title: NRK

text: , a privately owned company and the predecessor of NRK, started regular radio broadcasts in Norway in 1925. NRK itself was founded in 1933. Based on a model similar to that of the BBC and located in Oslo, it was a replacement for privately operated radio stations in larger cities. NRK initially set out to cover the entire country and had a monopoly on broadcasting in Norway. The monopoly came under intense pressure when Norwegian TV companies began broadcasting from abroad in addition to international cable TV. Cable TV started in 1982 and satellite TV in 1986 (the launch of TV3 in 1987 and TVNorge in 1988). It was not until the launch of TV 2 on 5 September 1992, that NRK's monopoly on television broadcasting in Norway ended.


title: NRK

text: During the Nazi German occupation, Norwegian transmitters were used to broadcast Nazi German war propaganda to Northern Europe (particularly Scotland and the northern half of Ireland, where the sea path ensured a good signal) and Scandinavia.


title: NRK

text: NRK was one of 23 founding broadcasting organisations of the European Broadcasting Union, which was founded in 1950. In 1954, NRK started broadcasting television shows, on a trial basis. Regular broadcasts started in 1960.


title: NRK

text: In 1969, NRK adopted a new version of its corporate logo which consists of the lowercased "nrk" wordmark that has the letter "n" being made up of a rectangle and a reversed-italic rectangle, the letter "r" being made up of a rectangle and a circle, and the letter "k" being made up of a rectangle and reflecting-mirrored italic rectangles.


title: NRK

text: NRK was the last of the major European public broadcasters to introduce a second radio station, officially starting as late as 1984. In 1993, NRK launched a third radio station, the youth-oriented "P3". A 24-hour station for classical music, (now called "NRK Klassisk"), introduced in 1995, was the first of its kind to be broadcast digitally using digital audio broadcasting. The 24-hour news station "Alltid Nyheter" started in 1997, followed by a radio station for teenagers, "mP3" in 2000, which mostly plays pop music.


title: NRK

text: On 1 September 1996, a second television channel called NRK2 was launched. The original television channel is now known as NRK1. On 3 September 2007, NRK launched its third channel: a youth channel called NRK3. Later that year, on 1 December, NRK launched its fourth television channel, NRK Super, which is aimed at children. NRK3 and NRK Super share the same channel, with NRK Super broadcasting from 06:00 to 19:30 and NRK3 from 19:30 to 06:00.


title: NRK

text: In 1999, following NRK Interaktiv's relaunch as NRK.no, NRK redesigned its corporate logo (that was introduced in 1969), so that it could be similar to its old version. This new version of NRK's corporate logo made its first appearance in an ident in 2000 by making its overhaul to NRK's radio and television channels.


title: NRK

text: A traditional music radio station, "NRK" (now known as "NRK Folkemusikk") was launched in 2004 on DAB and internet radio.


title: NRK

text: NRK's international radio transmissions, known as , began shortwave transmission in 1948. Initially broadcasting in Norwegian, English-language programs were added later. The service was discontinued on 1 January 2002. All NRK broadcasting activities on shortwave ceased on 1 January 2004. NRK's mediumwave transmitter at Kvitsøy on 1314 kHz used to be widely heard internationally and was one of the most commonly heard trans-Atlantic DX signals in eastern North America. The frequency carried a mixture of NRK's radio channels P1 and P2, and was called (literally "The Europe Channel"). However, these mediumwave transmissions were discontinued on 1 July 2006.


title: NRK

text: All of NRK's radio stations are now available on the internet. Several of NRK's television programmes are also available on the internet.


title: NRK

text: On 16 April 2015, the Norwegian Ministry of Culture announced its intention to eventually switch off all FM transmitters in the country, with the first such transmitter expected to be switched off on 11 January 2017, therefore making Norway the first country in the world to completely transition to digital radio. According to the Ministry of Culture, the decision was justified because transmitting through the FM network was eight times more expensive than transmitting through digital audio broadcasting, and because only five national radio stations are transmitting on FM, compared to the 42 digital radio stations allocated in Norway, with 22 stations transmitting on the latter. NRK Radio is expected to transition from FM to digital radio before commercial radio stations do so.


title: NRK

text: NRK claimed to have the longest-running radio show, "Lørdagsbarnetimen" ("The Saturday Children's Hour"), which ran from 20 December 1924 until 11 September 2010.


title: NRK

text: In 2017, NRK asked five architectural firms to present sketches for possible development and use of NRK's area at Marienlyst, should NRK move rather than improve the property. In 2019, work began to find the best site for a new building, and in 2020 the property on Marienlyst was sold to Ferd Eiendom for NOK 3.75 billion.


title: NRK

text: Close to 100 different locations were considered for the new head office, but Gamle Oslo, Bryn, Storo Løren, Lillestrøm-Puls and Lilleaker were the most relevant options. Director of relocation Jon Espen Lohne in NRK, said in 2020 that they have ambitions to get the country to choose a site before the end of the year. In May 2021, it was announced that NRK had decided to move to Ensjø, and that the price for the property was NOK 800 million.


title: NRK

text: The CEO began major organisational changes in 2008, with the aim of creating a more agile NRK, while still adhering to the principles of the broadcaster-producer model introduced in January 2001. By January 2009, the number of programme-producing divisions had been reduced from five to three, separated more along geographical than functional lines, and at the same time simplifying trading in the internal market. The programme-producing divisions are:


title: NRK

text: Vibeke Fürst Haugen has been director-general of the Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation since 29 April 2022. The previous directors were Olav Midttun (1934–1947, except during the Nazi occupation), Kaare Fostervoll (1948–1962), Hans Jacob Ustvedt (1962–1971), Torolf Elster (1972–1981), Bjartmar Gjerde (1981–1988), Einar Førde (1989–2001), John G. Bernander (2001–2007), Hans-Tore Bjerkaas (2007–2012) and Thor Gjermund Eriksen (2012-2022). After WW2, all but Hans-Tore Bjerkaas and John G. Bernander had been active politically in socialist parties. The current director-general, Vibeke Fürst Haugen, came from the position of director of the Marienlyst-division of NRK in Oslo.


title: NRK

text: The chairman of the board is Birger Magnus, Marius Lillelien heads the broadcasting department, and the head of the news department is Marius Tetlie. In 2017, NRK employed 3419 and 266 temporary staff.


title: NRK

text: NRK has 12 regional offices around Norway. Each office has its own broadcasts on both television (on NRK 1) and radio (on NRK P1), as well their own news sites on the internet. They also contribute news coverage to national news programmes. NRK's headquarters are at Marienlyst in Oslo and Tyholt in Trondheim.


title: NRK

text: Norway was the first country to announce a complete switch-off of national FM radio stations, including NRK P1 with regional services, NRK P2 and NRK P3, NRK mP3 and NRK Alltid Nyheter. Switch off started on 11 January 2017, and ended on 13 December 2017.


title: NRK

text: NRK has an HD outside broadcast van, producing high-definition video. The first Norwegian series filmed in HD was "En Udødelig Mann" ("An Immortal Man") about the young Henrik Ibsen. The action six-part miniseries called was also filmed in HD. Promotional videos are freely downloadable from NRK's site, and the full-length last episode is available.


title: NRK

text: NRK uses H.264 as the compression codec for the digital terrestrial network which is commonly used to compress videos stored as mp4.


title: NRK

text: NRK has also started to offer HD content via BitTorrent. This is currently a very limited offer due to rights restrictions, but it is growing steadily.


title: NRK

text: In preparation for the Winter Olympic Games in Vancouver, NRK announced that they would launch a high-definition channel, and their first native HD broadcast would be from Vancouver. NRK1 HD is a simulcast of NRK1.


title: James McCarthy (footballer)

text: James Patrick McCarthy (born 12 November 1990) is a professional footballer who plays as a central midfielder for Scottish Premiership club Celtic. Born in Scotland, he represents the Republic of Ireland national team.


title: James McCarthy (footballer)

text: McCarthy made over 100 appearances for Hamilton Academical as a teenager, before being transferred to Wigan Athletic in 2009 for an initial £1.2 million which was a record sale fee for Hamilton Academical. After winning the FA Cup with Wigan in 2013 he moved to Everton, suffering from various injuries including a broken leg in 2018 which ruled him out for over a year.


title: James McCarthy (footballer)

text: Born and raised in Scotland, McCarthy elected to represent the Republic of Ireland at international level and made his competitive debut for their senior team on 26 March 2011 in a UEFA Euro 2012 qualifier against Macedonia. He was included in the Irish squad at UEFA Euro 2016.


title: James McCarthy (footballer)

text: McCarthy was born and raised in Glasgow, Scotland. He is the youngest child of Willie and Marie McCarthy, and is a former student of St Margaret Mary's Secondary School in Castlemilk. He grew up supporting Celtic, and tried out for their youth teams, but was turned down due to the large number of players the club had already taken on.


title: James McCarthy (footballer)

text: McCarthy made his debut for Hamilton Academical against Queen of the South as a substitute on 30 September 2006, becoming the youngest player to play for Hamilton in the 21st century. His full debut came against Airdrie United on 11 November 2006, a day before his 16th birthday. On 6 January 2007, at 16 years and 55 days old, McCarthy became the youngest player ever to score in Hamilton Academical's history when he scored in a Scottish Cup defeat against Livingston.


title: James McCarthy (footballer)

text: On 17 May 2008, after a season which saw his club promoted to the Scottish Premier League, McCarthy signed a new three-year contract with the club. He won the SPFA Young Player of the Year award for the 2008–09 season.


title: James McCarthy (footballer)

text: Hamilton accepted a bid for McCarthy from Wigan Athletic on 16 July 2009. He completed the move to Wigan on 21 July, on a five-year deal, believed to be worth just under £1.2 million. The fee could rise to £3.0 million depending on appearances. McCarthy made his debut for Wigan on 22 August 2009, as a 74th-minute substitute in a 5–0 defeat to Manchester United. He scored his first goal for Wigan in the FA Cup third round victory against fellow Premier League team Hull City on 2 January 2010, and marked his first Premier League start with a goal in a 2–0 victory away to Wolverhampton Wanderers on 16 January 2010. He was later joined in the Wigan midfield by former Hamilton teammate James McArthur.


