title: Stuart period

text: England never had a standing army with professional officers and careerist corporals and sergeants. It relied on militia organised by local officials, private forces mobilised by the nobility, or on hired mercenaries from Europe. Cromwell changed all that with his New Model Army of 50,000 men, that proved vastly more effective than untrained militia, and enabled him to exert a powerful control at the local level over all of England. At the restoration, Parliament paid off Cromwell's army and disbanded it. For many decades the Cromwellian model was a horror story and the Whig element recoiled from allowing a standing army. The militia acts of 1661 and 1662 prevented local authorities from calling up militia and oppressing their own local opponents. Calling up the militia was possible only if the king and local elites agreed to do so. However, King Charles managed to pull together four regiments of infantry and cavalry, calling them his guards, at a cost of £122.000 from his general budget. This became the foundation of the permanent British Army, By 1685 it had grown to 7500 soldiers in marching regiments, and 1400 men permanently stationed in garrisons. A rebellion in 1685 allowed James II to raise the forces to 20,000 men. There were 37,000 in 1678, when England played a role in the closing stage of the Franco-Dutch War. In 1689, William III expanded the army to 74,000 soldiers, and then to 94,000 in 1694. Parliament became very nervous, and reduced the cadre to 7,000 in 1697. Scotland and Ireland had theoretically separate military establishments, but they were unofficially merged with the English force.


title: Stuart period

text: The British have always regarded the overthrow of King James II of England in 1688 as a decisive break in history, especially as it made the Parliament of England supreme over the King and guaranteed a bill of legal rights to everyone. Steven Pincus argues that this revolution was the first modern revolution; it was violent, popular, and divisive. He rejects older theories to the effect that it was an aristocratic coup or a Dutch invasion. Instead, Pincus argues it was a widely supported and decisive rejection of James II. The people could not tolerate James any longer. He was too close to the French throne; he was too Roman Catholic; and they distrusted his absolutist modernisation of the state. What they got instead was the vision of William of Orange, shared by most leading Englishmen, that emphasised consent of all the elites, religious toleration of all Protestant sects, free debate in Parliament and aggressive promotion of commerce. Pincus sees a dramatic transformation that reshaped religion, political economy, foreign policy and even the nature of the English state.


title: Stuart period

text: During the joint rule of William and Mary, William made the decisions when he was in Britain; Mary was in charge when he was out of the country and also handled Church affairs. William encouraged the passage of major laws that protected personal liberties. of the Toleration Act 1689, which guaranteed religious toleration to Protestant nonconformists. It did not, however, extend toleration as far as he wished, still restricting the religious liberty of Roman Catholics, non-trinitarians, and those of non-Christian faiths. In December 1689, one of the fundamental constitutional documents in English history, the Bill of Rights, was passed. The Act restated and confirmed many provisions of the earlier Declaration of Right, and established restrictions on the royal prerogative. It provided that the Sovereign could not suspend laws passed by Parliament, levy taxes without parliamentary consent, infringe the right to petition, raise a standing army during peacetime without parliamentary consent, deny the right to bear arms to Protestant subjects, unduly interfere with parliamentary elections, punish members of either House of Parliament for anything said during debates, require excessive bail or inflict cruel and unusual punishments. William was opposed to the imposition of such constraints, but he chose not to engage in a conflict with Parliament and agreed to abide by the statute.


title: Stuart period

text: The primary reason the English elite called on William to invade England in 1688 was to overthrow the king James II, and stop his efforts to reestablish Catholicism and tolerate Puritanism. However the primary reason William accepted the challenge was to gain a powerful ally in his war to contain the threatened expansion of King Louis XIV of France. William's goal was to build coalitions against the powerful French monarchy, protect the autonomy of the Netherlands (where William continued in power) and to keep the Spanish Netherlands (present-date Belgium) out of French hands. The English elite was intensely anti-French, and generally supported William's broad goals. For his entire career in Netherlands and Britain, William was the arch-enemy of Louis XIV. The French king, and the, denounced William as a usurper who had illegally taken the throne from the legitimate king James II and ought to be overthrown. In May 1689, William, now king of England, with the support of Parliament, declared war on France. England and France would be at war almost continuously until 1713, with a short interlude 1697–1701 made possible by the Treaty of Ryswick. The combined English and Dutch fleets could overpower France in a far-flung naval war, but France still had superiority on land. William wanted to neutralise that advantage by allying with Leopold I, the Habsburg Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire (1658–1705), who was based in Vienna, Austria. Leopold, however, was tied down in war with the Ottoman Empire on his eastern frontiers; William worked to achieve a negotiated settlement between the Ottomans and the Empire. William displayed in imaginative Europe-wide strategy, but Louis always managed to come up with a counter play. William was usually supported by the English leadership, which saw France as its greatest enemy. But eventually the expenses, and war weariness, but the second thoughts. At first, Parliament voted him the funds for his expensive wars, and for his subsidies to smaller allies. Private investors created the Bank of England in 1694; it provided a sound system that made financing wars much easier by encouraging bankers to loan money. In the long-running Nine Years' War (1688–97) his main strategy was to form a military alliance of England, the Netherlands, the Holy Roman Empire, Spain, and some smaller states, to attack France at sea, and from land in different directions, while defending the Netherlands. Louis XIV tried to undermine this strategy by refusing to recognise William as king of England, and by giving diplomatic, military and financial support to a series of pretenders to the English throne, all based in France.Williams focused most of his attention on foreign policy and foreign wars, spending a great deal of time in the Netherlands (where he continued to hold the dominant political office). His closest foreign-policy advisers were Dutch, most notably William Bentinck, 1st Earl of Portland; they shared little information with their English counterparts. The net result was that the Netherlands remained independent, and France never took control of the Spanish Netherlands. The wars were very expensive to both sides but inconclusive. William died just as the continuation war, the War of the Spanish Succession, (1702–1714), was beginning. It was fought out by Queen Anne, and ended in a draw.


title: Stuart period

text: Historian Stephen B. Baxter is a leading specialist on William III, and like nearly all his biographers he has a highly favourable opinion of the king:


title: Stuart period

text: Anne became queen in 1702 at age 37, succeeding William III whom she hated. For practically her entire reign, the central issue was the War of the Spanish Succession in which Britain played a major role in the European-wide alliance against Louis XIV of France. Down until 1710, the Parliament was dominated by the "Whig Junto" coalition. She disliked them and relied instead on her old friends Duke of Marlborough (and his wife Sarah Churchill), and chief minister Lord Godolphin (1702–1710). She made Marlborough captain-general and head of the army; his brilliant victories boded well for Britain at first. But the war dragged on into an expensive stalemate. The opposition Tories had opposed the war all along, and now won a major electoral victory in 1710. Anne reacted by dismissing Marlborough and Godolphin and turning to Robert Harley. She had 12 miscarriages and 6 babies, but only one survived and he died at age 11, so her death ended the Stuart period. Anne's intimate friendship with Sarah Churchill turned sour in 1707 as the result of political differences. The Duchess took revenge in an unflattering description of the Queen in her memoirs as ignorant and easily led, which was a theme widely accepted by historians until Anne was re-assessed in the late 20th-century.


title: Stuart period

text: Anne took a lively interest in affairs of state, and was a noted patroness of theatre, poetry and music. She subsidised George Frideric Handel with £200 a year. She began the practice of awarding high-quality gold medals as rewards for outstanding political or military achievements. They were produced at the Mint by Isaac Newton and engraver John Croker.


title: Stuart period

text: Scotland and England were entirely separate countries, having the same ruler since 1603. Queen Anne, ruling both countries, worked to bring them together in the Acts of Union 1707. Public opinion in Scotland was generally hostile, but elite opinion was supportive, especially after the English provided generous financial terms and timely bribes. The Parliament of Scotland agreed to the terms and disbanded. The new Parliament of Great Britain was in practice simply the old Parliament of England augmented by 45 Scots elected to Commons; it selected 16 Scottish peers for the House of Lords. Scotland was much smaller in terms of population and wealth. Its colonial venture in the Darien scheme had been a major financial and humanitarian disaster. The Acts of Union refunded the losses of the Scottish investors in Darien. In basic terms, Scotland retained its own Presbyterian established church, and its own legal and educational systems, as well it is its own separate nobility. The Scots now paid English taxes, although in reduced rates, and had a voice in the affairs of Great Britain.


title: Stuart period

text: The long-term economic benefits took a couple of generations to be realised, and long-standing distrust continued for generations. The risk of war between the two was greatly diminished, although Jacobite raids launched from the north hit England for another forty years. The new Britain used its power to undermine the clanship system in the Scottish Highlands Ambitious Scots now had major career opportunities in the fast-growing overseas British colonies, and in the rapidly growing industrial and financial communities of England. Scotland benefited, says historian G.N. Clark, gaining "freedom of trade with England and the colonies" as well as "a great expansion of markets." Clark argued that in exchange for the financial benefits and bribes that England bestowed, what it gained was:


title: Stuart period

text: By the time Samuel Johnson and James Boswell made their tour in 1773, recorded in "A Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland", Johnson noted that Scotland was "a nation of which the commerce is hourly extending, and the wealth increasing" and in particular that Glasgow had become one of the greatest cities of Britain.


title: Stuart period

text: The total population of England grew steadily in the 17th century, from 1600 to about 1660, then declined slightly and stagnated between 1649 and 1714. The population was about 4.2 million in 1603, 5.2 million in 1649, 5.1 million in 1660, 4.9 million in 1688, and 5.3 million in 1714. By 1714 the Greater London area held about 674,000 people, or one in nine of England's population. The next cities in size were Norwich and Bristol (with a population of about 30,000 each). About 90% of the people lived in rural areas in 1500, compared to 80% of a much larger population in 1750.


title: Stuart period

text: Historians have recently placed stress on how people at the time dealt with the supernatural, not just in formal religious practice and theology, but in everyday life through magic and witchcraft. The persecution of witches began in England in 1563, and hundreds were executed. England was spared the frenzy on Continental Europe; with over 5% of Europe's population in 1600, England executed only 1% of the 40,000 witches killed in the period 1400–1800.


title: Stuart period

text: The government made witchcraft a capital crime under Queen Elizabeth I of England in 1563. King James VI and I made the suppression of witchcraft a high priority in both Scotland, and (in 1604) in England. Judges across England sharply increased their investigation of accused 'witches', thus generating a body of highly detailed local documentation that has provided the main basis for recent historical research on the topic. Historians Keith Thomas and his student Alan Macfarlane study witchcraft by combining historical research with concepts drawn from anthropology. They argued that English witchcraft was endemic year in and year out, rather than happening in epidemic outbursts. Older women were the favourite targets because they were marginal, dependent members of the community and therefore more likely to arouse feelings of both hostility and guilt, and less likely to have defenders of importance inside the community. Witchcraft accusations were the village's reaction to the breakdown of its internal community, coupled with the emergence of a newer set of values that was generating psychic stress.


