title: Urjit Patel

text: Urjit Patel was born in Nairobi on 28 October 1963 to Manjula and Ravindra Patel. His grandfather had migrated from Mahudha village in Kheda district, Gujarat to Kenya in the 20th century. His father ran Rexo Products Ltd, a chemical factory in Nairobi.


title: Urjit Patel

text: He studied in Nairobi at Jamhuri High School, and prior to that the Gujarati community-run Visa Oshwal Primary School. He studied at the London School of Economics for a Bachelor of Science degree in 1984. He obtained an M.Phil. degree from University of Oxford in 1986. He was conferred a Ph.D. in economics from Yale University in 1990. He was at IMF India Desk during the 1991–94 transition period.


title: Urjit Patel

text: After obtaining his Ph.D., Patel joined the International Monetary Fund (IMF) in 1990, where he worked on the US, India, Bahamas and Myanmar desks till 1995. Thereafter he went on deputation from the IMF to the Reserve Bank of India (RBI), where he played an advisory role in the development of the debt market, banking sector reforms, pension fund reforms, and targeting of real exchange rate.


title: Urjit Patel

text: Between 2000 and 2004, Patel worked with several High-Level Committees at both Central and State Government levels:


title: Urjit Patel

text: On 11 January 2013, Patel was appointed as Deputy Governor of RBI for a period of three years; he was appointed for another three-year term in January 2016


title: Urjit Patel

text: On 20 August 2016, he was appointed as the governor of Reserve Bank Of India (RBI). During his tenure, the Government of India demonetised the ₹500 and ₹1000 banknotes of the Mahatma Gandhi Series, with the stated intention of curbing corruption, black money, fake currency and terrorism from 9 November 2016.


title: Urjit Patel

text: On 10 December 2018 at 17:15 hrs IST, Urjit Patel resigned from the post of Governor of the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) effective immediately.


title: Urjit Patel

text: Although Patel cited personal reasons for resigning from RBI, experts have opined that he was forced to exit because of serious differences with the Government of India. The latter wanted more money from RBI to balance its fiscal deficit, which Patel did not agree to, citing requirement for long-term financial stability.


title: Urjit Patel

text: In addition, there was a view in the government that RBI's stringent policies were hurting credit growth which may affect the economic growth of the nation in the future. Chief Economic Advisor Arvind Subramanian said that while he respected the RBI’s decision, there was a “plausible alternative macroeconomic assessment” and that a monetary policy easing was required for economic growth.


title: Urjit Patel

text: There was also a growing perception that Patel had boxed himself into a corner by not communicating sufficiently with stakeholders or responding to market situation.


title: Urjit Patel

text: In August 2019 Nitin Gadkari fueled the controversy when he stated that he had advised the Union Finance Minister to remove the RBI Governor because the latter was inflexible and adamant.


title: Urjit Patel

text: However, on his departure, Prime Minister Narendra Modi and Finance Minister Arun Jaitley appreciated Patel for his work in RBI.


title: A Thin Line Between Love and Hate

text: A Thin Line Between Love and Hate is a 1996 American comedy thriller film. It tells the story of Darnell Wright (Martin Lawrence), a ladies' man who finds himself stalked by one of his obsessed lovers: Brandi (Lynn Whitfield), an attractive and successful, but unstable older businesswoman.


title: A Thin Line Between Love and Hate

text: Lawrence directed the film, and co-wrote the screenplay alongside Kenny Buford, Bentley Kyle Evans and Kim Bass. Released on April 3, 1996, the film grossed over $34 million at the box office against a budget of $8 million.


title: A Thin Line Between Love and Hate

text: Nightclub manager Darnell Wright is a perpetual playboy and hopeless male chauvinist. He works for a nightclub called "Chocolate City" and aspires to be its owner. He trades VIP privileges at the club for favors from women. Though he is an expert at conning women, he sometimes worries about what his childhood sweetheart Mia thinks of his adventures.


title: A Thin Line Between Love and Hate

text: When the beautiful and wealthy Brandi Webb steps out of a limousine to enter the club, Darnell feels that he's met his ultimate prize.


title: A Thin Line Between Love and Hate

text: She initially rejects his come-ons, which only fuels his appetite. He pursues her, showing up with flowers at her office. He finally wins over Brandi, only to find out that he's really in love with Mia.


title: A Thin Line Between Love and Hate

text: One morning, Darnell awakes to find Brandi in his kitchen making bacon and pancakes. She wants him to hold her, but he pushes her off aggressively. However, Brandi doesn't take kindly to rejection. She becomes an obsessed femme fatale: stalking him, taking all four wheels off his SUV to ground him from his rounds, shattering his windshield, and setting his nightclub on fire. She hits herself with a fruit-stuffed stocking to cause herself bruises without fingerprints, and repeatedly slams a door on her arm injuring herself.


title: A Thin Line Between Love and Hate

text: When Darnell goes to see her at the hospital, he is arrested for a false domestic violence charge. She then threatens Mia's life.


title: A Thin Line Between Love and Hate

text: Ending his relationship with Mia is not enough to satisfy Brandi who finally administers Darnell's punishment for his misogyny. Darnell quickly learns the hard way that if you "play", you have to "pay."


title: A Thin Line Between Love and Hate

text: Darnell, now suffering from a gun wound attempts to take the gun from Brandi, causing Brandi, Mia, and he to fall out of a window and land in a pool.


title: A Thin Line Between Love and Hate

text: Darnell awakes from the fall in a hospital, with all his friends, family, and Mia standing over him. He decides to change his life for the better. Brandi is arrested and imprisoned.


title: A Thin Line Between Love and Hate

text: The plot of "A Thin Line Between Love and Hate" was influenced by "Boomerang" and "Fatal Attraction". The opening sequence, depicting Darnell lying unconscious and fully clothed face down in a swimming pool while narrating the events that led him to there, was influenced by Billy Wilder's 1950 film "Sunset Boulevard". The film has been classified as a comedy thriller.


title: A Thin Line Between Love and Hate

text: "A Thin Line Between Love and Hate" grossed $34,873,513 at the box office against a budget of $8 million.


title: A Thin Line Between Love and Hate

text: The critical reception of the film was mostly negative. On Rotten Tomatoes the film has a 15% rating based on 27 reviews.


title: A Thin Line Between Love and Hate

text: A soundtrack containing hip hop and R&B music was released on January 30, 1996, by Warner Bros. Records. It peaked at No. 22 on the "Billboard" 200 and No. 5 on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums. It consisted of a blend of hip hop and R&B music. The soundtrack contained three charting singles, "Beware of My Crew", "A Thin Line Between Love and Hate" and "Let's Stay Together". On most releases of the soundtrack, Track 16 ("Brown Sugar" by D’Angelo) is omitted from the soundtrack altogether, leaving only a total of 15 tracks.


title: Mike Scioscia

text: Michael Lorri Scioscia (, ; born November 27, 1958), nicknamed "Sosh" and "El Jefe", is an American former Major League Baseball catcher and manager in Major League Baseball (MLB). He managed the Anaheim / Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim / Los Angeles Angels from the 2000 season through the 2018 season, and was the longest-tenured manager in Major League Baseball and second-longest-tenured coach/manager in the "Big Four" (MLB, NFL, NHL, and NBA), behind only Gregg Popovich at the time of his retirement. As a player, Scioscia made his major league debut with the Los Angeles Dodgers in . He was selected to two All-Star Games and won two World Series over the course of his 13-year MLB career, which was spent entirely with the Dodgers; this made him the only person in MLB history to spend his entire playing career with one team and entire managing career with another team with 10+ years in both places. He was signed by the San Diego Padres and Texas Rangers late in his career, but never appeared in a major league game for either team due to injury.


title: Mike Scioscia

text: After his playing career ended, Scioscia spent several seasons as a minor league manager and major league coach in the Dodgers organization before being hired as the Angels manager after the 1999 season. As a manager, Scioscia led the Angels to their only-to-date World Series championship in . He is the Angels' all-time managerial leader in wins, games managed, and division titles. Scioscia was honored with the American League Manager of the Year Award in and . On May 8, 2011, Scioscia became the 56th manager to win 1,000 or more games, and the 23rd to have all 1,000 or more victories with a single team.


title: Mike Scioscia

text: Scioscia was drafted by the Los Angeles Dodgers in the 1st round (19th overall pick) of the 1976 amateur draft, debuting for the Dodgers in 1980 (replacing Steve Yeager) and went on to play 12 years for the team. Dodger manager Tommy Lasorda helped lobby Scioscia to sign with the Dodgers after the team drafted him out of Springfield (Delaware County) High School, a public school located in the suburbs of Philadelphia in 1976.


title: Mike Scioscia

text: Scioscia made himself invaluable to the Dodgers by making the effort to learn Spanish in order to better communicate with rookie sensation Fernando Valenzuela in 1981.


title: Mike Scioscia

text: Scioscia went to the San Diego Padres in 1993, but suffered a torn rotator cuff injury during spring training that year and did not play in any regular season games for the team. He closed out his career with the Texas Rangers in 1994 after a failed attempt to come back from the injury, again without having played in any regular season games that year.


title: Mike Scioscia

text: Exclusively a catcher, the 6-foot, 2-inch, 230 pound Scioscia was primarily known for his defense. Former Dodgers vice president Al Campanis once called Scioscia the best plate-blocking catcher he had seen in his 46-year baseball career. In one collision with St. Louis Cardinals' slugger Jack Clark in July 1985, Scioscia was knocked unconscious but still held onto the ball. Scioscia, however, has claimed he had an even harder plate collision the following season.


title: Mike Scioscia

text: Scioscia's technique for blocking the plate and making a tag varied slightly from the traditional manner employed by most catchers. When applying the tag, most catchers hold the baseball in their bare hand, with that hand then being inside their catcher's mitt to apply the tag with both hands. Scioscia preferred to hold the ball in his catcher's mitt without making use of his bare hand. Also, Scioscia felt he was less prone to injury in a collision if positioned his body so that he was kneeling on both knees and turned to the side, whereas most catchers make their tag either standing or on one knee.


title: Mike Scioscia

text: Indeed, Scioscia was noted for his durability. After missing most of the 1983 season after tearing his rotator cuff, Scioscia played in more than 100 games each season for the remainder of his career with the Dodgers. Offensively, Scioscia was generally unspectacular, but he was known as a solid contact hitter, striking out fewer than once every 14 at-bats over the course of his career. Because of his ability to make contact, he was sometimes used as the second hitter in the batting order—an atypical slot for a player with Scioscia's large-set frame and overall batting average. He had a particularly strong season on offense in 1985, batting .296 and finishing second in the National League in on-base percentage.


