title: Adolphe Menjou

text: After returning from the war, Menjou gradually rose through the ranks with small but fruitful roles in films such as "The Faith Healer" (1921) alongside supporting roles in prominent films such as "The Sheik" (1921) and "The Three Musketeers" (1921). By 1922, he was receiving top or near-top billing, with a selection of those films being with Famous Players-Lasky and Paramount Pictures, starting with "Pink Gods" (1922), although he did films for various studios and directors. His supporting role in 1923's "A Woman of Paris" solidified the image of a well-dressed man-about-town, and he was voted Best Dressed Man in America nine times. He was noted as an example of a suave type of actor, one who could play lover or villain. In 1929, he attended the preview of Maurice Chevalier's first Hollywood film "Innocents of Paris", and personally reassured Chevalier that he would enjoy a great future, despite the mediocre screenplay. He closed the end of the 1920s with star roles such as "His Private Life" (1928) and "Fashions in Love" (1929).


title: Adolphe Menjou

text: The crash of the stock market in 1929 meant that his contract with Paramount was cancelled, but he went on to Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM) and continued on with films (now talkies) in a variety of ways, with his knowledge of French and Spanish helping at key times, although his starring roles declined by this point. In 1930, he starred in "Morocco", with Marlene Dietrich. He was nominated for an Academy Award for "The Front Page" (1931), after having received the role upon the death of Louis Wolheim during rehearsals. A variety of supporting roles in this decade were films such as "A Farewell to Arms" (1932), "Morning Glory" (1933), and "A Star Is Born" (1937).


title: Adolphe Menjou

text: His roles decreased slightly in the 1940s, but he did overseas work for World War II alongside supporting roles in films like "Roxie Hart" (1942) and "State of the Union" (1948). Over the course of his career, he bridged the gap of working with several noted directors that ranged from Frank Borzage to Frank Capra to Stanley Kubrick.


title: Adolphe Menjou

text: Menjou had just eleven roles in the 1950s, but he managed to snag one last leading role with the film noir "The Sniper" (1952). Incidentally, the director of that film was Edward Dmytryk, who had been a member of the Hollywood Ten, in which he was blacklisted from the film industry for not testifying to the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) during the 'Red scare' before deciding to testify and name names as a brief member of the Communist Party.


title: Adolphe Menjou

text: In 1955, Menjou played Dr. Elliott Harcourt in "Barrier of Silence", episode 19 of the first season of the television series "Science Fiction Theatre". He guest-starred as Fitch, with Orson Bean and Sue Randall as John and Ellen Monroe, in a 1961 episode, "The Secret Life of James Thurber", based on the works of American humorist James Thurber (especially "The Secret Life of Walter Mitty"), in the CBS anthology series "The DuPont Show with June Allyson". He also appeared in the Thanksgiving episode of NBC's "The Ford Show, Starring Tennessee Ernie Ford," which aired on November 22, 1956. Menjou ended his film career with such roles as French General George Broulard in Stanley Kubrick's film "Paths of Glory" (1957) and his final film role was that of the town curmudgeon in Disney's "Pollyanna" (1960).


title: Adolphe Menjou

text: Menjou was a staunch Republican who equated the Democratic Party with socialism. He supported the Hoover administration's policies during the Great Depression. Menjou told a friend that he feared that if a Democrat won the White House, they "would raise taxes [and] destroy the value of the dollar," depriving Menjou of a good portion of his wealth. He took precautions against this threat: "I've got gold stashed in safety deposit boxes all over town... They'll never get an ounce from me." In the 1944 presidential election, he joined other celebrity Republicans at a rally in the Los Angeles Coliseum, organized by studio executive David O. Selznick, to support the Dewey–Bricker ticket and Governor Earl Warren of California, who would be Dewey's running mate in 1948. The gathering drew 93,000, with Cecil B. DeMille as the master of ceremonies and short speeches by Hedda Hopper and Walt Disney. Despite the rally's large turnout, most Hollywood celebrities who took public positions supported the Roosevelt–Truman ticket.


title: Adolphe Menjou

text: In 1947, Menjou cooperated with the House Committee on Un-American Activities saying that Hollywood "is one of the main centers of Communist activity in America". He added: "it is the desire and wish of the masters of Moscow to use this medium for their purposes" which is "the overthrow of the American government". Menjou was a leading member of the Motion Picture Alliance for the Preservation of American Ideals, a group formed to oppose communist influence in Hollywood, whose other members included John Wayne, Barbara Stanwyck (with whom Menjou costarred in "Forbidden" in 1932 and "Golden Boy" in 1939) and her husband, actor Robert Taylor.


title: Adolphe Menjou

text: Because of his political leanings, Menjou came into conflict with actress Katharine Hepburn, with whom he appeared in "Morning Glory", "Stage Door", and "State of the Union" (also starring Spencer Tracy). Hepburn was strongly opposed to the HUAC hearings, and their clashes were reportedly instant and mutually cutting. During a government deposition, Menjou said, "Scratch a do-gooder, like Hepburn, and they'll yell, 'Pravda'." To this, Hepburn called Menjou "wisecracking, witty—a flag-waving super-patriot who invested his American dollars in Canadian bonds and had a thing about Communists." In his book "Kate", Hepburn biographer William Mann said that during the filming of "State of the Union", she and Menjou spoke to each other only while acting.


title: Adolphe Menjou

text: Menjou was married three times. His first marriage, in 1920 to Kathryn Conn Tinsley, ended in divorce. He married Kathryn Carver in 1928; they divorced in 1934. His third and final marriage, to Verree Teasdale, lasted from 1934 until his death on October 29, 1963; they had one adopted son, Peter Menjou.


title: Adolphe Menjou

text: Menjou died on October 29, 1963, of hepatitis in Beverly Hills, California. He is interred beside Verree at Hollywood Forever Cemetery.


title: Adolphe Menjou

text: For his contributions to the motion picture industry, Menjou has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6826 Hollywood Boulevard.


title: Adolphe Menjou

text: Because of Menjou's public support of HUAC, the propaganda of the German Democratic Republic (GDR) often depicted their western opponents with Menjou-style moustaches, and it was considered a statement of political opposition to trim one's moustache that way. The style became a symbol for the resourceful criminal, and in Germany is still called (Menjou beardlet). In German film and theatre, dubious men, opportunists, corrupt politicians, fraudulent persuaders, marriage impostors and other "slick" criminals often wear "Menjou-Bärtchen". In real life, the style is often associated with opportunism.


title: Adolphe Menjou

text: He declared "la moustache d'Adolphe Menjou est surréaliste" and began offering fake mustaches from a silver cigarette case to other people with the words "Moustache? Moustache? Moustache?"


title: Adolphe Menjou

text: One of the most famous photographs by the avant-garde photographer Umbo is titled "Menjou En Gros" ca. 1928.


title: Pon Manickavel (film)

text: Pon Manickavel is a 2021 Indian Tamil-language action thriller film directed by A. C. Mugil Chellappan of "Kandaen" fame. The film stars Prabhu Deva and Nivetha Pethuraj in lead roles. Music is scored by D. Imman. It is the 50th film of Prabhu Deva. The film was released on 19 November 2021. The film also marks the final film appearance of actor and director Mahendran, before his death on 2 April 2019. The film received mixed reviews from critics.


title: Pon Manickavel (film)

text: A beheaded body of a judge is found at the entrance of his residence. The Police department heads the investigation with officer Peruvalathan. There are 4 gun shot wounds but no bullets found. The DCP suggests, ACP Rudra Manicavel to assist them, for him being a gun specialist. Manik has resigned from his job after one of his cases in Salem. He joins the team with a rather dull and non-serious investigation, which is hated by Peruvalathan. But soon he understands Manik. Manik concludes that the next target for the killer is an Inspector. The inspector gets a threatening message from an unknown number and requests Manik's help. But the car the Inspector was in blasts right in front of Manik and Peruvalathan. They trace an IP address and reach the residence of an Undercover officer Kailash.


title: Pon Manickavel (film)

text: Kailash provides a photograph of the Judge and Inspector with a business tycoon Arjun K Maran. Arjun is immediately given police protection when the assassin arrives, trying to kill him. Manik also becomes close and a personal bodyguard for Arjun, by telling him about his past case in Salem, which ended up in a jail term and him resigning his job. Manik fails to convict a criminal, Sait, who raped and murdered a girl. Seeing the man out, the girl's mother shoots herself with Manik's gun. Manik is sent to 6 months in prison. Arjun provides Manik with 10 Crores as requested, and gaining his trust. Kailash discovers that the killer is an old man, named Nasarathulla. Nasarathulla's granddaughter was harassed via message by Arjun and when she filed a complain, Arjun was arrested. But he claimed that the phone was stolen and released. Nasarathulla then finds his granddaughter kidnapped by some men while he was on video call with her and the police didn't help. She was then found dead in a train accident. Nasarthulla was then caught by police, trying to buy an illegal gun.


title: Pon Manickavel (film)

text: Having the man's image through CCTV, Manik sends it to Arjun, who says it was an old business issue. He is then given protection in the Commissioner Office but is attempted to be killed. Manik saves him, gaining his trust more. Once, trying to evade Arjun's assassination, Manik is stabbed. In the hospital, the Commissioner tells the higher official that they are watching Arjun's movements without him knowing as they suspect his actions of having a 4th person in the case, who might either be behind this or the next target. The attempt at his house and Commissioner office were set up by Manik, but the last attack was real. Manik the finds out from a CCTV ad footage of the man who stabbed him and finds his name as Aaron. Aaron the tries to kill Manik's wife Anbu but Manik kills him in an abandoned building. Manik then requests Arjun to reveal the truth.


title: Pon Manickavel (film)

text: Arjun reveals the name Badrinath as a bug suspect. Michael is a bigger businessman than Arjun, who is a womaniser. Nasarathulla's granddaughter Heena, was one of his womans. Arjun, the judge and the inspector also raped her, before handing her over to Michael. Arjun reveals that Heena is still captive in Michael's villa. Manickavel rescues her and keeps her safe at his house. Michael receives a threatening message and is given protection as well, this time headed by DCP Thilak. But Michael is also targeted at his house and flees to his guesthouse, and stays in an underground bunker.