title: Stuart period

text: Historian Peter Homer has emphasised the political basis of the witchcraft issue in the 17th century, with the Puritans taking the lead in rooting out the Devil's work in their attempt to depaganise England and build a godly community. As the process of psychological modernisation reached more and more people, fears of witchcraft and magic tended to steadily diminish. After 1660 Puritans were largely excluded from the judiciary and lost their power to investigate. In 1712, Jane Wenham was the last woman found guilty of witchcraft in England. In 1735 Parliament no longer believed that witchcraft was real—despite the efforts of James Erskine, Lord Grange, the Scottish Lord who made a fool of himself speaking in opposition. Parliament passed the Witchcraft Act 1735 which made it a crime to accuse someone of witchcraft. The laws against witchcraft were not fully repealed until 1951 with the passing of the Fraudulent Mediums Act 1951. Witchcraft was a minor issue of little importance in Ireland. However, Scotland was a major centre of suppression; 3900 Scots were tried; two thirds were convicted and executed, the last of whom was Janet Horne in 1727.


title: Stuart period

text: There was no free schooling for ordinary children, but in the towns and cities small local private schools were opened for the benefit of the boys of the middle classes, and a few were opened for girls. The rich and the nobility relied on private tutors. Private schools were starting to open for young men of the upper classes, and universities operated in Scotland and England. The University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge provided some education for prospective Anglican ministers, but otherwise had academic standards well below their counterparts in Scotland.


title: Stuart period

text: Historians have looked at local documents to see how many men and women used their signature and how many used X's. Literacy rates were very low before 1500, but grew steadily in the next three centuries, with men twice as likely to be literate as comparable women. In 1500, literacy rates for women were 1%; by 1560 they had reached 5%; by 1640 about 10%; by 1710 about 25% (versus 50% for men). Two forces were at work: Protestant religion called for the ability to read the Bible, and changing social and economic conditions. For example, towns grew rapidly, providing jobs in retailing in which literacy was a distinct advantage.


title: Stuart period

text: When the Puritans fell out of power, the tight social norms gave way to more liberal pleasures. The theatres returned, and played a major role in high society in London, where they were patronised by royalty. Historian George Clark argues:


title: Stuart period

text: The first coffee houses appeared in the mid-1650s and quickly became established in every city in many small towns. They exemplified the emerging standards of middle-class masculine civility and politeness. Downtown London boasted about 600 by 1708. Admission was a penny for as long as a customer wanted. The customers could buy coffee, and perhaps tea and chocolate, as well as sandwiches and knickknacks. Recent newspapers and magazines could be perused by middle-class men with leisure time on their hands. Widows were often the proprietors. The coffeehouses were quiet escapes, suitable for conversation, and free of noise, disorder, shouting and fighting in drinking places. The working class could more usually be found drinking in pubs, or playing dice in the alleyways.


title: Stuart period

text: Many businessmen conducted their affairs there, and some even kept scheduled hours. Historian Mark Pendergast observes:


title: Stuart period

text: Lloyd's Coffee House opened in 1686 and specialised in providing shipping news for a clientele of merchants, insurers, and shipowners. In a few years it moved to a private business office that eventually became the famous insurance exchange Lloyd's of London. By the 1790s private clubs had become more popular and the penny coffee houses largely closed down.


title: Stuart period

text: In science, the Royal Society was formed in 1660; it sponsored and legitimised a renaissance of major discoveries, led most notably by Isaac Newton, Robert Boyle and Robert Hooke. New scientific discoveries were made during this period, such as the laws of gravity and motion, Boyle's law and microscopy among many others.


title: Stuart period

text: The period also witnessed the growth of a culture of political news and commentary on political events. This was engaged in by both elites and laypeople, often involving a critical view or "skeptical reading".


title: Stuart period

text: The custom of the Grand Tour – where upper-class Englishman travelled to Italy – were a largely 18th century phenomenon. However, it originated in the 17th century with some of the earliest precedents set by Thomas Howard when he travelled to Italy in 1613."" The travelogue "Coryat's Crudities" (1611), published by Thomas Coryat was also an early influence on the Grand Tour. The first mention of the term can be found in Richard Lassels' 17th century book "The Voyage of Italy." The Grand Tour experienced considerable development after 1630.


title: Stuart period

text: Out in the countryside, numerous architects built country houses – the more magnificent the better, for the nobility and the wealthier gentry. Inigo Jones, one of the most well-known of Stuart-era architects built the magnificent Banqueting House in Whitehall, London in 1622. Numerous architects worked on the decorative arts, designing intricate wainscoted rooms, dramatic staircases, lush carpets, furniture, and clocks in country houses open to tourism.


title: Stuart period

text: The Great Fire of London in 1666 created the urgent necessity to rebuild many important buildings and stately houses. The accompanying act regulated buildings of a certain material (preferably of brick or stone), wall thickness and street widths while jetties were banned. Sir Christopher Wren was in charge of the rebuilding damaged churches. More than 50 City churches are attributable to Wren. His greatest achievement was St Paul's Cathedral.


title: Stuart period

text: Historians have always emphasised the localism in rural England, with readers gaining the impression that the little villages were self-contained communities. However, Charles Phythian-Adams has used local evidence to paint a much more complex picture. Data from the location of brides and grooms, the sources of financial credit, and patterns of migration indicate that each village was embedded in a network of villages and transportation routes. People could relocate from one village to another inside these networks without feeling like they were strangers. The network would include for example one or more market towns, county centres, or small cities. Roads existed and were supplemented by turnpikes. However the chief means of transportation was typically by water, since it was much cheaper to move wagon loads of commodities, especially wool and cloth, by boat than over land. Much effort was made to improve the river system, by removing obstacles. A mania to build canals, 1790–1840, enlarged the range and lowered costs. After 1840, the coming of railroads enlarged the range of local networks so much that the localism was overwhelmed


title: Stuart period

text: The 18th century was prosperous as entrepreneurs extended the range of their businesses around the globe. By the 1720s Britain was one of the most prosperous countries in the world, Daniel Defoe boasted:


title: Stuart period

text: As an island there was little incentive for gaining new territory. In the Tudor and Stuart periods the main foreign policy goal (besides protecting the homeland from invasion) was the building a worldwide trading network for its merchants, manufacturers, shippers and financiers. This required a hegemonic Royal Navy so powerful that no rival could sweep its ships from the world's trading routes, or invade the British Isles. Wool was the great commercial product. Home production of wool supplied internal needs, while raw wool and wool cloth made up 75–90% of exports. Trade was extensive with France, the Low Countries, and the Baltic. The Hanseatic League of German trading cities had once controlled 40% of the English trade, but it rapidly lost that role after 1500 and was expelled from England in 1598. The English colonies in the West Indies provided sugar, most of which was re-exported to the Continent. The 13 American colonies provided land for migrants, masts for the navy, food for the West Indies slaves, and tobacco for the home and the re-export trades. The British gained dominance in the trade with India, and largely dominated the highly lucrative slave, sugar, and commercial trades originating in West Africa and the West Indies. Exports were stable at £2.5 million from 1613 to 1669, then soared £6.5 million in 1700, to £14.7 million in 1760 and £43.2 million in 1800.


title: Stuart period

text: The government supported the private sector by incorporating numerous privately financed London-based companies for establishing trading posts and opening import-export businesses across the world. Each was given a monopoly of trade to the specified geographical region. The first enterprise was the Muscovy Company set up in 1555 to trade with Russia. Other prominent enterprises included he East India Company (1599), and the Hudson's Bay Company (1670) in Canada. The Company of Royal Adventurers Trading to Africa had been set up in 1662 to trade in gold, ivory and slaves in Africa; it was reestablished as the Royal African Company in 1672 and focused on the slave trade. Other powers set up similar monopolies on a much smaller scale; only the Netherlands emphasised trade as much as England.


title: Stuart period

text: Woolen cloth was the chief export and most important employer after agriculture. The golden era of the Wiltshire woolen industry was in the reign of Henry VIII. In the medieval period, raw wool had been exported, but now England had an industry, based on its 11 million sheep. London and towns purchased wool from dealers, and send it to rural households where family labour turned it into cloth. They washed the wool, carded it and spun it into thread, which was then turned into cloth on a loom. Export merchants, known as Merchant Adventurers, exported woolens into the Netherlands and Germany, as well as other lands. The arrival of Huguenots from France brought in new skills that expanded the industry.


title: Stuart period

text: Government intervention proved a disaster in the early 17th century. A new company convinced Parliament to transfer to them the monopoly held by the old, well-established Company of Merchant Adventurers. Arguing that the export of unfinished cloth was much less profitable than the export of the finished product, the new company got Parliament to ban the export of unfinished cloth. There was massive dislocation marketplace, as large unsold quantities built up, prices fell, and unemployment rose. Worst of all, the Dutch retaliated and refused to import any finished cloth from England. Exports fell by a third. Quickly the ban was lifted, and the Merchant Adventurers got its monopoly back. However, the trade losses became permanent.


title: Stuart period

text: Stuart England was primarily consumed with internal affairs. King James I (reigned 1603–25) was sincerely devoted to peace, not just for his three kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland, but for Europe as a whole. He disliked Puritans and Jesuits alike, because of their eagerness for warfare. He called himself "Rex Pacificus" ("King of peace.") At the time, Europe was deeply polarised, and on the verge of the massive Thirty Years' War (1618–1648), with the smaller established Protestant states facing the aggression of the larger Catholic empires. On assuming the throne, James made peace with Catholic Spain, and made it his policy to marry his son to the Spanish Infanta (princess) Maria Anna in the "Spanish Match". The marriage of James' daughter Princess Elizabeth to Frederick V, Elector Palatine on 14 February 1613 was more than the social event of the era; the couple's union had important political and military implications. Across Europe, the German princes were banding together in the Protestant Union, headquartered in Heidelberg, the capital of the Electoral Palatinate. King James calculated that his daughter's marriage would give him diplomatic leverage among the Protestants. He thus planned to have a foot in both camps and be able to broker peaceful settlements. In his naïveté, he did not realise that both sides were playing him as a tool for their own goal of achieving the destruction of the other side. Spain's ambassador Diego Sarmiento de Acuña, 1st Count of Gondomar knew how to manipulate the king. The Catholics in Spain, as well as the Emperor Ferdinand II, the Vienna-based leader of the Habsburgs and head of the Holy Roman Empire, were both heavily influenced by the Catholic Counter-Reformation. They had the goal of expelling Protestantism from their domains.