title: Mike Scioscia

text: Scioscia also hit a dramatic, ninth inning, game-tying home run off the New York Mets' Dwight Gooden in Game 4 of the 1988 National League Championship Series. With the Dodgers going on to win that game in extra innings, Scioscia's blast (which came after he had hit only three home runs that entire season) proved crucial to the Dodgers' ultimately prevailing in that series.


title: Mike Scioscia

text: Scioscia was a key player on the Dodgers' 1981 and 1988 World Series champion teams, and is the Dodgers' all-time leader in games caught (1,395). In 1990, Scioscia became the first Dodger catcher to start in an All-Star Game since Hall of Famer Roy Campanella. Alfredo Griffin, Scioscia's teammate from the 1988 Dodger team, served on Scioscia's coaching staff with the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim from 2000-2018. Scioscia earned as much as $2,183,333/year in salary toward the end of his career, and earned the unofficial total sum of $10,109,999 over his career.


title: Mike Scioscia

text: Scioscia was involved in three no-hitters in his career: he was on the losing end of Nolan Ryan's 5th no-no on September 26, 1981 vs. the Houston Astros, and on the winning side, he caught Fernando Valenzuela's on June 29, 1990 vs. the St. Louis Cardinals and Kevin Gross's on August 17, 1992 vs. the San Francisco Giants. He caught 136 shutouts during his career, ranking him fourth all-time among major league catchers. Scioscia used the same catcher's mitt for most of his playing career.


title: Mike Scioscia

text: After spending several years as a coach in the Dodgers' organization, Scioscia was hired by new Angels general manager Bill Stoneman to be the Angels' manager after the 1999 season, following the late-season resignation of Terry Collins and interim managerial tenure of Joe Maddon. Scioscia would retain Maddon as an assistant until Maddon received his own managerial position with the Tampa Bay Devil Rays in .


title: Mike Scioscia

text: Under the leadership of Stoneman and Scioscia, the Angels ended their 16-year playoff drought in 2002, winning the AL Wild Card and ultimately winning the franchise's first World Series, a series that pitted the Angels against a San Francisco Giants team managed by Scioscia's former Dodgers teammate Dusty Baker. In winning the series, Scioscia became the 17th person to win a World Series as both a player and a manager (not including those who won as a player-manager).


title: Mike Scioscia

text: Scioscia was honored as 2002 American League Manager of Year by the Baseball Writers' Association of America (the official Manager of the Year award, as recognized by Major League Baseball). He was also named 2002 A.L. Manager of the Year by "The Sporting News", "USA Today Sports Weekly", and the Negro Leagues Baseball Museum. He was further named the overall Major League 2002 Manager of the Year by "Baseball America".


title: Mike Scioscia

text: The Angels under Scioscia would go on to enjoy a period of on-field success never before seen in franchise history, winning five American League West division titles in six years (surpassing the number won by all previous Angels managers combined). Scioscia's Angels broke the franchise single-season win record with 99 wins in 2002, and again with 100 wins in 2008. However, they have yet to win another American League pennant or World Series since their memorable 2002 run.


title: Mike Scioscia

text: Scioscia is the Angels' all-time leader in wins and games managed, surpassing original manager Bill Rigney's totals in both categories in and , respectively. He was also the longest tenured manager in Major League Baseball. In January 2009, he received a multi-year extension on his contract; his former contract ran through the 2010 season. The number of additional years created through this contract was 10 years, through 2018. Scioscia was honored as 2009 American League Major League Manager of Year by the Baseball Writers' Association of America (the official Manager of the Year award, as recognized by Major League Baseball).


title: Mike Scioscia

text: Scioscia became the first manager to reach the playoffs in six of his first ten seasons. On May 8, 2011, the Angels defeated the Cleveland Indians, which marked Scioscia's 1,000th win as a major league manager.


title: Mike Scioscia

text: A rift developed between Scioscia and Jerry Dipoto, the Angels' general manager, when Dipoto fired Mickey Hatcher from the role of the team's hitting coach in 2012. Despite rumors that the Angels might replace either Dipoto or Scioscia after the 2013 season, Moreno announced that both would return to the Angels for the 2014 season.


title: Mike Scioscia

text: Tension between Dipoto and Scioscia continued during the 2015 season regarding the way Scioscia and his coaches delivered statistical reports developed by Dipoto and the front office to their players. Dipoto resigned his post on July 1, 2015, despite efforts from the Angels to convince him to stay. Former Angels general manager Bill Stoneman, who hired Scioscia before the 2000 season, was hired as the interim GM.


title: Mike Scioscia

text: After 19 seasons as manager, following the conclusion of the 2018 season, Scioscia announced that he would step down as manager of the Angels on September 30, 2018. He finished with a record of 1650 wins and 1428 losses.


title: Mike Scioscia

text: On April 6, 2021, USA Baseball announced that Scioscia would manage the United States national baseball team during qualifying for baseball at the 2020 Summer Olympics, held in Tokyo in 2021. The team subsequently qualified, with Scioscia serving as manager for the Olympics. The team went on to win silver, falling to Japan in the gold-medal game.


title: Mike Scioscia

text: In addition to his more orthodox work in baseball, Scioscia is also notable for a guest appearance as himself on "The Simpsons" episode "Homer at the Bat" in 1992, while he was still a player. In the storyline, Scioscia is one of several Major League players recruited by Smithers to work a token job at the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant so that he could play on the plant's softball team against a rival power plant. Scioscia tells Smithers, who found him while deer hunting, that while he enjoyed playing baseball, he always wanted to be a blue collar power plant employee, and consequently is the only player who takes the power plant job seriously. His character is ultimately hospitalized with a life-threatening case of radiation poisoning that leaves him unable to play.


title: Mike Scioscia

text: "They called and asked if I'd be interested in doing it, and it so happened that it was my favorite show. I was excited . . . Every year I get a (residual) check for like $4 . . . I cash 'em. I don't want to mess up their accounting department."


title: Mike Scioscia

text: Scioscia made a second appearance on "The Simpsons" with the episode "MoneyBart", which premiered on October 10, 2010. Having survived the radiation poisoning, he tells Marge and Bart that it gave him superhuman managing powers and that the best players listen to their managers.


title: Mike Scioscia

text: Scioscia acted as a celebrity endorser of the Howard's Appliance & Big Screen Superstore chain in Southern California.


title: Mike Scioscia

text: Early in his career after signing with the Dodgers, Scioscia spent the off-seasons attending Penn State University, working toward a computer science degree.


title: Mike Scioscia

text: Their son Matthew, who played baseball for Notre Dame, was selected in the 45th round by the Angels in the 2011 MLB Draft. He signed on June 20, and was assigned to the AZL Angels. He was traded to the Chicago Cubs for Trevor Gretzky, son of Wayne Gretzky, on March 20, 2014. He was released by the Windy City ThunderBolts on June 14.


title: Telephone tapping

text: Telephone tapping (also wire tapping or wiretapping in American English) is the monitoring of telephone and Internet-based conversations by a third party, often by covert means. The wire tap received its name because, historically, the monitoring connection was an actual electrical tap on the telephone line. Legal wiretapping by a government agency is also called lawful interception. Passive wiretapping monitors or records the traffic, while active wiretapping alters or otherwise affects it.


title: Telephone tapping

text: Lawful interception is officially strictly controlled in many countries to safeguard privacy; this is the case in all liberal democracies. In theory, telephone tapping often needs to be authorized by a court, and is again in theory, normally only approved when evidence shows it is not possible to detect criminal or subversive activity in less intrusive ways. Oftentimes, the law and regulations require that the crime investigated must be at least of a certain severity. Illegal or unauthorized telephone tapping is often a criminal offense. In certain jurisdictions, such as Germany and France, courts will accept illegally recorded phone calls without the other party's consent as evidence, but the unauthorized telephone tapping will still be prosecuted.


title: Telephone tapping

text: In the United States, under the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act, federal intelligence agencies can get approval for wiretaps from the United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court, a court with secret proceedings, or in certain circumstances from the Attorney General without a court order.


title: Telephone tapping

text: The telephone call recording laws in most U.S. states require only one party to be aware of the recording, while twelve states require both parties to be aware. In Nevada, the state legislature enacted a law making it legal for a party to record a conversation if one party to the conversation consented, but the Nevada Supreme Court issued two judicial opinions changing the law and requiring all parties to consent to the recording of a private conversation for it to be legal. It is considered better practice to announce at the beginning of a call that the conversation is being recorded.


title: Telephone tapping

text: The Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution protects privacy rights by requiring a warrant to search an individual. However, telephone tapping is the subject of controversy surrounding violations of this right. There are arguments that wiretapping invades an individual's personal privacy and therefore violates their Fourth Amendment rights. On the other hand, there are certain rules and regulations, which permit wiretapping. A notable example of this is the Patriot Act. The Patriot act does, in certain circumstances, give the government permission to wiretap citizens. In addition, wiretapping laws vary per state which makes it even more difficult to determine whether the Fourth Amendment is being violated.


title: Telephone tapping

text: In Canadian law, police are allowed to wiretap without the authorization from a court when there is the risk for imminent harm, such as kidnapping or a bomb threat. They must believe that the interception is immediately necessary to prevent an unlawful act that could cause serious harm to any person or to property. This was introduced by Rob Nicholson on February 11, 2013, and is also known as Bill C-55. The Supreme Court gave Parliament twelve months to rewrite a new law. Bill C-51 (also known as the Anti-Terrorism Act) was then released in 2015, which transformed the Canadian Security Intelligence Service from an intelligence-gathering agency to an agency actively engaged in countering national security threats.


title: Telephone tapping

text: Legal protection extends to 'private communications' where the participants would not expect unintended persons to learn the content of the communication. A single participant can legally, and covertly record a conversation. Otherwise police normally need a judicial warrant based upon probable grounds to record a conversation they are not a part of. In order to be valid wiretap authorization must state: 1) the offense being investigated by the wiretap, 2) the type of communication, 3) the identity of the people or places targeted, 4) the period of validity (60 days from issue).


