title: The Man Who Knew Too Much (1934 film)

text: The film is Hitchcock's first film using this title and was followed later with his own 1956 film using the same name featuring a significantly different plot and script with some modifications. The second film featured James Stewart and Doris Day, and was made for Paramount Pictures. The two films are very similar in tone. In the book-length interview "Hitchcock/Truffaut" (1967), in response to filmmaker François Truffaut's assertion that aspects of the remake were by far superior, Hitchcock replied, "Let's say the first version is the work of a talented amateur and the second was made by a professional." However, it has been said this statement cannot be taken at face value.


title: The Man Who Knew Too Much (1934 film)

text: The 1934 film has nothing except the title in common with G. K. Chesterton's 1922 book of the same name. Hitchcock decided to use the title because he held the film rights for some of the stories in the book.


title: The Man Who Knew Too Much (1934 film)

text: Bob and Jill Lawrence, a British couple on a trip to Switzerland with their daughter Betty, befriend Frenchman Louis Bernard, who is staying at their hotel. Jill is participating in a clay pigeon shooting contest. She reaches the final but loses to a male sharpshooter, Ramon Levine, because at the crucial moment she is distracted by a chiming watch belonging to Abbott.


title: The Man Who Knew Too Much (1934 film)

text: That evening, Louis is shot as Jill dances with him. Before he dies, he tells Jill where to find a note intended for the British consul; she in turn tells Bob. Bob reads the note, which warns of a planned international crime.


title: The Man Who Knew Too Much (1934 film)

text: The criminals involved in the shooting kidnap Betty, and threaten to kill her if her parents tell anyone what they know. Unable to seek help from the police, Bob and Jill return to England, where they discover that the group, led by Abbott, have hired Ramon to shoot a European head of state during a concert at the Royal Albert Hall. Jill attends the concert and throws Ramon's aim off by screaming at the crucial moment.


title: The Man Who Knew Too Much (1934 film)

text: The criminals return to their lair behind the temple of a sun-worshipping cult. Bob had entered the temple searching for Betty, and both are being held prisoner in the adjoining house. The police surround the building and a gunfight ensues. The criminals hold out until their ammunition runs low and most of them have been killed.


title: The Man Who Knew Too Much (1934 film)

text: Betty climbs up to the roof, fleeing from Ramon, who follows her. A police marksman dares not shoot at him because Betty is so close. Jill grabs the rifle and shoots Ramon, who falls off the roof.


title: The Man Who Knew Too Much (1934 film)

text: The police storm the building. Abbott, the criminal mastermind, is hiding inside but he is betrayed by the chiming of his watch. He shoots himself (as shown by the gunshot smoke) and dies. Betty is reunited with her parents.


title: The Man Who Knew Too Much (1934 film)

text: Before switching to the project, Hitchcock was reported to be working on "Road House" (1934), which was eventually directed by Maurice Elvey. The film started when Hitchcock and writer Charles Bennett tried to adapt a Bulldog Drummond story revolving around international conspiracies and the kidnapping of a baby; its original title was "Bulldog Drummond's Baby". The deal for an adaptation fell through, and the frame of the plot was reused in the script for "The Man Who Knew Too Much", the title itself taken from an unrelated G.K. Chesterton compilation.


title: The Man Who Knew Too Much (1934 film)

text: The story is credited to Bennett and D. B. Wyndham Lewis. Bennett claimed that Lewis had been hired to write some dialogue that was never used and provided none of the story, though this account has been disputed.


title: The Man Who Knew Too Much (1934 film)

text: It was Peter Lorre's second English-language film, following the multiple-language version of "M" (1931). But he was still unable to speak English, having only recently fled Nazi Germany, and learned his lines phonetically.


title: The Man Who Knew Too Much (1934 film)

text: The shoot-out at the end of the film was based on the Sidney Street Siege, a real-life incident that took place in London's East End (where Hitchcock grew up) on 3 January 1911. The shoot-out was not included in Hitchcock's 1956 remake.


title: The Man Who Knew Too Much (1934 film)

text: Hitchcock hired Australian composer Arthur Benjamin to write a piece of music especially for the set piece at the Royal Albert Hall. The music, known as the "Storm Clouds Cantata", is used in both the 1934 version and the 1956 remake.


title: The Man Who Knew Too Much (1934 film)

text: Alfred Hitchcock's cameo appears 33 minutes into the film. He can be seen crossing the street from right to left in a black trenchcoat before Bob and Clive enter the chapel.


title: The Man Who Knew Too Much (1934 film)

text: Contemporary reviews were positive, with C.A. Lejeune of "The Observer" stating that he was "happy about this film [...] because of its very recklessness, its frank refusal to indulge in subtleties, to be the most promising work that Hitchcock has produced since "Blackmail"". "The Daily Telegraph" referred to it as a "striking come-back" for Hitchcock, while the "Daily Mail" stated that "Hitchcock leaps once again into the front rank of British directors." "The New York Times" praised the film as the "raciest melodrama of the new year", noting that it was "excitingly written" and an "excellently performed bit of story-telling". The review praised Hitchcock as "one of England's ablest and most imaginative film makers" and stated that Lorre "lacks the opportunity to be the one-man chamber of horrors that he was in ["M"]" but "is certainly something to be seen," comparing him favourably to actor Charles Laughton.


title: The Man Who Knew Too Much (1934 film)

text: The film has an approval rating of 88% on Rotten Tomatoes based on 32 reviews, with an average rating of 7.76/10.


title: The Man Who Knew Too Much (1934 film)

text: The film was banned in Norway in January 1935 without citing any reason other than issuing the following statement: "The film above is not approved for public viewing in Norway."


title: The Man Who Knew Too Much (1934 film)

text: "The Man Who Knew Too Much", like all of Hitchcock's British films, is copyrighted worldwide but has been heavily bootlegged on home video. Despite this, various licensed, restored releases have appeared on DVD, Blu-ray and video on demand services from Network Distributing in the UK, Criterion in the US and many others.


title: Six Nations of the Grand River

text: Six Nations (or Six Nations of the Grand River, , ) is demographically the largest First Nations reserve in Canada. As of the end of 2017, it has a total of 27,276 members, 12,848 of whom live on the reserve. It is the only reserve in North America that has representatives of all six Haudenosaunee nations living together. These nations are the Mohawk, Cayuga, Onondaga, Oneida, Seneca and Tuscarora. Some Lenape (formerly known as Delaware) also live in the territory.


title: Six Nations of the Grand River

text: The Six Nations reserve is bordered by the County of Brant, Norfolk County, and Haldimand County, with a subsection reservation, the New Credit Reserve, located within its boundaries. The acreage at present covers some near the city of Brantford, Ontario. This represents approximately 5% of the original of land granted to the Six Nations by the 1784 Haldimand Treaty.