title: Stuart period

text: Lord Buckingham in the 1620s wanted an alliance with Spain. Buckingham took Charles with him to Spain to woo the Infanta in 1623. However, Spain's terms were that James must drop Britain's anti-Catholic intolerance or there would be no marriage. Buckingham and Charles were humiliated and Buckingham became the leader of the widespread British demand for a war against Spain. Meanwhile, the Protestant princes looked to Britain, since it was the strongest of all the Protestant countries, to provide them with military support for their cause. James' son-in-law and daughter became king and queen of Bohemia, an event which outraged Vienna. The Thirty Years' War began, as the Habsburg Emperor ousted the new king and queen of the Kingdom of Bohemia, and massacred their followers. The Catholic Duchy of Bavaria then invaded the Electoral Palatinate, and James's son-in-law begged for James's military intervention. James finally realised that his policies had backfired and refused these pleas. He successfully kept Britain out of the European-wide war that proved so heavily devastating for three decades. James's backup plan was to marry his son Charles to a French Catholic princess, who would bring a handsome dowry. Parliament and the British people were strongly opposed to any Catholic marriage, were demanding immediate war with Spain, and strongly favoured the Protestant cause in Europe. James had alienated both elite and popular opinion in Britain, and Parliament was cutting back its financing. Historians credit James for pulling back from a major war at the last minute, and keeping Britain in peace.


title: Stuart period

text: Frederick's election as King of Bohemia in 1619 deepened the Thirty Years' War—a conflagration that destroyed millions of lives in central Europe, but only barely touched Britain. The intense hatred and rivalry of Catholic versus Protestant princes was the main cause. King James' determination to avoid involvement in the continental conflict, even during the "war fever" of 1623, was one of the most significant, and most positive, aspects of his reign.


title: Stuart period

text: During 1600–1650 the kings made repeated efforts to colonise Guiana in South America. They all failed and the lands (Suriname) were ceded to the Dutch Republic in 1667.


title: Stuart period

text: The Anglo-Dutch Wars were a series of three wars which took place between the English and the Dutch from 1652 to 1674. The causes included political disputes and increasing competition from merchant shipping. Religion was not a factor, since both sides were Protestant. The British in the First Anglo-Dutch War (1652–54) had the naval advantage with larger numbers of more powerful "ships of the line" which were well suited to the naval tactics of the era. The British also captured numerous Dutch merchant ships.


title: Stuart period

text: In the Second Anglo-Dutch War (1665–67) Dutch naval victories followed. This second war cost London ten times more than it had planned on, and the king sued for peace in 1667 with the Treaty of Breda. It ended the fights over "mercantilism" (that is, the use of force to protect and expand national trade, industry, and shipping.) Meanwhile, the French were building up fleets that threatened both the Netherlands and Great Britain.


title: Stuart period

text: In the Third Anglo-Dutch War (1672–74), the British counted on a new alliance with France but the outnumbered Dutch outsailed both of them, and King Charles II ran short of money and political support. The Dutch gained domination of sea trading routes until 1713. The British gained the thriving colony of New Netherland, which was renamed as the Province of New York.


title: Stuart period

text: The Stuart period began in 1603 with the death of Queen Elizabeth I and the accession of King James I. There was a break in the middle but the Stuarts were restored to the throne in 1660. It ended in 1714 (after 111 years) with the death of Queen Anne and the accession of King George I, the first king of the House of Hanover. The yellow bars show Stuart rule.


title: Frontiers Media

text: Frontiers Media SA is a publisher of peer-reviewed, open access, scientific journals currently active in science, technology, and medicine. It was founded in 2007 by Kamila and Henry Markram, and has since expanded to other academic fields. Frontiers is based in Lausanne, Switzerland, with other offices in London, Madrid, Seattle and Brussels. In 2022, Frontiers employed more than 1,400 people, across 14 countries. All Frontiers journals are published under a Creative Commons Attribution License.


title: Frontiers Media

text: As of 2022, Frontiers publishes over 185 academic journals, including 48 journals indexed within the Science Citation Index Expanded, and 4 journals indexed within the Social Sciences Citation Index, with a total of 51 journals ranked with an impact factor.


title: Frontiers Media

text: Frontiers journals are included in the Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ). Frontiers is also a member of the Open Access Scholarly Publishers Association (OASPA), a participating publisher and supporter of the Initiative for Open Citations, and a member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE).


title: Frontiers Media

text: In 2015, Frontiers Media was classified as a possible predatory publisher by Jeffrey Beall, but was removed following a successful appeal.


title: Frontiers Media

text: The first journal published was "Frontiers in Neuroscience", which opened for submission as a beta version in 2007. In 2010, Frontiers launched a series of another 11 journals in medicine and science. In February 2012, the Frontiers Research Network was launched, a social networking platform for researchers, intended to disseminate the open access articles published in the Frontiers journals, and to provide related conferences, blogs, news, video lectures and job postings.


title: Frontiers Media

text: In February 2013, the Nature Publishing Group (NPG) (now Nature Research) acquired a controlling interest in Frontiers Media, however collaboration between the Nature Publishing Group and Frontiers ended in 2015.


title: Frontiers Media

text: "Frontiers for Young Minds" was launched in November 2013 during the Annual Meeting of the Society for Neuroscience in collaboration with NPG as a web-based science journal that involves young people in the review of scientific articles with the help of scientists who act as mentors.


title: Frontiers Media

text: In early September 2014, Frontiers received the ALPSP Gold Award for Innovation in Publishing from the Association of Learned and Professional Society Publishers.


title: Frontiers Media

text: In October 2015, Frontiers (in collaboration with NPG) launched Loop, a research network that is open to be integrated into any publisher's or academic organization's website, and Loop soon included a collaboration with ORCID to link and synchronize researcher profile information. The Technical University of Madrid was the first university to link their Loop profile to their institutional website.


title: Frontiers Media

text: In May 2020, Frontiers Media launched its Artificial Intelligence Review Assistant software to external editors. The software helps identify conflicts of interest and plagiarism, assesses manuscript and peer review quality, and recommends editors and reviewers, although the software does not flag all forms of conflict of interest, such as undisclosed funding sources or affiliations.


title: Frontiers Media

text: The Frontiers journals use open peer review, where the names of reviewers of accepted articles are made public.


title: Frontiers Media

text: In February 2016, the series contained 54 journals, a number that grew to more than 80 by 2020. The collection of all the journals in the series is sometimes considered a megajournal, as is the BioMed Central series. Some journals, such as "Frontiers in Human Neuroscience" or "Frontiers in Microbiology" are considered megajournals on their own. The journals published by Frontiers are:


title: Frontiers Media

text: The National Publication Committee of Norway has assigned Frontiers Media an institutional-level rating of "level 0" in the Norwegian Scientific Index since 2018, indicating that the publisher is "not academic", however individual Frontiers journals have separate journal-level ratings. As of 2022, 96 Frontiers journals are listed in the Norwegian Scientific Index, of which 2 have a rating of "level 2" (top 20% of all journals in their field), over 88 have a rating of "level 1" (standard academic), 1 has a rating of level X (possibly predatory), and 5 have a rating of "level 0" (not academic).


title: Frontiers Media

text: As of 2022, Frontiers publishes over 185 academic journals, including 48 journals indexed within the Science Citation Index Expanded, and 4 journals indexed within the Social Sciences Citation Index, with a total of 51 journals ranked with an impact factor. Furthermore, as of 2021, 9 Frontiers Media journals have been selected for inclusion in MEDLINE.


title: Frontiers Media

text: In broader databases, Frontiers has over 130 journals indexed in the Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ), over 60 journals listed in PubMed Central (PMC), over 70 journals listed in Scopus and over 65 journals indexed in Web of Science.


title: Frontiers Media

text: In May 2015, Frontiers Media removed the entire editorial boards of "Frontiers in Medicine" and "Frontiers in Cardiovascular Medicine" after editors complained that Frontiers Media staff were "interfering with editorial decisions and violating core principles of medical publishing". In total 31 editors were removed. Following this incident, Nature Publishing Group ended its collaboration with Frontiers with the intent "never to mention again that Nature Publishing Group has some kind of involvement in Frontiers."


title: Frontiers Media

text: In June 2015, Retraction Watch referred to the publisher as one with "a history of badly handled and controversial retractions and publishing decisions".


title: Frontiers Media

text: According to researchers referenced in a 2015 blog post quoted by Allison and James Kaufman in the 2018 book "" "Frontiers has used an in-house journals management software that does not give reviewers the option to recommend the rejection of manuscripts" and the "system is setup to make it almost impossible to reject papers".


title: Frontiers Media

text: In 2017, further editors were removed, allegedly for their rejection rate being high. In December 2017, Adam Marcus and Ivan Oransky of Retraction Watch wrote in the magazine "Nautilus" that the acceptance rate of manuscripts in Frontiers journals was reported to be near 90%.


title: Frontiers Media

text: In 2022, the editors of a special issue with the online journal "Frontiers in Research Metrics and Analytics" voiced their concerns about the editorial practices at Frontiers, including flaws in the peer review process, unwillingness to discuss these concerns, and forbidding the editors from writing about their concerns in the editorial of the special issue.


title: Frontiers Media

text: In October 2015, Frontiers was added to librarian Jeffrey Beall's list of "Potential, possible, or probable" predatory open-access publishers. The inclusion was met with backlash among some researchers. Daniël Lakens, researcher at the Eindhoven University of Technology, said "articles people have published in Frontiers are no longer judged based on their own quality, but are now seen as less valuable because Frontiers is on Beall's list". At the time, the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) said that "there have been vigorous discussions about, and some editors are uncomfortable with, the editorial processes at Frontiers" but that "the processes are declared clearly on the publisher's site and we do not believe there is any attempt to deceive either editors or authors about these processes". Frontiers is a COPE member and one of its employees sits on COPE's council.


title: Frontiers Media

text: In July 2016 Beall recommended that academics not publish their work in Frontiers journals, stating "the fringe science published in Frontiers journals stigmatizes the honest research submitted and published there", and in October of that year Beall reported that reviewers have called the review process "merely for show". Beall deleted his blacklist in January 2017.


title: Frontiers Media

text: In September 2016, Frontiers demanded that the university where Beall worked force him to retract his claims. Pressure by Frontiers was reported to be a large factor in the controversial shutdown of Beall's List.


title: Frontiers Media

text: In April 2013, "Frontiers in Psychology" retracted a controversial article linking climate change denialism and "conspiracist ideation"; the retraction was itself also controversial and led to the resignations of at least three editors.


title: Frontiers Media

text: In late September 2014, "Frontiers in Public Health" published a controversial article that supported HIV denialism; three days later the publisher issued a statement of concern and announced an investigation into the review process of the article. It was eventually decided that the article would not be retracted but instead was reclassified as an opinion piece. It has since been retracted.


