well as promotes biodiversity.


title: Xeriscaping

text: Mulch keeps plant roots cool, prevents soil from crusting, minimizes evaporation, and reduces weed growth. Organic mulches, such as bark chips, pole peelings, or wood grindings, should be applied 2 to 4 inches deep to help promote root growth. Fiber mulches create a web that is more resistant to wind and rain washout. When using inorganic mulches, such as rocks and gravel, they should be applied 2 to 3 inches deep. Surrounding plants with rock makes the area hotter as they absorb sunlight, so it is recommended to limit this practice when xeriscaping.


title: Xeriscaping

text: Turf areas use the most water so it is important to use the appropriate grass as well as limit the amount of grass in the environment. Native grasses (warm-season) that have been cultivated for turf lawns, such as "buffalo grass" and "blue grama", can survive with a quarter of the water that "bluegrass" varieties need. Warm-season grasses are greenest in June through September and may go dormant during colder months.


title: Xeriscaping

text: Native grasses (cool season) such as "bluegrass" and "tall fescue", are greenest in the spring and fall and go dormant in the high heat of the summer. New cultivars of "bluegrass", such as Reveille, and "tall fescue", can reduce typical "bluegrass" water requirements by at least 30%. "Fine fescues" can provide substantial water savings and are best used in areas that receive low traffic or highly shaded locations.


title: Xeriscaping

text: All landscapes require some degree of care during the year. Turf requires spring and fall aeration along with regular fertilization every 6 to 8 weeks. Additionally, the turf should be cut to a height of 3 inches with a bagless lawnmower, allowing the clippings to fall. Trees, shrubs, and perennials will need occasional pruning to remove dead stems, promote blooming, or control height and spread. To promote zero waste and avoid adding organic materials to landfills, the removed plant material can be shredded and used in composting piles.


title: Xeriscaping

text: One of the major challenges to the public acceptance of xeriscaping is the cultural attachment to turf grass lawns. Originally implemented in England, lawns have become in some regions a symbol of prosperity, order, and community. In the United States, turf grasses are so common that it is the single most irrigated nonfood crop by surface area, covering nearly . Despite the high water, fertilizer, and maintenance costs associated with lawns, they have become the social norm in urban and suburban areas, even if they are rarely used for recreational or other purposes. Xeriscaping offers an alternative to the over-use of turf grass lawns, but are not widely accepted because of preconceived notions of what it means to xeriscape. Xeriscaping can include lawn areas but seeks to reduce them to areas that will actually be used, rather than using them as a default landscaping plan. Furthermore, xeriscaping is closely linked to movements and ideologies that advocate for more natural vegetation in residential and urban areas. One form of xeriscaping that has received a lot of attention is the implementation of pocket forests.


title: Xeriscaping

text: Akira Miyawaki is a Japanese botanist that developed the idea of pocket forests which reintroduces indigenous trees and vegetation to developed environments in order to promote strong biodiversity. The method calls for the planting naturally occurring trees and shrubbery densely into small compact areas, that can range from a size of a tennis court to a parking space. These pocket forests increase biodiversity, reduce noise (if placed near streets or noise polluters), improve air quality and soil retention, help with reforestation, and efficiently capture carbon dioxide. In order to promote fast growth and biodiversity the engineered ecosystem requires a layering of vegetation: the ground layer, a shrub layer, and a canopy layer. Due to this compact layering these forests usually are well established within two decades rather than the 70-plus years it takes for naturally occurring forests.


title: Xeriscaping

text: Other forms of xeriscaping include rain gardens. These gardens are used to reduce the amount of runoff from impervious areas (such as roofs, driveways, sidewalks, etc.) and rely on water retentive plants and soil mediums to help filter pollutants from the storm water before it is reintroduced into aquifers and storm drains. These gardens require little irrigation and maintenance, and help protect waterways and remove pollutants.


title: Xeriscaping

text: There are many other forms and applications of xeriscaping: it is essentially any form of landscaping that requires little to no irrigation. However, it is important to take note of the environment before implementation, and follow the principles, as success of one type of xeriscape in a xeric climate might not have the same effects if it were implemented in a mesic or hydric environment.


title: Cindy Bishop

text: Cynthia Carmen Burbridge-Bishop (; born December 30, 1978) or Sirinya Burbridge (), is a Thai model, actress, beauty pageant titleholder and activist. She is best known as the host and judge on "Asia's Next Top Model".


title: Cindy Bishop

text: Bishop was born in Bangkok and raised in Pattaya. Her father, William Burbridge, is American and her mother, Patricia, is half English, one-quarter Indian and one-quarter Thai. Bishop attended Ruamrudee International School in Bangkok and graduated from Public Relations at Bangkok University


title: Cindy Bishop

text: In 2005, she married Byron Bishop, a Japanese American model and had two children, Leila Carmen and Aiden.


title: Cindy Bishop

text: Bishop started diving at the age of 5 and through this landed her first modelling contract for an underwater commercial shoot for a diving equipment store.


title: Cindy Bishop

text: In 1996, Bishop won the Miss Thailand World pageant and represented Thailand in the Miss World pageant in Bangalore, India where she was unplaced and didn't make it to the semi-finals.


title: Cindy Bishop

text: Bishop's work in films include "The King Maker", which she was nominated for best supporting actress at the 2005 Suphanahong Awards in Thailand, and "All I See is You" (2016). She has also starred in numerous Thai drama series such as "", playing the role of Lily Wijitranukul, City Of Light ("The OC" "Thailand") (Thai adaptation of the original American series), "Clueless" and "From Dreams to Eternity".


title: Cindy Bishop

text: In 2016, Bishop presented the fourth cycle of "Asia's Next Top Model" and still continues her role until the sixth cycle in 2018. She also hosted 2 episodes of Britain's Next Top Model Cycle 12.


title: Cindy Bishop

text: In 2021, Bishop starred in "", the Thai adaptation of the popular Japanese shōjo manga "Boys Over Flowers" by Yoko Kamio. She played the role of Thyme's (Bright aka Vachirawit Chivaaree ) mother.


title: Cindy Bishop

text: In 2018, Bishop launched a social-media campaign, #DontTellMeHowToDress. Later she posted a video with her message "Don’t tell women what to wear; tell men to respect women" that has taken the internet by storm. Bishop teamed up with the Thai Women and Men Progressive Movement Foundation and UN Women turned the campaign into an exhibition, starting Jun 25, 2018, to raise awareness of sexual harassment and victim-blaming in Thailand.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: A ceramic capacitor is a fixed-value capacitor where the ceramic material acts as the dielectric. It is constructed of two or more alternating layers of ceramic and a metal layer acting as the electrodes. The composition of the ceramic material defines the electrical behavior and therefore applications. Ceramic capacitors are divided into two application classes:


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: Ceramic capacitors, especially multilayer ceramic capacitors (MLCCs), are the most produced and used capacitors in electronic equipment that incorporate approximately one trillion (10) pieces per year.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: Ceramic capacitors of special shapes and styles are used as capacitors for RFI/EMI suppression, as feed-through capacitors and in larger dimensions as power capacitors for transmitters.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: Since the beginning of the study of electricity non-conductive materials such as glass, porcelain, paper and mica have been used as insulators. These materials some decades later were also well-suited for further use as the dielectric for the first capacitors.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: Even in the early years of Marconi's wireless transmitting apparatus, porcelain capacitors were used for high voltage and high frequency application in the transmitters. On the receiver side, the smaller mica capacitors were used for resonant circuits. Mica dielectric capacitors were invented in 1909 by William Dubilier. Prior to World War II, mica was the most common dielectric for capacitors in the United States.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: Mica is a natural material and not available in unlimited quantities. So in the mid-1920s the deficiency of mica in Germany and the experience in porcelain—a special class of ceramic—led in Germany to the first capacitors using ceramic as dielectric, founding a new family of ceramic capacitors. Paraelectric titanium dioxide (rutile) was used as the first ceramic dielectric because it had a linear temperature dependence of capacitance for temperature compensation of resonant circuits and can replace mica capacitors. In 1926 these ceramic capacitors were produced in small quantities with increasing quantities in the 1940s. The style of these early ceramics was a disc with metallization on both sides contacted with tinned wires. This style predates the transistor and was used extensively in vacuum-tube equipment (e.g., radio receivers) from about 1930 through the 1950s.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: But this paraelectric dielectric had relatively low permittivity so that only small capacitance values could be realized. The expanding market of radios in the 1930s and 1940s create a demand for higher capacitance values but below electrolytic capacitors for HF decoupling applications. Discovered in 1921, the ferroelectric ceramic material barium titanate with a permittivity in the range of 1,000, about ten times greater than titanium dioxide or mica, began to play a much larger role in electronic applications.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: The higher permittivity resulted in much higher capacitance values, but this was coupled with relatively unstable electrical parameters. Therefore, these ceramic capacitors only could replace the commonly used mica capacitors for applications where stability was less important. Smaller dimensions, as compared to the mica capacitors, lower production costs and independence from mica availability accelerated their acceptance.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: The fast-growing broadcasting industry after the Second World War drove deeper understanding of the crystallography, phase transitions and the chemical and mechanical optimization of the ceramic materials. Through the complex mixture of different basic materials, the electrical properties of ceramic capacitors can be precisely adjusted. To distinguish the electrical properties of ceramic capacitors, standardization defined several different application classes (Class 1, Class 2, Class 3). It is remarkable that the separate development during the War and the time afterwards in the US and the European market had led to different definitions of these classes (EIA vs IEC), and only recently (since 2010) has a worldwide harmonization to the IEC standardization taken place.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: The typical style for ceramic capacitors beneath the disc (at that time called condensers) in radio applications at the time after the War from the 1950s through the 1970s was a ceramic tube covered with tin or silver on both the inside and outside surface. It included relatively long terminals forming, together with resistors and other components, a tangle of open circuit wiring.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: The easy-to-mold ceramic material facilitated the development of special and large styles of ceramic capacitors for high-voltage, high-frequency (RF) and power applications.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: With the development of semiconductor technology in the 1950s, barrier layer capacitors, or IEC class 3/EIA class IV capacitors, were developed using doped ferroelectric ceramics. Because this doped material was not suitable to produce multilayers, they were replaced decades later by Y5V class 2 capacitors.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: The early style of the ceramic disc capacitor could be more cheaply produced than the common ceramic tube capacitors in the 1950s and 1970s. An American company in the midst of the Apollo program, launched in 1961, pioneered the stacking of multiple discs to create a monolithic block. This "multi-layer ceramic capacitor" (MLCC) was compact and offered high-capacitance capacitors. The production of these capacitors using the tape casting and ceramic-electrode cofiring processes was a great manufacturing challenge. MLCCs expanded the range of applications to those requiring larger capacitance values in smaller cases. These ceramic chip capacitors were the driving force behind the conversion of electronic devices from through-hole mounting to surface-mount technology in the 1980s. Polarized electrolytic capacitors could be replaced by non-polarized ceramic capacitors, simplifying the mounting.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: In 1993, TDK Corporation succeeded in displacing palladium bearing electrodes with much cheaper nickel electrodes, significantly reducing production costs and enabling mass production of MLCCs.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: , more than 10 MLCCs are manufactured each year. Along with the style of ceramic chip capacitors, ceramic disc capacitors are often used as safety capacitors in electromagnetic interference suppression applications. Besides these, large ceramic power capacitors for high voltage or high frequency transmitter applications are also to be found.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: New developments in ceramic materials have been made with anti-ferroelectric ceramics. This material has a nonlinear antiferroelectric/ferroelectric phase change that allows increased energy storage with higher volumetric efficiency. They are used for energy storage (for example, in detonators).


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: The different ceramic materials used for ceramic capacitors, paraelectric or ferroelectric ceramics, influences the electrical characteristics of the capacitors. Using mixtures of paraelectric substances based on titanium dioxide results in very stable and linear behavior of the capacitance value within a specified temperature range and low losses at high frequencies. But these mixtures have a relatively low permittivity so that the capacitance values of these capacitors are relatively small.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: Higher capacitance values for ceramic capacitors can be attained by using mixtures of ferroelectric materials like barium titanate together with specific oxides. These dielectric materials have much higher permittivities, but at the same time their capacitance value are more or less nonlinear over the temperature range, and losses at high frequencies are much higher. These different electrical characteristics of ceramic capacitors requires to group them into "application classes". The definition of the application classes comes from the standardization. As of 2013, two sets of standards were in use, one from International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) and the other from the now-defunct Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA).


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: The definitions of the application classes given in the two standards are different. The following table shows the different definitions of the application classes for ceramic capacitors:


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: Manufacturers, especially in the US, preferred Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA) standards. In many parts very similar to the IEC standard, the EIA RS-198 defines four application classes for ceramic capacitors.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: The different class numbers within both standards are the reason for a lot of misunderstandings interpreting the class descriptions in the datasheets of many manufacturers. The EIA ceased operations on February 11, 2011, but the former sectors continue to serve international standardization organizations.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: In the following, the definitions of the IEC standard will be preferred and in important cases compared with the definitions of the EIA standard.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: Class 1 ceramic capacitors are accurate, temperature-compensating capacitors. They offer the most stable voltage, temperature, and to some extent, frequency. They have the lowest losses and therefore are especially suited for resonant circuit applications where stability is essential or where a precisely defined temperature coefficient is required, for example in compensating temperature effects for a circuit. The basic materials of class 1 ceramic capacitors are composed of a mixture of finely ground granules of paraelectric materials such as titanium dioxide (), modified by additives of zinc, zirconium, niobium, magnesium, tantalum, cobalt and strontium, which are necessary to achieve the capacitor's desired linear characteristics.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: The general capacitance temperature behavior of class 1 capacitors depends on the basic paraelectric material, for example . The additives of the chemical composition are used to adjust precisely the desired temperature characteristic.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: Class 1 ceramic capacitors have the lowest volumetric efficiency among ceramic capacitors. This is the result of the relatively low permittivity (6 to 200) of the paraelectric materials. Therefore, class 1 capacitors have capacitance values in the lower range.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: Class 1 capacitors have a temperature coefficient that is typically fairly linear with temperature. These capacitors have very low electrical losses with a dissipation factor of approximately 0.15%. They undergo no significant aging processes and the capacitance value is nearly independent of the applied voltage. These characteristics allow applications for high Q filters, in resonant circuits and oscillators (for example, in phase-locked loop circuits).


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: The EIA RS-198 standard codes ceramic class 1 capacitors with a three character code that indicates temperature coefficient. The first letter gives the significant figure of the change in capacitance over temperature (temperature coefficient α) in ppm/K. The second character gives the multiplier of the temperature coefficient. The third letter gives the maximum tolerance from that in ppm/K. All ratings are from 25 to 85 °C:


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: In addition to the EIA code, the temperature coefficient of the capacitance dependence of class 1 ceramic capacitors is commonly expressed in ceramic names like "NP0", "N220" etc. These names include the temperature coefficient (α). In the IEC/EN 60384-8/21 standard, the temperature coefficient and tolerance are replaced by a two digit letter code (see table) in which the corresponding EIA code is added.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: For instance, an "NP0" capacitor with EIA code "C0G" will have 0 drift, with a tolerance of ±30 ppm/K, while an "N1500" with the code "P3K" will have −1500 ppm/K drift, with a maximum tolerance of ±250 ppm/°C. Note that the IEC and EIA capacitor codes are industry capacitor codes and not the same as military capacitor codes.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: Class 1 capacitors include capacitors with different temperature coefficients α. Especially, NP0/CG/C0G capacitors with an α ±0•10 /K and an α tolerance of 30 ppm are technically of great interest. These capacitors have a capacitance variation dC/C of ±0.54% within the temperature range −55 to +125 °C. This enables accurate frequency response over a wide temperature range (in, for example, resonant circuits). The other materials with their special temperature behavior are used to compensate a counter temperature run of parallel connected components like coils in oscillator circuits. Class 1 capacitors exhibit very small tolerances of the rated capacitance.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: Class 2 ceramic capacitors have a dielectric with a high permittivity and therefore a better volumetric efficiency than class 1 capacitors, but lower accuracy and stability. The ceramic dielectric is characterized by a nonlinear change of capacitance over the temperature range. The capacitance value also depends on the applied voltage. They are suitable for bypass, coupling and decoupling applications or for frequency discriminating circuits where low losses and high stability of capacitance are less important. They typically exhibit microphony.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: Class 2 capacitors are made of ferroelectric materials such as barium titanate () and suitable additives such as aluminium silicate, magnesium silicate and aluminium oxide. These ceramics have very high permittivity (200 to 14,000), allowing an extreme electric field and therefore capacitance within relatively small packages — class 2 capacitors are significantly smaller than comparable class 1 capacitors. However, the permittivity is nonlinear with respect to field strength, meaning the capacitance varies significantly as the voltage across the terminals increases. Class 2 capacitors also exhibit poor temperature stability and age over time.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: Due to these traits, class 2 capacitors are typically used in applications where only a minimum value of capacitance (as opposed to an accurate value) is required, such as the buffering/filtering of inputs and outputs of power supplies, and the coupling of electric signals.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: Class 2 capacitors are labeled according to the change in capacitance over the temperature range. The most widely used classification is based on the EIA RS-198 standard and uses a three-digit code. The first character, a letter, denotes the coldest operating temperature; the second character, a numeral, denotes the hottest temperature; and the third character, another letter, denotes the maximum allowed capacitance change over the capacitor's entire specified temperature range:


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: For instance, a Z5U capacitor will operate from +10 °C to +85 °C with a capacitance change of at most +22% to −56%. An X7R capacitor will operate from −55 °C to +125 °C with a capacitance change of at most ±15%.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: In most cases it is possible to translate the EIA code into the IEC/EN code. Slight translation errors occur, but normally are tolerable.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: Because class 2 ceramic capacitors have lower capacitance accuracy and stability, they require higher tolerance.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: For military types the class 2 dielectrics specify temperature characteristic (TC) but not temperature-voltage characteristic (TVC). Similar to X7R, military type BX cannot vary more than 15% over temperature, and in addition, must remain within +15%/-25 % at maximum rated voltage. Type BR has a TVC limit of +15%/-40%.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: Class 3 barrier layer or semiconductive ceramic capacitors have very high permittivity, up to 50,000 and therefore a better volumetric efficiency than class 2 capacitors. However, these capacitors have worse electrical characteristics, including lower accuracy and stability. The dielectric is characterized by very high nonlinear change of capacitance over the temperature range. The capacitance value additionally depends on the voltage applied. As well, they have very high losses and age over time.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: Barrier layer ceramic capacitors are made of doped ferroelectric materials such as barium titanate (). As this ceramic technology improved in the mid-1980s, barrier layer capacitors became available in values of up to 100 µF, and at that time it seemed that they could substitute for smaller electrolytic capacitors.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: Because it is not possible to build multilayer capacitors with this material, only leaded single layer types are offered in the market.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: Due to advancements in multilayer ceramic capacitors enabling superior performance in a smaller package, barrier layer capacitors as a technology are now considered obsolete and no longer standardized by the IEC.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: Ceramic capacitors are composed of a mixture of finely ground granules of paraelectric or ferroelectric materials, appropriately mixed with other materials to achieve the desired characteristics. From these powder mixtures, the ceramic is sintered at high temperatures. The ceramic forms the dielectric and serves as a carrier for the metallic electrodes. The minimum thickness of the dielectric layer, which today (2013) for low voltage capacitors is in the size range of 0.5 micrometers is limited downwards by the grain size of the ceramic powder. The thickness of the dielectric for capacitors with higher voltages is determined by the dielectric strength of the desired capacitor.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: The electrodes of the capacitor are deposited on the ceramic layer by metallization. For MLCCs alternating metallized ceramic layers are stacked one above the other. The outstanding metallization of the electrodes at both sides of the body are connected with the contacting terminal. A lacquer or ceramic coating protects the capacitor against moisture and other ambient influences.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: An MLCC can be thought of as consisting of many single-layer capacitors stacked together into a single package. The starting material for all MLCC chips is a mixture of finely ground granules of paraelectric or ferroelectric raw materials, modified by accurately determined additives. The composition of the mixture and the size of the powder particles, as small as 10 nm, reflect the manufacturer's expertise.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: A thin ceramic foil is cast from a suspension of the powder with a suitable binder. Rolls of foil are cut into equal-sized sheets, which are screen printed with a metal paste layer, which will become the electrodes. In an automated process, these sheets are stacked in the required number of layers and solidified by pressure. Besides the relative permittivity, the size and number of layers determines the later capacitance value. The electrodes are stacked in an alternating arrangement slightly offset from the adjoining layers so that they each can later be connected on the offset side, one left, one right. The layered stack is pressed and then cut into individual components. High mechanical precision is required, for example, to produce a 500 or more layer stack of size "0201" (0.5 mm × 0.3 mm).


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: After cutting, the binder is burnt out of the stack. This is followed by sintering at temperatures between 1,200 and 1,450 °C producing the final, mainly crystalline, structure. This burning process creates the desired dielectric properties. Burning is followed by cleaning and then metallization of both end surfaces. Through the metallization, the ends and the inner electrodes are connected in parallel and the capacitor gets its terminals. Finally, each capacitor is electrically tested to ensure functionality and adequate performance, and packaged in a tape reel.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: The capacitance formula ("C") of a MLCC capacitor is based on the formula for a plate capacitor enhanced with the number of layers:


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: where "ε" stands for dielectric permittivity; "A" for electrode surface area; n for the number of layers; and "d" for the distance between the electrodes.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: A thinner dielectric or a larger electrode area each increase the capacitance value, as will a dielectric material of higher permittivity.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: With the progressive miniaturization of digital electronics in recent decades, the components on the periphery of the integrated logic circuits have been scaled down as well. Shrinking an MLCC involves reducing the dielectric thickness and increasing the number of layers. Both options require huge efforts and are connected with a lot of expertise.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: In 1995 the minimum thickness of the dielectric was 4 µm. By 2005 some manufacturers produced MLCC chips with layer thicknesses of 1 µm. , the minimum thickness is about 0.5 µm. The field strength in the dielectric increased to 35 V/µm.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: The size reduction of these capacitors is achieved reducing powder grain size, the assumption to make the ceramic layers thinner. In addition, the manufacturing process became more precisely controlled, so that more and more layers can be stacked.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: Between 1995 and 2005, the capacitance of a Y5V MLCC capacitor of size 1206 was increased from 4.7 μF to 100 μF. Meanwhile, (2013) a lot of producers can deliver class 2 MLCC capacitors with a capacitance value of 100 μF in the chip-size 0805.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: MLCCs don't have leads, and as a result they are usually smaller than their counterparts with leads. They don't require through-hole access in a PCB to mount and are designed to be handled by machines rather than by humans. As a result, surface-mount components like MLCCs are typically cheaper.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: MLCCs are manufactured in standardized shapes and sizes for comparable handling. Because the early standardization was dominated by American EIA standards the dimensions of the MLCC chips were standardized by EIA in units of inches. A rectangular chip with the dimensions of 0.06-inch length and 0.03-inch width is coded as "0603". This code is international and in common use. JEDEC (IEC/EN), devised a second, metric code. The EIA code and the metric equivalent of the common sizes of multilayer ceramic chip capacitors, and the dimensions in mm are shown in the following table. Missing from the table is the measure of the height "H". This is generally not listed, because the height of MLCC chips depends on the number of layers and thus on the capacitance. Normally, however, the height H does not exceed the width W.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: Originally, MLCC electrodes were constructed out of noble metals such as silver and palladium which can withstand high sintering temperatures of 1200 to 1400 °C without readily oxidizing. These "noble metal electrode" (NME) capacitors offered very good electrical properties.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: However, a surge in prices of noble metals in the late 1990s greatly increased manufacturing costs; these pressures resulted in the development of capacitors that used cheaper metals like copper and nickel. These "base metal electrode" (BME) capacitors possessed poorer electrical characteristics; exhibiting greater shrinkage of capacitance at higher voltages and increased loss factor.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: The disadvantages of BME were deemed acceptable for class 2 capacitors, which are primarily used in accuracy-insensitive, low-cost applications such as power supplies. NME still sees use in class 1 capacitors where conformance to specifications are critical and cost is less of a concern.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: Capacitance of MLCC chips depends on the dielectric, the size and the required voltage (rated voltage). Capacitance values start at about 1pF. The maximum capacitance value is determined by the production technique. For X7R that is 47 µF, for Y5V: 100 µF.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: The picture right shows the maximum capacitance for class 1 and class 2 multilayer ceramic chip capacitors. The following two tables, for ceramics NP0/C0G and X7R each, list for each common case size the maximum available capacitance value and rated voltage of the leading manufacturers Murata, TDK, KEMET, AVX. (Status April 2017)