title: Six Nations of the Grand River

text: Many of the Haudenosaunee people allied with the British during the American Revolutionary War, particularly warriors from the Mohawk, Cayuga, Onondaga and Seneca nations. Some warriors of the Oneida and Tuscarora also allied with them, as warfare was highly decentralized. These nations had longstanding trade relations with the British and hoped they might stop European-American encroachment on their territories. These allies were from the Six Nations of the Haudenosaunee (Iroquois) Confederacy.


title: Six Nations of the Grand River

text: After the colonists' victory, the British government ceded all of its territory in the colonies to their new government under a peace treaty, including that belonging to the Six Nations without consulting them or making them party to treaty negotiations. The Crown worked to resettle native Loyalists in Canada and provide some compensation for lands lost in the new United States. The Crown also hoped to use these new settlers, both Native Americans and European Americans, to develop agriculture and towns in areas west of Quebec, the territory later known as Upper Canada.


title: Six Nations of the Grand River

text: The new lands granted to Six Nations reserves were all near important Canadian military targets and placed along the border to prevent any American invasion. The growth of the Six Nations community was also hampered. Land, especially in the 17th and 18th centuries, granted a certain measure of power to their owners. Influential leaders such as Joseph Brant and Deseronto were prevented from granting land to business owners who could have brought industry and agriculture to their lands. Rules and laws were created to prevent the growth of political support for these men by banning all non natives from living and owning any business on reserves. Many complained that much of lands granted were clay and rock ridden, making the land untenable.


title: Six Nations of the Grand River

text: After the war, Mohawk leaders John Deseronto and Joseph Brant met with the British officer Frederick Haldimand to discuss the loss of their lands in New York. Haldimand promised to resettle the Mohawk near the Bay of Quinte, on the northeast shore of Lake Ontario, in present-day Ontario, Canada. Haldimand purchased from other First Nations a tract by on the Bay of Quinte, which he granted to the Mohawk. (There are of course questions about First Nations understanding of such purchase). About 200 Mohawk settled with Deseronto at what is now called the Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory, Ontario. The group of Mohawk originally led by John Deseronto, who died in the town named after him, settled on the Bay of Quinte known as "Tyendinaga". These were primarily Mohawk of the Lower Castle (of New York).


title: Six Nations of the Grand River

text: Brant decided that he preferred to settle on the Grand River north of Lake Erie. Mohawk of the Upper Castle joined him in settling on the Grand River, as did bands of the other Six Nations. By the Haldimand Proclamation of October 25, 1784, the government granted a tract of land to the Mohawk Nation and Six Nations bands in appreciation of their support for The Crown during the revolution. The Crown had purchased the lands previously from the Mississauga on May 22, 1784 as part of the Between the Lakes Treaty. Joseph Brant led a large group of Iroquois to settle in what is now referred to as "Six Nations of the Grand River."


title: Six Nations of the Grand River

text: A 1785 census recorded 1,843 Natives living on the Grand River reserve, including 548 Mohawk, 281 Cayuga, 145 Onondaga, 262 Oneida, 109 Tuscarora, and 98 Seneca. There were also 400 persons from other tribes, including Delaware (Lenape), and others from southern territory, such as the Nanticoke, Tutelo, and some Creek and Cherokee. African-American slaves were also brought to Six Nations and Brantford by Joseph Brant. Brant encouraged members of his family to marry local Blacks, absorbing them into the population on the reserve. From the 1830s to the 1860s many runaway slaves, escaping through the Underground Railroad, were received and absorbed into the population of Six Nations. Along with the African-Americans who settled largely in the area around Cainsville, Joseph Brant invited several Anglo-American white families to live on the grant, particularly veterans of Brant's Volunteers and Butler's Rangers from New York, who had fought with him during the war. To encourage his loyalist friends to settle there, Brant gave them larger grants than the government had given other loyalists in other areas of Upper Canada. Some Canadians objected to Brant giving such land grants to whites in the reserve area. This was the beginning of attempts to curtail any growth Brant might secure for his people.


title: Six Nations of the Grand River

text: As the government did for European Americans, the Indian department provided the Haudenosaunee with some tools and other provisions for resettlement, including such items as saws, axes, grindstones, and chisels. They received help in establishing schools and churches, and in acquiring farm equipment and other necessities. Conditions were extremely difficult in the first years on the frontier, as the government did not provide enough supplies or assistance to any of the resettled loyalists, neither Native Americans nor European Americans. They had to create new settlements out of woodlands. In 1785, the government built the first Protestant church in Upper Canada (now Ontario) on the reserve; it was known as Her Majesty's Royal Chapel of the Mohawks. The Crown maintained its support of this chapel, and it is among only twelve Chapels Royal in the world.


title: Six Nations of the Grand River

text: The main town developed at what is now Brantford. It was first called Brant's Town after Joseph Brant, who built his residence there. In 1798, it was described as a large and sprawling settlement. Brant's home was a handsome two-story house, built in a European-American style. In 1797, Brant founded one of the earliest Masonic Lodges in Upper Canada; he achieved the rank of its Worshipful Master.


title: Six Nations of the Grand River

text: Governor John Simcoe confirmed the Grant with a limited deed on January 14, 1793. This deed did not extend to the source of the Grand River, territory to which the Six Nations have maintained they were entitled as described in the earlier Haldimand Proclamation. Also, this deed forbade them to sell the land to anyone but each other and the king. Led by Joseph Brant, the chiefs rejected the deed. In 1795, the Grand River chiefs empowered Joseph Brant to sell large blocks of land in the northern section, which the Haudenosaunee were not using at the time. They set terms of no money down because they wanted to take their payment entirely in future years as annual interest. At this time, the population on the reserve was declining; some Haudenosaunee left the Grand River for traditional native communities in New York. After Brant's land sales started in 1795, the population began to increase again. He and the chiefs insisted on annuities to help the Six Nations community survive.


title: Six Nations of the Grand River

text: According to the Haldimand Proclamation, the original tract of land stretched from the mouth of the Grand River on the shores of Lake Erie to the river's head, and for 10 km (6 mi) from either bank. However, the grant of land included land around the source that the Crown had not purchased from the Mississauga. A purchase from the Mississauga was later arranged, but not carried out. Between 1795 and 1797, Joseph Brant sold to land speculators; the property comprising the northern half of the reserve was sold for £85,332. This was the highest price paid to Haudenosaunee up to this time for undeveloped land.


title: Six Nations of the Grand River

text: Governor Simcoe opposed the land sales. The interest on the annuity promised an income to the people of £5,119 per year, far more than any other Iroquois people had received. The land speculators were unable to sell farm-size lots to settlers fast enough. By 1801, however, all the land speculators had fallen behind in their payments. Because of the lack of payments, Brant was determined to sell more land to make up for the missing payments.