title: Pon Manickavel (film)

text: Amidst these, Kailash tries to track down the unknown gun used to kill the Judge. It narrows down to Manik, of still using the special gun provided by Delhi Armory. Indeed, it was Manik, who had been faking all these, from protecting Arjun to protecting Michael.Michael is then killed by Manik in his bunker, after causing a distraction in the garden. Manik and Nasarathulla were in the same cell in prison and Nasarathulla has told him everything. Manik, often finishes off criminals who have evaded jail term due to influence. The Sait from his Salem encounter was also killed by Manik. As Manik shoot Badri, the police arrives and Manik tells them that the old man shot Michael and turned the gun on him so he had to shoot in self-defence. The commissioner praises him.


title: Pon Manickavel (film)

text: It is then revealed that Nasarthulla is safe with him. Arjun was killed by Nasarathulla and Manik killed the judge and the inspector. Kailash, without informing anyone and personally to Manik, vows to arrest him one day to which Manik wishes him luck.


title: Pon Manickavel (film)

text: The first look poster of Pon Manickavel shows Prabhu Deva as a police officer, and for the first time, he is acting as a police officer in his filmography. For the first time, D. Imman is composing music with Prabhu Deva in his film.


title: Pon Manickavel (film)

text: The film's score and songs were composed by D. Imman and lyrics by Madhan Karky, Viveka, GKB and Ranjan.


title: Pon Manickavel (film)

text: The filmmakers initially announced that the film would be released worldwide on 21 February 2020, then later pushed to a 6 March 2020 release. The film was further postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. In July 2021, it was announced that the theatrical release was cancelled, and that the film would instead stream via Disney+ Hotstar. The film was released on 19 November 2021.


title: Oscar Goodman

text: Oscar Baylin Goodman (born July 26, 1939) is an American attorney and politician. A Democrat-turned-independent, Goodman was the mayor of Las Vegas, Nevada from 1999 to 2011. His wife, Carolyn Goodman, succeeded him as mayor in 2011.


title: Oscar Goodman

text: Goodman was born and raised in a Jewish family in Philadelphia. After attending Central High School for a time, he graduated from The Haverford School, Haverford College, and received his J.D. degree from the University of Pennsylvania Law School. He and his wife Carolyn have four children.


title: Oscar Goodman

text: During his career as a defense attorney, Goodman represented defendants accused of being some of the leading organized crime figures in Las Vegas, such as: Meyer Lansky, Nicky Scarfo, Herbert "Fat Herbie" Blitzstein, Phil Leonetti, former Stardust Casino boss Frank "Lefty" Rosenthal, and Jamiel "Jimmy" Chagra, a 1970s drug trafficker who was acquitted of ordering the murder of Federal Judge John H. Wood, Jr. One of his notorious clients was reputed Chicago mobster Anthony "Tony the Ant" Spilotro, who was known to have a short and violent temper. In the semi-factual 1995 movie "Casino", the character of Nicky Santoro was based on Spilotro, and was portrayed by actor Joe Pesci. Goodman had a cameo appearance in the film as himself, where he was depicted defending “Ace Rothstein,” a character closely based on Lefty Rosenthal, and played by Robert De Niro.


title: Oscar Goodman

text: Goodman also represented former San Diego Mayor Roger Hedgecock, who was convicted of accepting illegal campaign contributions, and eventually forced to resign. Hedgecock was later cleared of all charges on appeal. Goodman was a senior partner in the law firm of Goodman & Chesnoff.


title: Oscar Goodman

text: In 1964, Goodman and his wife became active in the local Jewish federation soon after they moved to Las Vegas. Carolyn eventually served as head of the federation's women's divisions.


title: Oscar Goodman

text: Through the years of 1980–81, he served as president of the National Association of Criminal Defense Lawyers. Goodman was also a member of the Las Vegas Convention and Visitors Authority.


title: Oscar Goodman

text: On June 8, 1999, Goodman was elected mayor of Las Vegas after he received 63.76% (32,765) of the votes, while his opponent, then-Las Vegas City Councilman Arnie Adamsen, received 36.24% (18,620). In 2003, Goodman was re-elected to a second four-year term , and defeated five opponents after he received 85.72% (29,356) of the votes. On April 3, 2007, he was re-elected to a third and final term, with 83.69% (26,845) of the votes, and once again defeated five opponents. Despite having been called Las Vegas’ “most popular mayor,” the city has term limit laws that restrict mayors to a maximum of three terms. In 2011, Carolyn Goodman was elected to succeed her husband as mayor, after she earned 60% of the votes.


title: Oscar Goodman

text: On June 28, 1999, Goodman was the first mayor of Las Vegas to have his image placed on $5 and $25 casino chips issued by a Las Vegas casino. The two chips were issued by the Four Queens Hotel and Casino in Downtown Las Vegas. In 2006, the Four Queens put out a $200 Silver Strike with the likeness of Goodman on it.


title: Oscar Goodman

text: Goodman has been vocal about having a Major League Baseball team relocate to Las Vegas. In 2004, the city failed to secure a move by the Montreal Expos to the city. Instead, the team relocated to Washington, D.C., and became the Washington Nationals. Later that year, Goodman met with officials of the Florida Marlins. The Chicago White Sox had considered a move, but negotiations failed after Chicago officials provided incentives for the team to stay.


title: Oscar Goodman

text: Goodman worked to get a National Football League team to relocate to Las Vegas. On April 24, 2006, he called the San Diego Chargers, and asked if they would be interested in moving. Because of a contract, the city could not talk about a possible move. On January 4, 2007, he called again, since the team was not allowed to talk to other cities about a possible move. Again, Goodman was turned down “for the time being.” According to Mark Fabiani, the Chargers’ general counsel, Goodman was a longtime season ticket holder of the Chargers, and a fan of the team. The Chargers ultimately decided to relocate to Los Angeles instead. In 2017, under the tenure of Carolyn Goodman as mayor, the Oakland Raiders agreed to relocate to Las Vegas.


title: Oscar Goodman

text: In 2003, Goodman was voted the “Least Effective Public Official” in the "Review-Journal"'s annual reader's poll.


title: Oscar Goodman

text: In July 2006 Goodman criticized the Ubisoft game "" for its premise of terrorism in Las Vegas, because he thought it may tarnish the city's image. He stated, "It's based on a false premise... It could be harmful economically, and it may be something that's not entitled to free speech (protection)... I will ask... whether or not we can stop it." In 2009 and 2010, Goodman was angered by President Barack Obama's allegedly negative remarks about Las Vegas.


title: Oscar Goodman

text: After winning the mayoral election in 2007, Goodman, like his counterpart Michael Bloomberg in New York City, looked into a means to change the city charter to remove term limits. He ultimately did not pursue changes to Las Vegas law.


title: Oscar Goodman

text: Currently, prostitution is legal in Nevada only in rural counties with fewer than 400,000 residents, a requirement which excludes Clark County and the city of Las Vegas from allowing the practice. Goodman supports legalizing prostitution in the city's downtown area as a revenue generator and tool for revitalization. Some journalists have criticized this position.


title: Oscar Goodman

text: In February 2004, Robert Rose, an ethics watchdog, filed a complaint with the Nevada Commission on Ethics claiming that during the U.S. Conference of Mayors, Goodman handed out to fellow mayors, conference attendees and other political figures invitations to a cocktail party Goodman was hosting. Rose alleged that this was nothing more than the mayor abusing his power of office to help promote a business that is owned by his son, Ross Goodman, and Las Vegas Councilman Michael Mack. The Nevada Ethics Commission opened an investigation on April 14, 2004, and on May 13, 2004, the members of the commission found the mayor in ethics violations, although no fine was rendered. Goodman sued the commission and won; the commission's ruling was reversed by the court.


title: Oscar Goodman

text: On September 16, 2004, Rose again filed a complaint with the Nevada Commission on Ethics, this time asking the commission to clarify Goodman's affiliation with his son Ross's law firm. In a statement, the mayor explained his name on the letterhead is a way of informing out of state law firms that Ross Goodman is his son. However, a person serving as an elected public official in Nevada may not have his name listed on a law firm letterhead, and Goodman removed his name under protest after several newspaper articles noted the infraction.


title: Oscar Goodman

text: On July 18, 2005, the Nevada Commission on Ethics concluded insufficient cause for a hearing and recommended the allegations be dismissed, clearing Goodman of the ethics complaint regarding his name listed as "Of Counsel" to Goodman Law Group.


title: Oscar Goodman

text: On September 11, 2007, the Supreme Court of Nevada ruled that Goodman did not violate any ethics laws during the 2004 cocktail party that he hosted on behalf of his son Ross C. Goodman.


title: Oscar Goodman

text: Goodman currently serves as Of Counsel to Goodman Law Group, a Las Vegas law firm formed by his son, Ross C. Goodman.


title: Oscar Goodman

text: His memoir, "Being Oscar: From Mob Lawyer to Mayor of Las Vegas", written with George Anastasia, was published in 2013.


title: Oscar Goodman

text: Goodman had entertained the idea of seeking the Democratic nomination in the 2006 United States Senate election in Nevada, in order to run against incumbent Republican Senator John Ensign. He ultimately announced that he would not run for the nomination, which went to Jack Carter, the son of President Jimmy Carter.


title: Oscar Goodman

text: Goodman fueled speculation that he might run as an independent in the 2010 Nevada gubernatorial election against incumbent Republican Jim Gibbons and presumptive Democratic candidate Rory Reid. However, Goodman decided not to run for governor, citing his desire to stay close to his family, and objections to moving to Carson City.


title: Oscar Goodman

text: Las Vegas commentator Dayvid Figler wrote in 2009 that Goodman might become the first Jewish president of the United States.


title: Oscar Goodman

text: Goodman appeared as himself in the 1995 Martin Scorsese film "Casino". Later on, he made another brief appearance in the film "Looney Tunes: Back in Action" in the DVD extras. In 2006, he appeared as himself in the Direct-to-DVD film "Bachelor Party Vegas", and made another brief appearance on the DVD version of "Looney Tunes: Back in Action".


title: Oscar Goodman

text: In 2000, a bobblehead doll of Goodman was issued as a promotion during a Las Vegas 51s baseball game.


title: Oscar Goodman

text: As a celebrity photographer for the Playboy Cyber Club, Goodman shot a topless pictorial of Miss January 2001 Irina Voronina for the website.


