title: Michael the Brave

text: On 28 February 1600 Michael met with Polish envoys in Brașov. He was willing to recognise the Polish King as his sovereign in exchange for the crown of Moldavia and the recognition of his male heirs' hereditary right over the three principalities, Transylvania, Moldavia, and Wallachia. This did not significantly delay his attack, however; on 14 April 1600 Michael's troops entered Moldavia on multiple routes, the Prince himself leading the main thrust to Trotuș and Roman. He reached the capital of Iași on 6 May. The garrison surrendered the citadel the next day and Michael's forces caught up with the fleeing Ieremia Movilă, who was saved from being captured only by the sacrifice of his rear-guard. Movilă took refuge in the castle of Hotin together with his family, a handful of faithful boyars and the former Transylvanian Prince, Sigismund Báthory. The Moldavian soldiers in the castle deserted, leaving a small Polish contingent as sole defenders. Under the cover of dark, sometime before 11 June, Movilă managed to sneak out of the walls and across the Dniester to hetman Stanisław Żółkiewski's camp.


title: Michael the Brave

text: Neighboring states were alarmed by this upsetting of the balance of power, especially the Hungarian nobility in Transylvania, who rose against Michael in rebellion. With the help of Basta, they defeated Michael at the Battle of Mirăslău, forcing the prince to leave Transylvania together with his remaining loyal troops. A Polish army led by Jan Zamoyski drove the Wallachians from Moldavia and defeated Michael at Năieni, Ceptura, and Bucov (Battle of the Teleajăn River). The Polish army also entered eastern Wallachia and established Simion Movilă as ruler. Forces loyal to Michael remained only in Oltenia.


title: Michael the Brave

text: Michael asked again for assistance from Emperor Rudolf II during a visit in Prague between 23 February and 5 March 1601, which was granted when the emperor heard that General Giorgio Basta had lost control of Transylvania to the Hungarian nobility led by Sigismund Báthory, who accepted Ottoman protection. Meanwhile, forces loyal to Michael in Wallachia led by his son, Nicolae Pătrașcu, drove Simion Movilă out of Wallachia and prepared to reenter Transylvania. Michael, allied with Basta, defeated the Hungarian army in Battle of Guruslău. A few days later, Basta, who sought to control Transylvania himself, executed the assassination of Michael by order of the Habsburg Emperor; the assassination took place near Câmpia Turzii on 9 August 1601. According to Romanian historian Constantin C. Giurescu:


title: Michael the Brave

text: The rule of Michael the Brave, with its break with Ottoman rule, tense relations with other European powers and the leadership of the three states, was considered in later periods as the precursor of a modern Romania, a thesis which was argued with noted intensity by Nicolae Bălcescu. This theory became a point of reference for nationalists, as well as a catalyst for various Romanian forces to achieve a single Romanian state. To Romanian Romantic nationalists, he was regarded as one of Romania's greatest national heroes. He is known in Romanian historiography as "Mihai Viteazul" or, less commonly, "Mihai Bravu".


title: Michael the Brave

text: The prince began to be perceived as a "unifier" towards the middle of the 19th century. Such an interpretation is completely lacking in the historiography of the 17th-century chroniclers, and even in that of the Transylvanian School around 1800. What they emphasized, apart from the exceptional personality of Michael himself, were the idea of Christendom and his close relations with Emperor Rudolf. The conqueror's ambition is likewise frequently cited as a motivation for his action, occupying in the interpretative schema the place that was later to be occupied by the "Romanian idea".


title: Michael the Brave

text: In the writings of the Moldavian chronicler Miron Costin, Michael the Brave appears in the role of conqueror of Transylvania and Moldavia, "the cause of much spilling of blood among Christians", and not even highly appreciated by his own Wallachians: "The Wallachians became tired of the warful rule of Voivode Mihai".


title: Michael the Brave

text: The perspective of the Wallachians themselves is to be found in "The History of the Princes of Wallachia", attributed to the chronicler Radu Popescu (1655–1729), which bundles together all Michael's adversaries without distinction. Romanians and foreigners alike: "He subjected the Turks, the Moldavians, and the Hungarians to his rule, as if they were his asses." The picturesque flavor of the expression serves only to confirm the absence of any "Romanian idea".


title: Michael the Brave

text: Samuil Micu, a member of the Transylvanian School wrote in his work "Short Explanation of the History of the Romanians" (written in the 1790s): "In the year 1593, Michael, who is called the Brave, succeeded to the lordship of Wallachia. He was a great warrior, who fought the Turks and defeated the Transylvanians. And he took Transylvania and gave it to Emperor Rudolf".


title: Michael the Brave

text: Petre P. Panaitescu states that in Mihai's time, the concept of the Romanian nation and the desire for unification did not yet exist. A. D. Xenopol firmly states the absence of any national element in Michael's politics, holding that Michael's lack of desire to join the principalities' administrations proved his actions were not motivated by any such concept.


title: Michael the Brave

text: Michael is also commemorated by the monks of the Athonite Simonopetra Monastery for his great contributions in the form of land and money to rebuilding the monastery that had been destroyed by a fire.


title: Michael the Brave

text: "Mihai Viteazul", a film by Sergiu Nicolaescu, a well-known Romanian film director, is a representation of the life of the Wallachian ruler and his will to unite the three Romanian principalities (Wallachia, Moldavia, and Transylvania) as one domain.


title: Michael the Brave

text: The Order of Michael the Brave, Romania's highest military decoration, was named after Michael. Mihai Viteazul's name and portrait appear on at least two Romanian coins: 5 Lei 1991 (only 3 pieces of this type were minted and the coin was not entered into circulation), and on 100 Lei, which circulated through the 1990s.


title: Michael the Brave

text: Three major high schools in Romania bear his name: the Mihai Viteazul National College (Bucharest) the and the


title: Michael the Brave

text: The seal comprises the coats of arms of Moldavia, Wallachia, and Transylvania: in the middle, on a shield the Moldavian urus, above Wallachian eagle between sun and moon holding cross in beak, below Transylvanian coat of arms: two meeting, standing lions supporting a sword, treading on seven mountains. The Moldavian shield is held by two crowned figures.


title: Michael the Brave

text: There are two inscriptions on the seal. First, circular, in Slavonic using Romanian Cyrillic alphabet ""IO MIHAILI UGROVLAHISCOI VOEVOD ARDEALSCOI MOLD ZEMLI"", meaning ""Io Michael Wallachian Voivode of Transylvanian and Moldavian Lands"". Second, placed along a circular arc separating the Wallachian coat from the rest of the heraldic composition, ""I ML BJE MLRDIE"", could be translated ""Through The Very Grace of God"".


title: Organization development

text: Organization development (OD) is the study and implementation of practices, systems, and techniques that affect organizational change, the goal of which is to modify an organization's performance and/or culture. The organizational changes are typically initiated by the group's stakeholders. OD emerged from human relations studies in the 1930s, during which psychologists realized that organizational structures and processes influence worker behavior and motivation. More recently, work on OD has expanded to focus on aligning organizations with their rapidly changing and complex environments through organizational learning, knowledge management, and transformation of organizational norms and values. Key concepts of OD theory include: organizational climate (the mood or unique “personality” of an organization, which includes attitudes and beliefs that influence members' collective behavior), organizational culture (the deeply-seated norms, values, and behaviors that members share) and organizational strategies (how an organization identifies problems, plans action, negotiates change and evaluates progress).


title: Organization development

text: Organization development as a practice involves an ongoing, systematic process of implementing effective organizational change. OD is both a field of applied science focused on understanding and managing organizational change and a field of scientific study and inquiry. It is interdisciplinary in nature and draws on sociology, psychology, particularly industrial and organizational psychology, and theories of motivation, learning, and personality. Although behavioral science has provided the basic foundation for the study and practice of OD, new and emerging fields of study have made their presence felt. Experts in systems thinking, in organizational learning, in the structure of intuition in decision-making, and in coaching (to name a few) whose perspective is not steeped in just the behavioral sciences, but in a much more multi-disciplinary and inter-disciplinary approach, have emerged as OD catalysts or tools.


title: Organization development

text: Kurt Lewin (1898–1947) is the founding father of OD, although he died before the concept became mainstream in the mid-1950s. From Lewin came the ideas of group dynamics and action research which underpin the basic OD process as well as providing its collaborative consultant/client ethos. Institutionally, Lewin founded the "Research Center for Group Dynamics" (RCGD) at MIT, which moved to Michigan after his death. RCGD colleagues were among those who founded the National Training Laboratories (NTL), from which the T-groups and group-based OD emerged.


title: Organization development

text: Kurt Lewin played a key role in the evolution of organization development as it is known today. As early as World War II (1939-1945), Lewin experimented with a collaborative change-process (involving himself as a consultant and a client group) based on a three-step process of planning, taking action, and measuring results. This was the forerunner of action research, an important element of OD, which will be discussed later. Lewin also initiated a learning method known as laboratory training, or T-groups. After Lewin's death in 1947, his close associates helped to develop survey-research methods at the University of Michigan. These procedures became important parts of OD as developments in this field continued at the National Training Laboratories and in growing numbers of universities and private consulting-firms across the country. Leading universities offering doctoral-level degrees in OD include Benedictine University and the Fielding Graduate University.


title: Organization development

text: Douglas and Richard Beckhard, while "consulting together at General Mills in the 1950s [...] coined the term "organization development" (OD) to describe an innovative bottom-up change effort that fit no traditional consulting categories" (Weisbord, 1987, p. 112).


title: Organization development

text: The failure of off-site laboratory training to live up to its early promise was one of the important forces stimulating the development of OD. Laboratory training is learning from a person's "here and now" experience as a member of an ongoing training group. Such groups usually meet without a specific agenda. Their purpose is for the members to learn about themselves from their spontaneous "here and now" responses to an ambiguous situation. Problems of leadership, structure, status, communication, and self-serving behavior typically arise in such a group. The members have an opportunity to learn something about themselves and to practice such skills as listening, observing others, and functioning as effective group members. Herbert A. Shepard conducted the first large-scale experiments in Organization Development in the late fifties. He also founded the first doctoral program in organizational behavior at Case Western State University, and his colleague, Robert Blake, was also influential in making the term "organizational development" a more widely recognized field of psychological research.