title: Six Nations of the Grand River

text: In 1796, Lord Dorchester issued another deed for the land. This empowered the Haudenosaunee to lease or sell their land, provided they offered it first for sale to the government. Brant rejected this deed, partly because the deed named the Six Nations as communal owners of the land. He believed the deed should be limited to the current persons living on the land.


title: Six Nations of the Grand River

text: By 1800, two-thirds of the Haudenosaunee had not yet adapted to the style of subsistence agriculture maintained by separate households that the Canadian government encouraged. Brant had hoped that sales of land to European Americans would help them develop the frontier, but conditions were difficult for such agriculture.


title: Six Nations of the Grand River

text: In 1828, chief John Brant was appointed resident superintendent for the Six Nations of the Grand River.


title: Six Nations of the Grand River

text: The Six Nations people were originally given 10 km (6 miles) on either side of the entire length of the Grand River, although much of the land was later sold. The ongoing Grand River land dispute is the result of disputes over the sale process. The current reserves encompass 184.7 km (71 sq mi), all but 0.4 km (100 acres) in Six Nations reserve No. 40.


title: Six Nations of the Grand River

text: In the late 19th century, the Scottish doctor Joseph Bell excavated skulls of indigenous people in the six nations. These skulls reached Berlin through the mediation of the doctor William Osler, where they were considered untraceable for decades. In 2020, the journalists David Bruser and Markus Grill, supported by the ethnologist Nils Seethaler, succeeded in finding the skulls in the anatomical collection of the Berlin Society for Anthropology, Ethnology and Prehistory. A return of the skulls to the care of the community of origin was suggested in this context.


title: Six Nations of the Grand River

text: They later welcomed to the reserve a group of Delaware, who speak "Munsee" (Lenape), an Algonquian language.


title: Six Nations of the Grand River

text: Six Nations of the Grand River is the most populous reserve in Canada. As of December 2013, there were 25,660 band members, of whom 12,271 lived on the reserve. The population consists of the following bands:


title: Six Nations of the Grand River

text: The Six Nations of the Grand River Elected Council is a governing body established to run the affairs of the reserve in 1924, formed under the "Indian Act". The Elected Council has, since its foundation, been the primary government of Six Nations recognised by the Government of Canada. However, the Haudenosaunee Confederacy Chiefs Council has maintained a presence on the reserve despite the establishment of the elected council, representing a continuity with the traditional government of the Haudenosaunee Confederacy.


title: Six Nations of the Grand River

text: Prior to colonization, education in Haudenosaunee communities took place in "unstructured and non-coercive ways." This continues to this day alongside state education.


title: Six Nations of the Grand River

text: Members of the Six Nations attended the Mohawk Institute, a residential school which was the subject of numerous abuse allegations. Upon closure of the institute in 1972, the residential school was replaced by the Woodland Cultural Centre.


title: Six Nations of the Grand River

text: Day schools were also operated on the reserve under the Six Nations School Board (1878–1933), the first Indigenous school board in Ontario. While the official colonial curriculum was taught and many non-Indigenous teachers taught on the reserve, Indigenous influence on the board allowed for the hiring of many Six Nations teachers, many of them women as was and continues to be the case at the elementary level in Ontario. Teachers on the reserve also formed their own association for professional development, the Six Nations Teacher's Organization.


title: The Jordanaires

text: The Jordanaires were an American vocal quartet that formed as a gospel group in 1948. Over the years, they recorded both sacred and secular music for recording companies such as Capitol Records, RCA Victor, Columbia Records, Decca Records, Vocalion Records, Stop Records, and many other smaller independent labels.


title: The Jordanaires

text: In the mid-1950s, they also began lending their vocal talents to other artists as background singers in recording sessions. They are widely known for having provided background vocals for Elvis Presley, in live appearances, recordings, and feature films from 1956 to 1972. The group worked in the recording studio, on stage, and on television with many country, gospel, and rock and roll artists.


title: The Jordanaires

text: They also provided background vocals using the name the Merry Melody Singers and the Almanac Singers, sometimes using different personnel.


title: The Jordanaires

text: In 1948, Monty and Bill Matthews left. Hawkins switched to baritone, and new lead Neal Matthews was recruited. Don Bruce came in as a new first tenor, but he was drafted the next year. The group narrowed to a quartet, with Gordon Stoker taking over as first tenor. They became members of the Grand Ole Opry in 1949. They recorded for Capitol Records in the early 1950s, and began providing vocal accompaniment behind solo singers in Nashville, Tennessee.


title: The Jordanaires

text: The quartet became well known in the Southern gospel genre, and what made them stand out from other quartets of that time was how they would bring spirituals (such as "Dry Bones") to a predominantly white audience. While continuing to turn out gospel albums of their own, the group became better known for the signature background harmonies they have provided on dozens of secular records.


title: The Jordanaires

text: The group appeared on all of Patsy Cline's Decca sessions from her first in November 1960 to her last in February 1963, during which time they backed her on songs such as:


title: The Jordanaires

text: The group changed again in 1982, when Hoyt Hawkins died. His replacement was Duane West, formerly of Sonny James' backup group, the Southern Gentlemen. In 1990, the group provided backing vocals for Presley's former Sun Records labelmate Johnny Cash on his Mercury Records album "Boom Chicka Boom". The group has also recorded with the Swedish group Vikingarna.


title: The Jordanaires

text: The Jordanaires were among hundreds of artists whose material was destroyed in the 2008 Universal fire.


title: The Jordanaires

text: Gordon Stoker died at 88 at his Brentwood, Tennessee, home on March 27, 2013, after a long illness. His son Alan confirmed that The Jordanaires were formally dissolved, per his father's wishes.


title: The Jordanaires

text: The Jordanaires performed with many modern recording artists, as well as recent sessions with country musicians.


title: Postmillennialism

text: In Christian eschatology (end-times theology), postmillennialism, or postmillenarianism, is an interpretation of chapter 20 of the Book of Revelation which sees Christ's second coming as occurring "after" (Latin "post-") the "Millennium", a Golden Age in which Christian ethics prosper. The term subsumes several similar views of the end times, and it stands in contrast to premillennialism and, to a lesser extent, amillennialism (see Summary of Christian eschatological differences).


title: Postmillennialism

text: Postmillennialism holds that Jesus Christ establishes his kingdom on earth through his preaching and redemptive work in the first century and that he equips his church with the gospel, empowers the church by the Spirit, and charges the church with the Great Commission (Matt 28:19) to disciple all nations. Postmillennialism expects that eventually the vast majority of people living will be saved. Increasing gospel success will gradually produce a time in history prior to Christ's return in which faith, righteousness, peace, and prosperity will prevail in the affairs of men and of nations. After an extensive era of such conditions Jesus Christ will return visibly, bodily, and gloriously, to end history with the general resurrection and the final judgment after which the eternal order follows.