title: Oscar Goodman

text: In 2002, Goodman became a spokesman for Bombay Sapphire gin. He donated his $100,000 salary to charity, including $50,000 to The Meadows School founded by his wife. He would later generate controversy in 2005 when he joked about his love of the gin before an elementary school class.


title: Oscar Goodman

text: In 2003, "Las Vegas Review-Journal" columnist John L. Smith wrote a book chronicling Goodman's life, titled "Of Rats and Men: Oscar Goodman's Life from Mob Mouthpiece to Mayor of Las Vegas".


title: Oscar Goodman

text: Goodman guest-starred as himself three times on the CBS series "." The episodes Goodman was featured in included: “Sqweegel,” where he defended Ann-Margret's character from being harassed by the LVPD; “Maid Man,” where he first appeared at the opening of the Mob Museum, which was re-created for the show in advance of its opening; and “Last Rollout,” as a lawyer for a suspect during an interrogation.


title: Rick Shiels

text: Rick Shiels (born 3 July 1986) is a British YouTuber and golf professional, best known for his YouTube channel, Rick Shiels Golf. In June 2019, his channel became the biggest golf channel on YouTube after surpassing 561,500 subscribers. As of August, 2022, he now has over 2.40 million subscribers.


title: Rick Shiels

text: Shiels was born in Bolton, England on 3 July 1986. He began playing golf at Hart Common Golf Club in Westhoughton at the age of 11. He earned a diploma in golf studies at Myerscough College. Ten years after he began playing golf, he started working at Mere Golf and Country Club in Cheshire, England after completing his PGA training and becoming a qualified pro. He then worked at Trafford Golf Centre where, in 2011, he started his YouTube channel, posting various videos related to golf as an attempt to gain more customers. Slowly, he began gaining traction, and in June 2020, he became the first golf blogger to amass 1 million subscribers. In 2019, Shiels helped host the first ever YouTube Golf Day which raised over £15,000 for Prostate Cancer UK. The event gathered 44 creators with over 19 million combined followers. He has also partnered with many large brands like Nike, Inc., Garmin, and Mastercard to create multiple mini-series on his YouTube channel.


title: Rick Shiels

text: Over the years, his videos have featured multiple celebrities like Robbie Williams and Eddie Hall. By April 2021, he had over 1.54 million subscribers on his YouTube channel, with over 374 million views. His channel's content covers many aspects of golf, including golf equipment reviews, instructional tips, golf stories, and more. Shiels also hosts a podcast called The Rick Shiels Golf Show, which is available on multiple podcast platforms and a second YouTube channel, of the same name, on which he posts clips and full episodes of the podcast. In February 2021, Shiels announced, on his podcast, that he had ended his long-time partnership with Nike officially at tShiels, but when the contract was finished, Nike hoped to get Shiels to switch to a 'paid to post' model with Shiels encouraging viewers to buy Nike apparel; not wanting to do this, Shiels decided not to renew the partnership.


title: Syllabic consonant

text: A syllabic consonant or vocalic consonant is a consonant that forms a syllable on its own, like the "m", "n" and "l" in some pronunciations of the English words "rhythm", "button" and "bottle". To represent it, the understroke diacritic in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is used, . It may be instead represented by an overstroke, if the symbol that it modifies has a descender, such as in .


title: Syllabic consonant

text: Syllabic consonants in most languages are sonorants, such as nasals and liquids. Very few have syllabic obstruents, such as stops and fricatives in normal words, but English has syllabic fricatives in paralinguistic words like "shh!" and "zzz".


title: Syllabic consonant

text: In many varieties of High and Low German, pronouncing syllabic consonants may be considered a shibboleth. In High German and Tweants (a Low Saxon dialect spoken in the Netherlands; more Low Saxon dialects have the syllabic consonant), all word-final syllables in infinite verbs and feminine plural nouns spelled are pronounced with syllabic consonants. The High German infinitive ('to walk') is pronounced or (in some accents) even and its Tweants counterpart is pronounced . Tweants scholars even debate whether or not this feature should be incorporated in spelling, resulting in two generally accepted spelling forms (either or ).


title: Syllabic consonant

text: Many dialects of English may use syllabic consonants in words such as "even" , "awful" and "rhythm" , which English dictionaries' respelling systems usually treat as realizations of underlying sequences of schwa and a consonant ().


title: Syllabic consonant

text: In Danish, a syllabic consonant is the standard colloquial realization of combinations of the phoneme schwa and a sonorant, generally referred to as schwa-assimilation, e.g. ('the cat') = , ('lady') = , ('bike') = , ('ant') = , ('sleep') = , ('shrimp') = , ('the house') = .


title: Syllabic consonant

text: In all four dialect groups of Norwegian, a syllabic alveolar nasal, , may be heard. It is syllabic when following other alveolar consonants and occurs most often in the definite singular form of masculine nouns (see Norwegian grammar) where the schwa has elided, e.g. ('the car') , where it was originally . With some speakers, the schwa may be reinserted, especially for words already ending in where the syllabic may have been entirely elided afterward, e.g. ('the man') can either be pronounced like , or . In addition to this, a syllabic always occurs in words like ('water') and ('bottom') . This syllabification of alveolar nasals also appears in some Swedish dialects . In all cases where the alveolar sound becomes retroflex, also becomes retroflex , e.g. ('the moustache') (see Norwegian phonology#Consonants). In some Norwegian dialects, a syllabic alveolar lateral approximant may be heard in the same circumstances as syllabic , e.g. ('poodle') , though it is not as common as syllabic . A syllabic may also be heard in Bergen, where a following syllabic has elided completely, e.g. ('the sun') . In dialects that have palatalisation of some alveolar consonants like Northern Norwegian and Trøndersk, the following syllabic is also palatalised, e.g. ('the ball') .


title: Syllabic consonant

text: All of the consonants syllabicized in Germanic languages are sonorants. However, the only time obstruents are used syllabically in English is in onomatopoeia, such as "sh!" (a command to be quiet), "sss" (the hiss of a snake), "zzz" (the sound of a bee buzzing or someone sleeping), and "tsk tsk!" (used to express disapproval or pity), though it is not certain how to define what a syllable is in such cases.


title: Syllabic consonant

text: Sanskrit , ऌ & अं are syllabic consonants, allophones of consonantal and . This continues the reconstructed situation of Proto-Indo-European, where both liquids and nasals had syllabic allophones, .


title: Syllabic consonant

text: Several Sinitic languages, such as Cantonese and Hokkien, feature both syllabic "m" () and "ng" () that stand alone as their own words. In Cantonese, the former is most often used in the word meaning 'not' (, ) while the latter can be seen in the word for 'five' (, ) and the surname Ng (, or , , depending on the tone), among others.


title: Syllabic consonant

text: A number of languages have syllabic fricatives or fricative vowels. In several varieties of Chinese, certain high vowels following fricatives or affricates are pronounced as extensions of those sounds, with voicing added (if not already present) and a vowel pronounced while the tongue and teeth remain in the same position as for the preceding consonant, leading to the turbulence of a fricative carrying over into the vowel. In Mandarin Chinese, this happens for example with "," "," "," and . Traditional grammars describe them as having a "buzzing" sound. A number of modern linguists describe them as true syllabic fricatives, although with weak frication and voicing. They are accordingly transcribed respectively.


title: Syllabic consonant

text: However, for many speakers, the friction carries over only into the beginning of the vowel. The tongue and teeth remain where they were, but the tongue contact is lessened a bit to allow for a high approximant vowel with no frication except at the beginning, during the transition. John Wells uses the detailed transcriptions for "si" and for "shi" (ignoring the tone), with the superscript indicating the "color" of the sound and a lowering diacritic on the "z" to indicate that the tongue contact is relaxed enough to prevent frication. Another researcher suggests and for "si" and "shi", respectively, to indicate that the frication of the consonant may extend onto the vowel. Some speakers have even more lax articulation, opening the teeth and noticeably lowering the tongue, so that are pronounced , with the same vowel in each case and no r-coloring.


title: Syllabic consonant

text: The Nuosu language has two similar "buzzed" vowels that are described as syllabic fricatives, . The former may even be trilled .


title: Syllabic consonant

text: Sinologists and linguists working in the Chinese analytical tradition frequently use the term apical vowel ( ) to describe the sounds above and others like them in various Sino-Tibetan languages. However, this is a misnomer, as the tongue is actually laminal. The nonstandard symbols are commonly used to transcribe these vowels in place of or , respectively. The term "apical vowel" should also not be taken as synonymous with "syllabic fricative", as e.g., the bilabial syllabic fricative in Liangshan Yi is not pronounced with the tongue.


title: Syllabic consonant

text: Berber, Salish, Wakashan and Chemakuan languages have syllabic obstruents in normal vocabulary, such as Nuxálk , "northeast wind", 'wet', 'dry', or 'we () used to sing ()'.


title: Syllabic consonant

text: In Standard Yoruba, the consonants "m" and "n" may be syllabic and carry tone like vowels. However, they always stand alone as syllables and cannot stand as syllable nuclei.


title: Syllabic consonant

text: In Baoulé, "m" or "n" may be syllabic. As a stand-alone word, it means 'I' (first person subject pronoun), as in 'I speak Baoulé'. Its quality varies with the consonant following it, as in 'I will come tomorrow'.


title: Syllabic consonant

text: The Hungarian word , a high-register variant of 'and', is a syllabic consonant, although it usually cliticises: 'and I had eaten'.


title: Vampire Hunter D (1985 film)

text: Billed by the Japanese producers as a "dark future science-fiction romance", the film, like the novel before it, is set in the year 12,090 AD, in a post-nuclear holocaust world where a young woman hires a mysterious half-vampire, half-human vampire hunter to protect her from a powerful vampire lord. It was one of several anime films featured in the music video for Michael and Janet Jackson's song "Scream".


title: Vampire Hunter D (1985 film)

text: While walking her guard rounds in the country, Doris Lang, the orphaned daughter of a deceased werewolf hunter, is attacked and bitten by Count Magnus Lee, a 10,000-year-old vampire lord (also known as a Noble) for trespassing in his domain.