title: Telephone tapping

text: In India, the lawful interception of communication by authorized law enforcement agencies (LEAs) is carried out in accordance with Section 5(2) of the Indian Telegraph Act, 1885 read with Rule 419A of Indian Telegraph (Amendment) Rules, 2007. Directions for interception of any message or class of messages under sub-section (2) of Section 5 of the Indian Telegraph Act, 1885 shall not be issued except by an order made by the Secretary to the Government of India in the Ministry of Home Affairs in the case of Government of India and by the Secretary to the State Government in-charge of the Home Department in the case of a state government. The government has set up the Centralized Monitoring System (CMS) to automate the process of lawful interception and monitoring of telecommunications technology. The government of India on 2015 December 2 in a reply to parliament question no. 595 on scope, objectives and framework of the CMS has struck a balance between national security, online privacy and free speech informed that to take care of the privacy of citizens, lawful interception and monitoring is governed by the Section 5(2) of Indian Telegraph Act, 1885 read with Rule 419A of Indian Telegraph (Amendment) Rules, 2007 wherein oversight mechanism exists in form of review committee under chairmanship of the Cabinet Secretary at Central Government level and Chief Secretary of the State at the state government level. Section 5(2) also allows the government to intercept messages that are public emergencies or for public safety.


title: Telephone tapping

text: The contracts or licenses by which the state controls telephone companies often require that the companies must provide access to tapping lines to law enforcement. In the U.S., telecommunications carriers are required by law to cooperate in the interception of communications for law enforcement purposes under the terms of Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act (CALEA).


title: Telephone tapping

text: When telephone exchanges were mechanical, a tap had to be installed by technicians, linking circuits together to route the audio signal from the call. Now that many exchanges have been converted to digital technology, tapping is far simpler and can be ordered remotely by computer. This central office switch wiretapping technology using the Advanced Intelligent Network (AIN) was invented by Wayne Howe and Dale Malik at BellSouth's Advanced Technology R&D group in 1995 and was issued as US Patent #5,590,171. Telephone services provided by cable TV companies also use digital switching technology. If the tap is implemented at a digital switch, the switching computer simply copies the digitized bits that represent the phone conversation to a second line and it is impossible to tell whether a line is being tapped. A well-designed tap installed on a phone wire can be difficult to detect. In some places, some law enforcement may be able to even access a mobile phone's internal microphone even while it isn't actively being used on a phone call (unless the battery is removed or drained). The noises that some people believe to be telephone taps are simply crosstalk created by the coupling of signals from other phone lines.


title: Telephone tapping

text: Data on the calling and called number, time of call and duration, will generally be collected automatically on all calls and stored for later use by the billing department of the phone company. These data can be accessed by security services, often with fewer legal restrictions than for a tap. This information used to be collected using special equipment known as "pen registers" and "trap and trace devices" and U.S. law still refers to it under those names. Today, a list of all calls to a specific number can be obtained by sorting billing records. A telephone tap during which only the call information is recorded but not the contents of the phone calls themselves, is called a "pen register" tap.


title: Telephone tapping

text: For telephone services via digital exchanges, the information collected may additionally include a log of the type of communications media being used (some services treat data and voice communications differently, in order to conserve bandwidth).


title: Telephone tapping

text: Conversations can be recorded or monitored unofficially, either by tapping by a third party without the knowledge of the parties to the conversation or recorded by one of the parties. This may or may not be illegal, according to the circumstances and the jurisdiction.


title: Telephone tapping

text: There are a number of ways to monitor telephone conversations. One of the parties may record the conversation, either on a tape or solid-state recording device, or they may use a computer running call recording software. The recording, whether overt or covert, may be started manually, automatically when it detects sound on the line (VOX), or automatically whenever the phone is off the hook.


title: Telephone tapping

text: The conversation may be monitored (listened to or recorded) covertly by a third party by using an induction coil or a direct electrical connection to the line using a beige box. An induction coil is usually placed underneath the base of a telephone or on the back of a telephone handset to pick up the signal inductively. An electrical connection can be made anywhere in the telephone system, and need not be in the same premises as the telephone. Some apparatus may require occasional access to replace batteries or tapes. Poorly designed tapping or transmitting equipment can cause interference audible to users of the telephone.


title: Telephone tapping

text: The tapped signal may either be recorded at the site of the tap or transmitted by radio or over the telephone wires. state-of-the-art equipment operates in the 30–300 GHz range to keep up with telephone technology compared to the 772 kHz systems used in the past. The transmitter may be powered from the line to be maintenance-free, and only transmits when a call is in progress. These devices are low-powered as not much power can be drawn from the line, but a state-of-the-art receiver could be located as far away as ten kilometers under ideal conditions, though usually located much closer. Research has shown that a satellite can be used to receive terrestrial transmissions with a power of a few milliwatts. Any sort of radio transmitter whose presence is suspected is detectable with suitable equipment.


title: Telephone tapping

text: Conversation on many early cordless telephones could be picked up with a simple radio scanner or sometimes even a domestic radio. Widespread digital spread spectrum technology and encryption has made eavesdropping increasingly difficult.


title: Telephone tapping

text: A problem with recording a telephone conversation is that the recorded volume of the two speakers may be very different. A simple tap will have this problem. An in-ear microphone, while involving an additional distorting step by converting the electrical signal to sound and back again, in practice gives better-matched volume. Dedicated, and relatively expensive, telephone recording equipment equalizes the sound at both ends from a direct tap much better.


title: Telephone tapping

text: For mobile phones the major threat is the collection of communications data. This data does not only include information about the time, duration, originator and recipient of the call, but also the identification of the base station where the call was made from, which equals its approximate geographical location. This data is stored with the details of the call and has utmost importance for traffic analysis.


title: Telephone tapping

text: It is also possible to get greater resolution of a phone's location by combining information from a number of cells surrounding the location, which cells routinely communicate (to agree on the next handoff—for a moving phone) and measuring the timing advance, a correction for the speed of light in the GSM standard. This additional precision must be specifically enabled by the telephone company—it is not part of the network's ordinary operation.


title: Telephone tapping

text: In 1995, Peter Garza, a Special Agent with the Naval Criminal Investigative Service, conducted the first court-ordered Internet wiretap in the United States while investigating Julio Cesar "Griton" Ardita.


title: Telephone tapping

text: As technologies emerge, including VoIP, new questions are raised about law enforcement access to communications (see VoIP recording). In 2004, the Federal Communications Commission was asked to clarify how the Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act (CALEA) related to Internet service providers. The FCC stated that “providers of broadband Internet access and voice over Internet protocol (“VoIP”) services are regulable as “telecommunications carriers” under the Act.” Those affected by the Act will have to provide access to law enforcement officers who need to monitor or intercept communications transmitted through their networks. As of 2009, warrantless surveillance of internet activity has consistently been upheld in FISA court.


title: Telephone tapping

text: The Internet Engineering Task Force has decided not to consider requirements for wiretapping as part of the process for creating and maintaining IETF standards.


title: Telephone tapping

text: Typically, illegal Internet wiretapping will be conducted via Wi-Fi connection to someone's internet by cracking the WEP or WPA key, using a tool such as Aircrack-ng or Kismet. Once in, the intruder will rely on a number of potential tactics, for example an ARP spoofing attack which will allow the intruder to view packets in a tool such as Wireshark or Ettercap.


title: Telephone tapping

text: The second generation mobile phones (circa 1978 through 1990) could be easily monitored by anyone with a 'scanning all-band receiver' because the system used an analog transmission system-like an ordinary radio transmitter. The third generation digital phones are harder to monitor because they use digitally encoded and compressed transmission. However the government can tap mobile phones with the cooperation of the phone company. It is also possible for organizations with the correct technical equipment to monitor mobile phone communications and decrypt the audio.


title: Telephone tapping

text: To the mobile phones in its vicinity, a device called an "IMSI-catcher" pretends to be a legitimate base station of the mobile phone network, thus subjecting the communication between the phone and the network to a man-in-the-middle attack. This is possible because, while the mobile phone has to authenticate itself to the mobile telephone network, the network does not authenticate itself to the phone. There is no defense against IMSI-catcher based eavesdropping, except using end-to-end call encryption; products offering this feature, secure telephones, are already beginning to appear on the market, though they tend to be expensive and incompatible with each other, which limits their proliferation.


title: Telephone tapping

text: Webtapping is used to monitor websites that presumably contain dangerous or sensitive materials, and the people that access them. Though it is allowed by the USA PATRIOT Act, it is considered a questionable practice by many citizens.


title: Telephone tapping

text: In Canada, anyone is legally allowed to record a conversation as long as they are involved in the conversation. The police must apply for a warrant beforehand to legally eavesdrop on the conversation. It must be expected that it will reveal evidence to a crime. State agents are lawfully allowed to record conversations, but to reveal the evidence in court, they must obtain a warrant.


title: Telephone tapping

text: Many state legislatures in the United States enacted statutes that prohibited anyone from listening in on telegraph communication. Telephone wiretapping began in the 1890s, following the invention of the telephone recorder, and its constitutionality was established in the Prohibition-Era conviction of bootlegger Roy Olmstead. Wiretapping has also been carried out under most Presidents, sometimes with a lawful warrant since the Supreme Court ruled it constitutional in 1928. On October 19, 1963, U.S. Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy, who served under John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson, authorized the FBI to begin wiretapping the communications of Rev. Martin Luther King Jr. The wiretaps remained in place until April 1965 at his home and June 1966 at his office.


title: Telephone tapping

text: The history of voice communication technology began in 1876 with the invention of Alexander Graham Bell’s telephone. In the 1890s, “law enforcement agencies begin tapping wires on early telephone networks”. Remote voice communications “were carried almost exclusively by circuit-switched systems,” where telephone switches would connect wires to form a continuous circuit and disconnect the wires when the call ended). All other telephone services, such as call forwarding and message taking, were handled by human operators. However, the first computerized telephone switch was developed by Bell Labs in 1965. This got rid of standard wiretapping techniques.


title: Telephone tapping

text: In late 1940, the Nazis tried to secure some telephone lines between their forward headquarters in Paris and a variety of Fuhrerbunkers in Germany. They did this by constantly monitoring the voltage on the lines, looking for any sudden drops or increases in voltage indicating that other wiring had been attached. However, the French telephone engineer Robert Keller succeeded in attaching taps without alerting the Nazis. This was done through an isolated rental property just outside of Paris. Keller's group became known to SOE (and later Allied military intelligence generally) as "Source K". They were later betrayed by a mole within the French resistance, and Keller was murdered in Bergen-Belsen in April 1945.