title: Postmillennialism

text: Postmillennialism was a dominant theological belief among American Protestants who promoted reform movements in the 1850s abolitionism and the Social Gospel. Postmillennialism has become one of the key tenets of a movement known as Christian Reconstructionism. It has been criticized by 20th century religious conservatives as an attempt to immanentize the eschaton.


title: Postmillennialism

text: The Savoy Declaration of 1658 contains one of the earliest creedal statements of a postmillennial eschatology:


title: Postmillennialism

text: As the Lord in his care and love towards his Church, hath in his infinite wise providence exercised it with great variety in all ages, for the good of them that love him, and his own glory; so according to his promise, we expect that in the latter days, antichrist being destroyed, the Jews called, and the adversaries of the kingdom of his dear Son broken, the churches of Christ being enlarged, and edified through a free and plentiful communication of light and grace, shall enjoy in this world a more quiet, peaceable and glorious condition than they have enjoyed.


title: Postmillennialism

text: John Jefferson Davis notes that the postmillennial outlook was articulated by men like John Owen in the 17th century, Jonathan Edwards in the 18th century, and Charles Hodge in the 19th century. Davis argues that it was the dominant view in the nineteenth century, but was eclipsed by the other millennial positions by the end of World War I due to the "pessimism and disillusionment engendered by wartime conditions."


title: Postmillennialism

text: George M. Fredrickson argues, "The belief that a religious revival and the resulting improvement in human faith and morals would eventually usher in a thousand years of peace and justice antecedent to the Second Coming of Christ was an impetus to the promotion of Progressive reforms, as historians have frequently pointed out." During the Second Great Awakening of the 1830s, some divines expected the millennium to arrive in a few years. By the 1840s, however, the great day had receded to the distant future, and post-millennialism became the religious dimension of the broader American middle-class ideology of steady moral and material progress.


title: Postmillennialism

text: Although some postmillennialists hold to a literal millennium of 1,000 years, other postmillennialists see the thousand years more as a figurative term for a long period of time (similar in that respect to amillennialism). Among those holding to a non-literal "millennium" it is usually understood to have already begun, which implies a less obvious and less dramatic kind of millennium than that typically envisioned by premillennialists, as well as a more unexpected return of Christ.


title: Postmillennialism

text: Postmillennialism also teaches that the forces of Satan will gradually be defeated by the expansion of the Kingdom of God throughout history up until the second coming of Christ. This belief that good will gradually triumph over evil has led proponents of postmillennialism to label themselves "optimillennialists" in contrast to "pessimillennial" premillennialists and amillennialists.


title: Postmillennialism

text: Many postmillennialists also adopt some form of preterism, which holds that many of the end times prophecies in the Bible have already been fulfilled. Several key postmillennialists, however, did not adopt preterism with respect to the Book of Revelation, among them B. B. Warfield and Francis Nigel Lee.


title: Postmillennialism

text: Other postmillennialists hold to the idealist position of Revelation. The book titled "An A-to-Z Guide to Biblical Prophecy and the End Times" defines Idealism as "A symbolic description of the on going battle between God and evil." Those who hold to this view include: R. J. Rushdoony and P. Andrew Sandlin.


title: Postmillennialism

text: Postmillennialists diverge on the extent of the gospel's conquest. The majority of postmillennialists do believe in an apostasy, and like B. B. Warfield, believe the apostasy refers to the Jewish people's rejection of Christianity either during the first century or possibly until the return of Christ at the end of the millennium. This postmillennial perspective essentially dovetails with the thinking of amillennial and premillennial schools of eschatology.


title: Postmillennialism

text: There is a minority of postmillennial scholars, however, who discount the idea of a final apostasy, regarding the gospel conquest ignited by the Great Commission to be total and absolute, such that no unsaved individuals will remain after the Spirit has been fully poured out on all flesh. This minority school, promoted by B. B. Warfield and supported by exegetical work of H.A.W. Meyer, has started to gain more ground, even altering the thinking of some postmillennialists previously in the majority camp, such as Loraine Boettner and R. J. Rushdoony.


title: Postmillennialism

text: The appeal of the minority position, apart from its obvious gambit of taking key scriptures literally (; ; ; ; ; etc.), was voiced by Boettner himself after his shift in position: the majority-form of postmillennialism lacks a capstone, which Warfield's version does not fail to provide. Warfield also linked his views to an unusual understanding of , premised on Meyer's exegesis of the same passage, which presupposed a global conquest of the gospel in order for the supposed prophecy in that verse to be realized, which inexorably leads to a literal fulfillment of the third petition of the Lord's Prayer: "Thy will be done on earth, as it is in heaven."


title: Postmillennialism

text: John Calvin's exposition of that part of the Lord's Prayer all but adopts the minority postmillennial position but Calvin, and later Charles Spurgeon, were remarkably inconsistent on eschatological matters. Spurgeon delivered a sermon on Psalm 72 explicitly defending the form of absolute postmillennialism held by the minority camp today, but on other occasions he defended premillennialism. Moreover, given the nature of Warfield's views, Warfield disdained the millennial labels, preferring the term "eschatological universalism" for the brand of postmillennialism now associated with his thinking.


title: Postmillennialism

text: Warfield, like those who follow in his footsteps, did not seek to support his doctrine of cosmic eschatology from , treating that passage (following Kliefoth, Duesterdieck, and Milligan) as descriptive of the intermediate state and the contrast between church militant and triumphant. This tactic represented an abandonment of the Augustinian approach to the passage, ostensibly justified by a perceived advance in taking the Book of Revelation's parallel passages to the little season of Satan more seriously (cf. and ).


title: Postmillennialism

text: Postmillennialists also diverge on the means of the gospel's conquest. Revivalist postmillennialism is a form of the doctrine held by the Puritans and some today that teaches that the millennium will come about not from Christians changing society from the top down (that is, through its political and legal institutions) but from the bottom up at the grass roots level (that is, through changing people's hearts and minds).


title: Postmillennialism

text: Reconstructionist postmillennialism, on the other hand, sees that along with grass roots preaching of the Gospel and explicitly Christian education, Christians should also set about changing society's legal and political institutions in accordance with Biblical, and also sometimes Theonomic, ethics (see Dominion theology). The revivalists deny that the same legal and political rules which applied to theocratic state of Ancient Israel should apply directly to modern societies which are no longer directly ruled by Israel's prophets, priests, and kings. In the United States, the most prominent and organized forms of postmillennialism are based on Christian Reconstructionism and hold to a reconstructionist form of postmillennialism advanced by R.J. Rushdoony, Gary North, Kenneth Gentry, and Greg Bahnsen.


title: Christian Audigier

text: Christian Audigier (; 21 May 1958 – 9 July 2015) was a French fashion designer known for the Ed Hardy and Von Dutch clothing lines.