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: In the region of its resonance frequency, a capacitor has the best decoupling properties for noise or electromagnetic interference. The resonance frequency of a capacitor is determined by the inductance of the component. The inductive parts of a capacitor are summarized in the equivalent series inductance, or ESL. (Note that L is the electrical symbol for inductance.) The smaller the inductance, the higher the resonance frequency.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: Because, especially in digital signal processing, switching frequencies have continued to rise, the demand for high frequency decoupling or filter capacitors increases. With a simple design change the ESL of an MLCC chip can be reduced. Therefore, the stacked electrodes are connected on the longitudinal side with the connecting terminations. This reduces the distance that the charge carriers flow over the electrodes, which reduces inductance of the component.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: For example, an 0.1 µF X7R MLCC in a 0805 package resonates at 16 MHz. The same capacitor with leads on its long sides (i.e. an "0508") has a resonance frequency of 22 MHz.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: Another possibility is to form the device as an array of capacitors. Here, several individual capacitors are built in a common housing. Connecting them in parallel, the resulting ESL as well as ESR values of the components are reduced.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: A standard multi-layer ceramic capacitor has many opposing electrode layers stacked inside connected with two outer terminations. The X2Y ceramic chip capacitor however is a 4 terminal chip device. It is constructed like a standard two-terminal MLCC out of the stacked ceramic layers with an additional third set of shield electrodes incorporated in the chip. These shield electrodes surround each existing electrode within the stack of the capacitor plates and are low ohmic contacted with two additional side terminations across to the capacitor terminations. The X2Y construction results in a three-node capacitive circuit that provides simultaneous line-to-line and line-to-ground filtering.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: Capable of replacing 2 or more conventional devices, the X2Y ceramic capacitors are ideal for high frequency filtering or noise suppression of supply voltages in digital circuits, and can prove invaluable in meeting stringent EMC demands in dc motors, in automotive, audio, sensor and other applications.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: The X2Y footprint results in lower mounted inductance. This is particularly of interest for use in high-speed digital circuits with clock rates of several 100 MHz and upwards. There the decoupling of the individual supply voltages on the circuit board is difficult to realize due to parasitic inductances of the supply lines. A standard solution with conventional ceramic capacitors requires the parallel use of many conventional MLCC chips with different capacitance values. Here X2Y capacitors are able to replace up to five equal-sized ceramic capacitors on the PCB. However, this particular type of ceramic capacitor is patented, so these components are still comparatively expensive.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: Ceramics are brittle, and MLCC chips surface-mount soldered to a circuit board are often vulnerable to cracking from thermal expansion or mechanical stresses, more so than leaded through-hole components. Vibration and shock forces on the circuit board are more or less transmitted undampened to the MLCC and its solder joints; excessive force may cause the capacitor to crack. Excess solder in the joints are undesirable as they may magnify the forces that the capacitor is subject to.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: The capability of MLCC chips to withstand mechanical stress is tested by a so-called substrate bending test, where a PCB with a soldered MLCC is bent by a punch by 1 to 3mm. Failure occurs if the MLCC becomes a short-circuit or significantly changes in capacitance.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: Bending strengths of MLCC chips differ by the ceramic material, the size of the chip, and the physical construction of the capacitors. Without special mitigation, NP0/C0G class 1 ceramic MLCC chips reach a typical bending strength of 2mm while larger types of X7R, Y5V class 2 ceramic chips achieved only a bending strength of approximately 1mm. Smaller chips, such as the size of 0402, reached in all types of ceramics larger bending strength values.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: With special design features, particularly at the electrodes and terminations, the bending strength can be improved. For example, an internal short circuit arises by the contact of two electrodes with opposite polarity, which will be produced at the break of the ceramic in the region of the terminations. This can be prevented when the overlap surfaces of the electrodes are reduced. This is achieved e.g. by an "Open Mode Design" (OMD). Here a break in the region of the terminations only reduce the capacitance value a little bit (AVX, KEMET).


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: With a similar construction called "Floating Electrode Design" (FED) or "Multi-layer Serial Capacitors" (MLSC), also, only capacitance reduction results if parts of the capacitor body break. This construction works with floating electrodes without any conductive connection to the termination. A break doesn't lead to a short, only to capacitance reduction.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: However, both structures lead to larger designs with respect to a standard MLCC version with the same capacitance value.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: The same volume with respect to standard MLCCs is achieved by the introduction of a flexible intermediate layer of a conductive polymer between the electrodes and the termination called "Flexible Terminations" (FT-Cap) or "Soft Terminations". In this construction, the rigid metallic soldering connection can move against the flexible polymer layer, and thus can absorb the bending forces, without resulting in a break in the ceramic.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: Suppression capacitors are effective interference reduction components because their electrical impedance decreases with increasing frequency, such that at higher frequencies they appear as short circuits to high-frequency electrical noise and transients between the lines, or to ground. They therefore prevent equipment and machinery (including motors, inverters, and electronic ballasts, as well as solid-state relay snubbers and spark quenchers) from sending and receiving electromagnetic and radio frequency interference as well as transients in across-the-line (X capacitors) and line-to-ground (Y capacitors) connections. X capacitors effectively absorb symmetrical, balanced, or differential interference. Y capacitors are connected in a line bypass between a line phase and a point of zero potential, to absorb asymmetrical, unbalanced, or common-mode interference.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: <gallery widths="280" heights="140" caption="RFI/EMI suppression with X- and Y-capacitors for equipment without and with additional safety insulation" class="center">


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: EMI/RFI suppression capacitors are designed so that any remaining interference or electrical noise does not exceed the limits of EMC directive EN 50081. Suppression components are connected directly to mains voltage for 10 to 20 years or more and are therefore exposed to potentially damaging overvoltages and transients. For this reason, suppression capacitors must comply with the safety and non-flammability requirements of international safety standards such as


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: RFI capacitors that fulfill all specified requirements are imprinted with the certification mark of various national safety standards agencies. For power line applications, special requirements are placed on the non-flammability of the coating and the epoxy resin impregnating or coating the capacitor body. To receive safety approvals, X and Y powerline-rated capacitors are destructively tested to the point of failure. Even when exposed to large overvoltage surges, these safety-rated capacitors must fail in a fail-safe manner that does not endanger personnel or property.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: Although the materials used for large power ceramic capacitors mostly are very similar to those used for smaller ones, ceramic capacitors with high to very high power or voltage ratings for applications in power systems, transmitters and electrical installations are often classified separately, for historical reasons. The standardization of ceramic capacitors for lower power is oriented toward electrical and mechanical parameters as components for use in electronic equipment. The standardization of power capacitors, contrary to that, is strongly focused on protecting personnel and equipment, given by the local regulating authority.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: As modern electronic equipment gained the ability to handle power levels that were previously the exclusive domain of "electrical power" components, the distinction between the "electronic" and "electrical" power ratings has become less distinct. In the past, the boundary between these two families was approximately at a reactive power of 200 volt-amps, but modern power electronics can handle increasing amounts of power.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: Power ceramic capacitors are mostly specified for much higher than 200 volt-amps. The great plasticity of ceramic raw material and the high dielectric strength of ceramics deliver solutions for many applications and are the reasons for the enormous diversity of styles within the family of power ceramic capacitors. These power capacitors have been on the market for decades. They are produced according to the requirements as class 1 power ceramic capacitors with high stability and low losses or class 2 power ceramic capacitors with high volumetric efficiency.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: Class 1 power ceramic capacitors are used for resonant circuit application in transmitter stations. Class 2 power ceramic capacitors are used for circuit breakers, for power distribution lines, for high voltage power supplies in laser-applications, for induction furnaces and in voltage-doubling circuits. Power ceramic capacitors can be supplied with high rated voltages in the range of 2 kV up to 100 kV.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: The dimensions of these power ceramic capacitors can be very large. At high power applications the losses of these capacitors can generate a lot of heat. For this reason some special styles of power ceramic capacitors have pipes for water-cooling.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: All electrical characteristics of ceramic capacitors can be defined and specified by a series equivalent circuit composed out of an idealized capacitance and additional electrical components, which model all losses and inductive parameters of a capacitor. In this series-equivalent circuit the electrical characteristics of a capacitors is defined by