title: Telephone tapping

text: In the 1970s, optical fibers become a medium for telecommunications. These fiber lines, “long, thin strands of glass that carry signals via laser light,” are more secure than radio and have become very cheap. From the 1990s to the present, the majority of communications between fixed locations has been achieved by fiber. Because these fiber communications are wired, they're given greater protection under U.S. law.


title: Telephone tapping

text: The earliest wiretaps were extra wires — physically inserted to the line between the switchboard and the subscriber — that carried the signal to a pair of earphones and a recorder. Later on, wiretaps were installed at the central office on the frames that held the incoming wires.”


title: Telephone tapping

text: Before the attack on Pearl Harbor and the subsequent entry of the United States into World War II, the U.S. House of Representatives held hearings on the legality of wiretapping for national defense. Significant legislation and judicial decisions on the legality and constitutionality of wiretapping had taken place years before World War II. However, it took on new urgency at that time of national crisis. The actions of the government regarding wiretapping for the purpose of national defense in the current war on terror have drawn considerable attention and criticism. In the World War II era, the public was also aware of the controversy over the question of the constitutionality and legality of wiretapping. Furthermore, the public was concerned with the decisions that the legislative and judicial branches of the government were making regarding wiretapping.


title: Telephone tapping

text: In 1967 the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that wiretapping (or “intercepting communications”) requires a warrant in "Katz v. United States". In 1968 Congress passed a law that provided warrants for wiretapping in criminal investigations. In 1978 the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act (FISA) created a "secret federal court" for issuing wiretap warrants in national security cases. This was in response to findings from the Watergate break-in, which allegedly uncovered a history of presidential operations that had used surveillance on domestic and foreign political organizations.


title: Telephone tapping

text: In 1994, Congress approved the Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act (CALEA), which “requires telephone companies to be able to install more effective wiretaps. In 2004, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), United States Department of Justice (DOJ), Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives (ATF), and Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) wanted to expand CALEA requirements to VoIP service.”


title: Telephone tapping

text: The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) ruled in August 2005 that “broadband-service providers and interconnected VoIP providers fall within CALEA’s scope. Currently, instant messaging, web boards and site visits are not included in CALEA’s jurisdiction. In 2007 Congress amended FISA to “allow the government to monitor more communications without a warrant”. In 2008 President George W. Bush expanded the surveillance of internet traffic to and from the U.S. government by signing a national security directive.


title: Telephone tapping

text: In the Greek telephone tapping case 2004–2005 more than 100 mobile phone numbers belonging mostly to members of the Greek government, including the Prime Minister of Greece, and top-ranking civil servants were found to have been illegally tapped for a period of at least one year. The Greek government concluded this had been done by a foreign intelligence agency, for security reasons related to the 2004 Olympic Games, by unlawfully activating the lawful interception subsystem of the Vodafone Greece mobile network. An Italian tapping case which surfaced in November 2007 revealed significant manipulation of the news at the national television company RAI.


title: Telephone tapping

text: In 2008, "Wired" and other media reported a lamplighter disclosed a "Quantico Circuit", a 45-megabit/second DS-3 line linking a carrier's most sensitive network in an affidavit that was the basis for a lawsuit against Verizon Wireless. The circuit provides direct access to all content and all information concerning the origin and termination of telephone calls placed on the Verizon Wireless network as well as the actual content of calls, according to the filing.


title: Telephone tapping

text: The most recent case of U.S. wiretapping was the NSA warrantless surveillance controversy discovered in December 2005. It aroused much controversy after then President George W. Bush admitted to violating a specific federal statute (FISA) and the warrant requirement of the Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution. The President claimed his authorization was consistent with other federal statutes (AUMF) and other provisions of the Constitution, also stating that it was necessary to keep America safe from terrorism and could lead to the capture of notorious terrorists responsible for the September 11 attacks in 2001.


title: Telephone tapping

text: One difference between foreign wiretapping and domestic wiretapping is that, when operating in other countries, “American intelligence services could not place wiretaps on phone lines as easily as they could in the U.S.” Also, domestically, wiretapping is regarded as an extreme investigative technique, whereas outside of the country, the interception of communications is huge. The National Security Agency (NSA) “spends billions of dollars every year intercepting foreign communications from ground bases, ships, airplanes and satellites”.


title: Telephone tapping

text: FISA distinguishes between U.S. persons and foreigners, between communications inside and outside the U.S., and between wired and wireless communications. Wired communications within the United States are protected, since intercepting them requires a warrant.


title: The Rising of the Shield Hero (season 1)

text: The first season of "The Rising of the Shield Hero" anime series was produced by Kinema Citrus and directed by Takao Abo, with Keigo Koyanagi handling series composition, Masahiro Suwa designing the characters and Kevin Penkin composing the music. The series adapts the first five volumes of the light novels written by Aneko Yusagi. The season ran from January 9 to June 26, 2019, on AT-X and other channels. It ran for 25 episodes. The season uses four pieces of theme music: two opening themes and two ending themes. The first opening theme is "RISE," performed by MADKID, while the first ending theme is performed by Chiai Fujikawa. The second opening theme is "FAITH," performed by MADKID, while the second ending theme is performed by Fujikawa. For episode 4, Asami Seto sang an insert song titled "Falling Through Starlight" as her character Raphtalia.


title: Vishnu Purana

text: The Vishnu Purana (IAST:, ) is one of the eighteen Mahapuranas, a genre of ancient and medieval texts of Hinduism. It is an important Pancharatra text in the Vaishnavism literature corpus.


title: Vishnu Purana

text: The manuscripts of "Vishnu Purana" have survived into the modern era in many versions. More than any other major Purana, the "Vishnu Purana" presents its contents in "Pancalaksana" format – "Sarga" (cosmogony), "Pratisarga" (cosmology), "Vamśa" (genealogy of the gods, sages and kings), "Manvantara" (cosmic cycles), and "Vamśānucaritam" (legends during the times of various kings). Some manuscripts of the text are notable for not including sections found in other major Puranas, such as those on "Mahatmyas" and tour guides on pilgrimage, but some versions include chapters on temples and travel guides to sacred pilgrimage sites. The text is also notable as the earliest Purana to have been translated and published in 1840 CE by HH Wilson, based on manuscripts then available, setting the presumptions and premises about what Puranas may have been.


title: Vishnu Purana

text: The "Vishnu Purana" is among the shorter Purana texts, with about 7,000 verses in extant versions. It primarily centers around the Hindu god Vishnu and his avatars such as Krishna, but it praises Brahma and Shiva and asserts that they are dependent on Vishnu. The Purana, states Wilson, is pantheistic and the ideas in it, like other Puranas, are premised on the Vedic beliefs and ideas.


title: Vishnu Purana

text: "Vishnu Purana", like all major Puranas, attributes its author to be sage Veda Vyasa. The actual author(s) and date of its composition are unknown and contested. Estimates of its composition range from 400 BCE to 900 CE. The text was likely composed and rewritten in layers over a period of time, with roots possibly in ancient 1st-millennium BCE texts that have not survived into the modern era. The "Padma Purana" categorizes "Vishnu Purana" as a Sattva Purana (Purana that represents goodness and purity).


title: Vishnu Purana

text: The composition date of "Vishnu Purana" is unknown and contested, with estimates widely disagreeing. Some proposed dates for the earliest version of "Vishnu Purana" by various scholars include:


title: Vishnu Purana

text: Rocher states that the "date of the "Vishnu Purana" is as contested as that of any other Purana". References to "Vishnu" "Purana" in texts such as "Brihadvishnu" whose dates are better established, states Rocher, suggest that a version of "Vishnu" "Purana" existed by about 1000 CE, but it is unclear to what extent the extant manuscripts reflect the revisions during the 2nd millennium. "Vishnu" "Purana" like all Puranas has a complicated chronology. Dimmitt and van Buitenen state that each of the Puranas including the "Vishnu" "Purana" is encyclopedic in style, and it is difficult to ascertain when, where, why and by whom these were written:


title: Vishnu Purana

text: Many of the extant manuscripts were written on palm leaf or copied during the British India colonial era, some in the 19th century. The scholarship on "Vishnu Purana", and other Puranas, has suffered from cases of forgeries, states Ludo Rocher, where liberties in the transmission of Puranas were normal and those who copied older manuscripts replaced words or added new content to fit the theory that the colonial scholars were keen on publishing.


title: Vishnu Purana

text: The extant text comprises six (parts) and 126 (chapters). The first part has 22 chapters, the second part consists 16 chapters, the third part comprises 18 chapters and the fourth part has 24 chapters. The fifth and the sixth parts are the longest and the shortest part of the text, comprising 38 and 8 chapters respectively.


title: Vishnu Purana

text: The textual tradition claims that the original "Vishnu" "Purana" had 23,000 verses, but the surviving manuscripts have just a third of these, about 7,000 verses. The text is composed in metric verses or "sloka", wherein each verse has exactly 32 syllables, of which 16 syllables in the verse may be free style per ancient literary standards.


title: Vishnu Purana

text: The "Vishnu" Purana is an exception in that it presents its contents in Vishnu worship-related "Pancalaksana" format – "Sarga" (Cosmogony), "Pratisarga" (Cosmology), "Vamsa" (Mythical genealogy of the gods, sages, and kings), "Manvantara" (Cosmic Cycles), and "Vamsanucaritam" (Legends During The Times Of Various Kings). This is rare, state Dimmitt and van Buitenen, because just 2% of the known Puranic literature corpus is about these five "Pancalaksana" items, and about 98% is about diverse range of encyclopedic topics.


title: Vishnu Purana

text: Vishnu Purana opens as a conversation between sage Maitreya and his Guru, Parashara, with the sage asking, "What Is The Nature Of This Universe And Everything That Is In It?"


title: Vishnu Purana

text: The first "Amsha" (part) of "Vishnu Purana" presents cosmology, dealing with the creation, maintenance and destruction of the universe. The mythology, states Rocher, is woven with the evolutionary theories of Samkhya school of Hindu philosophy.


title: Vishnu Purana

text: The Hindu god Vishnu is presented as the central element of this text's cosmology, unlike some other Puranas where Shiva or Brahma or goddess Shakti are offered prominence. The reverence and the worship of Vishnu is described in 22 chapters of the first part as the means for liberation, along with the profuse use of the synonymous names of Vishnu such as Hari, Janardana, Madhava, Achyuta, Hrishikesha and others. The chapters 1.16 through 1.20 of the "Vishnu Purana" presents the legend of compassionate and Vishnu devotee Prahlada and his persecution by his demon king father Hiranyakasipu, wherein Prahlada is ultimately saved by Vishnu when Vishnu's Narashima avatar kills Hiranyakashipu. This story is also found in other Puranas.