title: Frontiers Media

text: In 2021, a provisionally accepted controversial paper in "Frontiers in Pharmacology" on COVID-19 and the use of the antiparasitic drug ivermectin was ultimately rejected by the editors as it contained "unsubstantiated claims and violated the journal's editorial policies". This drew anger from the authors of the paper, who called the move "censorship". Retraction Watch noted that this was not the first time Frontiers provisionally accepted and then rejected a controversial paper.


title: Frontiers Media

text: A study published in "Frontiers in Virology" in February 2022 said that Moderna had patented a 19 nucleotide genetic sequence uniquely matching a part of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein three years prior to the pandemic, arguing it was evidence that the virus was manufactured as part of a lab leak conspiracy. The study has been widely derided for its misunderstanding of statistical likelihood, particularly as the 19 nucleotide sequence is not unique to SARS-CoV-2, and is also found in organisms like bacteria and birds. Craig Wilen, an immunobiology professor of the Yale School of Medicine, likened the study to "complete garbage" and a "conspiracy theory" rather than legitimate research.


title: Homicide (wrestler)

text: Nelson Erazo (born March 20, 1977) is an American professional wrestler, better known by the ring name Homicide. He is currently competing for both National Wrestling Alliance (NWA), where he is a former World Junior Heavyweight Champion, and Ring of Honor (ROH) where he is a member of the faction VLNCE UNLTD.


title: Homicide (wrestler)

text: He is best known for his time in Impact Wrestling, where he is a one-time X Division Champion and three-time World Tag Team Champion, having won the NWA World Tag Team Championship twice and the TNA World Tag Team Championship once with tag team partner Hernandez. He is also known from his time in Ring of Honor, where he held the World Championship and World Tag Team Championship once each, as well as Pro Wrestling Guerrilla (PWG), where he is a one-time World Tag Team Champion and winner of the Tango & Cash Invitational tournament alongside B-Boy, and Jersey All Pro Wrestling (JAPW), where he has held both the Heavyweight Championship and the Tag Team Championship seven times each.


title: Homicide (wrestler)

text: A native of Brooklyn, Erazo was a wrestling fan from the age of five and decided that he wanted to become a wrestler at the age of fifteen. After amassing a series of athletic qualifications including football and amateur wrestling, he was offered a scholarship to the University of Miami, which he rejected, preferring to pursue "fast money". Erazo trained himself as a wrestler in a bodega, debuting on March 5, 1994. After wrestling for three years without any formal training, Erazo attended a professional wrestling school in New Jersey operated by Manny Fernandez.


title: Homicide (wrestler)

text: Erazo worked on the independent circuit throughout the 1990s. In 1997, Erazo was part of faction called The Wrecking Crew in Bobby Lombardi's Long Island Wrestling Federation (LIWF). Then while on a year-long hiatus from wrestling, he operated a training school in Cypress Hills New York known as LIWF's "The Doghouse" along with Laithon and Lowlife Louie. The Doghouse/LIWF produced approximately 22 graduates, including a number of ROH wrestlers, such as Low Ki. Erazo also formed a tag team called The Natural Born Sinners with Boogalou (which saw Boogalou wear a Leatherface mask and Homicide wear a Michael Myers mask).


title: Homicide (wrestler)

text: Homicide joined Jersey All Pro Wrestling on September 7, 1997, and quickly became a mainstay of the promotion. He formed a tag team with Kane D known as The Nation of Immigration (N.O.I.), and on March 22, 1998, The N.O.I. defeated The Sickness and The Blood Angels in a three-way tag match for the JAPW Tag Team Championship in Newark, New Jersey. They lost the title to The Skin Head Express on May 20, but regained them on August 25, defeating Russ and Charlie Haas in a weapons match. Their second reign lasted until January 29, when they lost to D-Sex. Homicide would later hold the title twice more, with Don Montoya and with B-Boy.


title: Homicide (wrestler)

text: Homicide won the JAPW Heavyweight Championship for the first time on July 9, 1999, by defeating Don Montoya in Bayonne, New Jersey. He lost the title to Chino Martinez on August 29. His second reign began when the champion, Jason, vacated the title on November 18, 2000, by no-showing the event. Homicide defeated Jay Lover for the vacant title that same night in the ECW Arena in Philadelphia. He lost the title to one of his students, Low Ki, on July 7, 2001. Three more Heavyweight Championship reigns followed in 2001 and 2002, with Homicide firmly establishing himself as a dominant player in JAPW. Homicide's increasing commitments, including tours of Japan with Big Japan Pro Wrestling and ZERO-ONE, led to a decline in his involvement in JAPW after late-2002.


title: Homicide (wrestler)

text: Dan Maff, another student of Homicide's, won the JAPW Heavyweight Championship on December 13, 2003. He held the title throughout 2004. In March 2005, however, Homicide and Maff had a legitimate falling-out, with Homicide announcing that Maff had betrayed him, and that he would refuse to work for any promotion which employed Maff. This effectively led to Maff being blacklisted from the professional wrestling indy circuit. As a result, the JAPW Heavyweight Championship was vacated. Jay Lethal had pursued the JAPW Heavyweight Championship for several months and was widely expected to be the next champion. The title was put on the line in a match between Lethal and an undisclosed opponent on March 26. The opponent was revealed to be the returning Homicide, who defeated Lethal for an unparalleled sixth JAPW Heavyweight Championship. His reign lasted until May 21, when Lethal finally won the belt in a four-way match. The following week, Homicide announced that he was temporarily leaving JAPW, but promised to go on a "murdering spree" and become a seven-time JAPW Heavyweight Champion when he returned.


title: Homicide (wrestler)

text: On October 22, 2005, Homicide teamed with his long-term nemesis Teddy Hart to defeat the Backseat Boyz for the JAPW Tag Team Championship. Their reign lasted until November 12 of that year, when Kashmere and Acid regained the title. On June 9, 2007, Homicide and his Latin American Xchange partner Hernandez defeated Jay Lethal and Azrieal to win the JAPW Tag Team titles, which they would hold for over a year before dropping them to The Full Blooded Italians of Little Guido and Tracy Smothers on November 15, 2008. On October 27, 2007, Homicide made good on his word when he defeated Low Ki to win the JAPW Heavyweight Title for a record–setting seventh time. He would, however, lose the title back to Low Ki that same night when Teddy Hart attacked him during a tag team match between LAX and BLKOUT, where both the Heavyweight and the Tag Team titles were on the line. On May 22, 2010, Homicide wrestled one of his biggest matches in JAPW, defeating Japanese legend Jushin Thunder Liger in the main event of the show. Homicide returned to JAPW on April 14, 2012, when he and Eddie Kingston defeated Philly's Most Wanted (Blk Jeez and Joker) to win the vacant JAPW Tag Team Championship.


title: Homicide (wrestler)

text: Homicide's first main independent exposure came in 2002 when he was recruited by the upstart Ring of Honor (ROH) promotion. He and Boogalou wrestled on the first ever ROH show, "The Era of Honor Begins", on February 23, and were defeated by the Boogie Knights, by way of DQ. The Natural Born Sinners were a dominant tag team in ROH, beating The Carnage Crew at the July 27 "Crowning a Champion" event, and also won at the August 24 "Honor Invades Boston" event, defeating Tony Mamaluke and James Maritato.


title: Homicide (wrestler)

text: After Boogalou suffered an injury and then jumped ship to Rob Black's Xtreme Pro Wrestling promotion, Homicide appeared alone at "Glory by Honor". Responding to a challenge from The Backseat Boyz, he invited anyone in the locker room to be his partner. Steve Corino responded to his offer, and Corino and Homicide faced the Backseat Boys later that night. In the course of the match, Corino turned on Homicide after Homicide accidentally hit him, superkicking his partner and leaving the ring, enabling the Backseat Boyz to easily defeat Homicide.


title: Homicide (wrestler)

text: Homicide and Corino would begin a four-year rivalry, with Corino criticizing Homicide's lifestyle and somewhat checkered past. The feud culminated in a match at the "One Year Anniversary Show" on February 8, 2003, in Queens, New York. Homicide was the hometown favorite, but lost to Corino following interference from The Group, Corino's entourage. After the match, Corino applied a cobra sleeper to Homicide, instigating a worked riot.


title: Homicide (wrestler)

text: After regaining some momentum by defeating Christopher Daniels on the April 12 ROH event, "The Epic Encounter", Homicide defeated CM Punk in a match for the number one contendership on April 26 at "Retribution: Round Robin Challenge II". Homicide faced ROH World Champion Samoa Joe on May 31 at "Do or Die", hoping not only to win the title, but to gain revenge on Joe for helping Corino defeat him in his hometown. Despite the support of his manager, Julius Smokes, and his close friend and former student, Low Ki, Homicide lost to Joe, after getting distracted by Smokes and Ki arguing outside the ring.


title: Homicide (wrestler)

text: Homicide was undefeated in ROH throughout June and July, and on August 16, 2003, at "Bitter Friends, Stiffer Enemies" he defeated Corino in a rematch of their February encounter. After twenty minutes of fighting which saw both men bleeding and carrying injuries, Homicide trapped Corino in a modified STF, prompting Corino's corner man, Guillotine LaGrande, to throw in the towel, awarding the match to Homicide. In the course of the match, Corino suffered a legitimate ruptured eardrum, and permanently lost most of the hearing in his left ear following a stiff slap to the side of the head from Homicide. Following high-profile victories over Samoa Joe and B. J. Whitmer, Homicide faced Corino for a third time on November 29, 2003, at "War of the Wire" in a barbed wire match. This time Julius Smokes threw in the towel for Homicide after Corino throttled him with a length of barbed wire. Corino offered Homicide a handshake after the match, indicating that he finally respected Homicide, but Homicide refused to shake his hand.


title: Homicide (wrestler)

text: Homicide faced A.J. Styles at "The Battle Lines Are Drawn" on January 10, 2004. After Styles was thrown from the ring, Homicide dove over the top rope in pursuit and landed in the third row of the audience, briefly knocking himself unconscious and injuring his shoulder and ribs. Styles quickly capitalized on Homicide's vulnerabilities, defeating him following a Styles Clash. After defeating CM Punk at "The Last Stand", Homicide took a hiatus from Ring of Honor to "find himself", sending word through Julius Smokes that when he returned, he wanted a shot at Samoa Joe and the ROH Heavyweight Championship.