title: Christian Audigier

text: Audigier began working in the fashion industry at the age of fifteen. He designed a line of denim that was inspired by his love for rock and roll, specifically The Rolling Stones. His designs became so popular that a top executive from MacKeen Jeans took notice of Audigier's talent, affording him the opportunity to create with the company and travel the world. He moved to New York in his early twenties to expand his own brand. He worked with Guess, Levi's, Diesel, Fiorucci, Bisou Bisou and XOXO, Smet, among others.


title: Christian Audigier

text: He then moved to Los Angeles where he would achieve most of his success as a fashion designer. After the death of artist Kenny Howard, also known as Von Dutch, in 1992, Howard's daughters sold the Von Dutch name to Ed Boswell who then began working together with Michael Cassel and Robert Vaughn to create the Von Dutch brand. Later, Tonny Sorensen would be brought in as an investor and would become a 51% owner of the company while Michael Cassel owned 49%. It was Tonny Sorensen who initially brought in Christian Audigier. The clothing brand that followed gained popularity in the US and attracted the attention of celebrities such as Madonna, Britney Spears, Milen Balasov, Justin Timberlake, and later Ashton Kutcher and Eric Church. Audigier helped popularize the brand, but left on amicable terms in 2007. He went on to popularize the Ed Hardy brand. Audigier's other brands include SMET with French singer Johnny Hallyday. Audigier's brands are sold internationally in over 40 countries.


title: Christian Audigier

text: In 2008, he joined forces with a small cooperative in France, Montpeyroux Estates, to release a line of fine wines. The bottles are wrapped with labels that are designed with the classic Ed Hardy designs and are done by art director and photographer Barry Sutton.


title: Christian Audigier

text: Audigier was a partner along with Pure Management in a nightclub in the Treasure Island Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas. The nightclub closed in September 2010.


title: Christian Audigier

text: He released a line of Ed Hardy perfumes for men and women. In 2012, he appeared on an episode of "Sweden's Next Top Model".


title: Christian Audigier

text: He had four children: Crystal, Dylan, Rocco and Vito. Audigier resided in the Mid-Wilshire section of Los Angeles.


title: Christian Audigier

text: Christian Audigier was diagnosed with myelodysplastic syndrome, a blood cancer, in January 2015. He died 10 July 2015 at Cedars-Sinai Hospital in Los Angeles, California, after lapsing into a coma. He was 57 years old.


title: Fitness (biology)

text: Fitness (often denoted formula_1 or ω in population genetics models) is the quantitative representation of individual reproductive success. It is also equal to the average contribution to the gene pool of the next generation, made by the same individuals of the specified genotype or phenotype. Fitness can be defined either with respect to a genotype or to a phenotype in a given environment or time. The fitness of a genotype is manifested through its phenotype, which is also affected by the developmental environment. The fitness of a given phenotype can also be different in different selective environments.


title: Fitness (biology)

text: With asexual reproduction, it is sufficient to assign fitnesses to genotypes. With sexual reproduction, recombination scrambles alleles into different genotypes every generation; in this case, fitness values can be assigned to alleles by averaging over possible genetic backgrounds. Natural selection tends to make alleles with higher fitness more common over time, resulting in Darwinian evolution.


title: Fitness (biology)

text: The term "Darwinian fitness" can be used to make clear the distinction with physical fitness. Fitness does not include a measure of survival or life-span; Herbert Spencer's well-known phrase "survival of the fittest" should be interpreted as: "Survival of the form (phenotypic or genotypic) that will leave the most copies of itself in successive generations."


title: Fitness (biology)

text: Inclusive fitness differs from individual fitness by including the ability of an allele in one individual to promote the survival and/or reproduction of other individuals that share that allele, in preference to individuals with a different allele. One mechanism of inclusive fitness is kin selection.


title: Fitness (biology)

text: Fitness is often defined as a propensity or probability, rather than the actual number of offspring. For example, according to Maynard Smith, "Fitness is a property, not of an individual, but of a class of individuals—for example homozygous for allele A at a particular locus. Thus the phrase ’expected number of offspring’ means the average number, not the number produced by some one individual. If the first human infant with a gene for levitation were struck by lightning in its pram, this would not prove the new genotype to have low fitness, but only that the particular child was unlucky."


title: Fitness (biology)

text: Alternatively, "the fitness of the individual—having an array x of phenotypes—is the probability, s(x), that the individual will be included among the group selected as parents of the next generation."


title: Fitness (biology)

text: In order to avoid the complications of sex and recombination, the concept of fitness is restricted to an asexual population without genetic recombination. Thus, fitnesses can be assigned directly to genotypes and measured. There are two commonly used measures of fitness – absolute fitness and relative fitness.


title: Fitness (biology)

text: The absolute fitness (formula_2) of a genotype is defined as the proportional change in the abundance of that genotype over one generation attributable to selection. For example, if formula_3 is the abundance of a genotype in generation formula_4 in an infinitely large population (so that there is no genetic drift), and neglecting the change in genotype abundances due to mutations, then


title: Fitness (biology)

text: An absolute fitness larger than 1 indicates growth in that genotype's abundance; an absolute fitness smaller than 1 indicates decline.


title: Fitness (biology)

text: Whereas absolute fitness determines changes in genotype abundance, relative fitness (formula_1) determines changes in genotype frequency. If formula_7 is the total population size in generation formula_4, and the relevant genotype's frequency is formula_9, then


title: Fitness (biology)

text: where formula_11 is the mean relative fitness in the population (again setting aside changes in frequency due to drift and mutation). Relative fitnesses only indicate the change in prevalence of different genotypes relative to each other, and so only their values relative to each other are important; relative fitnesses can be any nonnegative number, including 0. It is often convenient to choose one genotype as a reference and set its relative fitness to 1. Relative fitness is used in the standard Wright–Fisher and Moran models of population genetics.


title: Fitness (biology)

text: Absolute fitnesses can be used to calculate relative fitness, since formula_12 (we have used the fact that formula_13, where formula_14 is the mean absolute fitness in the population). This implies that formula_15, or in other words, relative fitness is proportional to formula_16. It is not possible to calculate absolute fitnesses from relative fitnesses alone, since relative fitnesses contain no information about changes in overall population abundance formula_7.


title: Fitness (biology)

text: Assigning relative fitness values to genotypes is mathematically appropriate when two conditions are met: first, the population is at demographic equilibrium, and second, individuals vary in their birth rate, contest ability, or death rate, but not a combination of these traits.


title: Fitness (biology)

text: The change in genotype frequencies due to selection follows immediately from the definition of relative fitness,


title: Fitness (biology)

text: Thus, a genotype's frequency will decline or increase depending on whether its fitness is lower or greater than the mean fitness, respectively.