title: Vishnu Purana

text: Vishnu is described in the first book of "Vishnu Purana" as, translates Wilson, all elements, all matter in the world, the entire universe, all living beings, as well as Atman (Inner Self, essence) within every living being, nature, intellect, ego, mind, senses, ignorance, wisdom, the four Vedas, all that is and all that is not.


title: Vishnu Purana

text: The second part of the text describes its theory of earth, the seven continents and seven oceans. It describes Mount Meru, Mount Mandara and other major mountains, as well as Bharata Varsha (Literally, the country of Bharata) along with its numerous rivers and diverse people. The seven continents are named "Jambu", "Plaksha", "Salmala", "Kusha", "Krauncha", "Saka," and "Pushkara", each surrounded by different types of liquids (salt water, fresh water, wine, sugarcane juice, clarified butter, liquid yoghurt, And milk).


title: Vishnu Purana

text: This part of the "Vishnu" Purana describes spheres above the Earth, planets, the Sun And the Moon. Four Chapters (2.13 to 2.16) of the second book of the text present the legends of King Bharat, who abdicates his throne to lead the life of a Sannyasi, which is similar to the legends found in section 5.7 to 5.14 of the Bhagavata Purana. The geography of Mount Mandara as east of Mount Meru, presented in this book and other Puranas, states Stella Kramrisch, may be related to the word "Mandir" (Hindu Temple) and the reason of its Design, "Image, Aim And Destination".


title: Vishnu Purana

text: The initial chapters of the third book of the "Vishnu" Purana presents its theory of "Manvantaras", or Manus-ages (each 306.72 Million Years Long). This is premised upon the Hindu belief that everything is Cyclic, And Even "Yuga" (Era, Ages) start, mature and then dissolve. Six manvantaras, states the text, have already passed, and the current age belong to the seventh. In each age, asserts the text, the Vedas are arranged into four, it is challenged, and this has happened twenty eight times already. Each time, a Veda Vyasa appears and he diligently organizes the eternal knowledge, with the aid of his students.


title: Vishnu Purana

text: After presenting the emergence of Vedic schools, the text presents the ethical duties of the four Varnas in chapter 2.8, the four Ashrama (Stages) of the life of each human being in chapter 2.9, the rites of passage including wedding rituals in chapters 2.10 through 2.12, and Shraddha (Ancestral rites) in chapters 2.13 through 2.16.


title: Vishnu Purana

text: The "Vishnu" Purana asserts that the Brahmin should study the Shastras, worship gods and perform libations on behalf of others, the Kshatriya should maintain arms and protect the earth, the Vaishya should engage in commerce and farming, while the Shudra should subsist by profits of trade, service other varnas and through mechanical labor. The text asserts the ethical duties of all Varnas is to do good to others, never abuse anyone, never engage in calumny or untruth, never covet another person's wife, never steal another's property, never bear ill-will towards anyone, never beat or slay any human being or living being. Be diligent in the service of the gods, sages and guru, asserts the Purana, and seek the welfare of all creatures, one's own children and of one's own soul. Anyone, regardless of their varna or stage of life, who lives a life according to the above duties is the best worshipper of Vishnu, claims the "Vishnu Purana". Similar statements on ethical duties of man are found in other parts of Vishnu Purana.


title: Vishnu Purana

text: The text describes in chapter 2.9, the four stages of life as Brahmacharya (Student), Grihastha (Householder), Vanaprastha (Retirement) and Sannyasa (Renunciation, Mendicant). The text repeats the ethical duties in this chapter, translates Wilson. The chapters on "Shraddha" (Rites For Ancestors) describe the rites associated with a death in family, the preparation of the dead body, its cremation and the rituals after the cremation.


title: Vishnu Purana

text: The third book closes with the Legend Of Vishnu, through "Mayamoha", helping the Devas win over Asuras, by teaching the Asuras heretical doctrines that deny the Vedas, who declare their contempt for the Vedas, which makes them easy to identify and thereby defeat.


title: Vishnu Purana

text: The fourth book of the text, in 24 long chapters, presents royal dynasties, starting with Brahma, followed by solar and lunar dynasties, then those on earth over the "Yugas" (eras), with Pariksit asserted as the "current king". The text includes the legends of numerous characters such as Shaubhri, Mandhatri, Narmada, sage Kapila, Rama, Nimi, Janaka, Buddha, Satyavati, Puru, Yadu, Krishna, Devaka, Pandu, Kuru, Bharata, Bhisma, and others.


title: Vishnu Purana

text: The fifth book of the "Vishnu" Purana is the longest, with 38 chapters. It is dedicated to the Legend Of Krishna, as an incarnation of Vishnu. The book begins with the story of Krishna's Birth, His Childhood Pranks And Plays, His Exploits, His Purpose Of Ending The Tyranny Of Demon-Tyrant King Of Mathura, Named Kans.


title: Vishnu Purana

text: The Krishna story in the "Vishnu" Purana is similar to his legend in the "Bhagavata Purana", in several other Puranas and the Harivamsa of the Mahabharata. Scholars have long debated whether the "Bhagavata" Purana expanded the Krishna Legend in the "Vishnu Purana", or whether the latter abridged the version in former, or both depended on the Harivamsa estimated to have been composed sometime in the 1st millennium of the common era.


title: Vishnu Purana

text: The last book of the "Vishnu Purana" is the shortest, with 8 chapters. The first part of the sixth book asserts that "Kali Yuga" is vicious, cruel and filled with evilness that create suffering, yet "Kali Yuga is excellent" because one can refuse to join the evil, devote oneself to Vishnu and thus achieve salvation.


title: Vishnu Purana

text: The last chapters, from 6.6 to 6.7 of the text discusses Yoga and meditation, as a means to Vishnu devotion. Contemplative devotion, asserts the text, is the union with the Brahman (supreme soul, ultimate reality), which is only achievable with virtues such as compassion, truth, honesty, disinterestedness, self-restraint and holy studies. The text mentions five Yamas, five Niyamas, Pranayama and Pratyahara. The pure and perfect soul is called Vishnu, states the text, and absorption in Vishnu is liberation.


title: Vishnu Purana

text: A Critical Edition of the Sanskrit text of the "Visnu-purana" was published in two large volumes, 1997 and 1999. A critical edition is prepared by comparing a number of different manuscripts, recording their variant readings in notes, and choosing the best readings to constitute the text of the critical edition. This is a real, large-scale critical edition, in which 43 Sanskrit manuscripts were gathered and collated, and 27 were chosen from which to prepare the Sanskrit edition. It is:


title: Vishnu Purana

text: "The Critical Edition of the Visnupuranam", edited by M. M. Pathak, 2 vols., Vadodara: Oriental Institute, 1997, 1999.


title: Vishnu Purana

text: All scholars citing translations of Sanskrit texts are expected to refer to the Sanskrit original, because translations are inexact. From 1999 onward, anyone citing the "Visnu-purana" will be expected to refer to this Sanskrit critical edition.


title: Vishnu Purana

text: A translation of the critical edition was published in 2021 under the title, "The Visnu Purana: Ancient Annals of the God with Lotus Eyes."


title: Vishnu Purana

text: "Vishnu" Purana is one of the 18 major Puranas, and these text share many legends, likely influenced each other. The fifth chapter of the "Vishnu" Purana was likely influenced by the Mahabharata. Similarly, the verses on rites of passage and ashramas (stages) of life are likely drawn from the Dharmasutra literature. Rajendra Hazra, in 1940, assumed that Vishnu Purana is ancient and proposed that texts such as "Apasthamba Dharmasutra" borrowed text from it. Modern scholars such as Allan Dahlaquist disagree, however, and state that the borrowing may have been in the other direction, from Dharmasutras into the Purana.


title: Vishnu Purana

text: Other chapters, particularly those in book 5 and 6 of the "Vishnu" Purana have Advaita Vedanta and Yoga influences. The theistic Vedanta scholar Ramanuja, according to Sucharita Adluri, incorporated ideas from the "Vishnu" Purana to identify the Brahman concept in the Upanishads with Vishnu, thus providing a Vedic foundation to the Srivaishnava tradition.


title: Almaty International Airport

text: Almaty International Airport () is a major international airport northeast of Almaty, the largest city and commercial capital of Kazakhstan. It is the busiest airport in Kazakhstan, accounting for 6.42 million passengers in 2019.


title: Almaty International Airport

text: The airport is registered under name of "JSC Almaty International Airport", which is owned by Turkish airport company TAV Airports Holding, as well as many other airports available worldwide.


title: Almaty International Airport

text: The airport was built in 1935 for use by small civil and military aircraft. Up to 1990, it was the part of Kazakh Department of Civil Aviation, and then reorganized into "Alma-Ata Airport" in 1991. Since 1993, it has run as an independent business unit. In 1994, it was reorganized into OJSC "Almaty Airport" and later renamed to JSC Almaty International Airport.


title: Almaty International Airport

text: The supersonic transport (SST) Tupolev Tu-144 began service on 26 December 1975, flying mail and freight between Moscow and Alma-Ata in preparation for passenger services, which commenced in November 1977. The Aeroflot flight on 1 June 1978 was the Tu-144's 55th and last scheduled passenger service.


title: Almaty International Airport

text: Following a runway reconstruction in 1998, Almaty airport was awarded a CAT II certificate and the status of an international airport.


title: Almaty International Airport

text: On 9 July 1999, a fire started in the shashlik kitchen of the airport restaurant. The terminal building burned down in just a few hours, but without major injuries.


title: Almaty International Airport

text: Construction of a new terminal was completed in 2004. On 30 September 2008, a second runway was opened with the first departure being a BMI flight bound for London Heathrow. The new runway was also given an ICAO certificate for CAT III landings which will significantly reduce the number of planes diverting to nearby airfields due to low visibility, especially during the winter months. The runway is the longest in central Asia. The new runway can accept all types of aircraft without limitation of take-off weight and operation frequency.


title: Almaty International Airport

text: Growth in connectivity is in danger of being compromised by airport infrastructure that is comparatively expensive and not keeping pace with demand growth. IATA is urging the Kazakhstan government to follow ICAO principles and eliminate differential ANSP charges between domestic and international carriers. Currently (2012), it is 18% more expensive to turn around an Airbus A320 in Almaty than at similarly sized airports in Europe. The differential rises to 43% for a Boeing 767.