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: The use of a series equivalent circuit instead of a parallel equivalent circuit is defined in IEC/EN 60384-1.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: The "rated capacitance" C or "nominal capacitance" C is the value for which the capacitor has been designed. The actual capacitance depends on the measuring frequency and the ambient temperature. Standardized conditions for capacitors are a low-voltage AC measuring method at a temperature of 20 °C with frequencies of


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: Capacitors are available in different, geometrically increasing preferred values as specified in the E series standards specified in IEC/EN 60063. According to the number of values per decade, these were called the E3, E6, E12, E24, etc. series. The units used to specify capacitor values includes everything from picofarad (pF), nanofarad (nF), microfarad (µF) and farad (F).


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: The percentage of allowed deviation of the capacitance from the rated value is called capacitance tolerance. The actual capacitance value must be within the tolerance limits, or the capacitor is out of specification. For abbreviated marking in tight spaces, a letter code for each tolerance is specified in IEC/EN 60062.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: The required capacitance tolerance is determined by the particular application. The narrow tolerances of E24 to E96 will be used for high-quality class 1 capacitors in circuits such as precision oscillators and timers. For applications such as non-critical filtering or coupling circuits, for class 2 capacitors the tolerance series E12 down to E3 are sufficient.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: Capacitance of ceramic capacitors varies with temperature. The different dielectrics of the many capacitor types show great differences in temperature dependence. The temperature coefficient is expressed in parts per million (ppm) per degree Celsius for class 1 ceramic capacitors or in percent (%) over the total temperature range for class 2 capacitors.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: Most discrete capacitor types have greater or smaller capacitance changes with increasing frequencies. The dielectric strength of class 2 ceramic and plastic film diminishes with rising frequency. Therefore, their capacitance value decreases with increasing frequency. This phenomenon is related to the dielectric relaxation in which the time constant of the electrical dipoles is the reason for the frequency dependence of permittivity. The graph on the right hand side shows typical frequency behavior for class 2 vs class 1 capacitors.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: Capacitance of ceramic capacitors may also change with applied voltage. This effect is more prevalent in class 2 ceramic capacitors. The ferroelectric material depends on the applied voltage. The higher the applied voltage, the lower the permittivity. Capacitance measured or applied with higher voltage can drop to values of −80% of the value measured with the standardized measuring voltage of 0.5 or 1.0 V. This behavior is a small source of nonlinearity in low-distortion filters and other analog applications. In audio applications this can be the reason for harmonic distortions.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: The voltage dependence of capacitance in the two diagrams above shows curves from ceramic capacitors with NME metallization. For capacitors with BME metallization the voltage dependence of capacitance increased significantly.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: For most capacitors, a physically conditioned dielectric strength or a breakdown voltage usually could be specified for each dielectric material and thickness. This is not possible with ceramic capacitors. The breakdown voltage of a ceramic dielectric layer may vary depending on the electrode material and the sintering conditions of the ceramic up to a factor of 10. A high degree of precision and control of process parameters is necessary to keep the scattering of electrical properties for today's very thin ceramic layers within specified limits.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: The voltage proof of ceramic capacitors is specified as rated voltage (UR). This is the maximum DC voltage that may be continuously applied to the capacitor up to the upper temperature limit. This guaranteed voltage proof is tested according to the voltages shown in the adjacent table.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: Furthermore, in periodic life time tests (endurance tests) the voltage proof of ceramic capacitors is tested with increased test voltage (120 to 150% of U) to ensure safe construction.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: The frequency dependent AC resistance of a capacitor is called impedance formula_2 and is a complex ratio of voltage to current in an AC circuit. Impedance extends the concept of Ohm's law to AC circuits, and possesses both magnitude and phase at a particular frequency, unlike resistance, which has only magnitude.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: Impedance is a measure of the ability of the capacitor to pass alternating currents. In this sense impedance can be used like Ohms law


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: As shown in the series-equivalent circuit of a capacitor, the real-world component includes an ideal capacitor formula_4, an inductance formula_5 and a resistor formula_6.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: To calculate the impedance formula_2 the resistance and then both reactances have to be added geometrically


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: In the special case of resonance, in which both reactive resistances have the same value (formula_9), then the impedance will only be determined by formula_10.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: Data sheets of ceramic capacitors only specify the impedance magnitude formula_2. The typical impedance curve shows that with increasing frequency, impedance decreases, down to a minimum. The lower the impedance, the more easily alternating currents can pass through the capacitor. At the minimum point of the curve, the point of resonance, where X has the same value as X, the capacitor exhibits its lowest impedance value. Here only the ohmic ESR determines the impedance. With frequencies above the resonance, impedance increases again due to the ESL.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: The summarized losses in ceramic capacitors are ohmic AC losses. DC losses are specified as "leakage current" or "insulating resistance" and are negligible for an AC specification. These AC losses are nonlinear and may depend on frequency, temperature, age, and for some special types, on humidity. The losses result from two physical conditions,


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: The largest share of these losses in larger capacitors is usually the frequency dependent ohmic dielectric losses. Regarding the IEC 60384-1 standard, the ohmic losses of capacitors are measured at the same frequency used to measure capacitance. These are:


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: Results of the summarized resistive losses of a capacitor may be specified either as equivalent series resistance (ESR), as dissipation factor (DF, tan δ), or as quality factor (Q), depending on the application requirements.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: Class 2 capacitors are mostly specified with the dissipation factor, tan δ. The dissipation factor is determined as the tangent of the reactance formula_12 – formula_13 and the ESR, and can be shown as the angle δ between the imaginary and impedance axes in the above vector diagram, see paragraph "Impedance".


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: Class 1 capacitors with very low losses are specified with a dissipation factor and often with a quality factor (Q). The quality factor is defined as the reciprocal of the dissipation factor.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: The Q factor represents the effect of electrical resistance, and characterizes a resonator's bandwidth formula_17 relative to its center or resonant frequency formula_18. A high Q value is a mark of the quality of the resonance for resonant circuits.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: In accordance with IEC 60384-8/-21/-9/-22 ceramic capacitors may not exceed the following dissipation factors:


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: The ohmic losses of ceramic capacitors are frequency, temperature and voltage dependent. Additionally, class 2 capacitor measurements change because of aging. Different ceramic materials have differing losses over the temperature range and the operating frequency. The changes in class 1 capacitors are in the single-digit range while class 2 capacitors have much higher changes.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: Electrical resonance occurs in a ceramic capacitor at a particular resonance frequency where the imaginary parts of the capacitor impedance and admittances cancel each other.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: This frequency where X is as high as X is called the self-resonant frequency and can be calculated with:


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: where ω = 2π"f", in which "f" is the resonance frequency in Hertz, "L" is the inductance in henries, and "C" is the capacitance in farads.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: The self-resonant frequency is the lowest frequency at which impedance passes through a minimum. For any AC application the self-resonant frequency is the highest frequency at which a capacitor can be used as a capacitive component. At frequencies above the resonance, the impedance increases again due to ESL: the capacitor becomes an inductor with inductance equal to capacitor's ESL, and resistance equal to ESR at the given frequency.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: ESL in industrial capacitors is mainly caused by the leads and internal connections used to connect the plates to the outside world. Larger capacitors tend to higher ESL than small ones, because the distances to the plate are longer and every millimeter increases inductance.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: Ceramic capacitors, which are available in the range of very small capacitance values (pF and higher) are already out of their smaller capacitance values suitable for higher frequencies up to several 100 MHz (see formula above).