title: James McCarthy (footballer)

text: After an impressive start to the 2010–11 season, he picked up a serious ankle injury against Bolton Wanderers on 23 October 2010, keeping him out of action for three months. He scored on his return to the line-up against Aston Villa on 25 January 2011. On 5 February 2011, McCarthy scored twice in a 4–3 victory against Blackburn Rovers.


title: James McCarthy (footballer)

text: In August 2012, McCarthy signed a new five-year contract at the club. He was part of the Wigan Athletic team that overcame Manchester City in the 2013 FA Cup Final; afterwards he hailed manager Roberto Martínez as "a tactical genius".


title: James McCarthy (footballer)

text: On 2 September 2013, McCarthy rejoined former Wigan manager Roberto Martínez at Everton, signing a long term deal worth £13m to become the club's second most expensive player in their history; due to a clause in his Wigan contract, his former club Hamilton received a sell-on fee from the Everton transfer, which they used to invest in the youth system through which the player had emerged. He forged a partnership with Gareth Barry which was a key factor in Everton amassing 72 points during the campaign, a club record in the Premier League. Martínez claimed that McCarthy's performances had been so impressive that his transfer value had doubled during his first season. McCarthy had to wait until the last game of the season to score his first goal for the club when he netted the opener in a 2–0 win over Hull City.


title: James McCarthy (footballer)

text: On 15 March 2015, McCarthy scored his first goal of the 2014–15 season in a 3–0 home win against Newcastle United. He scored his second goal of the season in a 3–0 defeat of Manchester United at Goodison Park on 26 April.


title: James McCarthy (footballer)

text: McCarthy scored his first league goal for Everton in the 2016–17 season against Bournemouth at Goodison Park in a 6–3 victory on 4 February 2017. Earlier that day, he had provided an assist to Romelu Lukaku, allowing Lukaku to score the fastest Everton Premier League goal of all time. McCarthy eventually missed the rest of season due to a hamstring injury he had sustained whilst on international duty in March 2017; Everton manager Ronald Koeman expressed his displeasure at Republic of Ireland manager Martin O'Neill selecting a half-fit McCarthy repeatedly, which had aggravated existing hamstring issues.


title: James McCarthy (footballer)

text: On 20 January 2018, McCarthy suffered a broken leg (tibia and fibula) in an attempt to block a shot on goal by West Bromwich Albion's Salomón Rondón, resulting in the striker accidentally kicking McCarthy's lower leg causing it to fracture. Rondón was visibly upset by the incident and also became emotional when recalling it in an interview some months later. McCarthy was ruled out for the rest of the 2017–18 season, and only made one further senior appearance for Everton, coming off the bench for the last 15 minutes of a home league fixture against Manchester United in April 2019, at which point his team were already 4–0 ahead.


title: James McCarthy (footballer)

text: On 7 August 2019, Crystal Palace signed McCarthy from Everton for an undisclosed fee. He made his debut as a 70th-minute substitute for Andros Townsend in an away 1–0 defeat to Sheffield United on 18 August. He received a yellow card for retaliation four minutes later.


title: James McCarthy (footballer)

text: At the age of sixteen, McCarthy accepted an invitation to play for the Republic of Ireland. He was eligible because his grandfather, Paddy Coyle, was born in The Rosses, County Donegal. However, McCarthy also stated that he would have played for Scotland if they had offered him an international call-up first. Despite multiple attempts to persuade McCarthy to switch his allegiance to the country of his birth, he reaffirmed his decision to play for the Republic of Ireland.


title: James McCarthy (footballer)

text: McCarthy made his international debut for the Republic of Ireland Under-17s in January 2007 against Italy. He scored his first goal against Greece when winning his third cap in March of the same year. He was quickly promoted to the Under-18s and played his first game at that level versus Germany in November 2007. He scored twice in the return game that same month. McCarthy played one game for the Under-19s in September 2007 against Portugal. and was subsequently selected for a number of these squads in 2008. McCarthy came on as a half time substitute for the Republic of Ireland Under-21s in their European Championship qualifier on 31 March against Turkey. McCarthy made an instant impression, creating opportunities for the lone striker, as well as making many intelligent runs in behind the Turkish defence.


title: James McCarthy (footballer)

text: McCarthy received his first call-up to the Republic of Ireland national squad in February 2010, for a friendly with Brazil played in London. He made his debut as a substitute, replacing Stoke City's Liam Lawrence after 70 minutes. McCarthy withdrew from the Ireland squad for their 2011 Nations Cup match against Wales. This led to media speculation that McCarthy may switch his allegiance to Scotland, as his appearance in the friendly against Brazil did not tie him to Ireland under the present rules. The speculation was fuelled by Wigan manager Roberto Martínez who insisted that McCarthy was still considering his international future, even after McCarthy and Giovanni Trapattoni had a face to face meeting in which McCarthy reportedly confirmed his commitment to Ireland.


title: James McCarthy (footballer)

text: The question of McCarthy's international allegiance was finally resolved in March 2011 after he accepted a call-up for Ireland's Euro 2012 qualification match against Macedonia, in which he came off the bench replacing Robbie Keane to earn his first competitive cap, rendering him ineligible to play for Scotland. On 4 May 2011, McCarthy was called into the Irish squad for the games against Northern Ireland and Scotland. He reportedly went "AWOL" after not showing up for training. Later Martínez, the Wigan manager, came out and said he will be out "for at least four weeks".


title: James McCarthy (footballer)

text: On 7 May 2012, Giovanni Trapattoni confirmed that McCarthy had asked to be withdrawn from consideration for the Irish UEFA Euro 2012 squad following his father's diagnosis with cancer.


title: James McCarthy (footballer)

text: McCarthy played in nine of the ten matches in Ireland's unsuccessful 2014 World Cup qualifying campaign picking up the man of the match awards against the Faroe Islands and Sweden.


title: James McCarthy (footballer)

text: He was selected for the Ireland squad for UEFA Euro 2016 and started all four of his nation's matches at the tournament.


title: Sylvie's Love

text: Sylvie's Love is a 2020 American romantic drama film, written, directed and produced by Eugene Ashe. The film stars Tessa Thompson, Nnamdi Asomugha, Ryan Michelle Bathe, Regé-Jean Page, Aja Naomi King, and Eva Longoria.


title: Sylvie's Love

text: "Sylvie's Love" had its world premiere at the Sundance Film Festival on January 27, 2020, and was released on December 23, 2020, by Amazon Studios.


title: Sylvie's Love

text: In New York City, 1962, Sylvie is waiting outside Town Hall, while Robert is in a recording studio playing the saxophone. Moments later, Sylvie recognizes Robert on the sidewalk outside a theater.


title: Sylvie's Love

text: Five years earlier, Sylvie's father hires Robert to work at his record store in Harlem. Robert is the saxophonist for The Dickie Brewster Quartet, an up-and-coming jazz band from Detroit. Sylvie and Robert bond over their shared love for music; Robert eventually invites Sylvie and her cousin Mona to a gig. Mona has a fling with Robert's bandmate Chico while Sylvie, despite her engagement to a wealthy man named Lacy who is fighting in the Korean War, eventually starts a passionate affair with Robert. Some time later, the Dickie Brewster Quartet's manager, a woman who calls herself the Countess, books them a job in Paris. Robert asks Sylvie to come with him. Sylvie refuses but bids him goodbye before his departure, hiding the fact the she is pregnant with his child from him as not to derail his career.


title: Sylvie's Love

text: Back in 1962, Sylvie invites Robert to watch the concert with her. She learns that the band is doing well and is back in New York City to record an album. That night, Sylvie and Robert sleep together before she returns home to Lacy, now a successful businessman, and her daughter Michelle. Sylvie gets a job as a production assistant on a major cooking show produced by a black woman, Kate Spencer, a job Sylvie enjoys despite Lacy's concerns that it will interfere with her duties as a wife. Robert sends Sylvie a ticket to his show, but she sees him in the parking lot with another woman afterwards and leaves.


title: Sylvie's Love

text: Sylvie and Robert attend separate New Year's Eve parties. Kate informs Sylvie that she is quitting to get married and is promoting Sylvie to take her place. Tensions spring up around the band; Sid, the record company executive who monitors the band, offers Robert a chance to record his own material. That night, Sylvie's father has a heart attack and passes away; while in the hospital he calls Robert and tells him that Michelle is his daughter. During the funeral, Sylvie and Lacy agree to split up. Robert approaches Sylvie about Michelle's paternity; eventually, she lets him meet Michelle, and Robert moves into her house.


title: Sylvie's Love

text: Some time later, Robert approaches Sid about his offer, but Sid turns him down as he believes jazz is dying. Sylvie assures him that she can provide for them while Robert sorts things out. Robert tells Sylvie that he is thinking of contacting an old friend who had offered to put him in touch with Motown musicians, but if the job is successful, they will have to move to Detroit. The job offer turns out to be a fluke; upon returning to New York, Robert realizes that Sylvie loves her career too much for them to move. He tells Sylvie he got the job, but that he will move to Detroit alone. Sylvie tells him to leave. Robert returns to Detroit and gets a job at an auto plant.


title: Sylvie's Love

text: The week of the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom, Sylvie comes to D.C. to visit Mona, and runs into Dickie's wife Carmen at the hotel. Carmen informs her that Robert is working at a plant. Mona muses that Robert did not tell her about the auto plant job for the same reason Sylvie did not tell him about the pregnancy: they did not want to destroy the other person's career. Sylvie travels to Detroit and meets Robert at the plant. She tells him she can't be happy without him in her life; the two reconcile.


title: Sylvie's Love

text: The end credits intersperse scenes of Robert, Sylvie, and Michelle at the beach with scenes showing that Robert inherited Sylvie's father's saxophone and eventually started performing again, while Sylvie continued to work in production.