title: Almaty International Airport

text: There were plans to build a new passenger terminal for international flights with six loading bridges and capacity up to 2,500 passengers per hour in the near future. A developed infrastructure complex consisting of a Marriott Hotel, conference halls, business center, shopping center and cinemas were planned to be within this terminal.


title: Almaty International Airport

text: The new terminal was to be located along Kuldja Road to help reduce traffic on the way to the airport. However the terminal's construction was stopped due to managers postponing the project's construction in 2010 because of disagreements with Air Astana's plans for the terminal which was intended to serve Air Astana international flights while the existing terminal would serve domestic destinations. According to the managers, the problems of this plan would be that Air Astana would have faculties operating, and its planes transferring from one end of the runway to another which would create delayed transporting problems for Air Astana; since the runway lines would be busy with the having lack of space of creating new runways. There has been a conclusion to demolish the construction and rebuild the new terminal used for domestic and international flights. There are now plans to build a new airport in Kapchagai reservoir which is 48 km away from Almaty.


title: Almaty International Airport

text: On February 17, 2012, in Moscow, at the 32nd session of the Council on Aviation and the Use of Airspace of the Interstate Aviation Committee (IAC), Almaty International Airport was recognized as the best in the CIS and received the prize "For Achievements in the Development of International Airports".


title: Almaty International Airport

text: Protesters seized the airport on 5 January during the 2022 Kazakh unrest, halting flights. Kazakh President Kassym-Jomart Tokayev said that eight members of Kazakh security forces had been killed and the insurgents had hijacked five airplanes, and he appealed to Russian security forces to retake the facility. On 7 January, "TASS" reported that Collective Security Treaty Organization troops had occupied the airport and restored order.


title: Almaty International Airport

text: In May 2022, a proposal was made to Deputy Prime Minister Roman Sklyar by a group of deputies from the People's Party of Kazakhstan to name the airport after Kazakh Soviet communist politician Dinmukhamed Kunaev.


title: Karva Chauth

text: Karwa Chauth is a festival celebrated by Hindu women of Northern and Western India on the fourth day after Purnima (a full moon) in the month of Ashwin. Like many Hindu festivals, Karwa Chauth is based on the lunisolar calendar which accounts for all astronomical positions, especially positions of the moon which is used as a marker to calculate important dates. The festival falls on the fourth day after the full moon.


title: Karva Chauth

text: On Karwa Chauth, married women and unmarried women, especially observe fast from sunrise to moonrise for the safety and longevity of their husbands. The Karwa Chauth fast is traditionally celebrated in the states of Delhi, Haryana, Rajasthan, Punjab, Jammu,Madhya Pradesh,Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh. It is celebrated as Atla Tadde in Andhra Pradesh.


title: Karva Chauth

text: "Karva" is another word for 'pot' (a small earthen pot of water) and "chauth" means 'fourth' in Hindi (a reference to the fact that the festival falls on the fourth day of the dark-fortnight, or "Krishna paksh", of the month of "Kartik"). In Sanskrit scriptures, the festival is addressed as Karka Chaturthi, "Karka" meaning an earthen water pitcher and "Chaturthi" denotes fourth day of lunar Hindu month.


title: Karva Chauth

text: Karwa Chauth is mostly celebrated in Northern India. One hypothesis is that military campaigns were often conducted by men in far off places whereby men would leave their wives and children at home to go off to the war. Their wives would often pray for their safe return. The festival also coincides with the wheat-sowing time (i.e., the beginning of the Rabi crop cycle). Big earthen pots in which wheat is stored are sometimes called "Karwas", so the fast may have begun as a prayer for a good harvest in this predominantly wheat-eating Northwestern region.


title: Karva Chauth

text: Another story about the origin of this festival relates to the bond of feminine friendship. With the custom of arranged marriage being prevalent, the newlywed is supposed to reside with her husband and in-laws. Being new to the family, the custom arose of befriending another woman as her friend ("kangan-saheli") or sister ("dharam-behn") for life. The friendship would be sanctified through a Hindu ritual during the marriage ceremony itself. The bride's friend would usually be of the same age (or slightly older), typically married into the same village (so that she would not go away) and not directly related to her in-laws (so there was no conflict of interest later). This emotional and psychological bond would be considered akin to a blood relationship. It is said that Karva Chauth festival evolved to include celebrating this special bond of friendship.


title: Karva Chauth

text: A few days before Karva Chauth, married women would buy new "Karwas" (spherical clay pots)—7-9" in diameter and 2–3 litres capacity—and paint them on the outside with beautiful designs. Inside, they would put bangles and ribbons, home-made candy and sweets, make-up items, and small clothes. The women would then visit each other on the day of Karwa Chauth and exchange these "Karwas".


title: Karva Chauth

text: Women begin preparing for "Karwa Chauth" a few days in advance, by buying adornments (shringar), jewelry, and puja items, such as the "Karwa" lamps, "matthi", Mehandi and the decorated puja "thali" (plate). Local bazaars take on a festive look as shopkeepers put their "Karwa Chauth" related products on display. On the day of the fast, women from Punjab awake to eat and drink just before sunrise. In Uttar Pradesh, celebrants eat "soot feni" with milk in sugar on the eve of the festival. It is said that this helps them go without water the next day. In Punjab, "sargi" (ਸਰਗੀ) is an important part of this pre-dawn meal and always includes "fenia". It is traditional for the "sargi" to be sent or given to the fasting woman by her mother-in-law. If she lives with her mother-in-law, the pre-dawn meal is prepared by the mother-in-law. On Karwa Chauth occasion, fasting women choose to wear Karwa chauth special dresses like a traditional saari or lehenga to look their best. In some regions, women wear traditional dresses of their states.


title: Karva Chauth

text: The fast begins at dawn. Fasting women do not eat during the day. Hindu wives perform various kind of rituals along with Vrat (fast) on Karwa chauth for their husband's long life. Saint Garibdas Ji Maharaj says:Kahe jo karava chauth kahaanee| Taas gadaharee nishchay jaanee||


title: Karva Chauth

text: Kare ekaadashee sanjam soee| Karava chauth gadaharee hoee||In traditional observances of the fast, the fasting woman usually does no housework. Women apply Mehandi and other cosmetics to themselves and each other. The day passes in meeting friends and relatives. In some regions, it is customary to give and exchange painted clay pots filled with put bangles, ribbons, home-made candy, cosmetics and small cloth items (e.g., handkerchiefs). Since "Karwa Chauth" follows soon after the "Kharif" crop harvest in the rural areas, it is a good time for community festivities and gift exchanges. Parents often send gifts to their married daughters and their children.


title: Karva Chauth

text: In the evening, a community women-only ceremony is held. Participants dress in fine clothing and wear jewellery and mehandi, and (in some regions) dress in the complete finery of their wedding dresses. The dresses ("saris" or "Lehangs") are frequently red, gold, pink, yellow or orange, which are considered auspicious colors. In Uttar Pradesh, women wear "saris" or "lehangas". The fasters sit in a circle with their puja thalis. Depending on region and community, a version of the story of "Karwa Chauth" is narrated, with regular pauses. The storyteller is usually an older woman or a priest, if one is present. The "Karwa Chauth" puja song is sung collectively. In some parts of Uttar Pradesh, in the pauses, the singers perform the "feris" (passing their thalis around in the circle). While in other parts, the women keep some rice etc. in their hands while listening to the story.


title: Karva Chauth

text: The first six describe some of the activities of fast and the seventh describes the lifting of those restrictions with the conclusion of the fast. The forbidden activities include weaving cloth ("kumbh chrakhra feri naa"), pleading with or attempting to please anyone ("ruthda maniyen naa"), and awakening anyone who is asleep ("suthra jagayeen naa"). For the first six "feris" they sing


title: Karva Chauth

text: In Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan, participants exchange "Karwas" seven times between themselves. In Rajasthan, before offering water seven times the fasting woman is asked ""Dhapi ki Ni Dhapi?"" (are you satiated?), to which she responds, ""Jal se Dhapi, Suhaag se na Dhapi"" (I am satiated by water, but not from [love of] my husband). An alternative ritual conducted by Uttar Pradeshis is prayer of "gaur mata" the earth. Specifically, celebrants will take a bit of soil, sprinkle water, and then place kumkum on it, treating it as an idol/manifestation of the fertile Mother Earth. In Rajasthan, stories are told by older women in the family, including narratives of Karwa Chauth, Shiv, Parvati and Ganesh. In earlier times, an idol of Gaur Mata was made using earth and cow dung, which has now been replaced with an idol of Parvati. In some communities, especially in and around Bangalore, a visual depiction of HG is used. Each fasting woman lights an earthen lamp in her "thali" while listening to the Karwa story. Sindoor, incense sticks and rice are also kept in the "thali".


title: Karva Chauth

text: In Uttar Pradesh, a priest or an elderly woman of the family narrates the story of "beejabeti" or Veervati. Celebrants make "Gauri", "Ganesh" and "Shankar" idols with mud and decorate them with colourful and bright clothes and jewellery. While exchanging "Karwas" seven times, they sing


title: Karva Chauth

text: Thereafter, the fasters offer "baayna" (a melange of goodies like halwa, puri, namkeen mathri, "meethi mathri", etc.) to the idols ("mansana") and hand over to their mother-in-law or sister-in-law.


title: Karva Chauth

text: The "fera" ceremony concluded, the women await the rising of the moon. Once the moon is visible, depending on the region and community, it is customary for a fasting woman, to view moon or its reflection in a vessel filled with water, through a sieve, or through the cloth of a dupatta. Then, the woman looks at her husband's face through te sieve. Water is offered (arka) to the moon ("Chandra", the lunar deity) to secure its blessings. In some regions, the woman says a brief prayer asking for her husband's life. It is believed that at this stage, spiritually strengthened by her fast, the woman can successfully confront and defeat death (personified by Yama). In Rajasthan, the women say "Like the gold necklace and the pearl bracelet, just like the moon may my suhaag always shine brightly."


title: Karva Chauth

text: Her husband then takes the water from the "thali" and offers it to his wife; taking her first sip of water during the day, the fast is now broken and the woman can have a complete meal.