title: Vampire Hunter D (1985 film)

text: Doris later encounters a mysterious vampire hunter, known only as D. Infected from Count Lee's bite, she hires D to kill the vampire and save her from becoming one. While in town with D and her younger brother Dan, Doris is confronted by Greco Rohman, the mayor's son, who offers to help if he has Doris for himself, but she refuses. D requests that the authorities, including Greco's father, the town sheriff, and Dr. Ferringo, should hold off Doris' incarceration at the local asylum until he kills Count Lee.


title: Vampire Hunter D (1985 film)

text: That night, Doris's farm is attacked by Rei Ginsei, Count Lee's servant, and L'Armica, Count Lee's daughter, who is highly prejudiced against humans. During the battle, Rei reveals he has the ability to twist space around him. Because of these powers, D's attacks are redirected onto himself, but he quickly recovers from his wounds, revealing him to be a dhampir. After fending off L'Armica, he orders the pair to leave with a warning to Count Lee. The next day, D travels to Count Lee's castle and attempts to confront him. Aided by the symbiote in his Left Hand, D holds his own against the Count's monstrous minions. Doris is then kidnapped by Rei and brought to the Count. Using his vampiric powers, D rescues Doris and escapes the castle.


title: Vampire Hunter D (1985 film)

text: Later, Greco overhears a meeting between Count Lee's messenger and Rei, during which the former gives the latter a candle with Time-Bewitching Incense, a substance powerful enough to weaken anyone with vampire blood. Rei takes Dan hostage to lure D out into the open, and D comes to his rescue, cutting off Rei's hand in the process and discovering that the candle is a fake. Meanwhile, Dr. Ferringo turns out to be a vampire in league with Count Lee. He leads Doris into a trap but is killed by L'Armica after requesting to share Doris with the Count. Greco, who stole the candle from Rei, then appears and uses it to weaken L'Armica. He is then shot at by Dan and falls down a cliff. Afterwards, Doris, who has by now fallen for D, tries to convince him to live with her and embraces him. This triggers D's vampire side, and he forces her away from him, unwilling to bite her.


title: Vampire Hunter D (1985 film)

text: The next morning, Rei kills Greco and uses the real candle to weaken D. Rei then mortally wounds the vampire hunter with a wooden stake. Doris is captured and taken back to the castle. Rei requests that the Count give him eternal life as a member of the Nobility, but is coldly rebuffed for his past failures. As a mutant attempts to devour D's comatose body, his Left Hand revives him just in time for him to kill the monster. As the processional for the Count and Doris' wedding takes place, Dan attempts to attack Lee. Unfortunately, he fails and falls into a chasm before being saved by Rei. Rei attempts to weaken the Count with the candle. However, Lee is too powerful and destroys it with his telekinetic abilities before killing Rei. Before Doris can be bitten by the Count, D appears and fights Lee. D's attacks are futile due to Lee's psychic abilities. About to be killed, D unleashes his own telekinetic power and succeeds in stabbing Lee in the heart. With Lee dying, his castle begins crumbling. D tries to persuade L'Armica into living as a human, but she chooses to die with her father and stays in the castle as it falls.


title: Vampire Hunter D (1985 film)

text: D, Doris, and Dan escape the collapsing castle. D then sets off under a now clear blue sky. Doris, now recovered from her bite, and Dan bid D goodbye as he looks back briefly at them and smiles.


title: Vampire Hunter D (1985 film)

text: "Vampire Hunter D" is credited as one of the earliest anime productions targeted explicitly at the male teenager/adult demographic in lieu of family audiences, and capitalized on the emerging OVA market due to its violent content and influence from European horror mythology (such as the films of British film studio Hammer Film Productions). The film's limited budget made its technical quality comparable to most anime television series and other OVAs, but not with most theatrical animated films.


title: Vampire Hunter D (1985 film)

text: During the film's production, director Toyoo Ashida stated that his intention for the film was to create an OVA that people who had been tired from studying or working hard would enjoy watching, instead of watching something that would make them "feel even more tired".


title: Vampire Hunter D (1985 film)

text: Yoshitaka Amano, the illustrator of the original novels, acted as character designer for the OVA. However, alternative designs were provided by Ashida (who also acted as the film's animation director), and elements from both artists’ works were combined to create final designs by the animators. Acclaimed pop artist Tetsuya Komuro was responsible for the film's soundtrack, and also performed the film's ending theme, 'Your Song', with his fellow members of TM Network.


title: Vampire Hunter D (1985 film)

text: "Vampire Hunter D" was the first of several film adaptations (both live-action and animated) of Hideyuki Kikuchi's works. Several of these ("Wicked City", "Demon City Shinjuku" and "") were directed by Yoshiaki Kawajiri of Madhouse.


title: Vampire Hunter D (1985 film)

text: "Vampire Hunter D" was released on theatrically on December 21, 1985 where it was distributed by Toho. A laserdisc by CBS Sony Group Inc. was released on the same date. A Region 2 DVD release of the film was released by SME Visual Works in Japan on February 21, 2001. An English-language version of the OVA was produced in 1992 by Streamline Pictures, and was shown on the fine-arts theatrical circuit in the US in August 1992. The Streamline dub was then released on VHS on March 26, 1993. This initial release was followed by a re-release on VHS by Streamline's parent company, Orion Pictures, and a laserdisc release by Lumivison. The film was also shown several times on American television during the 1990s, including on TBS, Cartoon Network and the Sci-Fi Channel. "Vampire Hunter D" is considered a flagship title for Streamline, and was marketed in the US as ‘the first animated horror film for adults.’


title: Vampire Hunter D (1985 film)

text: In 2000, Urban Vision Entertainment, the US production partner and distributor of "Vampire Hunter D: Bloodlust", re-released the OVA on a ‘Special Edition’ bilingual DVD on October 17 containing the original Japanese audio and a Dolby Digital 5.1 remix of the Streamline dub, as well as releasing dubbed and subtitled versions of the film on VHS. The Special Edition DVD release was duplicated by Manga Entertainment for a UK release on July 5, 2004, as well as by Madman Entertainment in Australia on August 31, 2005. Madman reissued their Special Edition DVD on July 23, 2014.


title: Vampire Hunter D (1985 film)

text: On April 16, 2015, Sentai Filmworks announced their license to the film in North America for digital and home video release. The film was released on August 25, 2015 on Blu-ray and DVD with a new English dub.


title: Salary cap

text: In professional sports, a salary cap (or wage cap) is an agreement or rule that places a limit on the amount of money that a team can spend on players' salaries. It exists as a per-player limit or a total limit for the team's roster, or both. Several sports leagues have implemented salary caps, using them to keep overall costs down, and also to maintain a competitive balance by restricting richer clubs from entrenching dominance by signing many more top players than their rivals. Salary caps can be a major issue in negotiations between league management and players' unions because they limit players' and teams' ability to negotiate higher salaries even if a team is operating at significant profits, and have been the focal point of several strikes by players and lockouts by owners and administrators.


title: Salary cap

text: Recently, several European association football leagues have also discussed introducing salary caps. The Union of European Football Associations introduced a set of Financial Fair Play Regulations in 2011, which limits football clubs' spending relative to their income.


title: Salary cap

text: In theory, there are two main benefits derived from salary caps – promotion of parity between teams, and control of costs.


title: Salary cap

text: Primarily, an effective salary cap prevents wealthy teams from certain destructive behaviours such as signing a multitude of high-paid star players to prevent their rivals from accessing these players, and ensuring victory through superior economic power. With a salary cap, each club has roughly the same economic power to attract players. This results in roughly equal playing talent in each team in the league, and in turn brings economic benefits to the league and to its individual teams.


title: Salary cap

text: Leagues need to ensure a degree of parity between teams so that games are exciting for the fans and not a foregone conclusion. The leagues that have adopted salary caps generally believe letting richer teams accumulate talent affects the quality of the sporting product they want to sell: if only one or a handful of dominant teams are able to win consistently and challenge for the championship, many of the contests will be blowouts by the superior team, reducing the sport's attractiveness for fans at the stadium and viewers on television. Television revenue is an important part of the income of many sports around the world. The more evenly matched and exciting the contests, the more interesting the television product, and the higher the value of the television broadcast rights. An unbalanced league will also threaten the financial viability of the weaker teams: if there is no long-term hope of their team ever winning, fans of the weaker clubs will gravitate to other sports and leagues.


title: Salary cap

text: One famous example of this occurring was in the Union Association, a baseball league that operated in 1884. The Association was dominated by the St. Louis Maroons, whose owner, Henry Lucas, was also league president (an obvious conflict-of-interest situation which is now banned), and bought all the best players for his own franchise, leaving the Maroons to easily win the pennant with a record of 94–19 (.832 winning percentage), 21 games ahead of their nearest rivals. The league folded at the end of the season.


title: Salary cap

text: Another famous example is the All-America Football Conference, which operated between 1946 and 1949. Despite starring many top players and innovative coaches, the AAFC was dominated by one team, the Cleveland Browns, who lost only three games in four years and won every championship in the league's four-year existence, being unbeaten in 1948, and winning three of the championships in blowouts. This resulted in a consistent fall in attendance and heavy losses after the league's second season, for the Browns as well as their rivals, and the league folded at the end of 1949.


title: Salary cap

text: The need for parity is more pronounced in leagues that use the franchise system rather than the promotion and relegation system, which is used in European football. The structure of a promotion and relegation system means weaker teams struggle against the threat of relegation, adding importance and excitement to the matches of weaker teams. International club competitions such as the UEFA Champions League also means that the top clubs always have something to play for, even in the most unbalanced of national leagues.


title: Salary cap

text: A salary cap can also help to control the costs of teams, and prevent situations in which a club will sign high-cost contracts for star players in order to reap the benefits of immediate popularity and success, only to later find themselves in financial difficulty because of these costs. Without caps, there is a risk that teams will overspend in order to win now at the expense of long term stability. Team owners who use the same risk-benefit analysis used in business may risk not just the fortunes of their own team, but the reputation and viability of the whole league. Sports fans are generally looking to support a team for life, not just a product to purchase for the short term. If teams regularly go bankrupt or change markets the same way businesses do, then the whole sport looks unstable to the fans, who may lose interest and switch their support to a more stable sport where their team and their rivals are more likely to be playing in the long term.