title: Sylvie's Love

text: In February 2014, it was announced Larenz Tate would star in and produce the film "Sylvie’s Love", with Eugene Ashe directing from a screenplay he wrote. In February 2019, it was announced Tessa Thompson and Nnamdi Asomugha had joined the cast of the film, with Asomugha, Jonathan Baker, Gabrielle Glore, and Matthew Thurm producing the film, while Thompson will serve as an executive producer along with Matthew Rachamkin. In March 2019, Ryan Michelle Bathe, Regé-Jean Page, Aja Naomi King, Eva Longoria, John Magaro, Lance Reddick, Jemima Kirke, MC Lyte, Alano Miller, Erica Gimpel, Tone Bell and Wendi McLendon-Covey joined the cast of the film. In April 2019, Ron Funches joined the cast of the film. In October 2020, Ed Weeks joined the cast of the film.


title: Sylvie's Love

text: It had its world premiere at the Sundance Film Festival on January 27, 2020. Shortly after, Amazon Studios acquired distribution rights to the film. It was released on December 23, 2020 after previously scheduled for December 25, 2020.


title: Sylvie's Love

text: Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gives the film approval rating based on reviews, with an average rating of . The website's critic consensus reads: "A romance for the ages, "Sylvie's Love" wraps audiences in the sweet embrace of its old-fashioned romance and celebration of Black love." Metacritic reports a score of 74 out of 100 based on 25 critic reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: The modern newspaper is a European invention. The oldest direct handwritten news sheets circulated widely in Venice as early as 1566. These weekly news sheets were full of information on wars and politics in Italy and Europe. The first printed newspapers were published weekly in Germany from 1609. Typically, they were heavily censored by the government and reported only foreign news and current prices. After the English government relaxed censorship in 1695, newspapers flourished in London and a few other cities including Boston and Philadelphia. By the 1830s, high-speed presses could print thousands of papers cheaply, allowing low daily costs.


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: Avvisi, or , were a mid-16th-century Venice phenomenon. They were issued weekly on single sheets and folded to form four pages. These publications reached a larger audience than handwritten news had in early Rome. Their format and appearance at regular intervals were two huge influences on the newspaper as we know it today. The idea of a weekly, handwritten newssheet went from Italy to Germany and then to Holland.


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: The term newspaper became common in the 17th century. However, in Germany, publications that we would today consider to be newspaper publications, were appearing as early as the 16th century. They were discernibly newspapers for the following reasons: they were printed, dated, appeared at regular and frequent publication intervals, and included a variety of news items (unlike single item news mentioned above). Early forms of news periodicals were the so-called "Messrelationen" ("trade fair reports") which were compiled twice a year for the large annual book fairs in Frankfurt and Leipzig, starting in the 1580s. Nevertheless, the German-language "Relation aller Fürnemmen und gedenckwürdigen Historien", printed from 1605 onwards by Johann Carolus in Strasbourg, is commonly accepted to have been the first newspaper. The emergence of the new media branch was based on the spread of the printing press from which the publishing press derives its name. Historian Johannes Weber says, "At the same time, then, as the printing press in the physical, technological sense was invented, 'the press' in the extended sense of the word also entered the historical stage."


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: Other early papers include the Dutch "Courante uyt Italien, Duytslandt, &c.", founded by Caspar van Hilten in 1618. This Amsterdam newspaper was the first periodical to appear in folio- rather than quarto-size. As a center of world trade, Amsterdam quickly became home to many foreign newspapers as well, that were originally styled in much the same way as Van Hilten's publication, sometimes even having a similar name.


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: In 1618, the "" ("Weekly news from many places") began to appear in Gdańsk (the oldest newspaper in Poland and the region of the Baltic Sea). Despite the title, it appeared irregularly, sometimes even three times a week.


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: The first English-language newspaper, "Corrant out of Italy, Germany, etc.", was published in Amsterdam in 1620. A year and a half later, was published in England by an "N.B." (generally thought to be either Nathaniel Butter or Nicholas Bourne) and Thomas Archer.


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: The first newspaper in France was published in 1631, "La Gazette" (originally published as "Gazette de France").


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: The first newspaper in Portugal, "A Gazeta da Restauração", was published in 1641 in Lisbon. The first Spanish newspaper, Gaceta de Madrid, was published in 1661.


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: "Post- och Inrikes Tidningar" (founded as "Ordinari Post Tijdender") was first published in Sweden in 1645, and is the oldest newspaper still in existence, though it now publishes solely online.


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: The first successful English daily, "The Daily Courant", was published from 1702 to 1735. The first editor, for 10 days in March 1702, was Elizabeth Mallet, who for years had operated her late husband's printing business.


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: News was highly selective and often propagandistic. Readers were eager for sensationalism, such as accounts of magic, public executions and disasters; this material did not pose a threat to the state, because it did not pose criticism of the state.


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: One of the most distinctive features of Dutch 'corantos' is their format. It was in corantos that the highly illustrated German title page was replaced with a heading on the upper first page of the publication: the masthead, common in today's periodicals. In line with this more sober page layout, corantos show an optimal use of space for text. Dutch corantos had two text columns, which covered almost the whole page, unlike the previous German papers, which adopted a single text column with book-like margins. The more economical use of space is also reflected in the minimal indications of paragraphs and the absence of completely blank lines. Different messages were only highlighted with a heading in a slightly bigger type, which usually included the city or country from which the news had come down to the publisher. A final novel feature of the format of corantos was their size: they were the first newspapers to be issued in folio, instead of halfsheet. An example of a coranto in this format, besides the already mentioned "Courante uyt Italien, Duytslandt, &c.", is the "Opregte Haarlemsche Courant". This Haarlem-based newspaper was first published in 1656 by Abraham Casteleyn and his wife Margaretha van Bancken, and still exists today, albeit in a tabloid format, rather than in the original folio.


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: On 7 November 1665, The "London Gazette" (at first called The "Oxford Gazette") began publication. It decisively changed the look of English news printing, echoing the coranto format of two columns, a clear title, and a clear date. It was published twice a week. Other English papers started to publish three times a week, and later the first daily papers emerged.


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: The newspapers typically included short articles, ephemeral topics, some illustrations and service articles (classifieds). They were often written by multiple authors, although the authors' identities were often obscured. They began to contain some advertisements, and they did not yet include sections. Mass market papers emerged, including Sunday papers for workers to read in their leisure time. "The Times" adopted new technologies and set the standards for other newspapers. This newspaper covered major wars, among other major events.


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: In Boston in 1690, Benjamin Harris published "Publick Occurrences Both Forreign and Domestick". This is considered the first newspaper in the American colonies even though only one edition was published before the paper was suppressed by the colonial officials, possibly due to censorship and control issues. It followed the two-column format and was a single sheet, printed on both sides.


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: In 1704, the governor allowed "The Boston News-Letter", a weekly, to be published, and it became the first continuously published newspaper in the colonies. Soon after, weekly papers began publishing in New York and Philadelphia. The second English-language newspaper in the Americas was the "Weekly Jamaica Courant". These early newspapers followed the British format and were usually four pages long. They mostly carried news from Britain and content depended on the editor's interests. In 1783, the "Pennsylvania Evening Post" became the first American daily.


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: Although printing had existed in China since at least 849 AD and the printing press was invented there, Germany was the first country in Europe to adopt its use, and the first newspapers were produced there. However, Germany was divided into so many competing states that before unification in 1871, no newspaper played a dominant role. One example of this type of merchant was the 16th-century German financialist, Fugger. He not only received business news from his correspondents, but also sensationalist and gossip news as well. It is evident in the correspondence of Fugger with his network that fiction and fact were both significant parts of early news publications. 16th century Germany also saw subscription-based, handwritten news. Those who subscribed to these publications were generally low-level government officials and also merchants. They could not afford other types of news publications, but had enough money to pay for a subscription, which was still expensive for the time.


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: In the 16th and 17th century, there appeared numerous printed news sheets summarizing accounts of battles, treaties, king, epidemics, and special events. In 1609, Johann Carolus published the first regular newspaper in Strassburg, comprising brief news bulletins. By the 1620s, numerous major cities had newspapers of 4 to 8 pages appearing at irregular intervals; all were strictly censored. The first daily newspaper appeared in 1660 in Leipzig. Prussia increasingly became the largest and most dominant of the German states, but it had weak newspapers that were kept under very tight control. Advertising was forbidden, and budgets were very small.


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: In 1766, a Dutch adventurer, William Bolts, proposed starting a newspaper for the English audience in


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: In January 1780, James Augustus Hicky published "Hicky's Bengal Gazette", the first newspaper in India. The size of that four-page newspaper was 12"x8". Hicky accused the members of the East India Company, including Governor General Warren Hastings of corruption. In retaliation Hastings prohibited the post office from carrying "Hicky's Bengal Gazette", and later sued Hicky for libel. In November 1780, the "India Gazette" appeared; it supported the Company government.


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: In 1814 "The Times" acquired a printing press capable of making 1,100 impressions per hour. It was soon adapted to print on both sides of a page at once. This innovation made newspapers cheaper and thus available to a larger part of the population. In 1830, the first penny press newspaper came to the market: Lynde M. Walter's Boston "Transcript". Penny press papers cost about one-sixth the price of other newspapers and appealed to a wider audience. Newspaper editors exchanged copies and freely reprinted material. By the late 1840s telegraph networks linked major and minor cities and permitted overnight news reporting. The invention of wood pulp papermaking in the 1840s significantly reduced the cost of newsprint, having previously been made from rags. Increasing literacy in the 19th century also increased the size of newspapers' audiences.