title: Karva Chauth

text: In modern North India and Northwestern India society, "Karwa Chauth" is considered to be a romantic festival, symbolizing the love between a husband and wife. It has been celebrated in Bollywood movies such as "Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge", where an unmarried woman signals her love for a man by keeping the fast for him and he reciprocates by secretly fasting as a gesture of empathy, as well as demonstrating his concern for her during the day and breaking her fast by feeding her at moonrise, and "Baghban", in which a man persuades his elderly fasting wife to break her fast over the telephone because they have been separated by their uncaring children. News coverage of celebrities sometimes highlights the keeping of the fast by an unmarried public figure because it indicates a strong and likely permanent romantic attachment. Similar to Valentine's Day, the lack of a romantic partner can acutely be felt by unattached women. The festival is used extensively in advertising campaigns in the region, for instance in a Chevrolet TV spot in which a man demonstrates his caring for his wife by buying a car with a sunroof so he can drive her around on "Karwa Chauth" night until she spots the moon through it.


title: Karva Chauth

text: Thanks to Bollywood, Karwa Chauth isn't limited to being a North Indian festival anymore. It is now glamorized and widely popular function in India.


title: Karva Chauth

text: Since "Karwa Chauth" is celebrated primarily by women (men are entirely excluded from the festival's observances until moonrise, though they are expected to demonstrate attention and concern for their fasting wives) and because beauty rituals and dressing-up are a significant part of the day, the festival is seen as an event that bonds women together. In the present day, groups of unmarried women sometimes keep the fast out of a sense of friendship, though this practice is far from universal. This is especially true in the urban areas of North India and Northwestern India is interpreted as a prayer for a loving husband in the future. Another trend in the northern urban areas is the spreading of the festival's observance to few women originating in communities and regions (such as immigrants in Mumbai,Kumaon Garhwal) that have not traditionally celebrated "Karwa Chauth" or even been aware of the festival's existence. The same is true for Gujarat.


title: Karva Chauth

text: There have been calls to modify or eliminate the festival by commentators who hold it to be "anti-women" and to "perpetuate the notion of women's dependence on men." "Karwa chauth" has been cited as a symbol of cultural repression of women by some Indian feminists, such as Madhu Kishwar who has put it in the same class as "Khomeinivad" (i.e., pushing women into position of subservience to their husbands, similar to the family structure allegedly favored by Ayatollah Khomeini). Other feminists, however, have called the festival empowering for women because "Karwa Chauth" enables them to quit housework completely for the day and expect gifts from their husbands. Some writers have asserted that such "rituals work insidiously" to create "an instrument of social control" that oppresses women and that the even greater popularity of "Karwa Chauth" among urban, educated participants raises the question of "which is the greater barrier to women's liberation: religion or the market."


title: Karva Chauth

text: There are legends associated with the "Karwa Chauth" festival. In some tellings, the tales are interlinked, with one acting as a frame story for another.


title: Karva Chauth

text: A beautiful queen called Veervati was the only sister of seven loving brothers. She spent her first "Karwa Chauth" as a married woman at her parents' house. She began a strict fast after sunrise but, by evening, was desperately waiting for the moonrise as she suffered severe thirst and hunger. Her seven brothers couldn't bear to see their sister in such distress and created a mirror in a "pipal tree" that made it look as though the moon had risen. The sister mistook it for the moon and broke her fast. The moment she took the first morsel of food, she sneezed. In her second morsel she found hair. After the third she learned the news of her husband, the king, was dead. Heartbroken, she wept through the night until her "shakti" compelled a Goddess to appear and ask why she crying. When the queen explained her distress, the Goddess revealed how she had been tricked by her brothers and instructed her to repeat the "Karwa Chauth" fast with complete devotion. When Veervati repeated the fast, Yama was forced to restore her husband to life.


title: Karva Chauth

text: In a variant of this story, the brothers build a massive fire behind a mountain instead and trick their sister by convincing her that the glow is the moon. She breaks her fast and word arrives that her beloved husband has died. She immediately begins running to her husband's house, which is somewhat distant, and is intercepted by Shiva-Parvati. Parvati reveals the trickery to her, cuts her own little finger to give the wife a few drops of her holy blood, and instructs her to be careful in keeping the complete fast in the future. The wife sprinkles Parvati's blood on her dead husband and, coming back to life, they are reunited.


title: Karva Chauth

text: The belief in this fast and its associated rituals goes back to the pre-Mahabharata times. Draupadi, too, is said to have observed this fast. Once Arjun went to the Nilgiris for penance and the rest of the Pandavas faced many problems in his absence. Draupadi, out of desperation, remembered Lord Krishna and asked for help. Lord Krishna reminded her that on an earlier occasion, when Goddess Parvati had sought Lord Shiva's guidance under similar circumstances, she had been advised to observe the fast of Karwa Chauth. In some tellings of this legend, Shiva tells Parvati the story of Veervati to describe the "Karwa Chauth" fast. Draupadi followed the instructions and observed the fast with all its rituals. Consequently, the Pandavas were able to overcome their problems.


title: Karva Chauth

text: A woman named Karwa was deeply devoted to her husband. Her intense love and dedication towards him gave her "shakti" (spiritual power). While bathing at a river, her husband was caught by a crocodile. Karwa bound the crocodile with cotton yarn and asked Yama (the god of death) to send the crocodile to hell. Yama refused. Karwa threatened to curse Yama and destroy him. Yama, afraid of being cursed by "Pati-vrat" (devoted) wife, sent the crocodile to hell and blessed Karwa's husband with long life. Karwa and her husband enjoyed many years of wedded bliss. To this day, Karwa Chauth is celebrated with great faith and belief.


title: Karva Chauth

text: When Lord Yama came to procure Satyavan's soul, Savitri begged him to grant him life. When he refused, she stopped eating and drinking and followed Yama who carried away her dead husband. Yama said that she could ask for any other boon except for the life of her husband. Savitri asked that she be blessed with children. Yama agreed. Being a "'Pati-Vrata'" (devoted) wife, Savitri would never let any other man be the father of her children. Yama was left with no other choice but to restore Savitri's husband to life. This story refers to Savitri Amavasya and not Karwa Chauth. Which is widely observed by married women in the state of Odisha.


title: Sufficient statistic

text: In statistics, a statistic is sufficient with respect to a statistical model and its associated unknown parameter if "no other statistic that can be calculated from the same sample provides any additional information as to the value of the parameter". In particular, a statistic is sufficient for a family of probability distributions if the sample from which it is calculated gives no additional information than the statistic, as to which of those probability distributions is the sampling distribution.


title: Sufficient statistic

text: A related concept is that of linear sufficiency, which is weaker than "sufficiency" but can be applied in some cases where there is no sufficient statistic, although it is restricted to linear estimators. The Kolmogorov structure function deals with individual finite data; the related notion there is the algorithmic sufficient statistic.


title: Sufficient statistic

text: The concept is due to Sir Ronald Fisher in 1920. Stephen Stigler noted in 1973 that the concept of sufficiency had fallen out of favor in descriptive statistics because of the strong dependence on an assumption of the distributional form (see Pitman–Koopman–Darmois theorem below), but remained very important in theoretical work.


title: Sufficient statistic

text: Roughly, given a set formula_1 of independent identically distributed data conditioned on an unknown parameter formula_2, a sufficient statistic is a function formula_3 whose value contains all the information needed to compute any estimate of the parameter (e.g. a maximum likelihood estimate). Due to the factorization theorem (see below), for a sufficient statistic formula_3, the probability density can be written as formula_5. From this factorization, it can easily be seen that the maximum likelihood estimate of formula_2 will interact with formula_7 only through formula_3. Typically, the sufficient statistic is a simple function of the data, e.g. the sum of all the data points.


title: Sufficient statistic

text: More generally, the "unknown parameter" may represent a vector of unknown quantities or may represent everything about the model that is unknown or not fully specified. In such a case, the sufficient statistic may be a set of functions, called a "jointly sufficient statistic". Typically, there are as many functions as there are parameters. For example, for a Gaussian distribution with unknown mean and variance, the jointly sufficient statistic, from which maximum likelihood estimates of both parameters can be estimated, consists of two functions, the sum of all data points and the sum of all squared data points (or equivalently, the sample mean and sample variance).


title: Sufficient statistic

text: The concept is equivalent to the statement that, conditional on the value of a sufficient statistic for a parameter, the joint probability distribution of the data does not depend on that parameter. Both the statistic and the underlying parameter can be vectors.


title: Sufficient statistic

text: A statistic "t" = "T"("X") is sufficient for underlying parameter "θ" precisely if the conditional probability distribution of the data "X", given the statistic "t" = "T"("X"), does not depend on the parameter "θ".


title: Sufficient statistic

text: Alternatively, one can say the statistic "T"("X") is sufficient for "θ" if its mutual information with "θ" equals the mutual information between "X" and "θ". In other words, the data processing inequality becomes an equality:


title: Sufficient statistic

text: As an example, the sample mean is sufficient for the mean ("μ") of a normal distribution with known variance. Once the sample mean is known, no further information about "μ" can be obtained from the sample itself. On the other hand, for an arbitrary distribution the median is not sufficient for the mean: even if the median of the sample is known, knowing the sample itself would provide further information about the population mean. For example, if the observations that are less than the median are only slightly less, but observations exceeding the median exceed it by a large amount, then this would have a bearing on one's inference about the population mean.


title: Sufficient statistic

text: "Fisher's factorization theorem" or "factorization criterion" provides a convenient characterization of a sufficient statistic. If the probability density function is ƒ("x"), then "T" is sufficient for "θ" if and only if nonnegative functions "g" and "h" can be found such that


title: Sufficient statistic

text: i.e. the density ƒ can be factored into a product such that one factor, "h", does not depend on "θ" and the other factor, which does depend on "θ", depends on "x" only through "T"("x"). A general proof of this was given by Halmos and Savage and the theorem is sometimes referred to as the Halmos-Savage factorization theorem. The proofs below handle special cases, but an alternative general proof along the same lines can be given.


title: Sufficient statistic

text: An implication of the theorem is that when using likelihood-based inference, two sets of data yielding the same value for the sufficient statistic "T"("X") will always yield the same inferences about "θ". By the factorization criterion, the likelihood's dependence on "θ" is only in conjunction with "T"("X"). As this is the same in both cases, the dependence on "θ" will be the same as well, leading to identical inferences.