title: Salary cap

text: A hard cap represents a maximum amount that may not be exceeded for any reason. Contracts which cause a team to violate a hard cap are subject to major sanctions, including the voiding of violating contracts, and the stripping of championships won while breaching salary cap rules, which happened to the Melbourne Storm in the NRL. Hard caps are designed so that penalties deter breaking the cap, but there are numerous examples of clubs who have occasionally and/or systematically cheated the cap.


title: Salary cap

text: A soft cap represents an amount which may be exceeded in limited circumstances, but otherwise exceeding the cap will trigger a penalty which is known in advance. Typically these penalties are financial in nature; fines or a luxury tax are common penalties used by leagues.


title: Salary cap

text: A salary floor is a minimum amount that must be spent on the team as a whole, and this is separate from the minimum player salary that is agreed to by the league. Some leagues, in particular the NFL, have a "hard" salary floor that requires teams to meet the salary floor every year, which helps prevent teams from using the salary cap to minimize costs. This also ensures that money from revenue sharing is used for player salaries instead of being pocketed by owners.


title: Salary cap

text: When the salary cap and floor are the same, the result is a standard form contract model of payment, in which each player is paid the same amount, sometimes varying by position. The standard form contract model is used extensively in North American minor leagues.


title: Salary cap

text: Before the implementation of salary caps, the economic influence of clubs on player markets was controlled by the reserve clause, which was long a standard clause in professional sports player contracts in the United States. The clause forbade a player from negotiations with another team without the permission of the team holding that player's rights even after the contract's term was completed. This system began to unravel in the 1970s due largely to the activism of players' unions, and the threat of anti-trust legal actions. St. Louis Cardinal star Curt Flood started the ball rolling when he refused a trade to the Philadelphia Phillies. He had been a player for 12 years and felt he should have a voice in where he played baseball. Even though he lost his case in the Supreme Court, he was the first baseball player to try to end the reserve clause. Although anti-trust actions were not a threat to baseball, which has long been exempt from anti-trust laws, that sport's reserve clause was struck down by a United States arbitrator as a violation of labor laws.


title: Salary cap

text: By the 1990s, most players with several years' professional experience became free agents upon the expiry of their contracts and were free to negotiate a new contract with their previous team or with any other team. This situation, called Restricted Free Agency, led to "bidding wars" for the best players—a situation which inherently gave an advantage in landing such players to more affluent teams in larger media markets.


title: Salary cap

text: The new Collective Bargaining Agreement (CBA) formulated in 2011 had an initial salary cap of $120 million. While the previous CBA had a salary floor, the new CBA did not have one until . Starting with that season, each team is required to spend a minimum of 88.8% of the cap in cash on player compensation, and 90% in future years. However, the floor is based on total cash spent over each of two four-year periods, the first running from 2013–2016 and the second from 2017–2020. A team can be under the floor in one or more seasons in a cycle without violating the CBA, as long as its total spending during the four-year period reaches the required percentage of the cap. This allows for unforeseen circumstances such as career ending injuries or unexpected player retirements to not result in an immediate penalty. As a result, teams are not forced to immediately take on a replacement for missing players which allows them to use more organic approaches such as a trade, free agency acquisition or the draft.


title: Salary cap

text: The NFL's cap is a hard cap that the teams have to stay under at all times, and the salary floor is also a hard floor. Penalties for violating or circumventing the cap regulations include fines of up to $5 million for each violation, cancellation of contracts and/or loss of draft picks. Violating the salary floor regulations does not result in any fines or competitive penalties; instead, deficiencies are placed into a pool and distributed among all players who were on the regular roster of the offending team during a four-year floor cycle, prorated according to time on the roster in said period.


title: Salary cap

text: The cap was first introduced for the 1994 season and was expected to be $32 million, but an unexpectedly high bid from Fox and other networks increased the cap to $34.6 million. Both the cap and the floor are adjusted annually based on the league's revenues, and they have increased each year. In , the final capped year under that agreement, the cap was $128 million per team, while the floor was 87.6% of the cap. Using the formula provided in the league's collective bargaining agreement, the floor in 2009 was $112.1 million. Under the NFL's agreement with the NFLPA, the effects on the salary cap of guaranteed payments such as signing bonuses are, with a few rare exceptions, prorated evenly over the term of the contract. During the offseason and preseason, only the top 51 salary figures are counted towards the cap. Once the 53-man rosters go into effect for the regular season the salaries of all players on the active roster, injured reserve, and practice squad, as well as unpaid bonuses and guarantees for former players count towards the cap.


title: Salary cap

text: In transitions, if a player retires, is traded, or is cut before June 1, all remaining bonus is applied to the salary cap for the current season. If the payroll change occurs after June 1, the current season's bonus proration is unchanged, and the next year's cap must absorb the entire remaining bonus. When a player is franchise tagged the salary cap will be affected. When the salary cap can't be met for a tagged player the National Football League will fund the remainder of the contract. Each team may only tag one player per year.


title: Salary cap

text: Because of this setup, NFL contracts almost always include the right to cut a player before the beginning of a season. If a player is cut, his salary for the remainder of his contract is neither paid nor counted against the salary cap for that team. A highly sought-after player signing a long-term contract will usually receive a signing bonus, thus providing him with financial security even if he is cut before the end of his contract.


title: Salary cap

text: Incentive bonuses require a team to pay a player additional money if he achieves a certain goal. For the purposes of the salary cap, bonuses are classified as either "likely to be earned", which requires the amount of the bonus to count against the team's salary cap, or "not likely to be earned", which is not counted. A team's salary cap is adjusted downward for NLTBE bonuses that were earned in the previous year but not counted against that year's cap. It is adjusted upward for LTBE bonuses that were not earned in the previous year but were counted against that year's cap.


title: Salary cap

text: One effect of the salary cap was the release of many higher-salaried veteran players to other teams once their production started to decline from the elite level. On the other hand, many teams have made a practice of using free agents to restock with better personnel more suited to the team. The salary cap prevented teams with superior finances from engaging in the formerly widespread practice of stocking as much talent on the roster as possible by placing younger players on reserve lists with false injuries while they develop into NFL-capable players. In this respect, the cap functions as a supplement to the 55-player roster limit (up from 53 since 2020) and practice squad limits (14 practice players by 2022 up from 10).


title: Salary cap

text: Generally, the practice of retaining veteran players who had contributed to the team in the past, but whose abilities have declined, became less common in the era of the salary cap. A veteran's minimum salary was required to be higher than a player with lesser experience, which means teams tended to favor cheaper, less experienced prospects with growth potential, with an aim to having a group of players who quickly develop into their prime while still being on cheaper contracts than their peers. To offset this tendency which pushed out veteran players, including those who became fan favorites, the players' association accepted an arrangement where a veteran player who receives no bonuses in his contract may be paid the veteran minimum of up to $810,000, while accounting for only $425,000 in salary-cap space (a 47.5% discount).


title: Salary cap

text: The salary cap also served to limit the rate of increase of the cost of operating a team. This has accrued to the owners' benefit, and while the initial cap of $34.6 million has increased to $123 million (maximum in 2009), this is due to large growths of revenue, including merchandising revenues and web enterprises, which ownership is sharing with players as well.


title: Salary cap

text: The owners opted out of the CBA in 2008, leading to an uncapped season in 2010. During the season, most NFL teams spent as if there was a cap in place anyway, with the league warning against teams front-loading contracts during the season. The Dallas Cowboys, New Orleans Saints, Oakland Raiders, and Washington Redskins chose to spend money in the spirit of an uncapped year, and in 2012 the Cowboys and Redskins (the top two NFL teams by revenue in 2011) were deducted $10 million and $36 million respectively from their salary caps, to be spread over the next two seasons. This $46 million was subsequently divided up among the remaining 28 NFL teams ($1.64 million each) as added cap space: this excluded the Raiders and Saints, as they were also over the cap, though to a lesser degree than the Cowboys and Redskins.


title: Salary cap

text: The actions of the league to punish those teams that were acting within their legal bounds during the uncapped year led to a lawsuit against them by the NFLPA. The case argued that the rest of the league colluded to keep average player salaries from rising in a year they expected them to skyrocket and unfairly punished teams that did not collude. The NFL settled the lawsuit with the NFLPA.


title: Salary cap

text: The salary cap is defined as a rule that places a limit on the amount of money a team can spend on players' salaries. Since its implementation, it's had a widespread impact on teams and organizations in the sports industry. It has changed how organizations invest in their players and the future as a whole. It has proven to be an obstacle in the pursuit of sustained success. Since 1994, The National Football League has only experienced a handful of repeat Super Bowl appearances. In one of his most prominent studies, James Carrey researched salary and performance data across the NFL over a 10-year period. Ultimately, his study showed that strategic management of player compensation directly resulted in an increase in wins.


title: Salary cap

text: Salary figures across the four major professional sports leagues in the United States can be compared. Doing so better enables one to understand the impact the cap has on a broader scale. Andrew Zimbalist argues that the data collected by revenue analysts across the respective leagues can be misinterpreted. This misinterpretation comes from the disparities in organizational structures across the leagues. In his study, Andrew Zimbalist collects compensation logistics for athletes. He subsequently relates it to overall revenue generated by a sports organization. The concept of adjusted data analytics is used in this study to compare the salary and revenue shares of the National Football League, National Hockey League, National Basketball Association, and Major League Baseball. In all, Zimbalist analyzes how salary caps have impacted controlling player costs. The study shows how the cap has affected the way organizations invest in and compensate their players.


title: Salary cap

text: There is a perceived sunk-cost assumption that has arisen from the NFL's salary cap. This assumption underlines an analytical approach on the topic. In one of his studies, Quinn Keefer ran a regression on the structure of the NFL draft. The regression relates playing time amongst players to the regulations that have come from the salary cap. It was concluded that there is a positive correlation between salary and games started. An increase in salary cap value results an increase in games started for the players who were selected in the first two rounds of the draft. Despite no acknowledgeable differences in productivity, the salary cap enables first round selections to receive compensation premiums and signing bonuses. These benefits result in those particular players starting more games than players who weren't selected early on in the draft.