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: Only a few large newspapers could afford bureaus outside their home city. They relied instead on news agencies, founded around 1859, especially Havas in France and the Associated Press in the U.S. Agenzia Stefani covered Italy. Former Havas employees founded Reuters in Britain and Wolff in Germany. Havas is now Agence France-Presse (AFP). For international news, the agencies pooled their resources, so that Havas, for example, covered the French Empire, South America and the Balkans and shared the news with the other national agencies. In France the typical contract with Havas provided a provincial newspaper with 1800 lines of telegraphed text daily, for an annual subscription rate of 10,000 francs. Other agencies provided features and fiction for their subscribers. The major news agencies have always operated on a basic philosophy of providing a single objective news feed to all subscribers. For example, they do not provide separate feeds for conservative or liberal newspapers. Fenby explains the philosophy:


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: With literacy rising sharply, the rapidly growing demand for news, led to changes in the physical size, visual appeal, heavy use of war reporting, brisk writing style, and an omnipresent emphasis on speedy reporting thanks to the telegraph. London set the pace before 1870 but by the 1880s critics noted how London was echoing the emerging New York style of journalism. The new news writing style first spread to the provincial press through the "Midland Daily Telegraph" around 1900.


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: By the early 19th century, there were 52 London papers and over 100 other titles. In 1802, and 1815 the tax on newspapers was increased to three pence and then four pence. Unable or unwilling to pay this fee, between 1831 and 1835 hundreds of untaxed newspapers made their appearance. The political tone of most of them was fiercely revolutionary. Their publishers were prosecuted but this failed to get rid of them. It was chiefly Milner Gibson and Richard Cobden who advocated the case in parliament to first reduce in 1836 and in 1855 totally repeal of the tax on newspapers. After the reduction of the stamp tax in 1836 from four pence to one penny, the circulation of English newspapers rose from 39,000,000 to 122,000,000 by 1854; a trend further exacerbated by technological improvements in rail transportation and telegraphic communication combined with growing literacy.


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: The paper began in 1785 and in 1788 was renamed "The Times." In 1817, Thomas Barnes was appointed general editor; he was a political radical, a sharp critic of parliamentary hypocrisy and a champion of freedom of the press. Under Barnes and his successor in 1841, John Thadeus Delane, the influence of The Times rose to great heights, especially in politics and amongst the City of London. It spoke for reform. Peter Fraser and Edward Sterling were two noted journalists, and gained for The Times the pompous/satirical nickname 'The Thunderer' (from "We thundered out the other day an article on social and political reform.") The paper was the first in the world to reach mass circulation due to its early adoption of the steam-driven rotary printing press. It was also the first properly national newspaper, as it was distributed via the new steam railways to rapidly growing concentrations of urban populations across the country. This helped ensure the profitability of the paper and its growing influence.


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: "The Times" was the first newspaper to send war correspondents to cover wars. W. H. Russell, the paper's correspondent with the army in the Crimean War of the mid-1850s, wrote immensely influential dispatches; for the first time the public could read about the reality of warfare. In particular, on September 20, 1854, Russell wrote a missive about one battle that highlighted the surgeons' "humane barbarity" and the lack of ambulance care for wounded troops. Shocked and outraged, the public's backlash led to major reforms. The "Times" became famous for its influential leaders (editorials). For example, Robert Lowe wrote them between 1851 and 1868 on a wide range of economic topics such as free trade (which he favored).


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: Allan Nevins, the historian of journalism, in 1959 analyzed the importance of "The Times" in shaping views:


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: The Manchester Guardian was founded in Manchester in 1821 by a group of non-conformist businessmen. Its most famous editor, Charles Prestwich Scott, made the "Guardian" into a world-famous newspaper in the 1890s.


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: "The Daily Telegraph" began on June 29, 1855 and was bought by Joseph Moses Levy the next year. Levy produced it as the first penny newspaper in London. His son, Edward Lawson soon became editor, a post he held until 1885. It became a gauge of middle class opinion and could claim the largest circulation in the world in 1890. It backed the Liberal Party's mainstream views until opposing what became the party's decades-long Gladstonian, largely consensual foreign policy in 1878. It turned Unionist.


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: The New Journalism reached out not to the elite but to a popular audience. Especially influential was William Thomas Stead, a controversial journalist and editor who pioneered the art of investigative journalism. Stead's 'new journalism' paved the way for the modern tabloid. He was influential in demonstrating how the press could be used to influence public opinion and government policy, and advocated "government by journalism". He was also well known for his reportage on child welfare, social legislation and reformation of England's criminal codes.


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: Stead became assistant editor of the Liberal "Pall Mall Gazette" in 1880 where he set about revolutionizing a traditionally conservative newspaper "written by gentlemen for gentlemen". Over the next seven years Stead would develop what Matthew Arnold dubbed 'The New Journalism'. His innovations as editor of the "Gazette" included incorporating maps and diagrams into a newspaper for the first time, breaking up longer articles with eye-catching subheadings and blending his own opinions with those of the people he interviewed. He made a feature of the "Pall Mall" extras, and his enterprise and originality exercised a potent influence on contemporary journalism and politics. Stead introduced the interview, creating a new dimension in British journalism when he interviewed General Gordon in 1884. He originated the modern journalistic technique of creating a news event rather than just reporting it, with his most famous 'investigation', the Eliza Armstrong case.


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: Arnold, a leading critic, declared in 1887 that the New Journalism, "is full of ability, novelty, variety, sensation, sympathy, generous instincts". However, he added, its "one great fault is that it is feather-brained".


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: The turn of the century saw the rise of popular journalism. These are papers aimed at the lower to lower-middle income earners demoting minutely reasoned news and analysis, which remain the focus of party- or ideology-oriented newspapers. Instead the papers are inclusive by emphasis on sports, crime, sensationalism and gossip about celebrities. Alfred Harmsworth, 1st Viscount Northcliffe (1865–1922) was the chief innovator. He used his "Daily Mail" and the "Daily Mirror" to transform the media along the American model of "Yellow Journalism". Lord Beaverbrook said he was "the greatest figure who ever strode down Fleet Street". P. P. Catterall and Colin Seymour-Ure conclude that:


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: After the war, the major newspapers engaged in a large-scale circulation race. The political parties, which long had sponsored their own papers, could not keep up, and one after another their outlets were sold or closed down. Sales in the millions depended on popular stories, with a strong human interesting theme, as well as detailed sports reports with the latest scores. Serious news was a niche market and added very little to the circulation base. The niche was dominated by "The Times" and, to a lesser extent, "The Daily Telegraph." Consolidation was rampant, as local dailies were bought up and added to chains based in London. James Curran and Jean Seaton report:


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: "The Times" of London was long the most influential prestige newspaper, although far from having the largest circulation. It gave far more attention to serious political and cultural news. In 1922, John Jacob Astor (1886–1971), son of the 1st Viscount Astor (1849–1919), bought "The Times" from the Northcliffe estate. The paper advocated appeasement of Hitler's demands. Its editor Geoffrey Dawson was closely allied with Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain, and pushed hard for the Munich Agreement in 1938. Candid news reports by Norman Ebbut from Berlin that warned of warmongering were rewritten in London to support the appeasement policy. In March 1939, however, it reversed course and called for urgent war preparations.


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: Danish news media date back to the 1540s, when handwritten fly sheets reported on the news. In 1666, Anders Bording, the father of Danish journalism, began a state paper. The royal privilege to bring out a newspaper was issued to Joachim Wielandt in 1720. University officials handled the censorship, but in 1770 Denmark became one of the first nations of the world to provide for press freedom; it ended in 1799. In 1834, the first liberal newspaper appeared, one that gave much more emphasis to actual news content rather than opinions. The newspapers championed the Revolution of 1848 in Denmark. The new constitution of 1849 liberated the Danish press.


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: Newspapers flourished in the second half of the 19th century, usually tied to one or another political party or labor union. Modernization, bringing in new features and mechanical techniques, appeared after 1900. The total circulation was 500,000 daily in 1901, more than doubling to 1.2 million in 1925. The German occupation brought informal censorship; some offending newspaper buildings were simply blown up by the Nazis. During the war, the underground produced 550 newspapers—small, surreptitiously printed sheets that encouraged sabotage and resistance.


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: Today Danish mass media and news programming are dominated by a few large corporations. In printed media JP/Politikens Hus and Berlingske Media, between them, control the largest newspapers "Politiken", "Berlingske Tidende" and "Jyllands-Posten" and major tabloids "B.T." and "Ekstra Bladet".


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: In the early 21st century, the 32 daily newspapers had a combined circulation of over 1 million. The largest was "Jyllands-Posten" ("JP") with a circulation of 120,000. It gained international attention in 2005 by publishing cartoons critical of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Militant Muslims protested around the world, burning Denmark's embassies in Beirut and Damascus. There have been threats and attempted terrorist plots against the newspaper and its employees ever since.


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: In the Ancien Régime there were a small number of heavily censored newspapers that needed a royal license to operate. The first newspaper was the "Gazette de France", established in 1632 by the king's physician Theophrastus Renaudot (1586–1653), with the patronage of Louis XIII. All newspapers were subject to prepublication censorship, and served as instruments of propaganda for the monarchy. Dissidents used satire and hidden meanings to spread their political criticism.


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: in France and they played a central role in stimulating and defining the Revolution. The meetings of the Estates-General in 1789 created an enormous demand for news, and over 130 newspapers appeared by the end of the year. The next decade saw 2000 newspapers founded, with 500 in Paris alone. Most lasted only a matter of weeks. Together they became the main communication medium, combined with the very large pamphlet literature. Newspapers were read aloud in taverns and clubs, and circulated hand to hand. The press saw its lofty role to be the advancement of civic republicanism based on public service, and downplayed the liberal, individualistic goal of making a profit. In the Revolution the radicals were most active but the royalists flooded the country with their press the "Ami du Roi" (Friends of the King) until they were suppressed. Napoleon only allowed one newspaper in each department and four in Paris, all under tight control.


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: In the revolutionary days of 1848 former Saint-Simoniennes founded a Club for the Emancipation of Women; in 1848 it changed its name to (Society for Women's Voice) in line with its new newspaper, "La Voix des Femmes". It was France's first feminist daily and proclaimed itself "a socialist and political journal, the organ of the interests of all women". It lasted for only a few weeks as did two other feminist newspapers; women occasionally contributed articles to the magazines, often under a pseudonym.