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: Due to the absence of leads and proximity to the electrodes, MLCC chips have significantly lower parasitic inductance than f. e. leaded types, which makes them suitable for higher frequency applications. A further reduction of parasitic inductance is achieved by contacting the electrodes on the longitudinal side of the chip instead of the lateral side.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: Note that X7Rs have better frequency response than C0Gs. It makes sense, however, since class 2 capacitors are much smaller than class 1, so they ought to have lower parasitic inductance.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: In ferroelectric class 2 ceramic capacitors capacitance decreases over time. This behavior is called "aging". Aging occurs in ferroelectric dielectrics, where domains of polarization in the dielectric contribute to total polarization. Degradation of the polarized domains in the dielectric decreases permittivity over time so that the capacitance of class 2 ceramic capacitors decreases as the component ages.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: The aging follows a logarithmic law. This law defines the decrease of capacitance as a percentage for a time decade after the soldering recovery time at a defined temperature, for example, in the period from 1 to 10 hours at 20 °C. As the law is logarithmic, the percentage loss of capacitance will twice between 1 h and 100 h and 3 times between 1 h and 1000 h and so on. So aging is fastest near the beginning, and the capacitance value effectively stabilizes over time.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: The rate of aging of class 2 capacitors mainly depends on the materials used. A rule of thumb is, the higher the temperature dependence of the ceramic, the higher the aging percentage. The typical aging of X7R ceramic capacitors is about 2.5% per decade The aging rate of Z5U ceramic capacitors is significantly higher and can be up to 7% per decade.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: The aging process of class 2 capacitors may be reversed by heating the component above the Curie point.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: Class 1 capacitors do not experience ferroelectric aging like Class 2's. But environmental influences such as higher temperature, high humidity and mechanical stress can, over a longer period of time, lead to a small irreversible decline in capacitance, sometimes also called aging. The change of capacitance for P 100 and N 470 Class 1's is lower than 1%, for capacitors with N 750 to N 1500 ceramics it is ≤ 2%.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: The resistance of the dielectric is never infinite, leading to some level of DC "leakage current", which contributes to self-discharge. For ceramic capacitors this resistance, placed in parallel with the capacitor in the series-equivalent circuit of capacitors, is called "insulation resistance R". The insulation resistance must not be confused with the outer isolation with respect to the environment.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: The insulation resistance given in the unit MΩ (10 Ohm) as well as the self-discharge constant in seconds is an important parameter for the quality of the dielectric insulation. These time values are important, for example, when a capacitor is used as timing component for relays or for storing a voltage value as in a sample and hold circuits or operational amplifiers.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: In accordance with the applicable standards, Class 1 ceramic capacitors have an R ≥ 10,000 MΩ for capacitors with C ≤ 10 nF or τ ≥ 100 s for capacitors with C > 10 nF. Class 2 ceramic capacitors have an R ≥ 4,000 MΩ for capacitors with C ≤ 25 nF or τ ≥ 100 s for capacitors with C > 25 nF.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: Insulation resistance and thus the self-discharge time rate are temperature dependent and decrease with increasing temperature at about 1 MΩ per 60 °C.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: Dielectric absorption is the name given to the effect by which a capacitor, which has been charged for a long time, discharges only incompletely. Although an ideal capacitor remains at zero volts after discharge, real capacitors will develop a small voltage coming from time-delayed dipole discharging, a phenomenon that is also called dielectric relaxation, "soakage" or "battery action".


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: In many applications of capacitors dielectric absorption is not a problem but in some applications, such as long-time-constant integrators, sample-and-hold circuits, switched-capacitor analog-to-digital converters and very low-distortion filters, it is important that the capacitor does not recover a residual charge after full discharge, and capacitors with low absorption are specified. The voltage at the terminals generated by dielectric absorption may in some cases possibly cause problems in the function of an electronic circuit or can be a safety risk to personnel. To prevent shocks, most very large capacitors like power capacitors are shipped with shorting wires that are removed before use.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: All class 2 ceramic capacitors using ferroelectric ceramics exhibit piezoelectricity, and have a piezoelectric effect called microphonics, microphony or in audio applications squealing. Microphony describes the phenomenon wherein electronic components transform mechanical vibrations into an electrical signal which in many cases is undesired noise. Sensitive electronic preamplifiers generally use class 1 ceramic and film capacitors to avoid this effect.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: In the reverse microphonic effect, the varying electric field between the capacitor plates exerts a physical force, moving them as a speaker. High current impulse loads or high ripple currents can generate audible acoustic sound coming from the capacitor, but discharges the capacitor and stresses the dielectric.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: Ceramic capacitors may experience changes to their electrical parameters due to soldering stress. The heat of the solder bath, especially for SMD styles, can cause changes of contact resistance between terminals and electrodes. For ferroelectric class 2 ceramic capacitors, the soldering temperature is above the Curie point. The polarized domains in the dielectric are going back and the aging process of class 2 ceramic capacitors is starting again.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: Hence after soldering a recovery time of approximately 24 hours is necessary. After recovery some electrical parameters like capacitance value, ESR, leakage currents are changed irreversibly. The changes are in the lower percentage range depending on the style of capacitor.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: The standardization for all electrical, electronic components and related technologies follows the rules given by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), a non-profit, non-governmental international standards organization.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: The definition of the characteristics and the procedure of the test methods for capacitors for use in electronic equipment are set out in the generic specification:


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: The tests and requirements to be met by ceramic capacitors for use in electronic equipment for approval as standardized types are set out in the following sectional specifications:


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: Multilayer ceramic capacitors are increasingly used to replace tantalum and low capacitance aluminium electrolytic capacitors in applications such as bypass or high frequency switched-mode power supplies as their cost, reliability and size becomes competitive. In many applications, their low ESR allows the use of a lower nominal capacitance value.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: For features and disadvantages of ceramic capacitors see main article Capacitor types#Comparison of types


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: If space permits ceramic capacitors, like most other electronic components, have imprinted markings to indicate the manufacturer, the type, their electrical and thermal characteristics and their date of manufacture. In the ideal case, if they are large enough, the capacitor will be marked with:


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: Smaller capacitors use a shorthand notation, to display all the relevant information in the limited space. The most commonly used format is: XYZ J/K/M VOLTS V, where XYZ represents the capacitance (calculated as XY × 10 pF), the letters J, K or M indicate the tolerance (±5%, ±10% and ±20% respectively) and VOLTS V represents the working voltage.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: Capacitance, tolerance and date of manufacture can be identified with a short code according to IEC/EN 60062. Examples of short-marking of the rated capacitance (microfarads):


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: Year code: "R" = 2003, "S"= 2004, "T" = 2005, "U" = 2006, "V" = 2007, "W" = 2008, "X" = 2009, "A" = 2010, "B" = 2011, "C" = 2012, "D" = 2013 etc.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: For very small capacitors like MLCC chips no marking is possible. Here only the traceability of the manufacturers can ensure the identification of a type.


title: Ceramic capacitor

text: An overview of worldwide operating manufacturers and their product ranges is given in the following table:


title: Star Wars in other media

text: "Star Wars" has been expanded to media other than the original films. This spin-off material is licensed and moderated by Lucasfilm, though during his involvement with the franchise "Star Wars" creator George Lucas reserved the right to both draw from and contradict it in his own works. Such derivative works have been produced concurrently with, between, and after the original, prequel, and sequel trilogies, as well as the spin-off films and television series. Commonly explored media include books, comic books, and video games, though other forms such as audio dramas have also been produced.


title: Star Wars in other media

text: With the exception of the CGI-animated , non-film material produced prior to April 2014 was collectively known as the Star Wars" Expanded Universe (EU). Lucasfilm, now under Disney, later rebranded the Expanded Universe as Star Wars Legends" and declared it non-canonical to the franchise. Most works produced after April 25, 2014 are part of the official canon as defined by Lucasfilm, although a handful of "Legends" media has still been released after said date.