title: Homicide (wrestler)

text: Homicide challenged Samoa Joe for the ROH World Championship once more at "Reborn: Stage 1" on April 23. Homicide showed signs of anger and frustration throughout the match, and after he scored what appeared to be a three count with a roll-up, but what the referee of the match ruled only a two count, he turned into a villainous character by knocking him out. As the recovered Joe went to attack Homicide, the lights in the arena went out and in the darkness Homicide threw a fireball at Joe, which led to him getting disqualified in the match. After the match, Homicide attacked referees and wrestlers who came to the ring to aid the badly burned Joe, before being apprehended by the rest of the locker room. In subsequent weeks, Homicide defeated fan favorites Bryan Danielson and Spanky, cheating and threatening referees in both matches. Homicide faced Joe for the ROH Heavyweight Championship for a third time on May 22 at "Generation Next", with Joe retaining in a match which saw him bleed for the first time in ROH. Homicide and Joe continued to feud throughout the summer of 2004, with Homicide recruiting a stable known as The Rottweilers (originally Low Ki, Ricky Reyes, Rocky Romero and Julius Smokes) to help him defeat Joe. Despite the best efforts of The Rottweilers, Joe defeated Homicide to retain his title in a fourth match on July 23 at "Death Before Dishonor II: Night 1". The Rottweilers worked as a unit throughout the remainder of 2004, helping one another win matches.


title: Homicide (wrestler)

text: In January 2005 Homicide began a "best of five" series with American Dragon. Homicide was victorious in the first two matches, a submission match and a taped fist match, but lost the remaining three matches - a falls count anywhere match, a lumberjack match and a steel cage match at "The Final Showdown" on May 13, 2005. Following his loss to American Dragon, Homicide and the Rottweilers began a feud with Jay Lethal. On May 7 at "Manhattan Mayhem", Homicide and Low Ki teamed together to defeat Lethal and Samoa Joe. Lethal was stretchered from the arena wearing a neck brace, apparently badly injured. With Lethal injured, Homicide turned his attentions to James Gibson, whom he defeated on June 12 at "The Future Is Now". After the match, The Rottweilers continued to attack Gibson until Lethal made his return and saved Gibson. This led to a match between Lethal and Homicide on July 9 at "Escape from New York", which Homicide won. On July 23 at "The Homecoming", Homicide and two fellow Rottweilers (Low Ki and Ricky Reyes) defeated Samoa Joe, James Gibson and Jay Lethal in a six-man tag match. Low Ki fought Lethal to a no contest on August 12 at "Redemption", after Homicide came to ringside after the match to attack Lethal. His plan was foiled by Matt Hardy, who intercepted Homicide and then defeated him in a scheduled singles bout. On August 13 at "Punk: The Final Chapter", Lethal and Samoa Joe defeated Homicide and Low Ki by disqualification after Homicide elbow-dropped the referee. From that point on, Lethal began feuding primarily with Low Ki.


title: Homicide (wrestler)

text: At "Unforgettable" on October 2 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Homicide teamed with Japanese wrestler Kenta Kobashi to defeat Samoa Joe and his stablemate Low Ki. Homicide teamed with Low Ki on October 14 at "Enter the Dragon" in a match that saw him lose to Cabana and his old rival Steve Corino, newly returned to the promotion. He faced Cabana in a singles match at "Vendetta" on November 5 that ended in a no contest. On November 19 at "A Night of Tribute", Homicide faced Cabana once again in a no disqualification rematch. Following interference from Julius Smokes and Grim Reefer, Homicide forced Cabana to submit by strangling him with a coat hanger.


title: Homicide (wrestler)

text: On December 3 in New York City at "Steel Cage Warfare", Homicide lost to Corino in a rematch from their feud of 2003. During the match, Homicide separated his shoulder, but opted not to have surgery. As a result of his injury, Homicide was unable to compete at the following show, "Final Battle 2005". He did show up, however, but with the intent on killing Steve Corino. Following Corino's match, Homicide ran down to the ring and attacked him. Colt Cabana ran down to the ring to save Corino, only to have Homicide pour Drano down his throat.


title: Homicide (wrestler)

text: On January 14, at ROH's "Hell Freezes Over" Homicide lost the Full Impact Pro Heavyweight Championship to Bryan Danielson in a three-way match which also included Roderick Strong, ending his reign of over 15 months. On February 25 at the "Fourth Anniversary Show", Homicide defeated Cabana in a "Ghetto Fight". Homicide went on to defeat Cabana once again on March 31. On April 1, in a Chicago Street Fight, Cabana finally defeated Homicide. Following the match, Homicide and Cabana embraced, with Cabana having won Homicide's respect.


title: Homicide (wrestler)

text: Throughout mid-2006, Homicide resisted Combat Zone Wrestling's (CZW) invasion of Ring of Honor until May 13, 2006, when he defeated Necro Butcher after a wild brawl in Edison, New Jersey, which involved over 600 chairs being thrown into the ring by the fans. He also challenged Bryan Danielson for the ROH World Championship on June 3, but lost due to referee stoppage, prompting Homicide to attack referee Todd Sinclair. After defeating Chris Hero, the leader of the CZW invasion, on June 17, Homicide said he would quit Ring of Honor if he did not win the ROH World Championship by the end of the year. His frustration with Ring of Honor grew when he was counted-out during an ROH Pure Championship bout with Nigel McGuinness on June 24. On July 15, Homicide took part in a five-on-five Cage of Death match pitting members of the Ring of Honor roster against members of the CZW roster, winning the bout for his team by pinning Nate Webb. Following the match, Homicide told Ring of Honor commissioner Jim Cornette that he wished to be rewarded with a shot at the ROH World Championship, a match with Steve Corino and the re-instatement of Low Ki, who Cornette had suspended several months earlier. After Cornette granted the first two "wishes" but refused to bring back Low Ki, Homicide spat in his face, prompting Cornette and his bodyguard, Adam Pearce, to beat Homicide down. A match was scheduled for August 5 between Homicide and Pearce, which eventually turned into a tag team match involving Homicide, B. J. Whitmer, Steve Corino and Adam Pearce.


title: Homicide (wrestler)

text: Homicide then began teaming with Samoa Joe against the Briscoes. His feud with Jim Cornette came to an abrupt end, when Cornette left Ring of Honor on November 4, 2006. On November 25, Homicide and Samoa Joe beat the Briscoes in a Street Fight, thus ending their feud.


title: Homicide (wrestler)

text: Homicide then focused on facing Bryan Danielson for the ROH World Championship at "Final Battle 2006". He stated that if he did not win the ROH World Title at Final Battle, he would leave ROH. On December 23, Homicide defeated Bryan Danielson in 29:12 to win the ROH title. Adam Pearce and Shane Hagadorn attacked Homicide at one point and it was stopped, but the ref refused to end it on a DQ. At another point, Danielson would not break on the ropes and again the ref refused to call a DQ. Danielson even managed to get his hand on the rope after a "Cop Killa". Homicide finally won with a lariat.


title: Homicide (wrestler)

text: Homicide defended successfully against Chris Hero and Samoa Joe on January 26 and 27. Homicide then successfully defended the championship against Jimmy Rave on February 16 in the same building where he won the belt, the Manhattan Center in New York City. The next evening, however, in Philadelphia at the Pennsylvania National Guard Armory, Homicide was defeated for the ROH World Championship by Takeshi Morishima, a Japanese professional wrestler visiting the United States. The two would compete against each other again at "Fifth Year Festival: Chicago", when Homicide teamed with Samoa Joe to face Morishima and Nigel McGuinness.


title: Homicide (wrestler)

text: On March 30, 2007, Homicide won a match against Christopher Daniels at "All Star Extravaganza 3". After the match, Jim Cornette returned alongside Adam Pearce and Shane Hagadorn and they delivered a beating to Homicide until Colt Cabana and Delirious made the save. The next night, Homicide in a surprise match teamed with Colt Cabana for the first time to defeat Brent Albright and Adam Pearce at "Supercard of Honor 2".


title: Homicide (wrestler)

text: On May 2, 2007, Ring of Honor announced on their website that they had signed a Pay-per-view deal with G-Funk Sports & Entertainment. Following the announcement, Total Nonstop Action Wrestling pulled Homicide and Austin Aries, both under contracts with TNA, from all Ring of Honor shows. Homicide competed in what was to become his final match at "Good Times, Great Memories" held on April 28, a Four Corners Survival match against Brent Albright, B. J. Whitmer and Jimmy Rave. At Respect is Earned on May 12, the night ROH taped their first pay-per-view, Homicide returned to deliver a farewell speech in front of his hometown crowd of New York City.


title: Homicide (wrestler)

text: Over a year later, Homicide returned to ROH as part of the TNA tag team LAX, replacing The Motor City Machine Guns who were originally booked. On October 24, 2008, in Danbury, Connecticut, Homicide and his partner Hernandez won a four-way, non-title Iron Team match against Kevin Steen and El Generico, Sweet 'n' Sour Inc.'s Chris Hero and Davey Richards and The Age of the Fall (Jimmy Jacobs and Tyler Black). The next night in Edison, New Jersey, they lost to The Briscoe Brothers.


title: Homicide (wrestler)

text: Homicide has wrestled in Puerto Rico for Savio Vega and Miguel Pérez Jr.'s promotion, the International Wrestling Association (IWA), first in 2003 as a challenger to the IWA World Junior Heavyweight Championship, losing to titleholder Freddie "Blitz" Lozada. He subsequently returned in 2009, when LAX exchanged victories with Los Dueños de la Malicia, a tag team composed of Dennis Rivera and Noel Rodríguez, capturing the IWA World Tag Team Championship once.


title: Homicide (wrestler)

text: Homicide debuted in Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (TNA) on December 31, 2005, helping Konnan and Apolo beat down Bob Armstrong. The trio, identified as The Latin American Xchange, then challenged Konnan's rivals, B.G. James and Kip James. At Final Resolution on January 15, Konnan and Homicide defeated The Naturals. At Against All Odds on February 12, Homicide and new LAX member Machete lost to The James Gang. At Destination X on March 12, the LAX were once again defeated by the James Gang in a rematch. On July 20, 2006, Homicide and his current LAX tag team partner, Hernandez, became involved in a feud with A.J. Styles and Christopher Daniels for the NWA World Tag Team Championship. On the episode of "Impact!" aired on August 24, 2006, Homicide and Hernandez defeated Styles and Daniels in a border brawl to win the NWA World Tag Team Championship. On September 24, 2006, at No Surrender, Homicide and Hernandez lost the NWA World Tag Team Championship back to Styles and Daniels in an Ultimate X match. He and Hernandez regained the title from Styles and Daniels in a Six Sides of Steel match at Bound for Glory after he hit Styles with "Da Gringo Killa". On November 19, 2006, LAX defeated America's Most Wanted (AMW) to retain the NWA World Tag Title at Genesis. On December 10, 2006, LAX defeated AMW in a non-title flag match at Turning Point.