title: Salary cap

text: The salary cap, and the regulations that are a part of it, come from the NFL collective bargaining agreement. This is an agreement between the league and its player association that discusses the sharing of revenue and other compensation rules. Quinn Keefer, in his analysis, primarily focusses on the section of the agreement regarding player compensation. He highlights that two major changes came from the 2011 collective bargaining agreement. One major change was rookie wage scale and how their selection in the draft notably affected their compensation and playing time. The second change was a limit placed on the first-year salary for players. Although these changes led to a higher first-year compensation for rookies-especially those selected in the first two rounds–they ultimately resulted in decreased salaries in the years after. Keefer concluded that there were diminishing returns. Overall, the 2011 collective bargaining agreement resulted in a negative effect on player salaries. This effect has led to a restructured management of rookie contracts over the last decade.


title: Salary cap

text: Salary dispersion and incentive pay affect team performance across the NFL. Mike Mondello and Joel Maxcy examine this effect through collecting data from the NFL between 2000 and 2007. Mondello and Maxcy performed regression analyses that used both fixed and random effects models. Their study was geared towards establishing a relationship between performance and payroll. A positive relationship between on-field performance and increased payroll was found. Mondello and Maxcy also found a relationship between on-field performance and salary dispersion. Team revenue production, analyzed as a means to measure team performance, was also used in this analysis. Mondello and Maxcy's findings suggest that incentive pay is effective when a pay structure differentiates players based on productivity and quality of performance. The findings in their study have implications that could expand across different sports leagues.


title: Salary cap

text: Player compensation across the NFL has been widely examined since 1994. Richard Borghesi analyzed the relationship between player compensation and franchise performance in the league between 1994 and 2004. The evidence gathered from these years shows that team success is dependent on both the actual and perceived fairness of player compensation. The data collected also shows that teams who implement the super-star approach to personnel decisions were worse on average when compared to teams who took a different approach. Borghesi shows how the most successful approach to player compensation and salary cap management is to concentrate on players' salaries on a group level. The super-star approach to player compensation leads to a lack of success on the field due to the dissatisfaction among players who recognize a substantial inequality in salaries.


title: Salary cap

text: A salary cap existed in the early days of the National Hockey League (NHL). During the Great Depression, the league was under financial pressure to lower its salary cap to $62,500 per team and $7,000 per player, forcing some teams to trade away well-paid star players in order to fit the cap.


title: Salary cap

text: Prior to the resolution of the 2004–05 lockout, the NHL was the only major North American professional sports league that had no luxury tax, very limited revenue sharing and no salary cap.


title: Salary cap

text: During the Original Six era through to the early years of the expansion era, the NHL's strict reserve clause negated the need for a salary cap.


title: Salary cap

text: Player salaries first became an issue in the 1970s, when Alan Eagleson founded the NHL Players' Association (NHLPA) and the upstart World Hockey Association began competing with the NHL for players. Not all NHL owners were willing to engage in a bidding war, in particular, Harold Ballard of the Toronto Maple Leafs spent as close to the league minimum on rosters as he could. Since Maple Leaf Gardens was consistently sold out no matter how poorly the Maple Leafs played, Ballard's team was by far the most profitable.


title: Salary cap

text: The 1994–95 NHL lockout was fought over the issue of the salary cap. The 1994–95 season was only partially cancelled, with 48 games and the playoffs eventually being played.


title: Salary cap

text: Eight NHL franchises were based in Canada at the time of the lockout. Until the 1990s, the Canadian teams usually paid player salaries in Canadian dollars, but with the rise of free agency and a decline in the value of Canadian dollar, players and their agents increasingly demanded to be paid in U.S. dollars. Canadian teams' revenues were, then as now, mostly in Canadian dollars, and the effects of the discrepancy were particularly acute for the small market franchises. The financial difficulties and uncertainties of competing in smaller Canadian markets led to two clubs moving to the U.S.; the Quebec Nordiques to Denver, and the Winnipeg Jets to Phoenix. NHL Commissioner Gary Bettman successfully persuaded the US-based teams to donate towards a pool to mitigate the adverse effects of the exchange rate.


title: Salary cap

text: The negotiations for the 2004–05 NHL Collective Bargaining Agreement revolved primarily around players' salaries. The league contended that its clubs spent about 75% of revenues on salaries, a percentage far higher than existed in other North American sports; NHL Commissioner Gary Bettman demanded "cost certainty" and presented the NHLPA with several concepts that the Players' Association considered nothing more than euphemisms for a salary cap, which it had vowed it would never accept.


title: Salary cap

text: The previous CBA had expired on September 15, 2004, and a lockout ensued, leading to the cancellation of the entire 2004–05 NHL season, the first time a major sports league in North America had lost an entire season to a labor dispute.


title: Salary cap

text: The lockout was resolved when the NHLPA agreed to a hard salary cap based on league revenues, with the NHL implementing revenue sharing to allow for a higher cap figure. The NHL salary cap is formally titled the "Upper Limit of the Payroll Range" in the new CBA. For the 2005–06 NHL season, the salary cap was set at US$39 million per team, with a maximum of $7.8 million (20% of the team's cap) for a player. The CBA also mandated the payment of salaries in U.S. dollars, codifying what had been a universal practice for more than a decade.


title: Salary cap

text: Revenues for the six Canadian teams that were in the league at the time of the lockout have all increased significantly since then, and because the US dollar fell to relative parity with its Canadian counterpart in the early 2010s, league-wide revenues measured in U.S. dollars were inflated accordingly.


title: Salary cap

text: As a result of these factors, the cap was raised each year of the 2005–12 CBA to $64.3 million for the 2011–12 season, with a cap of $12.86 million for a player. The CBA also contains a salary floor which is formally titled the "Lower Limit of the Payroll Range", the minimum that each team "must" pay in player salaries. The lower limit was originally set at 55% of the cap, but is now defined to be $16 million below the cap, therefore the 2011–12 minimum was $48.3 million.


title: Salary cap

text: Since the current CBA was approved after a later lockout in 2012–13, league revenues have stagnated due to a significant fall in the value of the Canadian dollar against the U.S. dollar. The cap was $69 million for the 2014–15 season and will be $74 million for 2016–17.


title: Salary cap

text: The difference between the salary cap and a team's actual payroll is referred to as the team's "payroll room" or "cap room".


title: Salary cap

text: Each year of an NHL player contract, the salary earned contributes to the team's "cap hit". The basic cap hit of a contract for each year it is effective is the total money a player will earn in regular salary over the life of the contract divided by the number of years it is effective. This, in theory, prevents a team from paying a player different amounts each year in order to load his cap hit in years in which the team has more cap room. Teams still use this practice, however, for other reasons. Performance bonuses also count towards the cap, but there is a percentage a team is allowed to go over the cap in order to pay bonuses. A team must still factor in possible bonus payments, however, which could go over that percentage.


title: Salary cap

text: Salaries for players sent to the minors, under most circumstances, do not count towards the cap while they are there. If a player has a legitimate long-term injury, his cap hit is still counted; however, the team is permitted to replace him with one or more players whose combined salary is equal to (or less than) that of the injured player, even if the additional players would put the team over the salary cap. If the team's cap room is larger than the injured player's cap hit, they may take on as much as their cap room; however, the injured player may not return to play until the team is again compliant with the original cap.


title: Salary cap

text: The NHL has become the first of the major North American leagues to implement a hard cap while retaining guaranteed player contracts. Guaranteed player contracts in the NHL differ from other sports, notably the NFL, where teams may opt out of a contract by waiving or cutting a player. NHL teams may buy out players' contracts, but must still pay a portion of the money still owed which is spread out over twice the remaining duration of the contract. This does not apply for players over 35 at the time of signing; in this case a team cannot buy out the player's contract to reduce salary. Any other player can be bought out for of the remaining salary if the player is younger than 28 at the time of termination, or of the remaining salary if the player is 28 or older. Trading cash for players or paying a player's remaining salary after trading him have been banned outright in order to prevent wealthier teams from evading the restrictions of the cap.


title: Salary cap

text: Players, agents or employees found to have violated the cap face fines of $250,000 – $1 million and/or suspension. Teams found to have violated the cap face fines of up to $5 million, cancellation of contracts, forfeiture of draft picks, deduction of points and/or forfeiture of game(s) determined to have been affected by the violation of the cap.


title: Salary cap

text: The NBA had a salary cap in the mid-1940s, but it was abolished after only one season. The league continued to operate without such a cap until the 1984–85 season, when one was instituted in an attempt to level the playing field among all of the NBA's teams and ensure competitive balance for the Association in the future. Before the cap was reinstated, teams could spend whatever amount of money they wanted on players, but in the first season under the new cap, they were each limited to $3.6 million in total payroll. Under the 2005 CBA, salaries were capped at 57 percent of basketball-related income (BRI) and lasted for six years until June 30, 2011. The next CBA, which took effect in 2011–12, set the cap at 51.2 percent of BRI in 2011–12, with a 49-to-51 band in subsequent years. The salary cap for was set at $94.14 million, with the salary floor at 84.73 million and the luxury tax limit at $113.29 million. The current CBA took effect with the 2017–18 season.


title: Salary cap

text: The NBA uses a "soft" cap, meaning that teams were allowed to exceed the cap in order to retain the rights to a player who was already on the team. This provision was known as the "Larry Bird" exception, named after the former Boston Celtics great who was retained by that team until his retirement under the provisions of this rule. The purpose of this rule was to address fan unease over the frequent changing of teams by players under the free agency system, as fans became displeased over their favorite player on their favorite team suddenly bolting to another team. The "Larry Bird" provision of the salary cap gave the player's current team an advantage over other teams in free agent negotiations, thus increasing the chances that a player would stay with his current team. The provision tended to result in most teams being over the cap at any given time. Teams that violated the cap rules faced fines of up to $5 million, cancellation of contracts and/or loss of draft picks, and are prohibited from signing free agents for more than the league minimum. The NBA also has a salary floor, but teams are not penalized as long as their total payroll exceeds the floor at the end of the season.


title: Salary cap

text: The NBA also uses a "luxury tax" which is triggered if the average team payroll exceeds a certain amount higher than the cap. In this case, the teams with payrolls exceeding a certain threshold had to pay a tax to the league which is divided amongst the teams with lower payrolls. However, this penalty was levied against teams in violation only if the league average also breached a separate threshold.