title: Star Wars in other media

text: The first "Star Wars" spinoff material was "" (1976), the novelization of the 1977 film. Lucas later commissioned Alan Dean Foster, who ghostwrote the novelization, to write a sequel, which resulted in "Splinter of the Mind's Eye" (1978). Lucas originally intended to use this as the basis for a potential low-budget sequel to "Star Wars", but when it became one of the most successful films of all time, Lucas decided to write his own story for the film sequel, "The Empire Strikes Back" (1980). While this was in production, Lucas approved the "Star Wars Holiday Special" (1978), with which he had limited involvement.


title: Star Wars in other media

text: Running from April 1977 to May 1986, the "Star Wars" comic book series from Marvel Comics met with such strong sales that former Marvel editor-in-chief Jim Shooter credited it with saving Marvel financially in 1977 and 1978. The series became one of the industry's top selling titles in 1979 and 1980. An adaptation of the third theatrical film, "Return of the Jedi", was released as a separate four-issue limited series (1983–1984).


title: Star Wars in other media

text: Two novel trilogies with original storylines were written, "The Han Solo Adventures" by Brian Daley (1979–1980), and 1983's "The Adventures of Lando Calrissian" by L. Neil Smith. Daley also wrote radio dramatizations of the original trilogy, which aired in 1981, 1983, and 1996.


title: Star Wars in other media

text: The first "Star Wars" electronic game was released in 1979 by Kenner, followed by a handful of Atari and Parker Brothers video games in the early 1980s, mainly adaptations of film scenes.


title: Star Wars in other media

text: Two spin-off television films focusing on the life of the Ewoks, introduced in "Return of the Jedi", aired in 1984 and 1985. The furry creatures were also the subject of an American/Canadian animated television series produced by Nelvana, which ran for two seasons between 1985 and 1986. A sister series, "", features the further adventures of R2-D2 and C-3PO. In 1985, Marvel Comics' Star Comics imprint published a bi-monthly "Ewoks" tie-in comic, which ran for two years, and in 1986, published an eight-issue "Droids" series. The two series featured a crossover storyline.


title: Star Wars in other media

text: Following the series' 10th anniversary, the release of "Star Wars" spin-off media was largely halted. In 1987, the fan newsletter "Bantha Tracks" was absorbed by the official Lucasfilm magazine, which focused on the company's projects outside of "Star Wars". Some fans feared that the franchise had come to an end, and the period between 1987 and 1991 has been called the "Dark Times."


title: Star Wars in other media

text: There were some bright spots in this era, however. In 1987, West End Games began publishing "", and the subsequent ancillary role-playing game material such as sourcebooks, gamebooks, and adventure modules. These have been called "the first publications to expand greatly beyond what was known from the vintage era of the movies," and would serve as a resource for a number of franchise novelists.


title: Star Wars in other media

text: The lack of new "Star Wars" material ended with the 1991 release of Timothy Zahn's novel "Heir to the Empire". "Heir to the Empire", which reached #1 on the "New York Times" Best Seller list, began what would become a large collection of works set before, between, and especially after the original films. StarWars.com wrote in 2014 that the novel "jumpstarted a publishing program that endures to this day and formalized the Expanded Universe". It introduced, among others, the popular characters Grand Admiral Thrawn and Mara Jade, and was followed by the sequels "Dark Force Rising" (1992) and "The Last Command" (1993). The "Thrawn" trilogy is widely credited with revitalizing the "Star Wars" franchise. In "The Secret History of Star Wars", Michael Kaminski suggests this renewed interest was a factor in Lucas's decision to create the prequel trilogy.


title: Star Wars in other media

text: Around this same time, the comics license was transferred to Dark Horse Comics, who launched a number of series set after the original film trilogy, including the popular "Dark Empire" sequence (1991–1995) by Tom Veitch and Cam Kennedy. The comic launched months after the first "Thrawn" novel and was a sequel to those novels; it notably resurrected the film characters Emperor Palpatine and Boba Fett. Zahn was critical of the concept of resurrecting Emperor Palpatine through cloned bodies, feeling it undermined and contradicted the meaning of the ending of "Return of the Jedi".


title: Star Wars in other media

text: The "Jedi Prince" series of young-reader novels, released between 1992 and 1993, depicts Luke, Leia, and Han about a year after "Return of the Jedi". "The Truce at Bakura" (1993) depicts the immediate aftermath of the aforementioned film. In 1993, Dark Horse published "Tales of the Jedi", expanding the fictional universe to the time of the Old Republic, approximately 4,000 years before the films. The series spawned many other productions, including books, further comics, and eventually the "" computer roleplaying games.


title: Star Wars in other media

text: In 1994, Lucas Licensing's Allan Kausch and Sue Rostoni discussed the relationship between Lucas' creations and the derivative works by other authors:


title: Star Wars in other media

text: The 1996 Steve Perry novel "", set in the as-yet-unexplored time period between "The Empire Strikes Back" and "Return of the Jedi", was part of a multimedia campaign that also included a comic book series and . The multimedia project was largely meant to reinvigorate the franchise ahead of the prequel trilogy, along with Lucas's 1997 Special Editions of the original trilogy. Lucas incorporated elements of the Expanded Universe into the Special Editions; for example, Coruscant, the New Republic capital planet created by Zahn in the "Thrawn" trilogy, made its film debut in the Special Edition of "Return of the Jedi", before being featured more heavily in the prequel trilogy. , later subtitled "Republic", launched in 1998 and introduced Ki-Adi-Mundi ahead of his appearance in the films.


title: Star Wars in other media

text: In 1999, "Star Wars" book publishing moved from Bantam Spectra to Del Rey Books. A new series set between 25 and 30 years after the original films, "The New Jedi Order" (1999–2003), was written by multiple authors and introduced a new threat: the Yuuzhan Vong, a powerful alien race attempting to invade and conquer the entire galaxy. The first novel in the series, R. A. Salvatore's "Vector Prime", killed off popular character Chewbacca.


title: Star Wars in other media

text: Before 1999, the bulk of Expanded Universe storytelling explored the time periods either after "Return of the Jedi" or long before "A New Hope" ("e.g." the "Tales of the Jedi" series). The time period shortly before the original trilogy (including the rise of the Galactic Empire and the personal histories of Anakin Skywalker and Emperor Palpatine) was left open for Lucas to develop in the form of a prequel trilogy, which began with "" (1999).


title: Star Wars in other media

text: The character Aayla Secura, introduced in 2000 in the "Republic" comic book series, appears in "" (2002). The 2003 animated series "" and various spin-off books, comics, and video games explore the titular conflict in more detail leading up to "" (2005). Ahead of the film's release, Lucas announced a 3D "continuation" of "Clone Wars", which was released as the animated film "" (2008) and a (2008–2020). These reveal that Anakin had a Padawan learner, Ahsoka Tano, during this period. Various characters seen only briefly in the films or in other spin-off material are featured in more depth. At this time, Lucas denied any plans to ever make a "Star Wars" sequel trilogy.


title: Star Wars in other media

text: As of 2004, over 1,100 "Star Wars" titles had been published, including novels, comics, non-fiction, and magazines. Then-president of Lucas Licensing, Howard Roffman, estimated that there were more than 65 million "Star Wars" books in print. He said, "The books are a way of extending the fantasy of "Star Wars". The movies have had a really profound effect on a couple of generations. "Star Wars" has become a cultural touchpoint, and our fans are avidly interested in exploring more stories."


title: Star Wars in other media

text: Originally, Lucasfilm tracked the narrative content of the Expanded Universe in story bibles, alongside official reference books such as "A Guide to the Star Wars Universe" (1984/1994) and the "Star Wars Encyclopedia" (1998). In 2000, LucasArts lead tester Leland Chee was hired as Continuity Database Administrator for Lucas Licensing, and developed a database of franchise continuity based in part on 1998's encyclopedic "Star Wars: Behind the Magic" . The database came to be known as the Holocron, a term used within the "Star Wars" universe for "ancient repositories of knowledge and wisdom". The Holocron consists of over 55,000 entries for franchise characters, locations, species, and vehicles.