title: Homicide (wrestler)

text: LAX went on to defend the tag title against Team 3D at Final Resolution, without Konnan at ringside - who was beaten down by Team 3D (in a kayfabe angle to explain Konnan's absence for surgery) - and retained after Brother Runt, dressed like Santa Claus and apparently drunk, gave a diving headbutt to Homicide, and caused Team 3D to be disqualified. On February 27 edition of "Impact!", LAX attacked Johnny Rodz as they were in New York. This was done in retaliation to the attack on Konnan, as was the attack on Brother Ray's uncle a few weeks previous. Johnny Rodz was the man who trained Brother Devon to be a wrestler. Team 3D, in retaliation to "that", then made a challenge to LAX, offering to face them at Destination X in a Ghetto Brawl. LAX accepted the offer and defeated Team 3D at the event. LAX later challenged Team 3D to an electrified steel-cage match at Lockdown, at which LAX lost the NWA World Tag Team Championship to Team 3D. With the release of Konnan and Hernandez on a hiatus, Homicide took part in the X-Division Gauntlet at Victory Road but was eliminated by Christopher Daniels.


title: Homicide (wrestler)

text: On the July 26 episode of "Impact!", LAX defeated The Motor City Machine Guns and then come back to the ring to help the Steiner Brothers when VKM and Team 3D started to choke them with the Puerto Rican flag, turning face in the process along with the Steiner Brothers. LAX and VKM faced each other in a tag match at Hard Justice, which LAX won. At TNA's biggest show of the year Bound for Glory, LAX defeated Triple X in an Ultimate X match giving them a shot at the TNA World Tag Team Championship. They got their shot on "Impact!", where they lost to A.J. Styles and Tomko.


title: Homicide (wrestler)

text: At Destination X in 2008, LAX got back in the title picture by defeating The Motor City Machineguns and The Rock 'n Rave Infection (Lance Hoyt and Jimmy Rave) in a number one contender's match. At Sacrifice, LAX won the vacant TNA World Tag Team Championship after defeating Team 3D in the finals of the "Deuces Wild Tag Team Championship Tournament". Homicide and Hernandez then moved into a feud with Beer Money Inc. (James Storm and Robert Roode), first defeating Beer Money in a "Fans Revenge Lumberjack match" at TNA's Victory Road pay-per-view. A rematch however, took place at the August pay per view, Hard Justice where they lost their tag title to Beer Money Inc. and Erazo was (kayfabe) injured in the process. He made a return by beating on Beer Money with his eye still patched up after Beer Money's match against Shark Boy and Super Eric. At Final Resolution in the Feast or Fired match, Homicide won the briefcase containing a TNA X Division Championship shot, only to have it stolen by The British Invasion of Brutus Magnus, Doug Williams and Rob Terry on the April 30 episode of "Impact!". On the July 9, 2009, episode of "Impact!", Homicide defeated Williams in a ladder match to win back the briefcase containing the number one contender's contract for the TNA X Division Championship.


title: Homicide (wrestler)

text: On the July 16 episode of "Impact!", Homicide cashed in the briefcase on Suicide to win the X Division Championship, winning his first singles title in TNA. At Hard Justice Homicide lost the title to Samoa Joe.


title: Homicide (wrestler)

text: On the September 10 edition of "Impact!", Homicide turned heel by attacking Hernandez and joining World Elite (Eric Young, Sheik Abdul Bashir, Kiyoshi and the British Invasion), thus signaling the end of the Latin American Xchange. Afterwards Homicide's character became an uncontrollable loose cannon, attacking anyone from his opponents to announcers and referees after his matches, rarely being seen with the other members of World Elite. On the October 22 edition of "Impact!" Homicide defeated the X Division Champion Amazing Red to earn himself a return match for the title at Turning Point. At the Pay-Per-View Red defeated Homicide to retain his title. On the January 4, 2010, live, three-hour, Monday night edition of "Impact!" Homicide competed in an eight-man Steel Asylum match, which ended in a no contest, after he attacked his opponents, including his World Elite partner Kiyoshi, with a baton. After the match Homicide also attacked Jeff Hardy, who made his return to the company after a four-year absence, but ended up being laid out after a chair shot and the Twist of Fate. This event would also mark the last time World Elite was mentioned on TNA television.


title: Homicide (wrestler)

text: After spending the next couple of months wrestling mainly on "Xplosion", Homicide returned to "Impact!" on March 22, showing signs of a face turn when he came out to check on his former partner Hernandez, who was being helped by medics after he had been laid out by his new World Tag Team Championship partner Matt Morgan. At Lockdown Homicide defeated Brian Kendrick, Alex Shelley and Chris Sabin in a four-way Xscape match to earn the right to challenge for the vacant X Division Championship in a three-way match against Kazarian and Shannon Moore, later in the night. In the match for the title, Homicide was pinned by Kazarian. On the June 24 edition of "Impact!" Homicide turned face by attacking Matt Morgan, when he was calling out Hernandez, who was not present at the building. Morgan ended up kicking Homicide's head into the ring post, just like he did with Hernandez three months prior. In July Erazo was sidelined with a groin injury, which he tried to rehab without having to go through surgery. Erazo, who had been requesting for a release from TNA for over a year, was finally released from his contract on August 19, 2010.


title: Homicide (wrestler)

text: On September 10, 2010, Homicide made his return to the independent circuit at a Combat Zone Wrestling event, where he announced that his return match for the company would take place on October 9, when he would face Sami Callihan. The following day he appeared for Evolve, confronting Johnny Gargano and Jon Moxley. On October 9 Homicide defeated Sami Callihan in the main event of CZW's "It's Always Bloody in Philadelphia". On November 20 Homicide made his in–ring debut for Evolve, losing to Jon Moxley via controversial referee stoppage. The following day Homicide made his debut for Chikara, losing to Eddie Kingston in the main event of the evening. On December 11, 2010, at the Cage of Death XII pay-per-view, Homicide challenged Jon Moxley for the CZW World Heavyweight Championship, but was unsuccessful in dethroning the defending champion. On December 19 Homicide unsuccessfully challenged Slyck Wagner Brown for the 2CW Heavyweight Championship at a Squared Circle Wrestling event. In February 2011, Homicide travelled to Perth, Western Australia to compete at New Horizon Pro Wrestling's Battle of Honor event on February 11. He defeated Tama Williams in the main event to win the NHPW Art of Fighting Championship.


title: Homicide (wrestler)

text: On May 13, Homicide made his debut for New Japan Pro-Wrestling, during the Invasion Tour 2011, the promotion's first tour of the United States, teaming with Low Ki in a tag team match, where they defeated Jushin Thunder Liger and Tiger Mask. At the following day's event, Homicide teamed with Davey Richards and Rhino in a six-man tag team match, where they defeated Kazuchika Okada, Ryusuke Taguchi and Togi Makabe. On the third and final day of the tour in Philadelphia, Homicide and Low Ki, known collectively as the Strong Style Thugz, unsuccessfully challenged Apollo 55 (Prince Devitt and Ryusuke Taguchi) for the IWGP Junior Heavyweight Tag Team Championship. In 2011, it was revealed that Homicide had signed a contract to take part in a new hiphop/pro wrestling collaboration, the Urban Wrestling Federation, with tapings of the first three one-hour pay-per-views taking place on June 3. In the main event of the first PPV, First Blood, Homicide defeated Eddie Kingston to advance to the finals of the tournament to determine the first ever UWF Champion. In the main event of the third pay-per-view Street King, a four-way elimination match for the UWF Championship, Homicide managed to eliminate Bestia, before being eliminated himself by Ricky Reyes. Eventually, Rasche Brown went on to become the inaugural champion. On June 29, 2012, Homicide took part in Extreme Rising promotion's first event in Corona, New York, defeating Devon Storm. On November 17 at Remember November, Homicide was defeated by Rhino in the first round of the Extreme Rising World Championship tournament. On June 23, 2013, Homicide and Eddie Kingston were defeated by the Steiner Brothers at a House of Hardcore event. On November 9, Homicide and Kingston were defeated by Devon and Matt Hardy at House of Hardcore 3. On September 19, 2014, Homicide returned to Chikara, when he, Hernandez and Chavo Guerrero Jr., representing LAX, took part in the 2014 King of Trios. They were eliminated from the tournament in the first round by the Golden Trio (Dasher Hatfield, Icarus and Mark Angelosetti).


title: Homicide (wrestler)

text: On September 11, 2010, Homicide made his return to Ring of Honor at the live Glory By Honor IX pay-per-view, where he confronted Roderick Strong, who had just defeated Tyler Black for the ROH World Championship. On October 1 Homicide wrestled his first match since his release from TNA, defeating Tony Kozina at a "Ring of Honor Wrestling" taping. On December 18 Homicide made his ROH pay-per-view debut at Final Battle 2010, where he defeated ROH World Television Champion Christopher Daniels in a non–title match to earn a shot at the ROH World Championship at the following pay-per-view. Homicide received his shot at the ROH World Championship on February 26, 2011, at 9th Anniversary Show, but was unable to regain the title from Roderick Strong in a No Holds Barred match. On March 19 at "Manhattan Mayhem IV", The Latin American Xchange wrestled their first match together in 19 months, when they faced the ROH World Tag Team Champions, The Kings of Wrestling (Chris Hero and Claudio Castagnoli) in a losing effort. Homicide then began feuding with The Embassy, suffering an upset loss against Tommaso Ciampa on April 2 at Honor Takes Center Stage, albeit following outside interference from Princess Mia. After the match Homicide threw a steel chair at the Embassy's barrister R.D. Evans. Homicide faced Ciampa in a rematch on May 6, but was defeated again following outside interference from Mia and a brass knuckles shot from Ciampa. Afterwards, Homicide took out his frustrations on Embassy member Ernesto Osiris. Following the event, R.D. Evans filed a storyline lawsuit against Homicide, accusing him of attempted murder, assault and battery, attempted sexual assault and battery, sexual harassment and intentional infliction of emotional distress. On June 26 at Best in the World 2011, Homicide defeated Embassy's newest member Rhino in a Street Fight. The event marked Homicide's final appearance for ROH as he had signed an exclusive contract with the Urban Wrestling Federation.


title: Homicide (wrestler)

text: Homicide returned to ROH on September 17 at the Death Before Dishonor IX internet pay-per-view, as his UWF contract prohibited him only from working television shows and regular pay-per-views. At the event, Homicide teamed with fellow TNA alum and ROH World Television Champion Jay Lethal in a tag team match, where they were defeated by Embassy representatives Rhino and Tommaso Ciampa, when Ciampa pinned Homicide. Homicide's next ROH appearance took place on March 4, 2012, at the 10th Anniversary Show, where he was defeated by Mike Bennett. At the May 18 tapings of "Ring of Honor Wrestling", Homicide returned to ROH, saving Eddie Edwards from Mike Bennett and "Brutal" Bob Evans, before turning on him and laying him out with "Da Cop Killa". On June 24 at , Homicide defeated Edwards in a singles match. As a result, Homicide was granted a shot at the ROH World Championship, but was defeated by the defending champion, Kevin Steen, on August 3.