title: Fitness (biology)

text: In the particular case that there are only two genotypes of interest (e.g. representing the invasion of a new mutant allele), the change in genotype frequencies is often written in a different form. Suppose that two genotypes formula_19 and formula_20 have fitnesses formula_21 and formula_22, and frequencies formula_23 and formula_24, respectively. Then formula_25, and so


title: Fitness (biology)

text: Thus, the change in genotype formula_27's frequency depends crucially on the difference between its fitness and the fitness of genotype formula_28. Supposing that formula_27 is more fit than formula_28, and defining the selection coefficient formula_31 by formula_32, we obtain


title: Fitness (biology)

text: where the last approximation holds for formula_34. In other words, the fitter genotype's frequency grows approximately logistically.


title: Fitness (biology)

text: The British sociologist Herbert Spencer coined the phrase "survival of the fittest" in his 1864 work "Principles of Biology" to characterise what Charles Darwin had called natural selection.


title: Fitness (biology)

text: The British biologist J.B.S. Haldane was the first to quantify fitness, in terms of the modern evolutionary synthesis of Darwinism and Mendelian genetics starting with his 1924 paper "A Mathematical Theory of Natural and Artificial Selection". The next further advance was the introduction of the concept of inclusive fitness by the British biologist W.D. Hamilton in 1964 in his paper on "The Genetical Evolution of Social Behaviour".


title: Fitness (biology)

text: Genetic load measures the average fitness of a population of individuals, relative either to a theoretical genotype of optimal fitness, or relative to the most fit genotype actually present in the population. Consider n genotypes formula_35, which have the fitnesses formula_36 and the genotype frequencies formula_37 respectively. Ignoring frequency-dependent selection, then genetic load (formula_38) may be calculated as:


title: Irani (India)

text: The Irani (; meaning "Iranian") are an ethno-religious community in the Indian subcontinent; they descend from the Zoroastrians that emigrated from Iran to British India in the 19th and 20th centuries. They are culturally, linguistically, ethnically and socially distinct from the Parsis, who – although also Zoroastrians – immigrated to the Indian subcontinent from Greater Iran many centuries prior, starting with the Islamic conquest of Persia.


title: Irani (India)

text: The Parsis and Iranis are considered legally distinct. A 1909 "obiter dictum" relating to the Indian Zoroastrians observed that Iranis (of the now defunct Bombay Presidency) were not obliged to uphold the decisions of the then regulatory Parsi Panchayat. Some of the Irani community speaks an ethnolect called Zoroastrian Dari. However, the two communities increasingly intermarry and are said to have been "integrated well" with each other.


title: Irani (India)

text: Although the term 'Irani' is first attested during the Mughal era, most Iranis are descended from immigrants who left Iran and migrated to the Indian subcontinent during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. At the time, Iran was ruled by the Qajars and religious persecution of Zoroastrians was widespread. Some Iranis still speak Persian and the Dari dialects of the Zoroastrians of those provinces. Iranis are generally seen as a subset of the wider Zoroastrian community.


title: Irani (India)

text: As is also the case for the Parsis, the Iranis predominantly settled in the west coast of India, in the states of Gujarat and Maharashtra. A concentration of their people live in and around the cities of Mumbai and Pune.


title: Ed Fornieles

text: Edward Fornieles (born 6 April 1983) is an English artist. Fornieles uses film, social media platforms, sculpture, installation and performance to express the interaction of family, relationships, popular memes, language and the subcultures of the 21st century. His work operates within immersive simulations, which construct and enact alternative political and social spaces. His projects often involve cultural, social, and infrastructural production.


title: Ed Fornieles

text: Fornieles was born in Petersfield in Hampshire, where his parents had an architectural practice. Fornieles attended the University of Oxford, receiving his BFA from the Ruskin School of Drawing and Fine Art in 2005. He went on to the Royal College of Art in London, completing an M.A. in sculpture in 2011. While in graduate school, Fornieles worked as a studio assistant to Anish Kapoor, where he demonstrated his extensive technical skills. Living in East London, he often worked as a freelance data analyst while he immersed himself in art and curating, having established in 2007 (with Ross McNicol and Vanessa Carlos), the Wallis Gallery. During this time Fornieles's work evolved mocking, often with a dark sense of humour, the high seriousness of the London art scene.


title: Ed Fornieles

text: Fornieles was first recognized for his performance pieces such as "Animal House" (2011) at the experimental space, Guest Projects in London. "Animal House" helped refine a method that Fornieles would repeat in his subsequent works, engaging participants and viewers in sometimes awkward situations. "Dorm Daze", grew out of Fornieles' interest in American fraternity culture as a large-scale on-line performance played-out on Facebook, where participants adopted profiles taken from real life American college students. Fornieles work focuses on the effect of narratives, habits, and technology in the formation of social roles and personal identity. He uses performance to re-enact and distort relationships to archetypes and conventions. Each chapter of work is driven by an intense period of research centered on reinterpreting and remodeling the subject under investigation. "The Dreamy Awards" (2012), was a fictional ceremony initiated to raise questions about the cult of the awards bash. The work was presented at the Serpentine Galleries Park Nights with the participation of over 200 people, including actor Zac Efron, in a pre-recorded video clip. Other works include, "New York New York Happy Happy (NY NY HP HP)" (2013) where Fornieles was invited by "Rhizome" to organize a gala at the New Museum. The event was controversial because Fornieles scripted both actual Museum donors and actors, blurring any sense of reality. "Modern Family" (2014) was a sullen installation where Fornieles explored the breakdown of the family both metaphorically and literally.


title: Ed Fornieles

text: Ed Fornieles first solo gallery exhibition, "The Hangover Part II", constructed from the detritus of "Animal House", was organized at the Carlos/Ishikawa Gallery, London in 2011. Other significant sculptural installations include "Characterdate, Frame" (2012), at the Frieze Art Fair, London, where he continued demonstrating his interest in American college culture. "Despicable Me 2" (2013) at the Mihai Nicodim Gallery in Los Angeles, invented a female character, "Britney Rivers" who develops a stereotypical personality as she builds her network of friends on Social Media. With "Jupiter Ascending" (2015) at Carl Kostyal, Stockholm, Fornieles recreated a spa reflecting the meditative culture associated with care of the body and "Der Geist: Flesh Feast" (2016) at Arratia Beer in Berlin continued the body theme in which Fornieles expressed, through film, objects, and installation, his attempt to adopt a self-management diet. Fornieles has also been invited to participate in important group shows curated to bring together Post-Internet creators. These include "Meanwhile... Suddenly, and Then" curated by Gunnar B. Kvaranat for the 12e Biennale d'art contemporain de Lyon, "Family state of mind" (2014) with Petra Cortright at Galerie Chez Valentin in Paris, and "I feel we think bad" (2016) with Hannah Perry and Matt Goerzen at 'Arsenal' in Montreal.