title: Star Wars in other media

text: Lucas Licensing's managing editor Sue Rostoni said in 2001, "Our goal is to present a continuous and unified history of the "Star Wars" galaxy, insofar as that history does not conflict with, or undermine the meaning of Mr. Lucas's "Star Wars" saga of films and screenplays." Lucasfilm's director of fan relations Steve Sansweet clarified:


title: Star Wars in other media

text: Regarding the Holocron database in 2012, Chee said: "What sets "Star Wars" apart from other franchises is that we develop a singular continuity across all forms of media, whether it be the films, TV series, video games, novels and comics, and the Holocron is a key component to Lucasfilm being able to do this." The Holocron was divided into five levels of canon (in order of precedence):


title: Star Wars in other media

text: In October 2012, The Walt Disney Company acquired Lucasfilm for (equivalent to about $B in ). Subsequently, Lucasfilm formed the "Lucasfilm Story Group", which was established to keep track of and define the canon and unify the films, comics, and other media. Among its members are Chee, Kiri Hart, and Pablo Hidalgo. To prevent the planned sequel trilogy from being beholden to and restrained by the plotlines of the Expanded Universe works, the choice was made to discard that continuity.


title: Star Wars in other media

text: On April 25, 2014, Lucasfilm rebranded the Expanded Universe material as "Star Wars Legends" and declared it non-canonical to the franchise. The company's focus would be shifted towards a restructured "Star Wars" canon based on new material. Chee said in a 2014 Twitter post that a "primary goal" of the story group would be to replace the previous hierarchical canon (of the Holocron) with one cohesive one. However, the final season of "The Clone Wars", which was released in 2020, contradicted aspects of the 2016 canon novel "Ahsoka". The next year, "The Clone Wars" spin-off series "" contradicted canon elements of the 2015 "Kanan" comic book series. "The Bad Batch" executive producer Jennifer Corbett explained that "Everything we did was for a reason and it might not match 100% but it's sort of just wanting to honor what existed but also give another take on it in this story."


title: Star Wars in other media

text: In its 2014 announcement, Lucasfilm explained that the only preexisting works to be considered canonical within the franchise would be the primary episodic films and the 2008 "The Clone Wars" film and TV series. The announcement called these works "the immovable objects of "Star Wars" history, the characters and events to which all other tales must align." It was also made clear that a planned "Star Wars" sequel trilogy, and subsequent works developed within the restructured canon, would not be based on "Legends" material but could possibly draw from it. The first new canonical novel was "" by John Jackson Miller, published in September 2014, acting as a prologue to the CGI-animated television series "Star Wars Rebels", which was released a month later. Marvel began publishing new "Star Wars" comic book series in January 2015, and the "Journey to Star Wars" publishing initiative included books and comics tying in to the sequel trilogy films.


title: Star Wars in other media

text: The first sequel trilogy film, "The Force Awakens", was released in December 2015. There was some minor fan backlash against the restructured canon, with one group successfully campaigning to buy a billboard pleading for Lucasfilm to continue the original non-canonical Expanded Universe separately from the canon. "Rebels" supervising director Dave Filoni reintroduced popular "Legends" character Thrawn into the canon in the 2016 third season of "Rebels". Timothy Zahn was hired to write new canonical novels about the character. Since co-creating "The Clone Wars", Filoni has followed Lucas (who incorporated Expanded Universe elements into the Special Editions, prequels, and "The Clone Wars") in incorporating multiple spin-off elements into his series. Some cancelled "The Clone Wars" episodes were adapted into books and comics in "The Clone Wars Legacy" multimedia project.


title: Star Wars in other media

text: After "The Force Awakens", multiple films were released, including the anthology films "Rogue One" (2016) and "" (2018), as well as the second and third sequel trilogy films, "The Last Jedi" (2017) and "The Rise of Skywalker" (2019). Dozens of novels, comics published by Marvel and IDW, and games like "Battlefront II" (2017) were released. Additionally, the animated series "Resistance", set in the sequel trilogy era, premiered in late 2018 and ran until early 2020.


title: Star Wars in other media

text: "The Mandalorian", a post-"Return of the Jedi" live-action series written by Jon Favreau premiered in late 2019 on the Disney streaming service Disney+. In early 2020, a final season of "The Clone Wars" animated series debuted on the streaming service.


title: Star Wars in other media

text: In February 2020, it was announced that a new line of books and comics, labeled "", would begin publishing starting in August. The line takes place 200 years prior to the events of "The Phantom Menace" and will not overlap any films or series currently planned for production.


title: Star Wars in other media

text: In December 2020, multiple live-action series were announced for Disney+, including "Obi-Wan Kenobi", "Andor", "Lando", three "Mandalorian" spin-offs, and "The Acolyte" (set during the High Republic). On April 2, 2021, several legacy "Star Wars" films and series were added to Disney+. "The Bad Batch" debuted on May 4.


title: Star Wars in other media

text: Multiple Marvel comics rebooted in 2020, moving to the era between "The Empire Strikes Back" and "Return of the Jedi".


title: Star Wars in other media

text: The "Star Wars" Legends fictional universe spans multiple eras. The names, symbols, and dates of the publishing eras were first introduced in October 2000 and were refined up to February 2015:


title: End of the Century

text: End of the Century is the fifth studio album by the American punk rock band Ramones, released on February 4, 1980, through Sire Records. The album was the band's first to be produced by Phil Spector, though he had offered the band his assistance earlier in their career. With Spector fully producing the album, it was the first release that excluded original member Tommy Ramone, who had left the band in 1978 but had produced their previous album "Road to Ruin". Spector used more advanced standards of engineering, such as high-quality overdubbing and echo chambers. These painstaking methods caused conflict between the band and Spector since the Ramones were accustomed to a quicker recording process. Spector emphasized the production value as well, working with a budget of around $200,000, far exceeding their earlier album sessions.


title: End of the Century

text: The songs on "End of the Century" were written primarily to expand the band's fan base, straying from the band's original punk genre and steering toward a more pop oriented sound. The lyrics on the album deal with various topics, ranging from drug addictions to the band's lifestyle while touring. The album also features a cover of the Ronettes' song "Baby, I Love You", as well as successors to the previous Ramones songs "Judy Is a Punk" and "Havana Affair".


title: End of the Century

text: It received generally positive reviews from critics, though many reviewers were less favorable than they had been to the band's previous releases, due to Spector's production quality and the band's desire for mainstream success starting to show in their music. Despite this, the album is the highest-charting Ramones album of all time, reaching number 44 on the US "Billboard" 200 chart, and number 14 on the UK Albums Chart. "End of the Century" spawned the singles "Baby, I Love You" and "Do You Remember Rock 'n' Roll Radio?", both of which charted in Europe.


title: End of the Century

text: In February 1977 after attending a Ramones concert in Los Angeles, music producer Phil Spector offered to assist in making "Rocket to Russia". The band declined his offer, feeling as though the album would not be the same without Tommy Ramone and Tony Bongiovi producing the album. While the band refused his initial offer, their management later asked Spector to help with the album because of their lack of popularity and sales. "End of the Century" would be the first album released without former drummer and producer Tommy. Spector had become famous through his work with the Ronettes, the Righteous Brothers, Ike and Tina Turner, the Beatles and John Lennon, among others. With these releases, Spector defined what would become known as the "Wall of Sound", which is a dense, layered, and reverberant sound that came across well on AM radio and jukeboxes. These standards are created through instruments performing identical parts in unison, using high-quality overdubbing and echo chambers to aid in the production value. The producer was convinced that the Ramones had talent with lyrics and musical structure, so he intended to promote the band through more advanced methods of sound output.


title: End of the Century

text: Recording sessions for the album began on May 1, 1979 at Gold Star Studios in Hollywood, Los Angeles. Gold Star Studios had become famous through its history with artists like Eddie Cochran and the Beach Boys. At the Ramones' request, Ed Stasium joined the band in Los Angeles, serving as 'musical director', playing additional guitar parts and singing backing vocals, but not engineering. During the studio work, Spector's recording methods were different from those the Ramones were accustomed to from their four previous studio albums. The band recorded their earlier compositions in the shortest time possible for the lowest feasible budget, with a relatively low production value. With "End of the Century", which took nearly six months to mix, the band experienced Spector's infamous perfectionism, and a budget of $200,000 to fully record and produce the album. This is significant because the band's debut album cost $6,400 total, and their second album cost $10,000. "End of the Century" is the most expensive album in the Ramones' career.