title: Organization development

text: As formerly practiced (and occasionally still practiced for special purposes), laboratory training was conducted in "stranger groups"—groups composed of individuals from different organizations, situations, and backgrounds. A major difficulty developed, however, in transferring knowledge gained from these "stranger labs" to the actual situation "back home". This required a transfer between two different cultures, the relatively safe and protected environment of the T-group (or training group), and the give-and-take of the organizational environment with its traditional values. This led the early pioneers in this type of learning to begin to apply it to "family groups"—that is, groups located within an organization. From this shift in the locale of the training site and the realization that culture was an important factor in influencing group members (along with some other developments in the behavioral sciences) emerged the concept of organization development.


title: Organization development

text: Underlying Organization Development are humanistic values. Margulies and Raia (1972) articulated the humanistic values of OD as follows:


title: Organization development

text: As objectives of organizational development are framed keeping in view specific situations, they vary from one situation to another. In other words, these programs are tailored to meet the requirements of a particular situation. But broadly speaking, all organizational development programs try to achieve the following objectives:


title: Organization development

text: According to organizational-development thinking, organization development provides managers with a vehicle for introducing change systematically by applying a broad selection of management techniques. This, in turn, leads to greater personal, group, and organizational effectiveness.


title: Organization development

text: A change agent in the sense used here is not a technical expert skilled in such functional areas as accounting, production, or finance. The change agent is a behavioral scientist who knows how to get people in an organization involved in solving their own problems. A change agent's main strength is a comprehensive knowledge of human behavior, supported by a number of intervention techniques (to be discussed later). The change agent can be either external or internal to the organization. An internal change agent is usually a staff person who has expertise in the behavioral sciences and in the intervention technology of OD. Beckhard reports several cases in which line people have been trained in OD and have returned to their organizations to engage in successful change-assignments. In the natural evolution of change mechanisms in organizations, this would seem to approach the ideal arrangement.


title: Organization development

text: Researchers at the University of Oxford found that leaders can be effective change-agents within their own organizations if they are strongly committed to "knowledge leadership" targeted towards organizational development. In their three-year study of UK healthcare organizations, the researchers identified three different mechanisms through which knowledge leaders actively "transposed", "appropriated" or "contended" change concepts, effectively translating and embedding these in organizational practice.


title: Organization development

text: The change agent may be a staff or line member of the organization who is schooled in OD theory and technique. In such a case, the "contractual relationship" is an in-house agreement that should probably be explicit with respect to all of the conditions involved except the fee.


title: Organization development

text: The initiative for OD programs often comes from an organization that has a problem or anticipates facing a problem. This means that top management or someone authorized by top management is aware that a problem exists and has decided to seek help in solving it. There is a direct analogy here to the practice of psychotherapy: The client or patient must actively seek help in finding a solution to his problems. This indicates a willingness on the part of the client organization to accept help and assures the organization that management is actively concerned.


title: Organization development

text: One of the outstanding characteristics of OD that distinguishes it from most other improvement programs is that it is based on a "helping relationship". Some believe that the change agent is a physician to the organization's ills; that s/he does not examine the "patient", make a diagnosis, and write a prescription. Nor does s/he try to teach organizational members a new inventory of knowledge which they then transfer to the job situation. Using theory and methods drawn from such behavioral sciences as industrial/organizational psychology, industrial sociology, communication, cultural anthropology, administrative theory, organizational behavior, economics, and political science, the change agent's main function is to help the organization define and solve its own problems. The basic method used is known as action research. This approach, which is described in detail later, consists of a preliminary diagnosis, collecting data, feedback of the data to the client, data exploration by the client group, action planning based on the data, and taking action.


title: Organization development

text: OD deals with a total system—the organization as a whole, including its relevant environment—or with a subsystem or systems—departments or workgroups—in the context of the total system. Parts of systems—for example, individuals, cliques, structures, norms, values, and products—are not considered in isolation; the principle of interdependency—that change in one part of a system affects the other parts—is fully recognized. Thus OD interventions focus on the total cultures and cultural processes of organizations. The focus is also on groups, since the relevant behavior of individuals in organizations and groups is generally a product of the influences of groups rather than of personalities.


title: Organization development

text: The objective of OD is to improve the organization's capacity to handle its internal and external functioning and relationships. This includes improved interpersonal and group processes, more effective communication, and enhanced ability to cope with organizational problems of all kinds. It also involves more effective decision processes, more appropriate leadership styles, improved skill in dealing with destructive conflict, as well as developing improved levels of trust and cooperation among organizational members. These objectives stem from a value system based on an optimistic view of the nature of man—that man in a supportive environment is capable of achieving higher levels of development and accomplishment. Essential to organization development and effectiveness is the scientific method—inquiry, a rigorous search for causes, experimental testing of hypotheses, and review of results.


title: Organization development

text: "Self-managing" workgroups allow the members of a work team to manage, control, and monitor all facets of their work, from recruiting, hiring, and new employees to deciding when to take rest breaks. An early analysis of the first-self-managing work groups yielded the following behavioral characteristics (Hackman, 1986):


title: Organization development

text: The ultimate aim of OD practitioners is to "work themselves out of a job" by leaving the client organization with a set of tools, behaviors, attitudes, and an action plan with which to monitor its own state of health and to take corrective steps toward its own renewal and development. This is consistent with the systems concept of feedback as a regulatory and corrective mechanism. To this end, OD scholars and practitioners use tools such as simulations with their clients, to be used in workshops and classroom settings. One example of a self-renewal simulation, authored by researchers from Cornell University and Indiana University, can be found here (see citation).


title: Organization development

text: The study of organizational effectiveness and improving organizational performance has developed alongside the study of leadership development with a greater focus on leadership development programs that focus on the development of the individual. See .Emotional intelligence in relation to leadership development.


title: Organization development

text: In recent years, serious questioning has emerged about the relevance of OD to managing change in modern organizations. The need for "reinventing" the field has become a topic that even some of its "founding fathers" are discussing critically.


title: Organization development

text: With this call for reinvention and change, scholars have begun to examine organizational development from an emotion-based standpoint. For example, deKlerk (2007) writes about how emotional trauma can negatively affect performance. Due to downsizing, outsourcing, mergers, restructuring, continual changes, invasions of privacy, harassment, and abuses of power, many employees experience the emotions of aggression, anxiety, apprehension, cynicism, and fear, which can lead to performance decreases. de Klerk (2007) suggests that in order to heal the trauma and increase performance, O.D. practitioners must acknowledge the existence of the trauma, provide a safe place for employees to discuss their feelings, symbolize the trauma and put it into perspective, and then allow for and deal with the emotional responses. One method of achieving this is by having employees draw pictures of what they feel about the situation, and then having them explain their drawings with each other. Drawing pictures is beneficial because it allows employees to express emotions they normally would not be able to put into words. Also, drawings often prompt active participation in the activity, as everyone is required to draw a picture and then discuss its meaning...


title: Organization development

text: The use of new technologies combined with globalization has also shifted the field of organizational development. Roland Sullivan (2005) defined Organization Development with participants at the 1st Organization Development Conference for Asia in Dubai-2005 as "Organization Development is a transformative leap to a desired vision where strategies and systems align, in the light of local culture with an innovative and authentic leadership style using the support of high tech tools. Bob Aubrey (2015) introduced KDIs (Key Development Indicators) to help organizations go beyond performance and align strategy, organizations, and individuals and argued that fundamental challenges such as robotics, artificial intelligence, and genetics prefigure a regeneration of the field.


title: Organization development

text: Wendell L French and Cecil Bell defined organization development (OD) at one point as "organization improvement through action research". If one idea can be said to summarize OD's underlying philosophy, it would be action research as it was conceptualized by Kurt Lewin and later elaborated and expanded on by other behavioral scientists. Concerned with social change and, more particularly, with effective, permanent social change, Lewin believed that the motivation to change was strongly related to action: If people are active in decisions affecting them, they are more likely to adopt new ways. "Rational social management", he said, "proceeds in a spiral of steps, each of which is composed of a circle of planning, action, and fact-finding about the result of action".


title: Organization development

text: "Unfreezing": Faced with a dilemma or disconfirmation, the individual or group becomes aware of a need to change.


title: Organization development

text: "Figure 1" summarizes the steps and processes involved in planned change through action research. Action research is depicted as a cyclical process of change. The cycle begins with a series of planning actions initiated by the client and the change agent working together. The principal elements of this stage include a preliminary diagnosis, data gathering, feedback of results, and joint action planning. In the language of systems theory, this is the input phase, in which the client system becomes aware of problems as yet unidentified, realizes it may need outside help to effect changes, and shares with the consultant the process of problem diagnosis.


title: Organization development

text: The second stage of action research is the action, or transformation, phase. This stage includes actions relating to learning processes (perhaps in the form of role analysis) and to planning and executing behavioral changes in the client organization. As shown in Figure 1, feedback at this stage would move via Feedback Loop A and would have the effect of altering previous planning to bring the learning activities of the client system into better alignment with change objectives. Included in this stage is action-planning activity carried out jointly by the consultant and members of the client system. Following the workshop or learning sessions, these action steps are carried out on the job as part of the transformation stage.


title: Organization development

text: The third stage of action research is the output, or results, phase. This stage includes actual changes in behavior (if any) resulting from corrective action steps taken following the second stage. Data are again gathered from the client system so that progress can be determined and necessary adjustments in learning activities can be made. Minor adjustments of this nature can be made in learning activities via Feedback Loop B (see "Figure 1"). Major adjustments and reevaluations would return the OD project to the first, or planning, a stage for basic changes in the program. The action-research model shown in "Figure 1" closely follows Lewin's repetitive cycle of planning, action, and measuring results. It also illustrates other aspects of Lewin's general model of change. As indicated in the diagram, the planning stage is a period of unfreezing, or problem awareness. The action stage is a period of change, that is, trying out new forms of behavior in an effort to understand and cope with the system's problems. (There is inevitable overlap between the stages since the boundaries are not clear-cut and cannot be in a continuous process). The results stage is a period of refreezing, in which new behaviors are tried out on the job and, if successful and reinforcing, become a part of the system's repertoire of problem-solving behavior.