title: Sufficient statistic

text: Due to Hogg and Craig. Let formula_11, denote a random sample from a distribution having the pdf "f"("x", "θ") for "ι" < "θ" < "δ". Let "Y" = "u"("X", "X", ..., "X") be a statistic whose pdf is "g"("y"; "θ"). What we want to prove is that "Y" = "u"("X", "X", ..., "X") is a sufficient statistic for "θ" if and only if, for some function "H",


title: Sufficient statistic

text: We shall make the transformation "y" = "u"("x", "x", ..., "x"), for "i" = 1, ..., "n", having inverse functions "x" = "w"("y", "y", ..., "y"), for "i" = 1, ..., "n", and Jacobian formula_14. Thus,


title: Sufficient statistic

text: The left-hand member is the joint pdf "g"("y", "y", ..., "y"; θ) of "Y" = "u"("X", ..., "X"), ..., "Y" = "u"("X", ..., "X"). In the right-hand member, formula_16 is the pdf of formula_17, so that formula_18 is the quotient of formula_19 and formula_16; that is, it is the conditional pdf formula_21 of formula_22 given formula_23.


title: Sufficient statistic

text: But formula_24, and thus formula_25, was given not to depend upon formula_2. Since formula_2 was not introduced in the transformation and accordingly not in the Jacobian formula_28, it follows that formula_29 does not depend upon formula_2 and that formula_17 is a sufficient statistics for formula_2.


title: Sufficient statistic

text: where formula_34 does not depend upon formula_2 because formula_36 depend only upon formula_37, which are independent on formula_38 when conditioned by formula_17, a sufficient statistics by hypothesis. Now divide both members by the absolute value of the non-vanishing Jacobian formula_28, and replace formula_41 by the functions formula_42 in formula_43. This yields


title: Sufficient statistic

text: where formula_45 is the Jacobian with formula_46 replaced by their value in terms formula_47. The left-hand member is necessarily the joint pdf formula_48 of formula_49. Since formula_50, and thus formula_51, does not depend upon formula_2, then


title: Sufficient statistic

text: We use the shorthand notation to denote the joint probability density of formula_55 by formula_56. Since formula_57 is a function of formula_58, we have formula_59, as long as formula_60 and zero otherwise. Therefore:


title: Sufficient statistic

text: with the last equality being true by the definition of sufficient statistics. Thus formula_62 with formula_63 and formula_64.


title: Sufficient statistic

text: With the first equality by the definition of pdf for multiple variables, the second by the remark above, the third by hypothesis, and the fourth because the summation is not over formula_67.


title: Sufficient statistic

text: Let formula_68 denote the conditional probability density of formula_58 given formula_70. Then we can derive an explicit expression for this:


title: Sufficient statistic

text: With the first equality by definition of conditional probability density, the second by the remark above, the third by the equality proven above, and the fourth by simplification. This expression does not depend on formula_2 and thus formula_57 is a sufficient statistic.


title: Sufficient statistic

text: A sufficient statistic is minimal sufficient if it can be represented as a function of any other sufficient statistic. In other words, "S"("X") is minimal sufficient if and only if


title: Sufficient statistic

text: Intuitively, a minimal sufficient statistic "most efficiently" captures all possible information about the parameter "θ".


title: Sufficient statistic

text: A useful characterization of minimal sufficiency is that when the density "f" exists, "S"("X") is minimal sufficient if and only if


title: Sufficient statistic

text: A case in which there is no minimal sufficient statistic was shown by Bahadur, 1954. However, under mild conditions, a minimal sufficient statistic does always exist. In particular, in Euclidean space, these conditions always hold if the random variables (associated with formula_76 ) are all discrete or are all continuous.


title: Sufficient statistic

text: If there exists a minimal sufficient statistic, and this is usually the case, then every complete sufficient statistic is necessarily minimal sufficient(note that this statement does not exclude a pathological case in which a complete sufficient exists while there is no minimal sufficient statistic). While it is hard to find cases in which a minimal sufficient statistic does not exist, it is not so hard to find cases in which there is no complete statistic.


title: Sufficient statistic

text: The collection of likelihood ratios formula_77 for formula_78, is a minimal sufficient statistic if the parameter space is discrete formula_79.


title: Sufficient statistic

text: If "X", ..., "X" are independent Bernoulli-distributed random variables with expected value "p", then the sum "T"("X") = "X" + ... + "X" is a sufficient statistic for "p" (here 'success' corresponds to "X" = 1 and 'failure' to "X" = 0; so "T" is the total number of successes)


title: Sufficient statistic

text: Note the crucial feature: the unknown parameter "p" interacts with the data "x" only via the statistic "T"("x") = Σ "x".


title: Sufficient statistic

text: If "X", ..., "X" are independent and uniformly distributed on the interval [0,"θ"], then "T"("X") = max("X", ..., "X") is sufficient for θ — the sample maximum is a sufficient statistic for the population maximum.


title: Sufficient statistic

text: To see this, consider the joint probability density function of "X"  ("X"...,"X"). Because the observations are independent, the pdf can be written as a product of individual densities


title: Sufficient statistic

text: where 1 is the indicator function. Thus the density takes form required by the Fisher–Neyman factorization theorem, where "h"("x") = 1, and the rest of the expression is a function of only "θ" and "T"("x") = max{"x"}.


title: Sufficient statistic

text: This is the sample maximum, scaled to correct for the bias, and is MVUE by the Lehmann–Scheffé theorem. Unscaled sample maximum "T"("X") is the maximum likelihood estimator for "θ".


title: Sufficient statistic

text: If formula_85 are independent and uniformly distributed on the interval formula_86 (where formula_87 and formula_88 are unknown parameters), then formula_89 is a two-dimensional sufficient statistic for formula_90.


title: Sufficient statistic

text: To see this, consider the joint probability density function of formula_91. Because the observations are independent, the pdf can be written as a product of individual densities, i.e.


title: Sufficient statistic

text: The joint density of the sample takes the form required by the Fisher–Neyman factorization theorem, by letting


title: Sufficient statistic

text: Since formula_94 does not depend on the parameter formula_95 and formula_96 depends only on formula_97 through the function formula_98


title: Sufficient statistic

text: If "X", ..., "X" are independent and have a Poisson distribution with parameter "λ", then the sum "T"("X") = "X" + ... + "X" is a sufficient statistic for "λ".


title: Sufficient statistic

text: which shows that the factorization criterion is satisfied, where "h"("x") is the reciprocal of the product of the factorials. Note the parameter λ interacts with the data only through its sum "T"("X").


title: Sufficient statistic

text: If formula_104 are independent and normally distributed with expected value formula_2 (a parameter) and known finite variance formula_106 then


title: Sufficient statistic

text: To see this, consider the joint probability density function of formula_109. Because the observations are independent, the pdf can be written as a product of individual densities, i.e.


title: Sufficient statistic

text: Since formula_94 does not depend on the parameter formula_2 and formula_114 depends only on formula_97 through the function


title: Sufficient statistic

text: The Fisher–Neyman factorization theorem still holds and implies that formula_122 is a joint sufficient statistic for formula_123.


title: Sufficient statistic

text: If formula_49 are independent and exponentially distributed with expected value "θ" (an unknown real-valued positive parameter), then formula_125 is a sufficient statistic for θ.


title: Sufficient statistic

text: Since formula_94 does not depend on the parameter formula_2 and formula_114 depends only on formula_97 through the function formula_125


title: Sufficient statistic

text: If formula_49 are independent and distributed as a formula_137, where formula_87 and formula_88 are unknown parameters of a Gamma distribution, then formula_140 is a two-dimensional sufficient statistic for formula_95.


title: Karelian Bear Dog

text: The Karelian Bear Dog (Karjalankarhukoira) is a Finnish breed of dog. In its home country, it is seen by many as a national treasure. Karelian Bear Dogs will hunt a variety of animals. Its quick reflexes and fearless nature have made it very popular for hunting large game including brown bears, moose, and wild boar. It was the breed's ability to hunt bears that earned the breed its name. The Karelian Bear Dog is among the top 10 most common dog breeds in Finland.


title: Karelian Bear Dog

text: The Karelian Bear Dog originated from the Komi dog. Basic stock dogs originated from the Ladoga Karelia, Olonets Karelia, and East Karelia where they were used for hunting. The breeding was started in 1936 to create a sturdy dog which would bark at big game, and named the Karelian Bear Dog. The first standard was established in 1945 and the first dogs were registered in 1946.


title: Karelian Bear Dog

text: The Karelian Bear Dog was used mainly for hunting small fur-bearing animals, such as squirrels and marten. Like the Norwegian Elkhound, the Karelian Bear Dog was also used in hunting moose, lynx, wolf and, as its name would suggest, hunting the Eurasian brown bear. In hunting bear, at least a pair of Bear Dogs would be used to harry the animal, barking loudly, in order to distract the bear while the human hunter came in for the kill.


title: Karelian Bear Dog

text: Karelian Bear Dogs have been used to reduce human-bear conflicts in the U.S., Canada and Japan, through dogs bred by and programs developed and introduced by the Wind River Bear Institute and its Founder Carrie L. Hunt. Larger scale programs have been run by the Institute in coordination with Alberta Parks, Yosemite and Glacier national parks, with Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parks and with the Washington State Department of Fish and Wildlife. Karelian Bear Dogs were introduced in 2004 in Karuizawa, Japan, a popular resort town 170 km northwest of Tokyo, where they reduced the number of bear incidents from 255 in 2006 to four in 2017.


title: Karelian Bear Dog

text: The breed standard for Karelian Bear Dogs and Laikas today calls for a black-and-white marked dog, but originally the breed included individuals with coats of wolf gray of various shades, red coats like the standard spitz, and black-and-tan specimens as well.


title: Karelian Bear Dog

text: Karelian Bear Dogs are naturally aggressive towards other animals. They typically require deliberate socialization or acculturation with anything the owner is around often. They are very affectionate with their owners, but can be aggressive towards strangers. Proper socialization and training is necessary due to their aggressive disposition. Karelian Bear Dogs are very territorial and will alert their handler to the presence of any strangers or other animals nearby that they do not know.


title: Karelian Bear Dog

text: They are silent but tenacious hunters and alert their handler only when they have the prey at bay. They will keep prey cornered there by barking in a very high, fast bark and running back and forth or around the animal until their handler comes and dispatches it. Karelian Bear Dogs have been known to hold an animal at bay for a very long time. If a bear tries to leave, the dog will nip at it on the backside and otherwise aggravate it to keep it from running away.