title: Salary cap

text: The NBA implemented a maximum salary for individual players. This was done following a dramatic increase in player salaries, in spite of the salary cap, in the mid-1990s. Under the CBA, a player's maximum possible salary increased along with his time of service in the league. For a player of five years' experience, the maximum salary threshold began at 25% of the salary cap, with annual increases of up to 10.5% possible beyond that for players re-signed by their original team, or 8% annual increases for free agents that signed with new teams. For players of greater experience, the salary limit was higher – but the 10.5% limit on annual increases remained the same.


title: Salary cap

text: The 2011 CBA resulted in several major changes to the salary cap scheme. Most of these changes were retained in the 2017 CBA.


title: Salary cap

text: The cap remains a soft cap; the Bird exception remains in place, but teams have less financial room to retain a player with Bird rights than under pre-2011 agreements.


title: Salary cap

text: The 2011 CBA also reduced the maximum length of a contract by a year, and reduced allowable annual raises. Bird free agents are entitled to 5-year contracts with 7.5% raises; all other players (including sign-and-trade acquisitions) are limited to 4-year deals with 4.5% raises. Maximum salaries remain at 25, 30, or 35% of the cap, depending on years of service. These provisions remained intact in the 2017 CBA. Under the current CBA, a player coming off his rookie scale contract, who would normally be eligible to receive a salary of 25% of the cap, is eligible to receive 30% if he has been named MVP in any of the previous three seasons; named the Defensive Player of the Year in the immediately preceding season or two of the three most recent seasons; or named to an All-NBA team in the immediately preceding season or two of the three most recent seasons.


title: Salary cap

text: These criteria are the same that determine eligibility for a new type of contract introduced with the 2017 CBA—the Designated Veteran Player Extension (DVPE), popularly known as a "supermax" contract. Players entering their eighth or ninth season in the league who meet the aforementioned criteria may be eligible to sign an extension of up to 5 years at 35% of the cap, a salary normally allowed only for players with 10 or more years in the league. Such an extension can only be offered by the team that had the player under contract in the immediately preceding season. A team can use this extension on either a player under contract or its own free agent, but only if the signing team had originally drafted the player or obtained him in a trade during his rookie contract.


title: Salary cap

text: Substantial changes were made in 2011 to the luxury tax regime. The dollar-for-dollar tax provisions of the 2005 CBA remained in effect through the 2012–13 season. Starting in 2013–14, the tax changed to an incremental system. Tax is now assessed at different levels based on the amount that a team is over the tax threshold, which remains at a level above the actual cap. The scheme is not cumulative—each level of tax applies only to amounts over that level's threshold. For example, a team that is $8 million over the tax threshold pays $1.50 for each of its first $5 million over the tax threshold, and $1.75 per dollar for the remaining $3 million. In addition, "repeat offenders", subject to additional tax penalties, are defined as teams that paid tax in four of the five previous seasons. As in the previous CBA, the tax revenue is divided among teams with lower payrolls. However, under the new scheme, no more than 50% of the total tax revenue can go exclusively to teams that did not go over the cap; the use of the remaining 50% was not specified in the new agreement.


title: Salary cap

text: Taxpaying teams have additional spending limits under the two most recent agreements (2011 and 2017). They have a smaller "midlevel exception" (another cap provision that allows teams to go over the cap to sign at least one player per season), and can acquire less salary in a trade. Also, since 2013–14, teams that exceed the tax threshold by the so-called "apron", an amount most recently set in the 2017 CBA at $6 million, cannot receive a player in a sign-and-trade deal.


title: Salary cap

text: The midlevel exception itself also changed with the 2011 CBA. The maximum duration of midlevel contracts was reduced from 5 years to 4 for non-taxpaying teams and 3 for taxpaying teams, and maximum allowable raises were also reduced. In addition, the midlevel exception was extended to teams under the salary cap for the first time; these teams received a 2-year exception. This exception was retained in the 2017 CBA.


title: Salary cap

text: Under the 2011 CBA, teams were allowed to "amnesty" one player before the start of any season, as long as his current contract was signed during the 2005 CBA. The amnestied player was waived from the team; although the player's former team remained obligated to pay his salary under the old contract (with a credit for any salary paid by a future team), that salary was no longer counted for purposes of the cap or luxury tax calculations. This provision could be used only once per team during the duration of the CBA, which was originally a 10-year deal but allowed either side to opt out in 2017. The "amnesty" provision was eliminated in the 2017 CBA, which was agreed to by the owners and players shortly before the opt-out date.


title: Salary cap

text: The salary floor, previously 75% of the cap, increased to 85% in 2011–12 and 2012–13, and 90% in future years.


title: Salary cap

text: Instead of a salary cap, Major League Baseball implements a luxury tax (also called a competitive balance tax), an arrangement in which teams whose total payroll exceeds a certain figure (determined annually) are taxed on the excess amount in order to discourage large market teams from having a substantially higher payroll than the rest of the league. The tax was first instituted in 1997 and is paid to the league, which then puts the money into its industry-growth fund.


title: Salary cap

text: A team that goes over the luxury tax threshold for the first time in a five-year period pays a penalty of 22.5% of the amount they were over the threshold, second-time violators pay a 30% penalty, and teams that exceed the limit three or more times pay a 50% penalty from 2013 onwards. There is also an incentive to lower payroll; if in any year a team goes under the threshold, the penalty rate decreases to 17.5%, 25% or 40% (depending on prior record over the previous five years) for the next time the tax is paid.


title: Salary cap

text: Money collected under the MLB luxury tax are apportioned as follows: The first $2,375,400 and 50% of the remaining total are used to fund player benefits, 25% goes to the Industry Growth Fund, and the remaining 25% is used to defray team's funding obligations from player benefits.


title: Salary cap

text: Measuring the success of the luxury tax in bringing the benefits of parity has brought mixed results.


title: Salary cap

text: A team with a $100 million plus payroll has won the World Series 12 times (the 2009 Yankees; the 2004, 2007, 2013 and 2018 Red Sox; the 2011 St. Louis Cardinals; the 2010, 2012 and 2014 San Francisco Giants; the 2015 Kansas City Royals; the 2016 Chicago Cubs; and the 2017 Houston Astros).


title: Salary cap

text: While a top tier payroll increases a team's chances of making the playoffs, it does not guarantee they will consistently win championships. On the other hand, the New York Yankees have consistently had the highest total payroll in MLB, and they have appeared in 40 of the 114 World Series for 27 wins as of 2018 (35.1% of all World Series for a 24.6% success rate).


title: Salary cap

text: In the past 30 years, 18 different teams have won the World Series. In comparison, only 14 different teams won the NFL Super Bowl, 13 won the NHL Stanley Cup and 10 won the NBA championship in that same time frame.


title: Salary cap

text: Other pundits, such as Michael Lewis, the author of the bestseller "Moneyball", have argued that using World Series championships as an example of parity may be misleading, and playoff appearances may be a better indicator of relative team strength. The playoff system used in baseball comprises a small number of games compared to success over a long season, and has been described as a "crapshoot" by Oakland A's General Manager Billy Beane (the central figure of "Moneyball"). In fact, teams with consistently high payrolls, including the New York Yankees and Boston Red Sox, have secured high numbers of playoff berths (the two teams have combined to win the AL East 19 out of 25 seasons from 1994–2018). In contrast, teams with low payrolls are far less likely to make the playoffs: for example, the Pittsburgh Pirates went 20 years without a winning season before making the 2013 playoffs.


title: Salary cap

text: A number of the small market teams, notably the Milwaukee Brewers, have called for the introduction of a salary cap, but any introduction is opposed by the MLB players' union and the Yankees' ownership group; the latter have threatened legal action if such a cap is implemented.


title: Salary cap

text: Although some saw the success of NHL owners in their 2004–05 lockout as an opportunity for MLB to reform its collective bargaining agreement, baseball owners agreed to a new five-year deal in October 2006 that did not include a salary cap. Unlike the other three major North American sports, MLB also has no team salary floor: the only minimum limits for team payrolls are based on the minimum salaries for individual players of various levels of experience that are written into MLB's collective bargaining agreement. The players' union has also historically been vehemently opposed to a team salary floor, considering any floor proposal to be a prelude to a later request for a cap.


title: Salary cap

text: Since the 2012 season, the cap number for designated players has depended on the players' ages. Since the 2013 season, players 20 or younger have counted $150,000 against the cap and those age 21 to 23 have counted $200,000, with older players remaining at the standard cap number ($368,750 for 2013, $387,500 for 2014, $436,250 for 2015, $457,500 for 2016, $480,625 for 2017, and $504,375 for 2018). For the purpose of determining a cap number, the player's age is determined solely by his year of birth.


title: Salary cap

text: On June 13, 2006, a proposed salary management system featuring a Maximum Salary Expenditure Cap (SEC) was ratified at the Canadian Football League board of governors meeting in Winnipeg, Manitoba.


title: Salary cap

text: The CFL began enforcing strict salary cap regulation for the 2007 season and the cap was initially set at $4.05 million. The cap will be $5.3 million for the 2020 season or an average salary of $115,217 per active roster player. However, most clubs spend between $7,000,000 to $8,000,000 per season on salaries due to injury exemptions allowed under the cap. For instance, the Edmonton Eskimos spent $8.6 million on salaries in 2018, $8.8 million in 2017 season and $7.9 million in 2016, while still cap compliant.


title: Salary cap

text: The following breaches of the salary cap have occurred (no team has yet been penalized for violating salary floor regulations):


title: Salary cap

text: The salary cap of the first Arena Football League was $1.82 million per team in its final season in 2008. In 2005, the Tampa Bay Storm were fined $125,000 for salary cap violations and their head coach Tim Marcum was suspended for four games (last two of the 2005 season and first two of the 2006 season) and fined $25,250; Marcum was suspended for a fifth game the next day for criticizing the decision at a press conference.


title: Salary cap

text: When the Arena Football League returned in 2010, it instituted a standard salary of $400 per game and a salary cap of $1.5 million, considerably lower than that paid by teams in the previous AFL; given that the new AFL had a 16-game season in 2010, this effectively means that its players are semi-professional.


title: Salary cap

text: The National Women's Soccer League, launched in 2013, was initially planned to have a team cap of $500,000, but that was later lowered to $200,000. However, the sport's three North American national federations—the United States Soccer Federation, which ran the league through the 2020 season; the Canadian Soccer Association (CSA); and the Mexican Football Federation (FMF)—committed to paying the league salaries of many national team players. For the league's first season, 23 US players, plus 16 players each from Canada and Mexico, had their salaries paid by their respective federations; these players' salaries originally did not count against the team cap. Mexican players have not been allocated since FMF launched Liga MX Femenil in 2017, but the CSA continued to allocate players to the league through the 2021 season, after which the national team allocation system was abolished.