title: Organization development

text: Action research is problem-centered, client-centered, and action-oriented. It involves the client system in a diagnostic, active-learning, problem-finding, and problem-solving process. Data are not simply returned in the form of a written report but instead are fed back in open joint sessions, and the client and the change agent collaborate in identifying and ranking specific problems, in devising methods for finding their real causes, and in developing plans for coping with them realistically and practically. Scientific method in the form of data gathering, forming hypotheses, testing hypotheses, and measuring results, although not pursued as rigorously as in the laboratory, is nevertheless an integral part of the process. Action research also sets in motion a long-range, cyclical, self-correcting mechanism for maintaining and enhancing the effectiveness of the client's system by leaving the system with practical and useful tools for self-analysis and self-renewal.


title: Organization development

text: "Interventions" are principal learning processes in the "action" stage (see "Figure 1") of organization development. Interventions are structured activities used individually or in combination by the members of a client system to improve their social or task performance. They may be introduced by a change agent as part of an improvement program, or they may be used by the client following a program to check on the state of the organization's health or to effect necessary changes in its own behavior. "Structured activities" mean such diverse procedures as experiential exercises, questionnaires, attitude surveys, interviews, relevant group discussions, and even lunchtime meetings between the change agent and a member of the client organization. Every action that influences an organization's improvement program in a change agent-client system relationship can be said to be an intervention.


title: Organization development

text: There are many possible intervention strategies from which to choose. Several assumptions about the nature and functioning of organizations are made in the choice of a particular strategy. Beckhard lists six such assumptions:


title: Organization development

text: Interventions range from those designed to improve the effectiveness of individuals through those designed to deal with teams and groups, intergroup relations, and the total organization. There are interventions that focus on task issues (what people do), and those that focus on process issues (how people go about doing it). Finally, interventions may be roughly classified according to which change mechanism they tend to emphasize: for example, feedback, awareness of changing cultural norms, interaction and communication, conflict, and education through either new knowledge or skill practice.


title: Organization development

text: One of the most difficult tasks confronting the change agent is to help create in the client system a safe climate for learning and change. In a favorable climate, human learning builds on itself and continues indefinitely during man's lifetime. Out of new behavior, new dilemmas and problems emerge as the spiral continues upward to new levels. In an unfavorable climate, in contrast, learning is far less certain, and in an atmosphere of psychological threat, it often stops altogether. Unfreezing old ways can be inhibited in organizations because the climate makes employees feel that it is inappropriate to reveal true feelings, even though such revelations could be constructive. In an inhibited atmosphere, therefore, necessary feedback is not available. Also, trying out new ways may be viewed as risky because it violates established norms. Such an organization may also be constrained because of the law of systems: If one part changes, other parts will become involved. Hence, it is easier to maintain the status quo. Hierarchical authority, specialization, span of control, and other characteristics of formal systems also discourage experimentation.


title: Organization development

text: The change agent must address himself to all of these hazards and obstacles. Some of the things which will help him are:


title: Organization development

text: A few examples of interventions include team building, coaching, Large Group Interventions, mentoring, performance appraisal, downsizing, TQM, and leadership development.


title: Database design

text: Database design is the organization of data according to a database model. The designer determines what data must be stored and how the data elements interrelate. With this information, they can begin to fit the data to the database model.


title: Database design

text: Database design involves classifying data and identifying interrelationships. This theoretical representation of the data is called an "ontology". The ontology is the theory behind the database's design.


title: Database design

text: In a majority of cases, a person who is doing the design of a database is a person with expertise in the area of database design, rather than expertise in the domain from which the data to be stored is drawn e.g. financial information, biological information etc. Therefore, the data to be stored in the database must be determined in cooperation with a person who does have expertise in that domain, and who is aware of what data must be stored within the system.


title: Database design

text: This process is one which is generally considered part of requirements analysis, and requires skill on the part of the database designer to elicit the needed information from those with the domain knowledge. This is because those with the necessary domain knowledge frequently cannot express clearly what their system requirements for the database are as they are unaccustomed to thinking in terms of the discrete data elements which must be stored. Data to be stored can be determined by Requirement Specification.


title: Database design

text: Once a database designer is aware of the data which is to be stored within the database, they must then determine where dependency is within the data. Sometimes when data is changed you can be changing other data that is not visible. For example, in a list of names and addresses, assuming a situation where multiple people can have the same address, but one person cannot have more than one address, the address is dependent upon the name. When provided a name and the list the address can be uniquely determined; however, the inverse does not hold - when given an address and the list, a name cannot be uniquely determined because multiple people can reside at an address. Because an address is determined by a name, an address is considered dependent on a name.


title: Database design

text: Once the relationships and dependencies amongst the various pieces of information have been determined, it is possible to arrange the data into a logical structure which can then be mapped into the storage objects supported by the database management system. In the case of relational databases the storage objects are tables which store data in rows and columns. In an Object database the storage objects correspond directly to the objects used by the Object-oriented programming language used to write the applications that will manage and access the data. The relationships may be defined as attributes of the object classes involved or as methods that operate on the object classes.


title: Database design

text: The way this mapping is generally performed is such that each set of related data which depends upon a single object, whether real or abstract, is placed in a table. Relationships between these dependent objects is then stored as links between the various objects.


title: Database design

text: Each table may represent an implementation of either a logical object or a relationship joining one or more instances of one or more logical objects. Relationships between tables may then be stored as links connecting child tables with parents. Since complex logical relationships are themselves tables they will probably have links to more than one parent.


title: Database design

text: Database designs also include ER (entity-relationship model) diagrams. An ER diagram is a diagram that helps to design databases in an efficient way.


title: Database design

text: Attributes in ER diagrams are usually modeled as an oval with the name of the attribute, linked to the entity or relationship that contains the attribute.


title: Database design

text: ER models are commonly used in information system design; for example, they are used to describe information requirements and / or the types of information to be stored in the database during the conceptual structure design phase.


title: Database design

text: In the field of relational database design, "normalization" is a systematic way of ensuring that a database structure is suitable for general-purpose querying and free of certain undesirable characteristics—insertion, update, and deletion anomalies that could lead to loss of data integrity.


title: Database design

text: A standard piece of database design guidance is that the designer should create a fully normalized design; selective denormalization can subsequently be performed, but only for performance reasons. The trade-off is storage space vs performance. The more normalized the design is, the less data redundancy there is (and therefore, it takes up less space to store), however, common data retrieval patterns may now need complex joins, merges, and sorts to occur - which takes up more data read, and compute cycles. Some modeling disciplines, such as the dimensional modeling approach to data warehouse design, explicitly recommend non-normalized designs, i.e. designs that in large part do not adhere to 3NF.


title: Database design

text: Document databases take a different approach. A document that is stored in such a database, typically would contain more than one normalized data unit and often the relationships between the units as well. If all the data units and the relationships in question are often retrieved together, then this approach optimizes the number of retrieves. It also simplifies how data gets replicated, because now there is a clearly identifiable unit of data whose consistency is self-contained. Another consideration is that reading and writing a single document in such databases will require a single transaction - which can be an important consideration in a Microservices architecture. In such situations, often, portions of the document are retrieved from other services via an API and stored locally for efficiency reasons. If the data units were to be split out across the services, then a read (or write) to support a service consumer might require more than one service calls, and this could result in management of multiple transactions, which may not be preferred.


title: Database design

text: The physical design of the database specifies the physical configuration of the database on the storage media. This includes detailed specification of data elements, data types, indexing options and other parameters residing in the DBMS data dictionary. It is the detailed design of a system that includes modules & the database's hardware & software specifications of the system. Some aspects that are addressed at the physical layer:


title: Database design

text: At the application level, other aspects of the physical design can include the need to define stored procedures, or materialized query views, OLAP cubes, etc.


title: Nathan Rothschild, 1st Baron Rothschild

text: Nathaniel Mayer Rothschild, 1st Baron Rothschild, Baron de Rothschild (8 November 1840 – 31 March 1915) was a British banker and politician from the wealthy international Rothschild family.


title: Nathan Rothschild, 1st Baron Rothschild

text: Nathaniel Mayer Rothschild was the eldest son of Austrian Baron Lionel de Rothschild (1808–1879) and Baroness Charlotte von Rothschild (née von Rothschild).


title: Nathan Rothschild, 1st Baron Rothschild

text: His paternal grandparents were Freiherr "(or Baron)" Nathan Mayer Rothschild, after whom he was named, and Hannah (née Barent-Cohen) Rothschild, the daughter of Levy Barent Cohen. His maternal grandparents were Freiherr Carl Mayer von Rothschild (1788–1855) and Adelheid Herz (1800–1853). Through both of his grandfathers, who were brothers, he was the great-grandson of Mayer Amschel Rothschild (1744–1812), founder of the dynasty.


title: Nathan Rothschild, 1st Baron Rothschild

text: In his youth, Rothschild was a Captain in the Buckinghamshire Yeomanry. Rothschild was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was a friend of the Prince of Wales (later Edward VII), but left without taking a degree.


title: Nathan Rothschild, 1st Baron Rothschild

text: Rothschild worked as a partner in the London branch of the family bank, N M Rothschild & Sons, and became head of the bank after his father's death in 1879. During his tenure, he also maintained its pre-eminent position in private venture finance and in issuing loans to the governments of the US, Russia and Austria. Following the Rothschilds' funding of the Suez Canal, a close relationship was maintained with Benjamin Disraeli and affairs in Egypt.


title: Nathan Rothschild, 1st Baron Rothschild

text: Rothschild also funded Cecil Rhodes in the development of the British South Africa Company and the De Beers diamond conglomerate. He later administered Rhodes' estate after Rhodes' death in 1902 and helped to set up the Rhodes Scholarship scheme at the University of Oxford. He was a prominent member of the Round Table movement, created in 1909.