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: The democratic political structure of France in 1870–1914 was supported by the proliferation of newspapers. The circulation of the daily press in Paris went from 1 million in 1870 to 5 million in 1910; it then leveled off and reached 6 million in 1939. Advertising grew rapidly, providing a steady financial basis. A new liberal press law of 1881 abandoned the restrictive practices that had been typical for a century. High-speed rotary Hoe presses, introduced in the 1860s, facilitated quick turnaround time and cheaper publication. New types of popular newspapers, especially "Le Petit Journal" reached an audience more interested in diverse entertainment and gossip rather than hard news. It captured a quarter of the Parisian market, and forced the rest to lower their prices. The main dailies employed their own journalists who competed for news flashes. All newspapers relied upon the Agence Havas (now Agence France-Presse), a telegraphic news service with a network of reporters and contracts with Reuters to provide world service. The staid old papers retained their loyal clientele because of their concentration on serious political issues.


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: The Roman Catholic Assumptionist order revolutionized pressure group media by its national newspaper "La Croix". It vigorously advocated for traditional Catholicism while at the same time innovating with the most modern technology and distribution systems, with regional editions tailored to local taste. Secularists and Republicans recognize the newspaper as their greatest enemy, especially when it took the lead in attacking Dreyfus as a traitor and stirred up anti-Semitism. When Dreyfus was pardoned, the Radical government in 1900 closed down the entire Assumptionist order and its newspaper.


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: Businesses and banks secretly paid certain newspapers to promote particular financial interests, and hide or cover up possible misbehavior. Publishers took payments for favorable notices in news articles of commercial products. Sometimes, a newspaper would blackmail a business by threatening to publish unfavorable information unless the business immediately started advertising in the paper. Foreign governments, especially Russia and Turkey, secretly paid the press hundreds of thousands of francs a year to guarantee favorable coverage of the bonds it was selling in Paris. When the real news was bad about Russia, as during its 1905 Revolution or during its war with Japan, it raised the bribes it paid to millions of francs. Each ministry in Paris had a group of journalists whom it secretly paid and fed stories. During the World War, newspapers became more of a propaganda agency on behalf of the war effort; there was little critical commentary. The press seldom reported the achievements of the Allies; instead they credited all the good news to the French army. In a word, the newspapers were not independent champions of the truth, but secretly paid advertisements for special interests and foreign governments.


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: The World War ended a golden era for the press. Their younger staff members were drafted and male replacements could not be found (women were not considered available) Rail transportation was rationed and less paper and ink came in, and fewer copies could be shipped out. Inflation raised the price of newsprint, which was always in short supply. The cover price went up, circulation fell and many of the 242 dailies published outside Paris closed down. The government set up the Interministerial Press Commission to closely supervise the press. A separate agency imposed tight censorship that led to blank spaces where news reports or editorials were disallowed. The dailies sometimes were limited to only two pages instead of the usual four, leading one satirical paper to try to report the war news in the same spirit:


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: The Parisian newspapers were largely stagnant after 1914. The major postwar success story was "Paris Soir"; which lacked any political agenda and was dedicated to providing a mix of sensational reporting to aid circulation, and serious articles to build prestige. By 1939, its circulation was over 1.7 million, double that of its nearest rival the tabloid "Le Petit Parisien". In addition to its daily paper "Paris Soir" sponsored a highly successful women's magazine "Marie-Claire". Another magazine "Match" was modeled after the photojournalism of the American magazine "Life."


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: France was a democratic society in the 1930s, but the people were kept in the dark about critical issues of foreign policy. The government tightly controlled all of the media to promulgate propaganda to support the government's foreign policy of appeasement to the aggressions of Italy and especially Nazi Germany. There were 253 daily newspapers, all owned separately. The five major national papers based in Paris were all under the control of special interests, especially right-wing political and business interests that supported appeasement. They were all venal, taking large secret subsidies to promote the policies of various special interests. Many leading journalists were secretly on the government payroll. The regional and local newspapers were heavily dependent on government advertising and published news and editorials to suit Paris. Most of the international news was distributed through the Havas agency, which was largely controlled by the government. The goal was to tranquilize public opinion, to give it little or nothing to work with, so as not to interfere with the policies of the national government. When serious crises emerged such as the Munich crisis of 1938, people were puzzled and mystified by what was going on. When war came in 1939, the French people had little understanding of the issues, and little correct information. They suspiciously distrusted the government, with the result that French morale in the face of the war with Germany was badly prepared.


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: In 1942, the occupying German forces took control of all of the Parisian newspapers and operated them with collaborators. In 1944, the Free French liberated Paris, and seized control of all of the collaborationist newspapers. They turned the presses and operations over to new teams of editors and publishers, and provided financial support. Thus for example The previously high-prestige "Le Temps" was replaced by the new daily Le Monde.


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: In the early 21st century, the best-selling daily was the regional "Ouest-France" in 47 local editions, followed by "Le Progres" of Lyon, "La Voix du Nord" in Lille, and "Provençal" in Marseille. In Paris the Communists published "l'Humanite", while "Le Monde" and "Figaro" had local rivals in "Le Parisien" and the leftist "Libération".


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: The Germans read more newspapers than anyone else. The most dramatic advance in quality came in 1780, with the "Neue Zürcher Zeitung" in Zürich, Switzerland. It set a new standard in objective, in-depth treatment of serious news stories, combined with high-level editorials, and in-depth coverage of music in the theater, as well as an advertising section. Its standards were emulated by the "Norddeutsche Allgemeine Zeitung" (1861–1945) and the "Frankfurter Zeitung" (1856–1943), among others.


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: Napoleon shut down existing German newspapers when he marched through, replacing them with his own, which echoed the official Parisian press. The upsurge of German nationalism after 1809 stimulated underground newspapers, calling for resistance to Napoleon. Johann Palm took the lead in Augsburg, but he was caught and executed. With the downfall of Napoleon, reactionaries came to power across Germany who had no tolerance for a free press. A repressive police system guaranteed that newspapers would not be criticizing the government.


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: The revolution of 1848 saw the overnight emergence of a liberal press demanding new freedoms, new constitutions and a free press. Multiple parties formed, and each had its own newspaper network. "Neue Rheinische Zeitung" was the first socialist newspaper; it appeared in 1848–49, with Karl Marx as editor. The Revolution of 1848 failed in Germany, the reactionaries returned to power, and many liberal and radical journalists fled the country. The "Neue Preussische Zeitung" (or "Kreuz-Zeitung") became the organ of the Junker East Elbian landowners, the Lutheran clergy, and influential civil and military officials who upheld the King of Prussia. It became the leading Prussian conservative newspaper. Its slogan was "With God for king and fatherland."


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: Berlin, the capital of Prussia, had the reputation of being "the newspaper city" ("Zeitungstadt"); it published 32 dailies in 1862, along with 58 weekly newspapers. The main emphasis was not on news are reporting, but among commentary and political analysis. None of the newspapers, however, and none of their editors or journalists, was especially influential. However some were using their newspaper experience as a stepping stone to a political career. The audience was limited to about 5% of the adult men, chiefly from the upper and middle classes, who followed politics. Liberal papers outnumbered conservative ones by a wide margin.


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: Bismarck's leadership in Prussia in the 1860s, and after 1871 in the German Empire, was highly controversial. His position on domestic policies was conservative or reactionary, and newspapers were mostly liberal; they attacked his defiance of the elected assembly. However, his success in wars against Denmark, Austria, and France made him highly popular, and his establishment of the German Empire was a dream come true for German nationalists. Bismarck kept a tight rein on the press. Bismarck never listened to public opinion, but he did try to shape it. He secretly subsidized newspapers, and the government gave financial help to small local papers, guaranteeing an overall favorable view. The press law of 1874 guaranteed press freedom, of a sort, but allowed for suppression if an issue contained "provocation to treason, incitement to violence, offense to the sovereign, or encouraged assistance of the government". Bismarck often used the code to threaten editors. The press law of 1878 suspended any newspaper advocating socialism – a club Bismarck used to suppress the rapidly growing socialist political movement. He also set up several official propaganda bureaus that distributed foreign and national news to local newspapers.


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: The newspapers primarily featured lengthy discussions and editorials regarding political conditions. They also included a "Unter dem Strich" ("Below the line") section that featured short stories, poetry, critical reviews of new books, evaluations of art exhibits, and reports on musical concerts and new plays. An especially popular feature was a novel, serialized with a new chapter every week. In many ways more influential than the newspapers were the magazines, which proliferated after 1870. Eminent intellectuals favored this medium. By 1890, Berlin published over 600 weeklies, biweeklies, monthlies, and quarterlies, including scholarly journals that were essential reading for scientists everywhere.


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: When high-speed rotary presses became available, together with typesetting machinery, it became possible to have press runs in the hundreds of thousands, with frequent updates throughout the day. By 1912, there were 4000 newspapers, printing 5 to 6,000,000,000 copies of the year. New technology made illustrations more feasible, and photographs began appearing. Advertising was now an important feature. Nevertheless, all newspapers focused on their own city, and there was no national newspaper of the sort that flourished in Britain, nor chains owned by one company such as those becoming common in the United States. All the political parties relied heavily on their own newspapers to inform and rally their supporters. For example, there were 870 papers in 1912 pitched to conservative readers, 580 aimed at liberal elements, 480 aimed at the Roman Catholics of the Centre party, and 90 affiliated with the Socialist party.


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: The first German newspaper aimed at a mass audience was the "Berliner Morgenpost", founded in 1898 by publisher Hermann Ullstein. It focused on local news, with very thorough coverage of its home city, ranging from the palaces to the tenements, along with lists of sporting events, streetcar schedules and shopping tips. By 1900, it reached 200,000 subscribers. A rival appeared in 1904, the "BZ am Mittag", with a flair for the spectacular and sensational in city life, especially fires, crime and criminals.