title: Homicide (wrestler)

text: On August 17, 2013, Homicide returned to ROH, forming a new tag team with Eddie Kingston. In their return match, the two defeated Marshall Law (Q.T. Marshall and R.D. Evans). Following the main event of the evening, Homicide and Kingston attacked new ROH World Tag Team Champions, reDRagon (Bobby Fish and Kyle O'Reilly), before announcing their intention of taking down "corporate ROH" and revealing their team name as "Outlaw Inc.". Homicide and Kingston, however, claimed that they had come to ROH to help Match Maker Nigel McGuinness and take out those they felt were bad for the promotion. As part of the gimmick, Homicide and Kingston wore suits and followed the Code of Honor. After defeating The American Wolves (Davey Richards and Eddie Edwards) on November 16, Outlaw Inc. were named the next challengers for the ROH World Tag Team Championship. Outlaw Inc. received their title shot on December 14 at Final Battle 2013, but were defeated by reDRagon. Post-match, Homicide announced that they were no longer going to play by ROH's rules.


title: Homicide (wrestler)

text: On October 29 at the Bushido: Code of the Warrior pay-per-view, Homicide made his debut for Dragon Gate USA, in a match, where he, representing the World–1 stable, defeated Rich Swann. Afterwards, Homicide was attacked backstage by Jon Moxley, a member of the rival Kamikaze USA stable. At the following day's tapings of Freedom Fight 2010, Homicide and his World–1 stable mate BxB Hulk defeated Kamikaze USA's Jon Moxley and Akira Tozawa in a tag team match. After the match both Homicide and Hulk were laid out by Kamikaze USA. On January 30, 2011, at "United: Finale" Homicide faced Moxley in a No Rules match. Homicide dominated the match, before suddenly allowing Moxley to pin himself for the win. After the match Homicide explained that he did not care about winning or losing and continued to attack Moxley, before he was saved by Akira Tozawa.


title: Homicide (wrestler)

text: On March 17, 2013, Homicide returned to TNA to take part in the tapings of the 10 Reunion One Night Only pay-per-view, teaming with Hernandez in a three-way tag team match, where they were defeated by Team 3D and which also included Bad Influence (Christopher Daniels and Kazarian). Two days later, LAX defeated The Disciples of the New Church (Sinn and Slash) at the tapings of the Hardcore Justice 2 pay-per-view. Homicide made another return to TNA on July 18 to take part in the Destination X episode of "Impact Wrestling". Entering a tournament to determine the new X Division Champion, he was defeated by Sonjay Dutt in a first round three-way match, which also included Petey Williams. Homicide returned to TNA on June 26, 2014, to take part in the tapings of Destination X, losing to Samoa Joe in a three-way match, which also included Tigre Uno. Following the taping, it was reported that Homicide was back in TNA full-time going forward.


title: Homicide (wrestler)

text: On the April 10, 2015, episode of "Impact Wrestling", Homicide returned to attacking The Rising and joining The Beat Down Clan, most likely to replace Samoa Joe who had left the company. The following week on "Impact Wrestling", Homicide was assigned by MVP to attack Kurt Angle, which led to a backstage brawl spilling into the ring which caused both The BDC and The Rising to get involved. Then Homicide suffered a shoulder injury. During his injury, The Beat Down Clan was dissolved on July 15, 2015. Homicide's profile on the Impactwrestling.com roster page was moved to the alumni section on July 24, confirming his departure from the company.


title: Homicide (wrestler)

text: On March 16, 2017, episode of "Impact", Homicide returned with Konnan, reforming The Latin American Xchange (LAX) alongside newcomers Ortiz, Santana, and Diamante. On the July 5, 2018, episode of "Impact", he turned on LAX by forming an alliance with King and his former tag team partner Hernandez, turning heel in the process. They later became known as The OGz. At the Bound for Glory on October 14, The OGz lost to LAX in a Concrete Jungle Death match. After several months, Homicide was moved to alumni section of the website.


title: Homicide (wrestler)

text: Homicide debuted for the National Wrestling Alliance (NWA) at their television tapings on September 30 for NWA Power. At the tapings he formed an alliance with Eddie Kingston. At the pay-per-view Crockett Cup event, Homicide defeated Austin Aries, Colby Corino, and Darius Lockhart to become the NWA World Junior Heavyweight Championship. He lost the title on November 12, 2022 at NWA Hard Times 3 to Kerry Morton, ending his reign at 237 days.


title: Homicide (wrestler)

text: On March 26, 2021, at ROH 19th Anniversary Show, Homicide made his Ring of Honor return, in a new faction called Violence Unlimited consisting of Tony Deppen, Brody King, and Chris Dickinson as they attacked La Faccion Ingobernable.


title: Homicide (wrestler)

text: On September 24, 2021, Homicide made his AEW debut at Rampage: Grand Slam coming to the rescue of Jon Moxley and Eddie Kingston during their Lights Out match against Minoru Suzuki and Lance Archer.


title: Homicide (wrestler)

text: Erazo is a member of the large Puerto Rican community in New York, colloquially known as "Nuyoricans". He initially wrestled as The Latin Terror, a reference to his Latin American ethnicity. However, Erazo grew bored with the gimmick in 1995 and decided to create a new character based on his own past. He had been a gang member as a youth, and he incorporated this into the Homicide character, taking his ring name from an episode of "America's Most Wanted" where a man was arrested for the crime of homicide. Erazo has subsequently stated that he represents both "New York and Puerto Rico", frequently implementing the flag of Puerto Rico into his wrestling apparel and often carrying it unmodified to the ring. Outside of professional wrestling, Erazo was married in 1994 and is the father of two children, a son and a daughter.


title: David Deutsch

text: David Elieser Deutsch ( ; born 18 May 1953) is a British physicist at the University of Oxford. He is a Visiting Professor in the Department of Atomic and Laser Physics at the Centre for Quantum Computation (CQC) in the Clarendon Laboratory of the University of Oxford. He pioneered the field of quantum computation by formulating a description for a quantum Turing machine, as well as specifying an algorithm designed to run on a quantum computer. He has also proposed the use of entangled states and Bell's theorem for quantum key distribution and is a proponent of the many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics.


title: David Deutsch

text: Deutsch was born into a Jewish family in Haifa, Israel on 18 May 1953, the son of Oskar and Tikva Deutsch. In London, David attended Geneva House school in Cricklewood (his parents owned and ran the Alma restaurant on Cricklewood Broadway), followed by William Ellis School in Highgate (then a voluntary aided school in north London) before reading Natural Sciences at Clare College, Cambridge and taking Part III of the Mathematical Tripos. He went on to Wolfson College, Oxford for his doctorate in theoretical physics and wrote his thesis on quantum field theory in curved space-time supervised by Dennis Sciama and Philip Candelas.


title: David Deutsch

text: His work on quantum algorithms began with a 1985 paper, later expanded in 1992 along with Richard Jozsa to produce the Deutsch–Jozsa algorithm, one of the first examples of a quantum algorithm that is exponentially faster than any possible deterministic classical algorithm. In his 1985 paper, he also suggests the use of entangled states and Bell's theorem for quantum key distribution. In his nomination for election as a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 2008, his contributions were described as:


title: David Deutsch

text: "[having] laid the foundations of the quantum theory of computation, and has subsequently made or participated in many of the most important advances in the field, including the discovery of the first quantum algorithms, the theory of quantum logic gates and quantum computational networks, the first quantum error-correction scheme, and several fundamental quantum universality results. He has set the agenda for worldwide research efforts in this new, interdisciplinary field, made progress in understanding its philosophical implications (via a variant of the many-universes interpretation) and made it comprehensible to the general public, notably in his book The Fabric of Reality."


title: David Deutsch

text: Since 2012, he has been working on constructor theory, an attempt at generalizing the quantum theory of computation to cover not just computation but all physical processes. Together with Chiara Marletto, he published a paper in December 2014 entitled "Constructor theory of information", that conjectures that information can be expressed solely in terms of which transformations of physical systems are possible and which are impossible.


title: David Deutsch

text: In his 1997 book "The Fabric of Reality", Deutsch details his "Theory of Everything". It aims not at the reduction of everything to particle physics, but rather mutual support among multiversal, computational, epistemological, and evolutionary principles. His theory of everything is somewhat emergentist rather than reductive. There are four strands to his theory:


title: David Deutsch

text: In a 2009 TED talk, Deutsch expounded a criterion for scientific explanation, which is to formulate invariants: "State an explanation [publicly, so that it can be dated and verified by others later] that remains invariant [in the face of apparent change, new information, or unexpected conditions]".


title: David Deutsch

text: Invariance as a fundamental aspect of a scientific account of reality had long been part of philosophy of science: for example, Friedel Weinert's book "The Scientist as Philosopher" (2004) noted the presence of the theme in many writings from around 1900 onward, such as works by Henri Poincaré (1902), Ernst Cassirer (1920), Max Born (1949 and 1953), Paul Dirac (1958), Olivier Costa de Beauregard (1966), Eugene Wigner (1967), Lawrence Sklar (1974), Michael Friedman (1983), John D. Norton (1992), Nicholas Maxwell (1993), Alan Cook (1994), Alistair Cameron Crombie (1994), Margaret Morrison (1995), Richard Feynman (1997), Robert Nozick (2001), and Tim Maudlin (2002).


title: David Deutsch

text: Deutsch's second book, "The Beginning of Infinity: Explanations that Transform the World", was published on 31 March 2011. In this book, he views the European Enlightenment of the 17th and 18th centuries as near the beginning of a potentially unending sequence of purposeful knowledge creation. He examines the nature of knowledge, memes, and how and why creativity evolved in humans.


title: David Deutsch

text: Deutsch was awarded the Dirac Prize of the Institute of Physics in 1998, and the Edge of Computation Science Prize in 2005. In 2017, he received the Dirac Medal of the International Centre for Theoretical Physics (ICTP). Deutsch is linked to Paul Dirac through his doctoral advisor Dennis Sciama, whose doctoral advisor was Dirac. Deutsch was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 2008. In 2020 he was awarded an Honorary Fellowship of the Cybernetics Society. In 2018, he received the Micius Quantum Prize. In 2021, he was awarded the Isaac Newton Medal and Prize.


title: David Deutsch

text: On September 22, 2022, he was awarded with the Breakthrough Prize in fundamental physics (sharing it with 3 others)


title: David Deutsch

text: Deutsch is a founding member of the parenting and educational method "Taking Children Seriously". Deutsch supported Brexit, with his advocacy regularly being quoted by the then government adviser, Dominic Cummings.