title: Nathan Rothschild, 1st Baron Rothschild

text: A noted philanthropist, Rothschild was heavily involved with the foundation of the Four Per Cent Industrial Dwellings Company, a model dwellings company whose aim was to provide decent housing, predominantly for the Jews of Spitalfields and Whitechapel. He also served as a trustee of the London Mosque Fund until his death. From 1889 until his death, he was Lord Lieutenant of Buckinghamshire and was well known as an agriculturist.


title: Nathan Rothschild, 1st Baron Rothschild

text: In the 1902 Coronation Honours list, he was appointed a Privy Counsellor and was sworn a member of the council at Buckingham Palace on 11 August 1902. On the same day, he was appointed to the Royal Victorian Order as a Knight Grand Cross (GCVO).


title: Nathan Rothschild, 1st Baron Rothschild

text: From 1865 to 1885, Nathan Rothschild sat in the House of Commons as Liberal Member of Parliament for Aylesbury. His father Lionel had previously been elected for the City of London from 1847 but had been unable to take the obligatory oath until 1858; they were MPs together from 1865 to 1868 and from 1869 to 1874.


title: Nathan Rothschild, 1st Baron Rothschild

text: In 1847, his uncle Anthony Nathan de Rothschild (1810–1876) was created "1st Baronet de Rothschild", of Tring Park. Since Sir Anthony had no male heirs, the baronetcy passed on his death by special remainder to his nephew Nathan.


title: Nathan Rothschild, 1st Baron Rothschild

text: In 1885, Rothschild became a member of the House of Lords when he was created Baron Rothschild, of Tring in the County of Hertford, in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. He also was Baron de Rothschild ("Freiherr von Rothschild") in the Austrian Empire, a noble title he had inherited via his father. In 1838, Queen Victoria had authorized the use of this Austrian title in the United Kingdom.


title: Nathan Rothschild, 1st Baron Rothschild

text: When he was raised to the peerage by Gladstone, Rothschild was the first Jewish member of the House of Lords not to have previously converted to Christianity. (Disraeli had been created Earl of Beaconsfield in 1876, but was baptised into Anglicanism at age twelve).


title: Nathan Rothschild, 1st Baron Rothschild

text: In common with the rest of his family, Rothschild joined the breakaway Liberal Unionist Party, formed in 1886 by Joseph Chamberlain, which ultimately merged into the Conservative Party.


title: Nathan Rothschild, 1st Baron Rothschild

text: In 1909, he was famously derided by then Chancellor of the Exchequer, David Lloyd George, over his opposition to the People's Budget, when the latter said, at a meeting at the Holborn Restaurant on 24June that year: "I really think we are having too much Lord Rothschild. Are we to have all ways of reform, financial and social, blocked, simply by a notice-board; 'No Thoroughfare. By Order of Nathaniel Rothschild'?" Rothschild recommended the Lords reject the Parliament Bill, which was, however, passed.


title: Nathan Rothschild, 1st Baron Rothschild

text: In 1914, after the outbreak of World War I, Rothschild was consulted for economic advice by Lloyd George. At his first invitation to confer at the Treasury, when asked what could be done to raise more money for the war effort, Rothschild reportedly answered: "Tax the rich, and tax them heavily."


title: Nathan Rothschild, 1st Baron Rothschild

text: On 16 April 1867, he married Emma Louise von Rothschild (1844–1935), a double first cousin (i.e., they shared both sets of grandparents) from the Rothschild banking family of Germany in Frankfurt. They had three children:


title: Nathan Rothschild, 1st Baron Rothschild

text: He died in London, five days after an operation, on 31 March 1915 and was buried at Willesden Jewish Cemetery. Following his death, the peerage was inherited by his son, Lionel Walter Rothschild.


title: Kitty Hawk, North Carolina

text: Kitty Hawk is a town in Dare County, North Carolina, United States, and is a part of what is known as North Carolina's Outer Banks. The population was 3,708 at the 2020 Census. It was established in the early 18th century as Chickahawk.


title: Kitty Hawk, North Carolina

text: The name Kitty Hawk is derived from the native Algonquin Amerindian language word Chickahawk, meaning "a place to hunt geese".


title: Kitty Hawk, North Carolina

text: Kitty Hawk became world-famous after the Wright brothers made the first controlled powered airplane flights at Kill Devil Hills, four miles (6 km) south of the town, on December 17, 1903. After the four flights in their "Wright Flyer", the brothers walked back to Kitty Hawk. Here, they sent a telegram from the Weather Bureau office to their father informing him of their success. Kitty Hawk is usually credited as the site of the powered flights because it was the nearest named settlement at the time of the flight; the modern town of Kill Devil Hills did not exist until 50 years after the flights. The Wrights chose the area because its frequent winds and soft sandy surfaces were suitable for their glider experiments, which they conducted over three years before they made the powered flights.


title: Kitty Hawk, North Carolina

text: The Old Currituck Sound Bridge was completed in 1930, which connected the mainland to the Outer Banks across Albemarle Sound, prompting the paving of a road between the two existing bridges (the other in Manteo) and connecting the Outer Banks to the outside world by road for the first time.


title: Kitty Hawk, North Carolina

text: The aircraft carrier USS "Kitty Hawk" (CV-63), the B-2 Spirit stealth bomber AV-19 with an aircraft number of 93–1086, P-40D Kittyhawk fighter aircraft, the aircraft transport ship USS "Kitty Hawk" (AKV-1), and the Apollo 14 command module have been named for the town, which incorporated in 1981.


title: Kitty Hawk, North Carolina

text: According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a complete area of , of which is land and (0.579%) is water.


title: Kitty Hawk, North Carolina

text: Kitty Hawk is served by U.S. Route 158 and Highway 12, which parallel each other in the city. US 158 can be used to go west, while the barrier islands extend north and south.


title: Kitty Hawk, North Carolina

text: As of the census of 2000, there were 2,991 people, 1,265 households, and 866 families residing in the town. The population density was 365.8 people per square mile (141.2/km). There were 2,618 housing units at an average density of 320.1 per square mile (123.6/km). The racial makeup of the town was 98.13% White, 0.64% African American, 0.23% Native American, 0.27% Asian, 0.03% Pacific Islander, 0.20% from other races, and 0.50% from two or more races. 0.94% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.


title: Kitty Hawk, North Carolina

text: There were 1,265 households, out of which 27.9% had children under the age of 18 years living with them, 58.7% were married couples living together, 7.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 31.5% were non-families. 23.8% of all tribes were made up of individuals, and 8.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.35 and the average family size was 2.79.


title: Kitty Hawk, North Carolina

text: In the town, the population was spread out, with 21.5% under the age of 18, 5.7% from 18 to 24, 31.6% from 25 to 44, 28.3% from 45 to 64, and 13.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 41 years. For every 100 girls, there were 103.7 boys. For every 100 girls age 18 and over, there were 97.6 boys.


title: Kitty Hawk, North Carolina

text: The median income for a household in the town was $42,813, and the median income for a family was $48,676. Males had a median income of $31,250 versus $25,744 for females. The per capita income for the town was $22,960. About 4.3% of families and 6.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 7.9% of people under age 18 and 4.6% of people age 65 or over.


title: Kitty Hawk, North Carolina

text: As of the 2020 United States census, there were 3,689 people, 1,532 households, and 1,073 families residing in the town.


title: Kitty Hawk, North Carolina

text: Federally, Kitty Hawk is part of North Carolina's 3rd congressional district, represented by Republican Greg Murphy since 2019.


title: Kitty Hawk, North Carolina

text: According to the Trewartha climate classification system, Kitty Hawk, North Carolina has a humid subtropical climate with hot and humid summers, cool winters and year-around precipitation ("Cfak"). Cfak climates are characterized by all months having an average mean temperature > 32.0 °F (> 0.0 °C), at least eight months with an average mean temperature ≥ 50.0 °F (≥ 10.0 °C), at least one month with an average mean temperature ≥ 71.6 °F (≥ 22.0 °C) and no significant precipitation difference between seasons. During the summer months in Kitty Hawk, a cooling afternoon sea breeze is present on most days, but episodes of extreme heat and humidity can occur with heat index values ≥ 100 °F (≥ 38 °C). Kitty Hawk is prone to hurricane strikes, particularly during the Atlantic hurricane season which extends from June 1 through November 30, sharply peaking from late August through September. During the winter months, episodes of cold and wind can occur with wind chill values < 10 °F (< -12 °C). The plant hardiness zone in Kitty Hawk is 8b with an average annual extreme minimum air temperature of 16.6 °F (-8.9 °C). The average seasonal (Dec–Mar) snowfall total is < 2 inches (< 5 cm), and the average annual peak in nor'easter activity is in February.


title: Kitty Hawk, North Carolina

text: According to the A. W. Kuchler U.S. potential natural vegetation types, Kitty Hawk, North Carolina would have a dominant vegetation type of Live oak/Sea Oats Uniola paniculata ("90") with a dominant vegetation form of Coastal Prairie ("20").


title: Kitty Hawk, North Carolina

text: Dare County Schools operates public schools serving the area. Kitty Hawk Elementary School is in the city.


title: Kitty Hawk, North Carolina

text: The zoned secondary schools are First Flight Middle School and First Flight High School. Prior to 2004 First Flight High zoned students were zoned to Manteo High School.


title: Alcest

text: Alcest is a French post-black metal band from Bagnols-sur-Cèze, founded and led by Neige (Stéphane Paut). It began in 2000 as a black metal solo project by Neige, soon a trio, but following the release of their first demo in 2001, band members Aegnor and Argoth left the band, leaving Neige as the sole member. In 2009 drummer Winterhalter from Les Discrets joined Alcest's line-up, after eight years with Neige as the sole full-time member. Since its creation, Alcest has released six studio albums and a number of EPs and split releases. Their fourth album, 2014's "Shelter", marked a dramatic shift towards a distinctly shoegaze sound, however their subsequent album "Kodama" marked a return to their earlier blackgaze sound. The band are widely credited with pioneering the blackgaze/post-black metal genre, particularly through their EP "Le Secret" released in 2005.