title: Ed Fornieles

text: In September 2019 Fornieles' curated a show at Lisa Kandlhofer Gallery in Vienna. The show's title was "Cursed Images" and included artists John Bock, Doug Bressler, Chris Burden, VALIE EXPORT, Ann Hirsch, Joey Holder, Rachel Maclean, Otto Muehl, Naked, Hermann Nitsch, Puppies Puppies, Rudolf Schwarzkogler, Omsk Social Club, Tommy Turner, Anna Uddenberg, David Wojnarowicz, Issy Wood and Katerina Zbortkova.


title: Sarah (given name)

text: Sarah is a common feminine given name of Hebrew origin. It derives its popularity from the biblical matriarch Sarah, the wife of Abraham and a major figure in the Abrahamic religions. It is a consistently popular given name across Europe, North America, and the Middle East—being commonly used as a female first name by Jews, Muslims, and Christians alike, and remaining popular also among non-religious members of cultures influenced by these religions.


title: Sarah (given name)

text: In Hebrew, Sarah (שָׂרָה) is the feminine form of the noun Sar (שַׂר), which commonly translates to "chief", "ruler" or "prince". It is also related to the verb שָׂרָה, which is also the basis of the name Israel. In Modern Hebrew, Sarah (שָׂרָה) is the feminine form of the word for "minister".


title: Sarah (given name)

text: In the United States, Sarah has been counted among the top 150 given names since 1880, when name popularity statistics were first recorded in the United States. Sarah ranked among the top 10 names from 1978 to 2002, reaching a plateau of popularity from the early 1980s to 1988. Every year since and including 1989 it has fallen in popularity, but it remained the 30th most popular name for newborn girls in 2010. Its most common variant spelling, Sara, was number 121.


title: Sarah (given name)

text: The name has been similarly popular in Ireland and the United Kingdom. In England, it gained popularity after the Protestant Reformation. In 2014, Sarah ranked as the tenth most popular female baby name in Ireland.


title: Sarah (given name)

text: In Nazi Germany, female Jews who did not have "typically Jewish" given names were forced to add "Sara" as of January 1939, whereas males were forced to add "Israel".


title: European herring gull

text: The European herring gull (Larus argentatus) is a large gull, up to long. One of the best-known of all gulls along the shores of Western Europe, it was once abundant. It breeds across Northern Europe, Western Europe, Central Europe, Eastern Europe, Scandinavia, and the Baltic states. Some European herring gulls, especially those resident in colder areas, migrate further south in winter, but many are permanent residents, e.g. in Ireland, Britain, Iceland, or on the North Sea shores. They have a varied diet, including fish, crustaceans, as well as some plants, and are also scavengers, consuming carrion and food left by or stolen from humans.


title: European herring gull

text: While herring gull numbers appear to have been harmed in recent years, possibly by fish population declines and competition, they have proved able to survive in human-adapted areas and can often be seen in towns acting as scavengers.


title: European herring gull

text: Their scientific name is from Latin. "Larus" appears to have referred to a gull or other large seabird and "argentatus" means decorated with silver.


title: European herring gull

text: The taxonomy of the herring gull/lesser black-backed gull complex is very complicated, with different authorities recognising between two and eight species.


title: European herring gull

text: This group has a ring distribution around the Northern Hemisphere. Differences between adjacent forms in this ring are fairly small, but by the time the circuit is completed, the end members, herring gull and lesser black-backed gull, are clearly different species. The terminal forms do not interbreed, though they coexist in the same localities.


title: European herring gull

text: These taxa are classified as subspecies of "Larus argentatus" by some authorities such as the American Ornithologists' Union and "Handbook of the Birds of the World". Others such as the Association of European Rarities Committees, British Ornithologists' Union, and the International Ornithological Union now regard them as one or two separate species.


title: European herring gull

text: Several other gulls have been included in this species in the past, but are now normally considered separate, e.g. the yellow-legged gull ("L. michahellis"), the Caspian gull ("L. cachinnans"), the Armenian gull ("L. armenicus") and Heuglin's gull ("L. heuglini").


title: European herring gull

text: The male European herring gull is long and weighs , while the female is and weighs . The wingspan can range from . Among standard measurements, the wing chord is , the bill is and the tarsus is . Adults in breeding plumage have a light grey back and upper wings and white head and underparts. The wingtips are black with white spots known as "mirrors". The bill is yellow with a red spot and a ring of bare yellow skin is seen around the pale eye. The legs are normally pink at all ages, but can be yellowish, particularly in the Baltic population, which was formerly regarded as a separate subspecies ""L. a. omissus"". Non-breeding adults have brown streaks on their heads and necks. Male and female plumage are identical at all stages of development, but adult males are often larger.


title: European herring gull

text: Juvenile and first-winter birds are mainly brown with darker streaks and have a dark bill and eyes. Second-winter birds have a whiter head and underparts with less streaking and the back is grey. Third-winter individuals are similar to adults, but retain some of the features of immature birds such as brown feathers in the wings and dark markings on the bill. The European herring gull attains adult plumage and reaches sexual maturity at an average age of four years.


title: European herring gull

text: At least in the south-west part of the Baltic Sea and surrounding areas, the European herring gull ("L. argentatus") actually can be seen with yellow legs. They are not considered as a subspecies, since they regularly breed with grey/flesh-coloured legged herring gulls. The offspring may get yellow or normal-coloured legs. They must not be confused with the in general yellow-legged gull ("L. michahellis"), which are more common in the Mediterranean area, but single birds may reach more northern seas.


title: European herring gull

text: Adult European herring gulls are similar to ring-billed gulls, but are much larger, have pinkish legs, and a much thicker yellow bill with more pronounced gonys. First-winter European herring gulls are much browner, but second- and third-winter birds can be confusing since soft part colours are variable and third-year herring gull often show a ring around the bill. Such birds are most easily distinguished by the larger size and larger bill of European herring gull.


title: European herring gull

text: The European herring gull can be differentiated from the closely related, slightly smaller lesser black-backed gull by the latter's dark grey (not actually black) back and upper wing plumage and its yellow legs and feet.


title: European herring gull

text: Herring gulls are noisy, gregarious birds with distinctive vocalisations. Their loud, laughing call is particularly well known, and is often seen as a symbol of the seaside in countries such as the United Kingdom. The European herring gull also has a yelping alarm call and a low, barking anxiety call. The most distinct and best known call produced by European herring gulls – which is shared with their American relative – is the raucous territorial 'long call', used to signal boundaries to other birds; it is performed by the gull initially with its head bowed, then raised as the call continues.


title: European herring gull

text: European herring gull chicks and fledglings emit a distinctive, repetitive, high-pitched 'peep', accompanied by a head-flicking gesture when begging for food from or calling to their parents. Adult gulls in urban areas also exhibit this behaviour when fed by humans.