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: During the First World War (1914–1918), Germany published several newspapers and magazines for the enemy areas it occupied. The "Gazette des Ardennes" was designed for French readers in Belgium and France, Francophone prisoners of war, and generally as a propaganda vehicle in neutral and even enemy countries. Editor Fritz H. Schnitzer had a relatively free hand, and he tried to enhance his credibility by factual information. He realized until the closing days of the war that it was necessary to produce an increasingly optimistic report to hide the weakening position of the Central Powers in the summer and fall of 1918.


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: The Nazis (in power 1933–1945) exercised total control over the press under the direction of Joseph Goebbels. He took control of the wire services and shut down 1000 of the 3000 newspapers, including all those operated by the socialist, communist, and Roman Catholic movements. The survivors received about two dozen press directives every week, which typically were followed very closely.


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: In 1945, the occupying powers took over all newspapers in Germany and purged them of Nazi influence. Each of the four zones had one newspaper: "Die Welt" in Hamburg, the British zone; "Die Neue Zeitung" in Munich in the American zone; and "Tägliche Rundschau" (1945–1955) in East Berlin in the Soviet zone. By 1949, there were 170 licensed newspapers, but newsprint was strictly rationed, and circulation remains small. The American occupation headquarters, the Office of Military Government, United States (OMGUS) began its own newspaper based in Munich, "Die Neue Zeitung". It was edited by German and Jewish émigrés who fled to the United States before the war, and reached a circulation of 1.6 million in 1946. Its mission was to encourage democracy by exposing Germans to how American culture operated. The paper was filled with details on American sports, politics, business, Hollywood, and fashions, as well as international affairs.


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: In the early 21st century, 78% of the population regularly read one of Germany's 1200 newspapers, most of which are now online. The heavily illustrated tabloid "Bild" had the largest circulation in Europe, at 2.5 million copies a day. It is published by Axel Springer AG, which has a chain of newspapers. Today, the conservative leaning "Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung (FAZ)" has the highest reputation; its main competitors are the left-wing "Süddeutsche Zeitung" (Munich) and liberal-conservative "Die Welt". Influential weekly opinion papers include "Die Zeit", and until it closed in 2010, "Rheinischer Merkur".


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: Between oppressive rulers, and a low rate of literacy, Italy had little in the way of a serious newspaper press for the 1840s. "Gazzetta del Popolo" (1848–1983) based in turn was the leading voice for an Italian unification. "La Stampa" (1867–present) in Turin competes with "Corriere della Sera" of Milan for primacy in Italian journalism, in terms of circulation numbers and depth of coverage. It was a strong supporter of Prime Minister Giovanni Giolitti, who was denounced daily by "Corriere della Sera".


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: The major newspapers were served by Agenzia Stefani (1853–1945). It was a News agency that collected news and feature items, and distributed them to subscribing newspapers by telegraph or by mail. It had exchange agreements with Reuters in London and Havas in Paris, and provided a steady flow of domestic and international news and features.


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: The series of crises and confrontations between the papacy and the kingdom of Italy in the 1870s focused especially on the question of who would control Rome, and what place the pope would have in the new Kingdom. A network of pro-papal newspapers in Italy vigorously supported papal rights and help mobilize the Catholic element.


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: In 1901, Alberto Bergamini, editor of Rome's "Il Giornale d'Italia" created the "la Terza Pagina" ("Third Page"), featuring essays in literature, philosophy, criticism, the arts, and politics. It was quickly emulated by the upscale press. The most important newspaper was the liberal "Corriere della Sera", founded in Milan in 1876. It reached a circulation of over 1 million under editor and co-owner Luigi Albertini (1900–1925). Albertini deliberately modeled his paper after the "Times" of London, where he had worked briefly. He commissioned leading liberal intellectuals to write essays. Albertini was a strong opponent of Socialism, of clericalism, and of Prime Minister Giovanni Giolitti who was willing to compromise with those forces and corrupt Italian politics. Albertini's opposition to the Fascist regime forced the other co-owners to oust him in 1925.


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: Mussolini was a former editor; his Fascist regime (1922–1943) took full control of the media in 1925. Opposition Journalists were physically maltreated; two thirds of the dailies were shut down. An underground press was developed, using smuggled material. All the major papers had been mouthpieces for a political party; now all parties save one were abolished, and the newspapers all became its mouthpiece. In 1924, the fascists took control of Agenzia Stefani, and enlarged its scope and mission to make it their tool to control the news content in all of Italy's newspapers. By 1939, it operated 32 bureaus inside Italy and 16 abroad, with 261 correspondents in Italy and 65 abroad. Every day they processed over 1200 dispatches, from which Italian newspapers made up their news pages.


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: British influence extended globally through its colonies and its informal business relationships with merchants in major cities. They needed up-to-date market and political information. "El Seminario Republicano" was the first non-official newspaper; it appeared in Chile in 1813. "El Mercurio" was founded in Valparaiso, Chile, in 1827. The most influential newspaper in Peru, "El Comercio", first appeared in 1839. The "Jornal do Commercio" was established in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1827. Much later Argentina founded its newspapers in Buenos Aires: "La Prensa" in 1869 and "La Nación" in 1870.


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: In China, early government-produced news sheets, called tipao, were commonly used among court officials during the late Han dynasty (2nd and 3rd centuries AD). Between 713 and 734, the "Kaiyuan Za Bao" ("Bulletin of the Court") of the Tang dynasty published government news; it was handwritten on silk and read by government officials. In 1582, privately published news sheets appeared in Beijing, during the late Ming dynasty.


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: From the late 19th century until 1949 the international community at Shanghai and Hong Kong sponsored a lively foreign language press that covered business and political news. Leaders included "North China Daily News", "Shanghai Evening Post and Mercury", and for Germans, "Der Ostasiatischer Lloyd", and "Deutsche Shanghai Zeitung".


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: Before 1872, government gazettes printed occasional announcements by officials. In Shanghai English businessman Ernest Major (1841–1908) established the first Chinese language newspaper in 1872. His "Shen Bao" employed Chinese editors and journalists and purchased stories by Chinese writers; it also published letters from readers. Serialized novels were popular with readers and kept them loyal; to the paper. Shanghai's large and powerful International Settlement stimulated the growth of a public sphere of Chinese men of affairs who paid close attention to political and economic developments. Shanghai became China's media capital. "Shen Bao" was the most important Chinese-language newspaper until 1905 and was still important until the communists came to power 1949.


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: "Shen bao" and other major newspapers saw public opinion as the driving force of historical change, of the sort that would bring progress reason and modernity to China. The editors portrayed public opinion as the final arbiter of justice for government officials. Thereby they broadened the public sphere to include the readership. The encouragement of the formation of public opinion stimulated activism and form the basis for popular support for the 1911 revolution.


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: Chinese newspaper journalism was modernized in the 1920s according to international standards, thanks to the influence of the New Culture Movement. The roles of journalist and editor were professionalized and became prestigious careers. The Ta Kung Pao expanded audiences with its impartial reporting on public affairs. The business side gained importance and with a greater emphasis on advertising and commercial news, the main papers, especially in Shanghai, moved away from the advocacy journalism that characterized the 1911 revolutionary period. Outside the main centers the nationalism promoted in metropolitan dailies was not as distinctive as localism and culturalism.


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: Today China has two news agencies, the Xinhua News Agency and the China News Service ("Zhongguo Xinwenshe"). Xinhua was the major source of news and photographs for central and local newspapers. In 2002, there were 2100 newspapers, compared to only 400 in 1980. The party's newspapers "People's Daily" and "Guangming Daily", along with the Army's "PLA Daily", had the largest circulation. Local papers focused on local news are popular. In 1981, the English-language "China Daily" began publication. It printed international news and sports from the major foreign wire services as well as interesting domestic news and feature articles.


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: Robert Knight (1825–1890), founded two English language daily papers, "The Statesman" in Calcutta, and "The Times of India" in Bombay. In 1860, he bought out the Indian shareholders, merged with rival "Bombay Standard", and started India's first news agency. It wired news dispatches to papers across India and became the Indian agent for Reuters news service. In 1861, he changed the name from the Bombay "Times and Standard" to "The Times of India". Knight fought for a press free of prior restraint or intimidation, frequently resisting the attempts by governments, business interests, and cultural spokesmen and led the paper to national prominence. Knight's papers promoted Indian self-rule and often criticized the policies of the British Raj. By 1890, the company employed more than 800 people and had a sizeable circulation in India and the British Empire.


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: Japanese newspapers began in the 17th century as "yomiuri" (読売、literally "to read and sell") or "kawaraban" (瓦版, literally "tile-block printing" referring to the use of clay printing blocks), which were printed handbills sold in major cities to commemorate major social gatherings or events.


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: The first modern newspaper was the "Japan Herald" published bi-weekly in Yokohama by the Englishman A. W. Hansard from 1861. In 1862, the Tokugawa shogunate began publishing the "Kampan batabiya shinbun", a translated edition of a widely distributed Dutch newspaper. These two papers were published for foreigners, and contained only foreign news.


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: The first Japanese daily newspaper that covered foreign "and" domestic news was the "Yokohama Mainichi Shinbun" (横浜市毎日新聞), first published in 1871. The papers became organs of the political parties. The early readers of these newspapers mostly came from the ranks of the samurai class.