title: Alcest

text: Alcest was formed as a solo project by Neige in 2000. Soon after, the band became a three-piece black metal outfit, consisting of Neige on vocals, rhythm/acoustic guitar, and drums, Argoth on bass, and Aegnor.


title: Alcest

text: In 2001, the band released a 4-track demo tape entitled "Tristesse Hivernale" on Drakkar Productions in which Famine wrote the main riff of the song "La Forêt de Cristal". Not long after the demo was released, the band once again became a one-man entity, with Neige taking Alcest in a more personal direction. Neige, having originally formed Alcest as an outlet to create cold and raw black metal, moved away from the minimalist approach with the follow-up to "Tristesse Hivernale", entitled "Le Secret". This EP, released in May 2005, is an introduction of sorts to the new concept behind the reformed Alcest.


title: Alcest

text: After having signed to Prophecy Productions in March 2007, Alcest's debut album "Souvenirs d'un autre monde" was released in early August of the same year, and drew comparisons with the likes of My Bloody Valentine and Jesu. According to Pitchfork's Brandon Stosuy, the album "isn't black metal at all", and compared it to "a lighter take on Jesu shoegazing".


title: Alcest

text: In August 2007, "Tristesse Hivernale" was released by Northern Silence Productions as a split with French black metal band Angmar. The band also released a split EP with the French band Les Discrets on 30 November 2009.


title: Alcest

text: Alcest's second album, "Écailles de Lune" (Scales of the Moon), was released 29 March 2010. It was a highly anticipated album, and was received with very warm reviews from music critics, with AllMusic's Ned Raggett writing that the album "makes the most of its compelling fusion of black metal's theatricality and the after-echoes of shoegaze's propensity for utterly enveloping a listener, even if bandleader Neige approached that sound unconsciously at first."


title: Alcest

text: The band's third album, "Les Voyages de l'Âme", was released on 6 January 2012. The album also received positive reviews from music critics, with "The New York Times" describing it as "the best example yet of what it [the band] can do."


title: Alcest

text: Alcest's fourth effort entitled "Shelter" was released on 17 January 2014 via Prophecy Productions. It features Birgir Jón Birgisson as producer, Amiina for the string sections and a guest appearance by Neil Halstead. Stylistically the album is a radical departure for the band, dropping all traces of metal from their sound and fully committing to the shoegaze side of their sound. Neige later said in an interview that "We are proud of it, but I think it was maybe a bit too influenced by other things. I really was obsessed with Slowdive at that time. "Shelter" still sounds very 'Alcest', but maybe not as much as the other records."


title: Alcest

text: On 15 January 2016, Neige published "New album. Recording started." on the band's Facebook page. He also commented the album would be "definitively darker." On 16 May, he stated that the album was in the mastering process. On 26 July, the title was revealed to be "Kodama," and the release date to be 30 September"." Neige has said the album is heavily inspired by Japanese art and culture, as well as Hayao Miyazaki's film "Princess Mononoke". Musically the album is a return to the band's more traditional blackgaze sound.


title: Alcest

text: On 22 January 2019, the band announced that they would start recording their next studio album the following day. They announced on 25 June 2019 that the album would be called "Spiritual Instinct" and would be released on 25 October of that same year; Neige stated that its the recording "has been a long and challenging process." On 23 August 2019, the band released the first single from "Spiritual Instinct" titled "Protection". "Loudwire" named the album one of the 50 best metal efforts of 2019.


title: Alcest

text: On 6 August 2022, Neige confirmed that the band is in the pre-production process of their seventh album.


title: Alcest

text: As a child, Neige had experiences of being in contact with a "far off country", which he generically refers to as "Fairy Land". Alcest serves as the musical adaptation of the memories from this "otherworld". Neige intends for Alcest to be a journey for the listener to this world through his memories. This change in concept was first introduced on Le Secret. "Souvenirs d'un autre monde" serves as a literal summation of the concept behind the band.


title: Alcest

text: Musically the band's sound has changed over time, beginning with their demo Tristesse hivernale that displays a very raw black metal sound, before evolving into post-black metal. The EP, Le Secret is considered the origin of blackgaze, and the band are widely credited with pioneering the genre. The band's sound is defined by a very atmospheric and uplifting tone, and is described as post-metal, shoegaze, and alternative metal. From "Le Secret" to "Shelter" the band drew on both black metal bands like Burzum and Ulver as well as shoegaze bands like Slowdive to create a huge wall of sound effect, using abrasive, screamed vocals, blastbeat sections, as well as fast tremolo-picked guitar passages. Their 2014 album "Shelter" was a significant departure from this sound, a purely shoegaze album entirely eliminating any trace of metal influence. However their following album "Kodama" was a partial return to their earlier blackgaze sound.


title: Chulalongkorn University

text: Chulalongkorn University (CU, , ), nicknamed Chula (), is a public and autonomous research university in Bangkok, Thailand. The university was originally founded during King Chulalongkorn's reign as a school for training royal pages and civil servants in 1899 (B.E. 2442) at the Grand Palace of Thailand. It was later established as a national university in 1917, making it the oldest institute of higher education in Thailand.


title: Chulalongkorn University

text: During the reign of Chulalongkorn's son, King Vajiravudh, the Royal Pages School became the Civil Service College of King Chulalongkorn. The Rockefeller Foundation was instrumental in helping the college form its academic foundation. On 26 March 1917, King Vajiravudh renamed the college "Chulalongkorn University".


title: Chulalongkorn University

text: Chulalongkorn University is a comprehensive and research-intensive university. It is ranked as the best university in Thailand in many surveys, quality of students, quality of research, quality in particular subjects, university reputation, environmental management systems. According to QS world university ranking 2017, CU is placed 245th in the world, 45th in Asia, 1st in Thailand, and 201–250 in the world graduate employability ranking. It is also ranked as Thailand's No. 1 university from various organizers such as Center for World University Rankings, Round university ranking, Academic Ranking of World Universities.


title: Chulalongkorn University

text: Chulalongkorn University is one of the National Research Universities and supported by the Office of Nation Education Standards and Quality Assessment of Thailand. Moreover, CU is the only Thai university which is a member of Association of Pacific Rim Universities (APRU).


title: Chulalongkorn University

text: Admission to CU is highly selective, and applicants are required to have high test scores. Applicants ranking in the top 10 national scores are chosen for study at CU.


title: Chulalongkorn University

text: CU is composed of nineteen faculties, a School of Agriculture, three colleges, ten institutes and two other schools. Its campus occupies a vast area in downtown Bangkok. Graduates customarily receive their diplomas from the King of Thailand, a tradition begun by King Prajadhipok (Rama VII).


title: Chulalongkorn University

text: King Chulalongkorn's reforms, aimed at transforming Thai society into a modern state demanded trained officials specialized in various fields. In 1899, the King founded the "Civil Service Training School" near the north gate of the Royal Palace. Those who graduated from the school would become royal pages. As royal pages, they learned how to manage organizations by working closely with the king, which was a traditional way to enter the Siamese bureaucracy. After serving as royal pages, they would then serve in the Mahattai Ministry or other government ministries.


title: Chulalongkorn University

text: On 1 April 1902 the King renamed the school. It became the "Royal Pages School" (). On 1 January 1911, King Vajiravudh changed the name to "Civil Service College of King Chulalongkorn" () as a memorial to his father and moved the school to Windsor Palace () in the Pathumwan District.


title: Chulalongkorn University

text: The King subsidized the construction of a university campus and organized various schools around the city into Chulalongkorn. The college offered eight majors taught by five schools including;


title: Chulalongkorn University

text: King Rama VI realized that education should be provided not only to bureaucrats, but to all people. On 26 March 1917, the college was upgraded to "Chulalongkorn University" (), and the schools were transformed into four faculties: Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Faculty of Public Administration, Faculty of Engineering, and Faculty of Medicine.


title: Chulalongkorn University

text: The Rockefeller Foundation reorganized the curriculum of the Faculty of Medicine. In 1923, the Faculty of Medicine became the first faculty to accept secondary school (Mattayom) graduates. The remaining faculties then followed suit. After the 1932 Revolution, the People's Party wanted legal and political studies to be independent of "royalists" so they moved the Faculty of Law and Political Science to the new Thammasat University in 1933.


title: Chulalongkorn University

text: In 1938, Chulalongkorn University's Preparatory School was founded to provide pre-collegiate education to students. Those who managed to enter the university had to spend two years in the Preparatory School before going on to the Faculty of Arts and Sciences. The Preparatory School, however, ceased to be a university-owned preparatory school in 1947 and became the independent Triam Udom Suksa School. Later, the university established Chulalongkorn University Demonstration School (CUD) as a laboratory school for primary and secondary education for the Faculty of Education.


title: Chulalongkorn University

text: Since the establishment of the Royal Pages School, the former name of the university, King Chulalongkorn authorized the use of his personal emblem as a school emblem. The emblem is called "Phra Kiao", a Thai coronet, royal headgear for young princes and princesses. As the school was transformed into the university, the King authorized the use of "phra kiao". Today, "phra kiao" appears not only in formal letters and transcripts, but also on souvenirs made by the university as well as student uniforms.


title: Chulalongkorn University

text: Undergraduates are required to wear a uniform when studying, taking examinations, or contacting the university in person. Male graduate students wear a collared or polo shirt and dark trousers. Women wear a plain blouse with long skirt.


title: Chulalongkorn University

text: Originally, the university uniform was adapted from a uniform worn by Chulalongkorn's heirs. The uniform was later updated, but the original is reserved as a formal uniform. The formal uniform is usually worn by student leaders and graduates.