title: Kioxia

text: Kioxia Holdings Corporation (), simply known as Kioxia and stylized as KIOXIA, is an American-Japanese multinational computer memory manufacturer headquartered in Tokyo, Japan. The company was spun off from the Toshiba conglomerate as in June 2018. It became a wholly owned subsidiary company of Toshiba Memory Holdings Corporation on March 1, 2019, and was renamed Kioxia in October 2019. In the early 1980s, while still part of Toshiba, the company was credited with inventing flash memory. In the second quarter of 2021, the company was estimated to have 18.3% of the global revenue share for NAND flash solid-state drives. The company is the parent company of Kioxia Corporation.


title: Kioxia

text: Kioxia is a combination of the Japanese word "kioku" meaning "memory" and the Greek word "axia" meaning "value".


title: Kioxia

text: In 1980, Fujio Masuoka, an engineer at Kioxia predecessor Toshiba, invented flash memory, and in 1984, Masuoka and his colleagues presented their invention of NOR flash.


title: Kioxia

text: In January 2014, the Toshiba Corporation completed its acquisition of OCZ Storage Solutions, renaming it OCZ and making it a brand of Toshiba.


title: Kioxia

text: On June 1, 2018, due to heavy losses experienced by the bankruptcy of the Westinghouse subsidiary of former parent company Toshiba over nuclear power plant construction at Vogtle Electric Generating Plant in 2016, Toshiba Memory Corporation was spun off from the Toshiba Corporation. Toshiba maintained a 40.2% equity in the new company. The new company consisted of all of Toshiba memory businesses. Toshiba Memory Corporation became a subsidiary of the newly formed Toshiba Memory Holdings Corporation on March 1, 2019.


title: Kioxia

text: In June 2019, Kioxia experienced a power cut at one of its factories in Yokkaichi, Japan, resulting in the loss of at least 6 exabytes of flash memory, with some sources estimating the loss as high as 15 exabytes. Western Digital used (and still uses) Kioxia's facilities for making its own flash memory chips.


title: Kioxia

text: On July 18, 2019, Toshiba Memory Holdings Corporation announced it would change its name to Kioxia on October 1, 2019, including all Toshiba memory companies. On October 1, 2019, Toshiba Memory Holdings Corporation was renamed Kioxia Holdings Corporation and Toshiba Memory Corporation was renamed Kioxia Corporation. This renaming also included companies associated with Toshiba's solid-state drive brand OCZ.


title: Kioxia

text: On August 30, 2019, Toshiba Memory Holdings Corporation, not yet renamed Kioxia, announced that it signed a definitive agreement to acquire Taiwanese electronics manufacturer Lite-On's SSD business for . The acquisition closed on July 1, 2020.


title: Kioxia

text: In February 2022, Kioxia and Western Digital reported that contamination issues have affected the output of their flash memory joint-production factories, with WD admitting that at least 6.5 exabytes of memory output being affected. The Kiakami and Yokkaichi factories in Japan stopped producing due to the contamination.


title: Kioxia

text: In April 2022, Kioxia announced they will be donating 100 million yen ($790,000) to support humanitarian relief for people affected by the crisis in Ukraine.


title: Kioxia

text: Kioxia Holdings Corporation is the holding company of Kioxia Corporation. Kioxia Corporation is the parent company of several companies including Kioxia Systems Company, Kioxia Advanced Package Corporation, Kioxia America, and Kioxia Europe.


title: Gregg Hurwitz

text: Gregg Andrew Hurwitz is an American novelist, screenwriter, and comic book writer. Most of his novels are in the thriller fiction genre. His script writing work includes a film adaptation of his book "Orphan X", a TV adaptation of Joby Warrick's "", and a screenplay for the 2017 film "The Book of Henry". He also has written comic books for comic book publishers like DC Comics and Marvel Comics.


title: Gregg Hurwitz

text: Hurwitz grew up in the San Francisco Bay Area and graduated from Bellarmine College Preparatory in San Jose, California. While completing a bachelor of arts degree from Harvard University (1995) and a master's from Trinity College, Oxford in Shakespearean tragedy (1996), he wrote his first novel. At Harvard, he was a student of psychologist Jordan Peterson, who influenced his writing. He was the undergraduate scholar-athlete of the year at Harvard for pole vaulting and played college soccer in England, where he was a Knox Fellow.


title: Gregg Hurwitz

text: Hurwitz is the author of "The Tower", "Minutes to Burn", "Do No Harm", "The Kill Clause", "The Program", "Troubleshooter", "Last Shot", "The Crime Writer", "Trust No One", "Don't Look Back", and "Orphan X". His books have been shortlisted for best novel of the year by the International Thriller Writers, nominated for the CWA Ian Fleming Steel Dagger, chosen as feature selections for four major literary book clubs, honored as Book Sense Picks, and translated into 28 languages.


title: Gregg Hurwitz

text: He wrote the original screenplay for the film "The Book of Henry" (2017), directed by Collin Trevorrow for Sidney Kimmel Entertainment, and filmed in New York.


title: Gregg Hurwitz

text: His 2016 novel "Orphan X" was picked up by Warner Bros. with Bradley Cooper to direct. Hurwitz will write the screenplay adaptation. Hurwitz has written "Wolverine", "The Punisher", and "Foolkiller" for Marvel Comics, and published numerous academic articles on Shakespeare. He has taught fiction writing in the USC English Department, and guest lectured for UCLA and Harvard. He also has written and produced season two of the TV show "V".


title: Never Back Down 2: The Beatdown

text: Never Back Down 2: The Beatdown (also known as The Fighters 2: The Beatdown) is a 2011 American martial arts film starring Evan Peters, Michael Jai White, Dean Geyer, Alex Meraz, Todd Duffee, Scott Epstein and Jillian Murray. It is a sequel to the 2008 film "Never Back Down". The film made its world premiere at the ActionFest film festival in Asheville, North Carolina, on April 8, 2011. The film was released on DVD on September 13, 2011, from Sony Pictures Home Entertainment. The film marks White's directorial debut.


title: Never Back Down 2: The Beatdown

text: Max Cooperman is in charge of another upcoming fight at the underground event "The Beatdown", and four fighters are training in a vacant lot under very-experienced martial artist Case Walker: Zack Gomes, who recently quit boxing after sustaining a partially detached retina from a match; MMA fighter Tim Newhouse, whose family is in debt following the death of his father; Mike Stokes, a college student dealing with issues of his father leaving his mother for another man; and Justin Epstein, a comic book store clerk who is the frequent target of bullying. Max offers Case the chance to make some money and at the same time, help him promote the Beatdown. A few weeks into training, the four trainees argue over their reasons for training and deserving to be there more, the worst of it being Justin and Zack hurting each other physically, leaving them to settle it themselves. Later on, Case is harassed by police officers, who threaten him for violating his probation. Because of this, the team builds a new gym where they can train and hold the Beatdown tournament.


title: Never Back Down 2: The Beatdown

text: Danger strikes when Justin snaps from constant bullying, goes rogue and decides to not only attack his personal enemies but also the group itself by framing their mentor and setting him up to go to jail. The rest of the group, in revenge, band together and take on Justin at the Beatdown. With each facing their own trials to reach the final match, it comes down to only one of them versus their own. Mike defeats Zack, while Justin injures Tim in the restroom, thus eliminating him from the tournament. In the tournament finals, Mike engages Justin in a grueling fight until he wins by breaking Justin's right shoulder via an Omoplata submission hold. Justin attempts to retaliate by jumping Mike from behind, but Mike counters with a superman punch to the face. As Mike and his girlfriend Eve celebrate his win, he finally calls his father and ask him to go out to dinner because they have a lot to talk about. Case gets a call from "Big" John McCarthy and confirms his return to MMA.


title: Never Back Down 2: The Beatdown

text: Filming started in September 2010 and finished in November 2010 in Baton Rouge, Louisiana. On a budget of $3 million, the film was shot in four weeks, and the rehearsals took two weeks. The fights were choreographed by Larnell Stovall.


title: Never Back Down 2: The Beatdown

text: A sequel, titled "Never Back Down: No Surrender", was released on June 7, 2016. It began filming in Thailand in June 2015 again under the direction of White, who also reprises his role as Case Walker. The film also stars Esai Morales, MMA fighter Josh Barnett, Tony Jaa, former professional wrestler Nathan Jones and Gillian Waters.


title: Churrasco

text: Churrasco (, ) is the Portuguese and Spanish name for beef or grilled meat more generally. It is a prominent feature in the cuisine of Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentina. The related term "churrascaria" (or "churrasquería") is mostly understood to be a steakhouse restaurant serving grilled meat, many offering as much as one can eat: servers move around the restaurant with skewers, slicing meat onto the customer's plate. This serving style is called "espeto corrido" or "rodízio", and is quite popular in Brazil, especially in southern states like Rio Grande do Sul, Paraná, Santa Catarina, and São Paulo.


title: Churrasco

text: In Brazil, "churrasco" is the term for a barbecue (similar to the Argentine and Uruguayan "asado") which originated in southern Brazil. It uses a variety of meats, pork, sausage and chicken which may be cooked on a purpose-built "churrasqueira", a barbecue grill, often with supports for spits or skewers. Portable "churrasqueiras" are similar to those used to prepare the Argentine and Uruguayan "asado", with a grill support, but many Brazilian "churrasqueiras" do not have grills, only the skewers above the embers. The meat may alternatively be cooked on large metal or wood skewers resting on a support or stuck into the ground and roasted with the embers of charcoal (wood may also be used, especially in the state of Rio Grande do Sul).


title: Churrasco

text: In Nicaragua, the first immigrant group to introduce the term for this cut of beef to the United States restaurant scene in Miami, Florida as early as the 1950s, it refers to a skirt steak prepared grilled and served with a traditional "chimichurri" sauce made with macerated parsley, garlic, peppers, and olive oil sauce.


title: Churrasco

text: In Argentina and Uruguay a "churrasco" refers to any boneless cut of beef that is sliced slightly thin as a steak and grilled over hot coals or on a very hot skillet.


title: Churrasco

text: In the Dominican Republic and the U.S. territory of Puerto Rico it always refers to skirt steak, cooked on a barbecue grill. The "chimichurri" sauce is optional, since the meat is very savory with just a slight hint of sea salt that is sprinkled over the meat during cooking. In Puerto Rico, it is also customary to replace "chimichurri" sauce with a guava rum sauce made with spices and 7up or "Ajilimójili" sauce.


title: Churrasco

text: In Ecuador "churrasco" is a staple food of the Coast Region, especially Guayaquil. The dish's main ingredient is the grilled steak that is seasoned with "chimichurri", it is served with plantains, white rice, French fries, a fried egg, and slices of avocado.