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: "Koshinbun" were more plebeian, popular newspapers that contained local news, human interest stories, and light fiction. Examples of "koshinbun" were the "Tokyo nichinichi shinbun", the predecessor of the present day "Mainichi shinbun", which began in 1872; the "Yomiuri shinbun", which began in 1874; and the "Asahi shinbun", which began in 1879. They soon became the dominant form.


title: History of newspaper publishing

text: In the democratic era of the 1910s to the 1920s, the government tried to suppress newspapers such as the "Asahi shinbun" for their critical stance against government bureaucracy that favored protecting citizens' rights and constitutional democracy. In the period of growing militarism in the 1930s to 1945, newspapers faced intense government censorship and control. After Japan's defeat, strict censorship of the press continued as the American occupiers used government control in order to inculcate democratic and anti-communist values. In 1951, the American occupiers finally returned freedom of the press to Japan, which is the situation today.


title: Sour beer

text: Sour beer, also known as Sours, is beer which has an intentionally acidic, tart, or sour taste. Traditional sour beer styles include Belgian lambics, gueuze and Flanders red ale, and German gose and Berliner Weisse.


title: Sour beer

text: Unlike modern brewing, which is done in a sanitary environment to guard against the intrusion of wild yeast, historically the starter used from one batch to another usually contained some wild yeast and bacteria. Sours are made by intentionally allowing wild yeast strains or bacteria into the brew, traditionally through the barrels or during the cooling of the wort in a coolship open to the outside air.


title: Sour beer

text: The most common microbes used to intentionally sour beer are the bacteria "Lactobacillus" and "Pediococcus", while the fungus "Brettanomyces" can also add some acidity. Another method for achieving a tart flavor is adding fruit, which directly contributes organic acids such as citric acid. Additionally, acid can be directly added to beer or added by the use of unusually large amounts of acidulated malt.


title: Sour beer

text: Depending on the process employed, the uncertainty involved in using wild yeast may cause the beer to take months to ferment and potentially years to mature. However, modern methods allow sour beer to be created within a typical timeframe for ales, usually several days.


title: Sour beer

text: Making sours is a risky and specialized form of beer brewing, and longstanding breweries which produce it and other lambics often specialize in this and other Belgian-style beers. Established in 1836, one of the oldest breweries still in operation that produces sour beer is the Rodenbach Brewery of Roeselare, Belgium. Sour beer has also spread outside Belgium, to other European countries, the United States and Canada.


title: Sour beer

text: In the United Kingdom sour ales are produced by a few different breweries, including - Thirsty Pioneers Brewing Company, Elgood's, Wild Beer Co, Brewdog Overworks, Docks Beers, Mills Brewing, Shindigger, Vault City Brewing, Yonder Brewing and Bundobust (in house) Brewery


title: Sour beer

text: Beers brewed in the United States utilizing yeast and bacteria strains instead of or in addition to standard brewers yeasts. These microflora may be cultured or acquired spontaneously, and the beer may be fermented in a number of different types of brewing vessels. American wild ales tend not to have specific parameters or guidelines stylistically, but instead simply refer to the use of unusual yeasts.


title: Sour beer

text: At one time the most popular alcoholic beverage in Berlin, this is a somewhat weaker (usually around 3% abv) beer made sour by use of "Lactobacillus" bacteria. This type of beer is usually served with flavored syrups to balance the tart flavor.


title: Sour beer

text: Flanders red ales are fermented with brewers yeast, then placed into oak barrels to age and mature. Usually, the mature beer is blended with younger beer to adjust the taste for consistency. This is also sometimes referred to as "flemish red".


title: Sour beer

text: Gose is a top-fermenting beer that originated in Goslar, Germany. This style is characterized by the use of coriander and salt and is made sour by inoculating the wort with lactic acid bacteria before primary fermentation.


title: Sour beer

text: Lambic is a spontaneously-fermented beer made in the Pajottenland region around Brussels, Belgium. Wort is left to cool overnight in the "koelschip" where it is exposed to the open air during the winter and spring, and placed into barrels to ferment and mature. Most lambics are blends of several seasons’ batches, such as gueuze, or are secondarily fermented with fruits, such as kriek and framboise. As such, pure unblended lambic is quite rare, and few bottled examples exist.


title: Sour beer

text: Originating from the Flemish region of Belgium, oud bruins are differentiated from the Flanders red ale in that they are darker in color and not aged on wood. As such this style tends to use cultured yeasts to impart its sour notes.


title: Cesare Beccaria

text: Cesare Bonesana di Beccaria, Marquis of Gualdrasco and Villareggio (; 15 March 173828 November 1794) was an Italian criminologist, jurist, philosopher, economist and politician, who is widely considered one of the greatest thinkers of the Age of Enlightenment. He is well remembered for his treatise "On Crimes and Punishments" (1764), which condemned torture and the death penalty, and was a founding work in the field of penology and the Classical School of criminology. Beccaria is considered the father of modern criminal law and the father of criminal justice.


title: Cesare Beccaria

text: According to John Bessler, Beccaria's works had a profound influence on the Founding Fathers of the United States.


title: Cesare Beccaria

text: Beccaria was born in Milan on 15 March 1738 to the Marchese Gian Beccaria Bonesana, an aristocrat of moderate standing from the Austrian Habsburg Empire. Beccaria received his early education in the Jesuit college at Parma. Subsequently, he graduated in law from the University of Pavia in 1758. At first he showed a great aptitude for mathematics, but studying Montesquieu (1689–1755) redirected his attention towards economics. In 1762 his first publication, a tract on the disorder of the currency in the Milanese states, included a proposal for its remedy.


title: Cesare Beccaria

text: In his mid-twenties, Beccaria became close friends with Pietro and Alessandro Verri, two brothers who with a number of other young men from the Milan aristocracy, formed a literary society named "L'Accademia dei pugni" (the Academy of Fists), a playful name which made fun of the stuffy academies that proliferated in Italy and also hinted that relaxed conversations which took place in there sometimes ended in affrays. Much of its discussion focused on reforming the criminal justice system. Through this group Beccaria became acquainted with French and British political philosophers, such as Diderot, Helvétius, Montesquieu, and Hume. He was particularly influenced by Helvétius.


title: Cesare Beccaria

text: Cesare Beccaria was best known for his book on crimes and punishments. In 1764, with the encouragement of Pietro Verri, Beccaria published a brief but celebrated treatise "On Crimes and Punishments". Some background information was provided by Pietro, who was writing a text on the history of torture, and Alessandro Verri, a Milan prison official who had firsthand experience of the prison's appalling conditions. In this essay, Beccaria reflected the convictions of his friends in the "Il Caffè" (Coffee House) group, who sought reform through Enlightenment discourse.


title: Cesare Beccaria

text: Beccaria's treatise marked the high point of the Milan Enlightenment. In it, Beccaria put forth some of the first modern arguments against the death penalty. His treatise was also the first full work of penology, advocating reform of the criminal law system. The book was the first full-scale work to tackle criminal reform and to suggest that criminal justice should conform to rational principles. It is a less theoretical work than the writings of Hugo Grotius, Samuel von Pufendorf and other comparable thinkers, and as much a work of advocacy as of theory.


title: Cesare Beccaria

text: The brief work relentlessly protests against torture to obtain confessions, secret accusations, the arbitrary discretionary power of judges, the inconsistency and inequality of sentencing, using personal connections to get a lighter sentence, and the use of capital punishment for serious and even minor offences.


title: Cesare Beccaria

text: Almost immediately, the work was translated into French and English and went through several editions. Editions of Beccaria's text follow two distinct arrangements of the material: that by Beccaria himself, and that by French translator André Morellet (1765) who imposed a more systematic order. Morellet felt the Italian text required clarification, and therefore omitted parts, made some additions, and above all restructured the essay by moving, merging or splitting chapters. Because Beccaria indicated in a letter to Morellet that he fully agreed with him, scholars assumed that these adaptations also had Beccaria's consent in substance. The differences are so great, however, that Morellet’s version became quite another book than the book that Beccaria wrote.


title: Cesare Beccaria

text: Beccaria opens his work describing the great need for reform in the criminal justice system, and he observes how few studies there are on the subject of such reform. Throughout his work, Beccaria develops his position by appealing to two key philosophical theories: social contract and utility. Concerning the social contract, Beccaria argues that punishment is justified only to defend the social contract and to ensure that everyone will be motivated to abide by it. Concerning utility (perhaps influenced by Helvetius), Beccaria argues that the method of punishment selected should be that which serves the greatest public good.


title: Cesare Beccaria

text: Contemporary political philosophers distinguish between two principal theories of justifying punishment. First, the retributive approach maintains that punishment should be equal to the harm done, either literally an eye for an eye, or more figuratively which allows for alternative forms of compensation. The retributive approach tends to be retaliatory and vengeance-oriented. The second approach is utilitarian which maintains that punishment should increase the total amount of happiness in the world. This often involves punishment as a means of reforming the criminal, incapacitating him from repeating his crime, and deterring others. Beccaria clearly takes a utilitarian stance. For Beccaria, the purpose of punishment is to create a better society, not revenge. Punishment serves to deter others from committing crimes, and to prevent the criminal from repeating his crime.


title: Cesare Beccaria

text: Beccaria argues that punishment should be close in time to the criminal action to maximize the punishment's deterrence value. He defends his view about the temporal proximity of punishment by appealing to the associative theory of understanding in which our notions of causes and the subsequently perceived effects are a product of our perceived emotions that form from our observations of a causes and effect occurring in close correspondence (for more on this topic, see David Hume's work on the problem of induction, as well as the works of David Hartley). Thus, by avoiding punishments that are remote in time from the criminal action, we are able to strengthen the association between the criminal behavior and the resulting punishment which, in turn, discourages the criminal activity.


title: Cesare Beccaria

text: For Beccaria when a punishment quickly follows a crime, then the two ideas of "crime" and "punishment" will be more closely associated in a person's mind. Also, the link between a crime and a punishment is stronger if the punishment is somehow related to the crime. Given the fact that the swiftness of punishment has the greatest impact on deterring others, Beccaria argues that there is no justification for severe punishments. In time we will naturally grow accustomed to increases in severity of punishment, and, thus, the initial increase in severity will lose its effect. There are limits both to how much torment we can endure, and also how much we can inflict.


title: Cesare Beccaria

text: Beccaria touches on an array of criminal justice practices, recommending reform. For example, he argues that dueling can be eliminated if laws protected a person from insults to his honor. Laws against suicide are ineffective, and thus should be eliminated, leaving punishment of suicide to God. Bounty hunting should not be permitted since it incites people to be immoral and shows a weakness in the government. He argues that laws should be clear in defining crimes so that judges do not interpret the law, but only decide whether a law has been broken.