title: Chulalongkorn University

text: Today, the ordinary uniform for male undergraduate students consists of a plain white shirt with long or short sleeves and black (or dark blue) trousers. Wearing a dark blue necktie with colored "phra kiao" engraved on its front is mandatory for first-year students but optional for higher years. However, a black tie with a silver "phra kiao" pin is usually used by upperclass student in some faculties. Female students are required to wear a short-sleeved blouse with a fold along the spine. The buttons must be made of metal, and a small "phra kiao" emblem must be pinned on the right breast. A dark blue or black pleated skirt with any black, white, or brown shoes are worn. For female first-year students, white leather shoes are mandatory. Chulalongkorn University's uniforms have long been the template of many uniforms used in other universities in Thailand.


title: Chulalongkorn University

text: The academic dress of Chulalongkorn University is based on ceremonial attire called khrui, a gown made from very fine mesh. The robe was originally reserved for pre-ordination monks, ministers and royal family members. Like dresses worn in the United Kingdom, the robe is open-fronted and calf-length. Cap and hood, however, are omitted. The gown is faced and lined with a felt strip dyed according to the status of the wearer and decorated with gold ribbons. The elbow and wrist portion of the gown is also wrapped with the same felt strip.


title: Chulalongkorn University

text: Bachelor's and master's gown is faced and bordered with a black felt strip, while a doctor's gown uses a scarlet felt strip. This colour scheme is similar to one used at the University of Oxford: Black for bachelors and masters (and doctors in undress); Scarlet for doctors (in full-dress). The cord (bachelor) or ribbon (master and doctor) dyed with the faculty colour is attached to the centre of the felt strip longitudinally. Officers' (lecturers, university council members, vice-chancellor and chancellor) gown is faced with a pink strip and centred with a gold thread, regardless of the faculty. The specially designed gown with a yellow facing is reserved for the king of Thailand, who is also Visitor to the University.


title: Chulalongkorn University

text: VVajiravudh authorized the university to use the traditional Thai gown instead of the western one, but the regulation on this matter was enacted in 1930 by Prajadhipok.


title: Chulalongkorn University

text: Rain trees are common on the university campus. They are associated with the cycle of student life. Fresh green leaves at beginning of the term represent the freshmen's naivete. As the tree produces slimy pods and sheds leaves, the ground beneath it becomes slippery, thus alerting students to prepare for examinations. If they walk carefully, they will not slip (pass examinations). If they walk heedlessly, they will slip and fall (fail examinations).


title: Chulalongkorn University

text: From 1937–1957, many rain trees were cut down to free space for new buildings. King Bhumibol Adulyadej noticed the dramatic decrease in the number of rain trees. On 15 January 1962, he brought five trees from Hua Hin and planted them in front of the university auditorium, proclaiming: "...I give these five trees as an eternal memorial." ().


title: Chulalongkorn University

text: Chulalongkorn University consists of 19 faculties, three colleges, one school and many institutes which function as teaching and research units.


title: Chulalongkorn University

text: In 1917, the university had four faculties: Arts and Sciences, Public Administration, Engineering, and Medicine. The Faculty of Law was established in 1933 as part of the Faculty of Law and Political Science. From the 1930s to the 1950s it expanded to various fields including Pharmacy (1934), Veterinary Science (1935), Architecture (1939), Dentistry (1940), and Commerce and Accountancy (1943). In 1943, the regency government under General Phibun separated the Faculty of Medicine, Dentistry, Pharmacy, and Veterinary Science to become the University of Medical Sciences, now Mahidol University. In 1948, the Faculty of Political Science was re-established. The Faculty of Education was established in 1957 from the School of Teacher Training at Baan Somdet Chao Phraya (). In 1967, the Faculty of Veterinary Science was returned from Kasetsart University and the Faculty of Medicine at Chulalongkorn Hospital was moved from University of Medical Sciences to Chulalongkorn University. In 1972, the Faculty of Dentistry and Faculty of Pharmacy were reinstated.


title: Chulalongkorn University

text: The Office of the Commission on Agricultural Resource Education (OCARE) was established in 2009. It is not an administrative office, but a school in which teaching and research are carried out. It admits students from two groups: one from northern Thai provinces (Nan, Phayao, Phrae, Uttaradit) and another from the rest of country. It was upgraded to the School of Agricultural Resources with full degree-granting power on 5 March 2014. In 2014 it became the School of Agriculture, Chulalongkorn University (SAR).


title: Chulalongkorn University

text: In 2019, aiming to address global industry changes and demand for relevant education, Chulalongkorn University launched Chulalongkorn School of Integrated Innovation (ScII) to offer the first in Asia interdisciplinary undergraduate degree in both arts and science - Bachelor of Arts and Science in Integrated Innovation (BAScii).


title: Chulalongkorn University

text: CU's international programs offers 99 international programs, including 17 Bachelor, 48 Master and 34 Doctoral programs. Admissions for international students are based on the guidelines issued by the Council of University Presidents of Thailand.


title: Chulalongkorn University

text: The university campus occupies an area of in the downtown Pathum Wan District. It accounts for just over half of the of land owned by the university, the rest of which is commercially developed by the university's Property Management Office or used by other institutions.


title: Chulalongkorn University

text: The west side of Chula's campus is the site of this innovative park. It has gradually sloping portions. Its 28 rai expanse contains a water retention pond with a capacity of 3.8 million liters and a rain garden. Both help to ameliorate Bangkok's seasonal flooding. It was built to commemorate Chula's 100th anniversary in 2017.


title: Chulalongkorn University

text: Chulalongkorn University International House (CU iHouse) is a 26-storey, 846-unit, on campus residence for international students and lecturers. Rooms come fully furnished with air conditioning, modern conveniences, 24-hour security and safety systems. The residence is included in the university's shuttle bus services.


title: Chulalongkorn University

text: The university has bestowed honorary degrees on heads of state and other international dignitaries, including two U.S. presidents:


title: Chulalongkorn University

text: The university is host to 40 student clubs, including the Buddhism and Traditions Club, the Religious Studies Club, the Mind Study Club, and the Thai Classical Music Club. Chulalongkorn also has a Morals Network, which actively campaigns to protect student activities from damaging the university's reputation. The university's Cheer Club annually organizes the Chula-Thammasat traditional football match.


title: Chulalongkorn University

text: Moreover, another university Robocup team, Plasma-RX has participated in Rescue robot league at World RoboCup 2008, Suzhou, China, and won the first prize and the best-in-class in mobility award.


title: Hurrian language

text: Hurrian is an extinct Hurro-Urartian language spoken by the Hurrians (Khurrites), a people who entered northern Mesopotamia around 2300 BC and had mostly vanished by 1000 BC. Hurrian was the language of the Mitanni kingdom in northern Mesopotamia and was likely spoken at least initially in Hurrian settlements in modern-day Syria. It is generally believed that the speakers of this language originally came from the Armenian Highlands and spread over southeast Anatolia and northern Mesopotamia at the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC.


title: Hurrian language

text: Hurrian is closely related to Urartian, the language of the ancient kingdom of Urartu. Together they constitute the Hurro-Urartian language family. The external connections of the Hurro-Urartian languages are disputed. There exist various proposals for a genetic relationship to other language families (e.g. the Northeast Caucasian languages, Indo-European languages, or Kartvelian languages which are spoken in Georgia). It has also been speculated that it is related to "Sino-Caucasian". However, none of these proposals are generally accepted.


title: Hurrian language

text: The earliest Hurrian text fragments consist of lists of names and places from the end of the third millennium BC. The first full texts date to the reign of king Tish-atal of Urkesh, at the start of the second millennium BC, and were found on a stone tablet accompanying the Hurrian foundation pegs known as the "Urkish lions". Archeologists have discovered the texts of numerous spells, incantations, prophecies and letters at sites including Hattusha, Mari, Tuttul, Babylon, Ugarit and others. Early study of the language, however, was entirely based on the Mitanni letter, found in 1887 at Amarna in Egypt, written by the Hurrian king Tushratta to the pharaoh Amenhotep III. The Hurro-Urartian relation was recognized as early as 1890 by Sayce (ZA 5, 1890, 260–274) and Jensen (ZA 6, 1891, 34–72). After the fall of the Akkadian Empire, Hurrians began to settle in northern Syria, and by 1725 BC they constituted a sizable portion of the population of Yamhad. The presence of a large Hurrian population brought Hurrian culture and religion to Aleppo, as evidenced by the existence of certain religious festivals that bear Hurrian names.


title: Hurrian language

text: In the thirteenth century BC, invasions from the west by the Hittites and the south by the Assyrians brought the end of the Mitanni empire, which was divided between the two conquering powers. In the following century, attacks by the Sea Peoples brought a swift end to the last vestiges of the Hurrian language. It is around this time that other languages, such as the Hittite language and the Ugaritic language also became extinct, in what is known as the Bronze Age collapse. In the texts of these languages, as well as those of Akkadian or Urartian, many Hurrian names and places can be found.


title: Hurrian language

text: Renewed interest in Hurrian was triggered by texts discovered in Boğazköy in the 1910s and Ugarit in the 1930s. Speiser (1941) published the first comprehensive grammar of Hurrian. Since the 1980s, the Nuzi corpus from the archive of Silwa-tessup has been edited by G. Wilhelm. Since the late 1980s, significant progress was made due to the discovery of a Hurrian-Hittite bilingual, edited by E. Neu (StBoT 32).


title: Hurrian language

text: The Hurrian of the Mitanni letter differs significantly from that used in the texts at Hattusha and other Hittite centres, as well as from earlier Hurrian texts from various locations. The non-Mitanni letter varieties, while not entirely homogeneous, are commonly subsumed under the designation "Old Hurrian". Whereas in Mitanni the vowel pairs "i"/"e" and "u"/"o" are differentiated, in the Hattusha dialect they have merged into "i" and "u" respectively. There are also differences in morphology, some of which are mentioned in the course of the exposition below. Nonetheless, it is clear that these represent dialects of one language. Another Hurrian dialect is likely represented in several texts from Ugarit, but they are so poorly preserved that little can be said about them, save that spelling patterns used elsewhere to represent Hurrian phonemes are virtually ignored in them. There was also a Hurrian-Akkadian creole, called Nuzi, spoken in the Mitanni provincial capital of Arrapha.