title: Salary cap

text: For 2021, the NWSL team salary cap was $682,500, with a cap of $52,500 and a floor of $22,000 for individual player salaries. In a practice similar to that of MLS, "allocation money" can be used to supplement salaries of selected players. Although the salaries of U.S. and Canada national team players allocated to league rosters were paid by the USSF or CSA, these players remained subject to a modified form of the cap. U.S. federation players had a specified cap value of $33,000, with Canadian federation players having a cap value of $27,500 or their actual salary, whichever is lower. The national team allocation system was eliminated after the 2021 season. The league and its players' union entered into their first collective bargaining agreement during the 2021–22 offseason. For 2022, the team cap was raised to $1.1 million, with standard player salaries limited to between $35,000 and $75,000. However, in a system similar to that of MLS, each team is also entitled to use $500,000 per year in "allocation money" (which can be traded) to supplement the salaries of select players.


title: Salary cap

text: The cap does not include healthcare, which is funded fully by the team; housing, provided by the team either directly or via a stipend of up to $3,000 per month; or transportation, specifically by allowing teams to provide each player with a car with a maximum value of $50,000.


title: Salary cap

text: The Premier Hockey Federation, the main women's professional ice hockey league in the US and Canada, has a team salary cap of US$750,000 and a floor of $562,500 in its 2022–23 season. This was a dramatic increase from the $300,000 cap in the 2021–22 season.


title: Salary cap

text: Salary caps are rarely used in Europe. However, several European rugby competitions, as well as ice hockey leagues have successfully instituted salary caps. Rugby league's Super League, mainly in England with a team also in France (and formerly one in Wales), is capped. The league has used promotion and relegation for most of its history, though from 2009 through 2014 it operated on a licensing system with some similarities to the North American franchising model. Promotion and relegation returned to Super League in the 2015 season. In rugby union, two of the continent's three main domestic/regional leagues—the English Premiership and the French Top 14—instituted caps despite both being at the top of extensive pyramid structures with promotion and relegation throughout. The most notable European ice hockey league with a salary cap is the Kontinental Hockey League (which uses the franchising model), and that league implemented a cap despite currency issues.


title: Salary cap

text: The Premiership's salary cap has been in place since the late 1990s. By 2007–08, the cap reached £2.2 million. In the following season, it nearly doubled to £4 million, and remained at that amount through the 2011–12 season. A provision applicable only in seasons that run up against the quadrennial Rugby World Cup, such as 2015–16, gives teams a credit for each player in the squad participating in the competition, helping them to manage their reduced squads in the season's early weeks. This credit was £30,000 in the 2011–12 season, and rose to £35,000 for 2015–16. In addition, each club has a separate salary cap for its academy players (£200,000 prior to 2015–16, reduced to £100,000 thereafter, but with home-grown players no longer counting under this cap), and is allowed to provide an unlimited educational fund to enable its players to pursue university or vocational training. Finally, each club has a separate cap of £400,000 for use in signing replacements for players lost to long-term injuries (12 weeks or more).


title: Salary cap

text: Through 2011–12, the cap remained at £4 million. However, academy credits were introduced that season. Teams received a £30,000 credit for each home-grown player in their senior squads who was under age 24 at the start of the season and earned more than £30,000, with a maximum of eight such credits. This increased the effective cap to a maximum of £4.24 million (not counting World Cup roster credits).


title: Salary cap

text: Two substantial changes took effect for 2012–13. First, the cap increased to £4.26 million before academy credits and up to £4.5 million with credits. The most significant change was that each team could now sign one player whose salary did not count against the cap, similar to the Designated Player Rule in MLS. The player so designated, which the Premiership calls an "excluded player", had to meet one of the following three criteria:


title: Salary cap

text: For the 2014–15 season, the cap increased to £4.76 million before academy credits and up to £5 million with credits. Other features of the cap remained unchanged.


title: Salary cap

text: The cap later increased to a base of £6.5 million with maximum academy credits of £600,000 for the 2016–17 season, and is now at a base of £7 million with the same maximum for academy credits. Additionally, each team receives a credit of £80,000 for each member of the England national team on the roster, and a luxury tax (which the Premiership calls an "overrun tax") is imposed on clubs that exceed the salary cap by more than 5%. The base value of the cap will remain at £7 million through the end of the 2019–20 season.


title: Salary cap

text: In December 2009, Ligue Nationale de Rugby (LNR), operator of the Top 14, announced it would impose a cap of €8 million, effective with the 2010–11 season. Previously, the only restrictions on team salaries were that wage bills were limited to 50% of turnover and that 10% of the salary budget had to be held in reserve. Along with the announcement of the cap, LNR also declared that the reserve requirement would be raised to 20%, with the previous limitation of 50% of turnover remaining in effect.


title: Salary cap

text: The new cap was slightly higher than the highest official wage bill in the 2009–10 season. Also, due to the complex nature of French club administration, clubs were seen as likely to find creative ways to skirt the cap. This was publicly admitted in 2014 by Mourad Boudjellal, owner of then-current Top 14 power Toulon. Boudjellal found a loophole that allowed him to set up a separate company to supplement the salary of star Jonny Wilkinson by a six-figure amount while staying under the cap.


title: Salary cap

text: The Top 14 salary cap was set at €9.5 million for 2012–13. For 2013–14, the cap was increased to €10 million, and in addition youth players are excluded from the cap unless their salaries are more than €50,000. The €10 million total cap remained in place for three seasons (through 2015–16); the agreement allowed for the threshold for exclusion of youth players to be adjusted before any of those seasons, but no such adjustment was made. The €10 million cap was later extended through the 2018–19 season. Additionally, each club that has a member of the France national team on its roster (more specifically, one of the 30 players named by the French Rugby Federation to the so-called "elite squad") is allowed to exceed the cap by a set amount per national team member. This amount was fixed at €100,000 through the 2015–16 season, and increased to €200,000 starting in 2016–17.


title: Salary cap

text: The cap rules were further tweaked for the 2015–16 season. Player bonus payments that amount to more than 10% of a player's salary are now counted against the cap.


title: Salary cap

text: On 20 December 2011, the four Welsh regional sides that participate in the competition then known as Pro12, later as Pro14, and now as the United Rugby Championship announced that they would impose a salary cap of £3.5 million, effective with the 2012–13 season. The cap covers only the registered squad for European competitions—at the time of announcement, the Heineken Cup and European Challenge Cup, and from 2014–15 the European Rugby Champions Cup and European Rugby Challenge Cup. It does not cover players in the regions' academies.


title: Salary cap

text: This cap was unilaterally instituted only on the Welsh teams. The URC is uncapped, and none of the other three European countries involved in the URC (Ireland, Italy, and Scotland) are known to have formally instituted such a system. South Africa maintains a cap and floor on individual player salaries but does not impose a separate team cap.


title: Salary cap

text: The operation of the cap was modified for select Wales national team players in 2014 by agreement between the Welsh Rugby Union and the Welsh professional players' trade union. This agreement introduced "National Dual Contracts", which make signatories available for all Wales national team matches regardless of whether they fall within an official World Rugby window for Test matches. The WRU funds 60% of the salary of NDC players, with the region covering the other 40%, with only the latter amount included in the salary cap.


title: Salary cap

text: When the Russian Superleague was dissolved to make way to the modern-day KHL, the Kontinental Hockey League Players' Trade Union (KHLPTU) agreed to the implementation of a salary cap. When first implemented there was a salary cap, as well as a salary floor. For the 2009-10 KHL season, the salary cap was 620 million rubles ($US 18.3 million) and the salary floor was 200 million rubles ($US 5.9 million).


title: Salary cap

text: The KHL's cap operates despite the KHL's multinational nature, with teams in Belarus, China, Finland, Kazakhstan, and Latvia, in addition to its primary base of Russia. The five non-Russian countries use four different currencies (two countries use the euro), with most floating against the ruble.


title: Salary cap

text: From 2011–12, each team can sign up to two "designated players" whose salaries are not counted against the cap. Up until 2011, the KHL salary cap was a soft cap, with a luxury tax amounting to 30% of the payroll that is over the cap paid to the special stabilization account, which helps KHL teams facing financial hardship. From the 2012–13 KHL season onward, the KHL began using a hard cap, set at 1.25 billion rubles (at the time $US 36.5 million). The 2020–21 season was the first which used a hard cap "and" a hard salary floor; in that season. the cap was 900 million rubles ($US 12.0 million at then-prevailing exchange rates) and the floor was 270 million rubles (roughly $US 3.5 million)


title: Salary cap

text: Several European association football leagues have considered introducing salary caps in the early 21st century. In 2002, the BBC reported that the G14 group of 18 leading European football teams would cap their payrolls at 70% of team's income, starting from the 2005/2006 season, however this did not occur. Serie A, the leading Italian football league, and the English Football League (consisting of England's second through fourth levels) have also considered salary caps.


title: Salary cap

text: These measures would be implemented to ensure clubs spend responsibly rather than as a tool to create parity. Top executives in European football have acknowledged that a number of challenges not present in North America would confront anyone who tried to implement an effective cap across European football or even across a single league with a view to creating competitive balance:


title: Salary cap

text: The Australian Football League has implemented a salary cap on its clubs since 1987, when Brisbane and West Coast were admitted, as part of its equalization policy designed to neutralize the ability of the richest and most successful clubs, Carlton, Collingwood and Essendon, to perennially dominate the competition.


title: Salary cap

text: The cap was set at A$1.25 million for 1987–1989 as per VFL agreement, with the salary floor set at 90% of the cap or $1.125 million; the salary floor was increased to 92.5% of the cap in 2001, and to 95% of the cap for 2013 onwards due to increased revenues. The salary cap, known officially as Total Player Payments, is A$13,165,950 for the 2020 season with a salary floor of $12,507,652.50.


title: Salary cap

text: Both the salary cap and salary floor has increased substantially since the competition was re-branded as the AFL in 1990 to assist in stemming the dominance of other high membership clubs, such as Adelaide, Hawthorn and the West Coast Eagles.