title: Cesare Beccaria

text: Punishments should be in degree to the severity of the crime. Treason is the worst crime since it harms the social contract. This is followed by violence against a person or his property, and, finally, by public disruption. Crimes against property should be punished by fines. The best ways to prevent crimes are to enact clear and simple laws, reward virtue, and improve education.


title: Cesare Beccaria

text: Three tenets served as the basis of Beccaria's theories on criminal justice: free will, rational manner, and manipulability. According to Beccaria—and most classical theorists—free will enables people to make choices. Beccaria believed that people have a rational manner and apply it toward making choices that will help them achieve their own personal gratification.


title: Cesare Beccaria

text: In Beccaria's interpretation, law exists to preserve the social contract and benefit society as a whole. But, because people act out of self-interest and their interest sometimes conflicts with societal laws, they commit crimes. The principle of manipulability refers to the predictable ways in which people act out of rational self-interest and might therefore be dissuaded from committing crimes if the punishment outweighs the benefits of the crime, rendering the crime an illogical choice.


title: Cesare Beccaria

text: The principles to which Beccaria appealed were Reason, an understanding of the state as a form of contract, and, above all, the principle of utility, or of the greatest happiness for the greatest number. Beccaria had elaborated this original principle in conjunction with Pietro Verri, and greatly influenced Jeremy Bentham to develop it into the full-scale doctrine of Utilitarianism.


title: Cesare Beccaria

text: He also argued against gun control laws, and was among the first to advocate the beneficial influence of education in lessening crime. Referring to gun control laws as laws based on "false ideas of utility", Beccaria wrote, "The laws of this nature are those which forbid to wear arms, disarming those only who are not disposed to commit the crime which the laws mean to prevent." He further wrote, "[These laws] certainly makes the situation of the assaulted worse, and of the assailants better, and rather encourages than prevents murder, as it requires less courage to attack unarmed than armed persons". Thomas Jefferson noted this passage in his "Legal Commonplace Book".


title: Cesare Beccaria

text: As Beccaria's ideas were critical of the legal system in place at the time, and were therefore likely to stir controversy, he chose to publish the essay anonymously, for fear of government backlash. Among his contemporary critics, was Antonio Silla, writing from Naples.


title: Cesare Beccaria

text: In the event, the treatise was extremely well received. Catherine the Great publicly endorsed it, while thousands of miles away in the United States, founding fathers Thomas Jefferson and John Adams quoted it. Once it was clear that the government approved of his essay, Beccaria republished it, this time crediting himself as the author.


title: Cesare Beccaria

text: With much hesitation, Beccaria accepted an invitation to Paris to meet the great thinkers of the day. He travelled with the Verri brothers and was given a warm reception by the "philosophes". However, the chronically-shy Beccaria made a poor impression and left after three weeks, returning to Milan and to his young wife Teresa and never venturing abroad again. The break with the Verri brothers proved lasting; they were never able to understand why Beccaria had left his position at the peak of success.


title: Cesare Beccaria

text: Beccaria nevertheless continued to command official recognition, and he was appointed to several nominal political positions in Italy. Separated from the invaluable input of his friends, he failed to produce another text of equal importance. Outside Italy, an unfounded myth grew that Beccaria's literary silence resulted from Austrian restrictions on free expression in Italy. In fact, prone to periodic bouts of depression and misanthropy, he had grown silent on his own.


title: Cesare Beccaria

text: Legal scholars of the time hailed Beccaria's treatise, and several European emperors vowed to follow it. Many reforms in the penal codes of the principal European nations can be traced to the treatise, but few contemporaries were convinced by Beccaria's argument against the death penalty. Even when the Grand Duchy of Tuscany abolished the death penalty, the first nation in the world to do so, it followed Beccaria's argument about the lack of utility of capital punishment, not about the state's lacking the right to execute citizens. In the anglophone world, Beccaria's ideas fed into the writings on punishment of Sir William Blackstone (selectively), and more wholeheartedly those of William Eden and Jeremy Bentham.


title: Cesare Beccaria

text: In November 1768, he was appointed to the chair of law and economy founded expressly for him at the Palatine College of Milan. His lectures on political economy, which are based on strict utilitarian principles, are in marked accordance with the theories of the English school of economists. They are published in the collection of Italian writers on political economy ("Scrittori Classici Italiani di Economia politica", vols. xi. and xii.). Beccaria never succeeded in producing another work to match "Dei Delitti e Delle Pene", but he made various incomplete attempts in the course of his life. A short treatise on literary style was all he saw to press.


title: Cesare Beccaria

text: In 1771, Beccaria was made a member of the supreme economic council, and in 1791 he was appointed to the board for the reform of the judicial code, where he made a valuable contribution. During this period he spearheaded a number of important reforms, such as the standardisation of weights and measurements. He died in Milan.


title: Cesare Beccaria

text: A pioneer in criminology, his influence during his lifetime extended to shaping the rights listed in the US Constitution and Bill of Rights. "On Crimes and Punishments" served as a useful guide to the founding fathers.


title: Cesare Beccaria

text: Beccaria's theories, as expressed in "On Crimes and Punishments", have continued to play a great role in recent times. Some of the current policies impacted by his theories are truth in sentencing, swift punishment and the abolishment of the death penalty in some U.S. states. While many of his theories are popular, some are still a source of heated controversy, even more than two centuries after the famed criminologist's death.


title: Cesare Beccaria

text: Beccaria's grandson was Alessandro Manzoni, the noted Italian novelist and poet who wrote, among other things, "The Betrothed", one of the first Italian historical novels, and "Il cinque maggio", a poem on Napoleon's death.


title: Boss 429 Mustang

text: The Boss 429 Mustang is a high-performance Ford Mustang variant that was offered by Ford in 1969 and 1970. Engine builder Jon Kasse currently reproduces the cylinder heads that make up the "boss 9" engine architecture.


title: Boss 429 Mustang

text: The Boss 429 is recognized as being among some of the rarest and highly valued muscle cars to date. In total there were 1359 original Boss 429s made. The origin of the Boss 429 was to fulfil Ford's need to homologate the 429 semi-hemispherical engine for NASCAR racing. Ford was seeking to develop an engine that would better compete with the 426 Hemi from Chrysler in NASCAR's Grand National Division, now known as the NASCAR Cup Series. NASCAR's homologation rules required that at least 500 cars be fitted with this motor and sold to the general public. After much consideration, it was decided by Ford that the Mustang would be the car that would house this new engine.


title: Boss 429 Mustang

text: With the release and homologation of the Dodge Charger Daytona from its rival manufacturer Dodge, the Boss 429 is solely left as a road-going version and all of its NASCAR plans were scrapped.


title: Boss 429 Mustang

text: The Boss 429 engine evolved from the Ford 385 engine. It used four-bolt main caps, a forged steel crank and forged steel connecting rods. The engine featured aluminium cylinder heads, with a semi-hemispherical type combustion chamber which Ford called the "crescent". These heads used the "dry-deck" method, meaning the coolant circuit for the block was separate from the cooling circuit for the head The "dry-deck" method of design is intended to strengthen the block by removing the open coolant jackets around the cylinder and reduce hot spots by providing more direct cooling. Each cylinder, oil passage and water passage had an individual "O" ring style seal to seal it tight. Although a head gasket is used, it only seals the cylinder for combustion so a failure at one point won't compromise the others.


title: Boss 429 Mustang

text: The Boss 429 engine came standard with a single Holley 4-barrel carburetor rated at 735 CFM mounted on an aluminium intake manifold that flowed well for its time. 1969 cars featured a hydraulic lifter camshaft while 1970 models got a solid lifter camshaft along with an improved dual exhaust system, though rated power output stayed the same.


title: Boss 429 Mustang

text: The Mustang's engine compartment was not wide enough to accommodate the massive Boss 429 engine, so Ford contracted with Kar Kraft of Dearborn, Michigan, to modify 4-speed Cobra Jet Mustangs to accept it. Kar Kraft was a Ford exclusive experimental facility that functioned as Vehicle Engineering for Ford's Special Vehicles. Kar Kraft had previously developed the first GT40 MKII (winner of the 1966 24 Hours of Le Mans) and designed and built the GT40 MKIV (winner of the 1967 24 Hours of Le Mans).


title: Boss 429 Mustang

text: Production of the Boss 429 began in 1968 at the Ford Rouge plant, where front apron assemblies revised to accept the large Boss 429 engine were installed during vehicle construction. These also provided a stronger and cleaner front structure, important considerations on such a performance car, and were coupled with reworked front fenders. The cars were then shipped to Kar Kraft's new assembly plant in Brighton, Michigan for engine installation and further modifications.


title: Boss 429 Mustang

text: Such a large big block engine made the car nose heavy. To help offset this, the battery was relocated to the trunk, and a 3/4" sway bar was added to the rear end to limit body roll. This was the first Mustang ever fitted with a rear sway bar, giving it better handling than the other large engine Mustangs of the time, making it a much more capable track car. So did an oil cooler which allowed both high RPM and endurance loads on the engine, and a manually controlled hood scoop for bringing in denser air for more thorough combustion. For better ground clearance the front spoiler was made shallower than the Boss 302's, and a 3.91 ratio rear axle came with a "Traction-Lock" limited slip differential. Other features included, color keyed dual racing mirrors, an 8,000rpm tachometer, and AM only radio.


title: Boss 429 Mustang

text: The cars were advertised at at 5200 rpm and of torque at 3400 rpm. Period dynamometer testing supports Ford's rating. The speed equipment manufacturer Crane Cams tested engines that were stock as manufactured, with the exception of substituting tubular headers for the stock cast iron exhaust manifolds. For the 1969 hydraulic cam engine, they measured a peak of at 5500 rpm. The 1970 mechanical cam engine measured better, with a peak of , also at 5500 rpm.