title: Hurrian language

text: As can be seen from the table, Hurrian did not possess a voiced-voiceless distinction. There is no voiced consonant with an unvoiced counterpart, nor vice versa. However, based on evidence from the cuneiform script, there seem to have been voiced allophones of consonants other than /ts/, which occurred in certain environments: between two voiced phonemes (sonorants or vowels), and, surprisingly, also word-finally. Sometimes a voiced consonant is written in these situations, i.e. "b" (for "p"), "d" (for "t"), "g" (for "k"), "v" (for "f") or "ž" (for "š"), and, very rarely, "ǧ" (for "h", "ḫ"). All consonants except /w/ and /j/ can be long or short. The long (geminate) consonants occur only between vowels. In the cuneiform, as in the Latin transcription, geminated consonants are indicated by doubling the corresponding symbol, so "...VC-CV..". Short consonants are written "...V-CV...", for example "mānnatta" ("I am") is written "ma-a-an-na-at-ta".


title: Hurrian language

text: Since /f/ was not found in the Sumerian cuneiform script, the Hurrians used the symbols representing /p/, /b/ or /w/. An /f/ can be recognised in words where this transcription varies from text to text. In cases where a word occurs only once, with a "p", it cannot be known if it was originally meant to represent a /p/ or an /f/. In final syllables containing "a", /f/ becomes diphthongised to /u/, e.g. "tānōšau" (<*tān-ōš-af)) "I did". /s/ is traditionally transcribed by /š/, because the cuneiform script adapted the sign indicating /š/ for this phoneme. /ts/ is regularly transcribed by "z", and /x/ by "ḫ" or "h". In Hurrian, /r/ and /l/ do not occur at the beginning of a word.


title: Hurrian language

text: Vowels, just like consonants, can be either long or short. In the cuneiform script, this is indicated by placing an additional vowel symbol between the "CV" and "VC" syllables, giving "CV-V-VC". Short vowels are indicated by a simple "CV-VC" pairing. In the Latin transcription, long vowels are indicated with a macron, "ā", "ē", "ī", "ō", and "ū". For /o/, which is absent in the Sumerian script, the sign for "U" is used, whereas /u/ is represented by "Ú".


title: Hurrian language

text: While Hurrian could not combine multiple stems to form new stems, a large number of suffixes could be attached to existing stems to form new words. For example, "attardi" (ancestor) from "attai" (father), "futki" (son) from "fut" (to beget), "aštohhe" (feminine) from "ašti" (woman). Hurrian also provided many verbal suffixes, which often changed the valency of the verb they modify.


title: Hurrian language

text: The nominal morphology of Hurrian employs numerous suffixes and/or enclitics, which always follow a certain order. The resulting "morpheme chain" is as follows:


title: Hurrian language

text: Note: (SA) indicates morphemes added through Suffixaufnahme, described below.These elements are not all obligatory, and in fact a noun can occur as a single root followed by nothing except zero-suffixes for case and number. Despite the general agglutinative structure of the language, the plural marker (5) merges with the case morphemes (6) in ways which do not seem to be entirely predictable, so singular and plural forms of the case endings are usually listed separately. The anaphoric marker (7) is formally identical to the article and anchors the Suffixaufnahme suffixes (8) and (9). While the absolutive pronoun clitics (10) attached to a noun are not necessarily connected to it syntactically, typically designating the object or intransitive subject of a nearby verb, the third plural pronoun clitic "-lla" can be used to signal the plural of the host noun in the absolutive.


title: Hurrian language

text: Almost all Hurrian nouns end in a vowel, known as a "thematic vowel" or "stem vowel". This vowel will always appear on the word, and will not switch between types. Most nouns end with /i/; a few end with /a/ (mostly words for relatives and divine names) and /e/ (a few suffix derivations, possibly the same as /i/-stems). As well, in texts from Nuzi, stems of /u/ (or /o/?) are found, mainly on non-Hurrian names and a few Hurrian ones.


title: Hurrian language

text: This stem-final vowel disappears when certain endings are attached to it, such as case endings that begin with a vowel, certain derivational suffixes, or the article suffix. Examples: "kāz-ōš" (like a cup) from "kāzi" (cup), "awarra" (the fields) from "awari" (field).


title: Hurrian language

text: A minority of Hurrian noun roots have athematic stem vowels, such as "šen" (brother) in the forms "šena" and "-šenni", "mad" (wisdom; later becomes "i"-stem in the form "madi"), and "muž" (divine name). Some names of gods, heroes, persons, and places are also athematic, e.g. Teššob (Teššobi/a), Gilgaamiž, Hurriž (later Hurri). These nouns seem to occur more frequently in the earliest Hurrian texts (end of the third millennium BC).


title: Hurrian language

text: Note: This type of thematic stem vowel is completely different in function to Indo-European stem vowels. For a discussion of those, see here and here.


title: Hurrian language

text: Hurrian has 13 cases in its system of declension. One of these, the equative case, has a different form in both of the main dialects. In Hattusha and Mari, the usual ending is "-oš", termed equative I, whereas in the Mitanni letter we find the form "-nna", called equative II. Another case, the so-called 'e-case', is very rare, and carries a genitive or allative meaning.


title: Hurrian language

text: Like many languages in the region, Hurrian is an ergative language, which means that the same case is used for the subject of an intransitive verb as for the object of a transitive one; this case is called the absolutive. For the subject of a transitive verb, however, the ergative case is used. Hurrian has two numbers, singular and plural. The following table outlines the case endings (the terms used for some of the more obscure cases vary between different authors).


title: Hurrian language

text: In certain phonological environments, these endings can vary. The "f" of the genitive and dative endings merges with a preceding "p" or "t" giving "pp" and "tt" respectively, e.g. "Teššuppe" (of Teššup), "Hepat-te" (of Hepat). The associative can be combined with the instrumental, as in "šēna-nn-ae" (brother-"ass-instr"), meaning 'brotherly'.


title: Hurrian language

text: The so-called essive case can convey the meaning "as" and a condition, but also to express direction, the aim of a demand, the transition from one condition to another, the direct object in antipassive constructions (where the transitive subject receives the absolutive case instead of the ergative), and, in the variety of Nuzi, also the dative.


title: Hurrian language

text: In Hurrian, the function of the so-called "article" is not entirely clear, inasmuch as its use does not seem to resemble closely a typical definite article. It is attached directly to the noun, but before any case endings, e.g. "tiwē-na-še" (object."art"."gen.pl") (of the objects). The article is unmarked in the absolutive singular – e.g. "kāzi" 'cup'. The /n/ of the article merges with a preceding /n/, /l/ or /r/ giving /nn/, /ll/ and /rr/ respectively, e.g. "ēn-na" (the gods), "ōl-la" (the others), "awar-ra" (the fields). In these cases, the stem-final vowel /i/ has been dropped; the singulars of these words are "ēni" (god), "ōli" (another), "awari" (field). If there are two consonants preceding the final /i/, an epenthetic vowel /u/ is inserted between them, e.g. "hafurun-ne-ta" (heaven-"art"-"all.sg", to heaven), the stem of which is "hafurni" (heaven).


title: Hurrian language

text: One prominent feature of Hurrian is the phenomenon of Suffixaufnahme, or suffix absorption, which it shares with Urartian and the geographically proximate Kartvelian languages. In this process, the dependent modifiers of a noun share the noun's case suffixes. Between the suffix of the dependent noun and the case ending comes the article, which agrees with the referent in number, for example, with an adjective:


title: Hurrian language

text: Suffixaufnahme also occurs with other modifiers, such as a noun in the genitive modifying another noun, in which case the following nouns takes a possessive pronoun.


title: Hurrian language

text: The phenomenon is also found when the head noun is in the locative, instrumental or equative. In the absolutive singular, Suffixaufnahme would be meaningless, as the case and number are unmarked. When more than two genitives occur, they are merged, so Suffixaufnahme only occurs on the innermost genitive, as in the following example:


title: Hurrian language

text: The verbal morphology of Hurrian is extremely complex, but it is constructed only through the affixation of suffixes (indicated by '-') and clitics (indicated by '='). Hurrian clitics stand for unique words, but are attached to other words as though they were suffixes. Transitivity and intransitivity are clearly indicated in the morphology; only transitive verbs take endings that agree with the person and number of their subject. The direct object and intransitive subject, when they are not represented by an independent noun, are expressed through the use of clitics, or pronouns (see below). Moreover, suffixes can be added to the verb stem that modify its meaning, including valency-changing morphemes such as "-an(n)--" (causative), "-ant" (applicative) and "-ukar" (reciprocative). The meanings of many such suffixes have yet to be decoded.


title: Hurrian language

text: As with the noun, not all of these elements must be present in each verb form, and indeed some of them are mutually incompatible. The marker -t- in position (4) may indicate intransitivity in non-present tenses. Position (5) may carry the suffix "-imbu-" (5) of unclear function or the ergative third-person plural suffix "-it-" , which is only attested in Old Hurrian. Valency suffixes (6) indicated the intransitive, transitive, or antipassive. The negative suffixes (7), the ergative person suffixes (8), and the ergative number suffixes (9) merge in ways which are not entirely predictable, so the person endings are usually listed in separate singular and plural versions.


title: Hurrian language

text: After the derivational suffix come those marking tense. The present tense is unmarked, the preterite is marked by "-ōš" and the future by "ēt". The preterite and future suffixes also include the suffix "-t", which indicates intransitivity, but occurs only in truly intransitive forms, not in antipassive ones; in the present, this suffix never occurs. Another, separate, "-t" suffix is found in all tenses in transitive sentences – it indicates a 3rd person plural subject. In the indicative this suffix is mandatory, but in all other moods it is optional. Because these two suffixes are identical, ambiguous forms can occur; thus, "unētta" can mean "they will bring [something]" or "he/she/it will come", depending on the context.


title: Hurrian language

text: After these endings come the vowel of transitivity. It is "-a" when the verb is intransitive, "-i" when the verb is in the antipassive and "-o" (in the Mitanni letter, "-i") in transitive verbs. The suffix "-o" is dropped immediately after the derivational suffixes. In transitive verbs, the "-o" occurs only in the present, while in the other tenses transitivity is instead indicated by the presence (or absence) of the aforementioned "-t" suffixes.


title: Hurrian language

text: In the next position, the suffix of negation can occur; in transitive sentences, it is "-wa", whereas in intransitive and antipassive ones it is "-kkV". Here, the V represents a repetition of the vowel that precedes the negative suffix, although when this is /a/, both vowels become /o/. When the negative suffix is immediately followed by a clitic pronoun (except for "=nna"), its vowel is /a/, regardless of the vowel that preceded it, e.g. "mann-o-kka=til=an" (be-"intr"-"neg"-"1.pl.abs"-and), "and we are not...". The following table gives the tense, transitivity and negation markers:


title: Hurrian language

text: The suffixes of the first person, both plural and singular, and the second person plural suffix merge with the preceding suffixes "-i" and "-wa". However, in the Mari and Hattusha dialects, the suffix of transitivity "-o" does not merge with other endings. The distinction between singular and plural in the third person is provided by the suffix "-t", which comes directly after the tense marker. In the third person, when the suffix "-wa" occurs before the subject marker, it can be replaced by "-ma", also expressing the negative: "irnōhoš-i-ā-ma", (like-"trans"-"3rd"-"neg") "He does not like [it]".


title: Hurrian language

text: In the Old Hurrian of Hattusha the ending of the third person singular was "-m". A third person plural ergative subject was marked with the suffix "-it-", which, however, unlike the other ergative endings, occurred "before" instead of "after" the transitivity vowel: contrast "uv-o-m" "she slaughtered" with "tun-it-o" "they forced". In the intransitive and antipassive, there was also a subject marker, "-p" for the third person but unmarked for the others. It is unknown whether this suffix was also found on transitive objects.


title: Hurrian language

text: If a verb form is nominalised, e.g. to create a relative clause, then another suffix is used: "-šše". Nominalised verbs can undergo Suffixaufnahme. Verb forms can also take other enclitic suffixes; see 'particles' below.


title: Hurrian language

text: To express nuances of grammatical mood, several special verb forms are used, which are derived from the indicative (non-modal) forms. Wishes and commands are formed with an optative system, whose principal characteristic is the element "-i", which is attached directly to the verb stem. There is no difference between the form for transitive and intransitive verbs, there being agreement with the subject of the sentence. Tense markers are unchanged in the optative.


title: Hurrian language

text: In the optative forms of the third person, the /n/ ending is present in the Mari/Hattuša dialect when the following word begins with a consonant.


title: Hurrian language

text: The so-called final form, which is needed to express a purpose ("in order to"), is formed in conjunction with the 'with', and has different endings. In the singular, the suffixes "-ae", "-ai", "-ilae" and "-ilai" are found, which after /l/ and /r/ become "-lae"/"-lai" and "-rae"/"rai" respectively. In the plural the same endings are used, though sometimes the plural suffix "-ša" is found as well, but this is not always the case.


title: Hurrian language

text: To express a possibility, the potential form must be used. For intransitive verbs, the ending is "-ilefa" or "olefa" ("-lefa" and "-refa" after /l,r/), which does not need to agree with the subject. Transitive potential forms are formed with "-illet" and "-allet", which are suffixed to the normal endings of the transitive indicative forms. However, this form is only attested in Mitanni and only in the third person. The potential form is also occasionally used to express a wish.


title: Hurrian language

text: The desiderative form is used to express an urgent request. It is also only found in the third person, and only with transitive verbs. The ending for the third person singular is "-ilanni", and for the plural, "-itanni".


title: Hurrian language

text: The following tables give examples of verb forms in various syntactic environments, largely from the Mitanni letter:


title: Hurrian language

text: Infinitive forms of the verb in Hurrian include both nominalised verbs (participles) and a more conventional infinitive. The first nominalised participle, the present participle, is characterised by the ending "-iri" or "-ire", e.g. "pairi", "the one building, the builder", "hapiri", "the one moving, the nomad". The second nominalised participle, the perfect participle, is formed with the ending "-aure", and is only attested once, in Nuzi: "hušaure", "the bound one". Another special form is only found in the dialect of Hattusha. It can only be formed from transitive verbs, and it specifies an agent of the first person. Its ending is "-ilia", and this participle can undergo Suffixaufnahme.


title: Hurrian language

text: The infinitive, which can also be found nominalised, is formed with the suffix "-umme", e.g. "fahrumme", "to be good", "the state/property of being good"


title: Hurrian language

text: Hurrian uses both enclitic and independent personal pronouns. The independent pronouns can occur in any case, whereas the enclitic ones represent only the absolutive. It is irrelevant to the meaning of the sentence to which word in the sentence the enclitic pronoun is attached, so it is often attached either to the first phrase or to the verb. The following table gives the attested forms of the personal pronouns, omitting those that cannot be determined.


title: Hurrian language

text: The variant forms "-me", "-ma" and "-lle" of the third person absolutive pronouns only before certain conjunctions, namely "ai" (when), "inna" (when), "inu", "unu" (who), "panu" (though), and the relative pronouns "iya" and "iye". When an enclitic personal pronoun is attached to a noun, an extensive system of sound changes determines the final form. The enclitic "-nna" of the third person singular behaves differently from the other pronouns: when it is preceded by an ergative suffix it, unlike the other pronouns, combines with the suffix to form "šša", whereas with all other pronouns the "š" of the ergative is dropped. Moreover, a word-final vowel /i/ changes to /e/ or /a/ when any enclitic pronoun other than "-nna" is attached.


title: Hurrian language

text: The Hurrian possessive pronouns cannot occur independently, but are only enclitic. They are attached to nouns or nominalised verbs. The form of the pronoun is dependent on that of the following morpheme. The table below outlines the possible forms:


title: Hurrian language

text: The final vowel of the noun stem is dropped before an attached possessive pronoun, e.g. "šeniffe" ("my brother", from "šena" "brother"). It remains, however, when a consonant-initial pronoun is attached: "attaif" ("your father", from "attai", "father")


title: Hurrian language

text: Hurrian also has several demonstrative pronouns: "anni" (this), "anti/ani" (that), "akki...aki" (one...the other). The final vowel /i/ of these pronouns is retained only in the absolutive, becoming /u/ in all other cases, e.g. "akkuš" "the one" (erg.), "antufa" ("to that [one]"). There are also the relative pronouns "iya" and "iye". Both forms are free interchangeable. The pronoun has the function of the absolutive in the relative clause, and so represents an intransitive subject or a transitive object. The interrogative pronoun (who/what) is only attested in the ergative singular ("afeš"), and once in the absolutive singular ("au").


title: Hurrian language

text: Hurrian contains many expressions that denote spatial and abstract relations and serve as adpositions, most of them built on the dative and genitive cases. They are almost exclusively postpositions – only one preposition ("āpi" + dative, "for"), is attested in the texts from Hattusha. All adpositions can themselves generally be in the allative, rarely in the dative or in the "e-case".


title: Hurrian language

text: Some examples: "N-fa āyita" or "N-fenē āyē" (in the presence of; from "āyi" "face"). "N-fa etīta" or "N-fa etīfa" (for, because of; from "eti" "body, person"), "N-fenē etiyē" (concerning), "N-fa furīta" (in sight of; from "furi", "sight, look"), and only in Hattusha "N-fa āpita" (in front of; from "āpi", "front"). Besides these, there is "ištani" "space between," which is used with a plural possessive pronoun and the locative, for "between us/you/them", e.g. "ištaniffaša" (between us, under us).


title: Hurrian language

text: Only a few sentence-initial particles are attested. In contract with nouns, which also end in /i/, the final vowel of the conjunctions "ai" (when) and "anammi" (therefore) is not dropped before an enclitic personal pronoun. Other conjunctions include "alaše" (if), "inna" (when), "inu" (like) and "panu" (although). Hurrian has only a small amount of adverbs. The temporal adverbs are "henni" (now), "kuru" (again) and "unto" (then). Also attested are "atī" (thus, so) and "tiššan" (very).


title: Hurrian language

text: The enclitic particles can be attached to any word in a sentence, but most often they are attached to the first phrase of the sentence or to the verb. They are much more diverse and frequent in the Mitanni letter than in Old Hurrian. Common ones include "=ān" (and), "=mān" (but), "=mmaman" (to be sure) and "=nīn" (truly!).


title: Hurrian language

text: In addition to the irregular number word "šui" (every), all the cardinal numbers from 1 to 10 as well as a few higher ones are attested. Ordinal numbers are formed with the suffix "-(š)še" or "ši", which becomes "-ze" or "-zi" after /n/. The following table gives an overview of the numeral system:


title: Hurrian language

text: Distributive numbers carry the suffix "-ate", e.g. "kikate" (by threes), "tumnate" (by fours). The suffix "-āmha" denotes multiplicatives, e.g. "šināmha" (twice), "ēmanāmha" (thrice). All cardinal numbers end in a vowel, which drops when an enclitic is attached.


title: Hurrian language

text: Hurrian's basic word order is a matter of dispute. According to Speiser's 1941 grammar, the normal word order of a Hurrian sentence is essentially object–subject–verb (OSV). However, since Hurrian is an ergative–absolutive language, the syntactic roles of a Hurrian phrase do not exactly correspond to the "subject" and "object" of a nominative–accusative language (such as English). For this reason, Speiser says that Hurrian's word order can be more accurately described as "goal–agent–action", with the absolutive case corresponding to the "grammatical subject" (i.e. specifier).


title: Hurrian language

text: Geoffrey K. Pullum (1977) is doubtful of Speiser's analysis. He argues that the available corpus of Hurrian text is not large enough to definitively determine its word order, and that it can only be identified as generally verb-final (i.e. either OSV or SOV). Pullum gives the following example of a Hurrian sentence with SOV order:


title: Hurrian language

text: Maria Polinsky (1995) notes that the structure of Hurrian's ditransitive clauses is subject–object (as in SOV) rather than object–subject (as in OSV). Specifically, the order is subject–indirect object–direct object–verb. However, she still refers to Hurrian as an example of an OSV language.