title: European herring gull

text: European herring gull flocks have a loose pecking order, based on size, aggressiveness, and physical strength. Adult males are usually dominant over females and juveniles in feeding and boundary disputes, while adult females are typically dominant when selecting their nesting sites. Communication between these birds is complex and highly developed —employing both calls and body language. The warning sounds to chicks are the most obvious to interpret.


title: European herring gull

text: The warning to their chicks sounds almost like a bark from a small dog. If the danger closes in, the bark is repeated, and when very close, the warning is three quick barks. If a chick is "grounded", the bird makes itself appear bigger to intimidate the threat. If other adult birds are present, they will help in the same way. For instance, a person with a dog (or someone who chases the chick) may be attacked by many adult birds, even if just one chick is in danger.


title: European herring gull

text: The warning sound from a flying bird to a flock of fully fledged birds sounds very different. All kinds of gulls seemingly understand the "general alert warning sound" of all other gulls. Little doubt remains that the gull's screaming is a language for communication. It is limited to the present tense, but includes rather complex matters such as "follow me".


title: European herring gull

text: Two identical vocalizations can have very different (sometimes opposite) meanings. For example, it depends on the position of the head, body, wings, and tail relative to each other and the ground.


title: European herring gull

text: Unlike many flocking birds, European herring gulls do not engage in social grooming and keep physical contact between individuals to a minimum. Outside the male/female and parent/chick relationships, each gull attempts to maintain a respectful 'safe distance' from others of its kind. However, the bird must be considered a social bird that dislikes being alone, and fights mainly occur over food or to protect their eggs and chicks. If a few birds discover a piece of food, the first one to land by the food piece often unfolds its wings (together with a sound) to proclaim "this food is mine". This is very often opposed by another gull, and during a short fight, a third bird may grab the food while the two other are arguing. However, if much food is found, especially at a "dangerous location" (such as in the backyard of a tall building), the bird that discovered the food will call to other gulls close by (of any species). The first bird may dare to land, but waits before eating; the others then feel safe to land, and they eat. If a large feast is found at a safer location, the gull that discovers it calls to other gulls, but starts eating immediately. The conclusion is that if more food is available than one bird can eat, it shares the food with other gulls.


title: European herring gull

text: During the winter, large flocks can be seen at (snow-free) fields (agricultural or grass), especially if the ground has a high degree of moisture. At first sight, it the birds appear to be just standing there, but then on closer inspection, only their bodies are not moving; the birds actually are trampling the soil, most likely to trick worms to crawl closer to the surface of the soil.


title: European herring gull

text: During early spring and late autumn, many herring gulls feed heavily on earthworms, but they are very opportunistic birds that seem to have many sources of food. For instance in southern Scandinavia and northern Germany, this species recently has become the most common of all gulls, and the increase has mostly occurred in urban or suburban environments.


title: European herring gull

text: The great black-backed gull ("L. marinus") was around 1900 as common as the herring gull in the mentioned parts, but has not increased as much (if at all), though some signs indicate the bigger gull has learned (adopted) some of the herring gull's behaviour within urban environments. Where the herring gull is breeding in coastal urban environments, the great black-backed gull seems to do the same, but in a lesser scale.


title: European herring gull

text: Herring gulls are good at producing all three eggs into flying birds. This means that at least one (often two) of the newly flying chicks loses both its parents within days after first flight. Some of these can later be seen in flocks of smaller gulls like the black-headed gull ("Chroicocephalus ridibundus") or the common gull ("L. canus"). They are probably not welcomed in such flocks, but follow them for some months, anyway, and do thereby learn where to find food. Lonely juvenile herring gulls born in urban environments can also be seen staying for a some weeks close to outdoor restaurants and similar facilities, squeaking and begging for food from humans. By November or December, most juveniles have found other "flockmates", usually in areas near water.


title: European herring gull

text: The herring gull does not need swimming, but seems to enjoy all kind of waters, especially on hot summer days. It can only catch slow creatures, like small crabs, which it often drops from some altitude to crack them open. The bird has little real power in its jaws while biting, but it may "stab" with better strength. Fish on land, eggs of other birds, and helpless chicks of smaller ducks (and similar birds where the female is the only caretaker of up to 9 eggs and chicks) are about as much predator the bird gets. It is then far more successful as a scavenger. Like vultures, an adult bird can dig its whole head and neck into a dead rabbit, for instance. Although not always appreciated by mankind due to their droppings and screaming, the herring gull must be regarded as a "natural cleaner", and just as with crows, they help by keeping rats away from the surface in urban environment, not by killing rats, but by eating the potential rat food before the rats get the chance. Unlike real scavengers, herring gulls also eat most other things than meat, like wasted food of all kinds, from bread to human vomit. They seldom eat fresh fruit, but windfalls and rotten fruit seem more desired.


title: European herring gull

text: The European herring gull has long been believed to have extremely keen vision in daylight and night vision equal or superior to that of humans; however, this species is also capable of seeing ultraviolet light. This gull also appears to have excellent hearing and a sense of taste that is particularly responsive to salt and acidity.


title: European herring gull

text: Britain: Since 2009, herring gulls in the United Kingdom have been on the red list of birds of conservation concern, including County Durham.


title: European herring gull

text: These are omnivores and opportunists like most "Larus" gulls, and scavenge from garbage dumps, landfill sites, and sewage outflows, with refuse comprising up to half of the bird's diet. It also steals the eggs and young of other birds (including those of other gulls), as well as seeking suitable small prey in fields, on the coast or in urban areas, or robbing plovers or lapwings of their catches. European herring gulls may also dive from the surface of the water or engage in plunge diving in the pursuit of aquatic prey, though they are typically unable to reach depths greater than due to their natural buoyancy. Despite their name, they have no special preference for herrings — in fact, examinations have shown that echinoderms and crustaceans comprised a greater portion of these gulls' stomach contents than fish, although fish is the principal element of regurgitations for nestlings. European herring gulls can frequently be seen to drop shelled prey from a height to break the shell. In addition, the European herring gull has been observed using pieces of bread as bait with which to catch goldfish. Vegetable matter, such as roots, tubers, seeds, grains, nuts, and fruit, is also taken to an extent. Captive European herring gulls typically show aversion to spoiled meat or heavily salted food, unless they are very hungry. The gulls may also rinse food items in water in an attempt to clean them or render them more palatable before swallowing.


title: European herring gull

text: European herring gulls may be observed rhythmically drumming their feet upon the ground for prolonged periods of time in a behaviour that superficially resembles Irish stepdancing, for the purpose of creating vibrations in the soil, driving earthworms to the surface, which are then consumed by the gull. These vibrations are thought to mimic those of digging moles, eliciting a surface-escape behaviour from the earthworm, beneficial in encounters with this particular predator, which the European herring gull then exploits to its own benefit in a similar manner to human worm charmers.


title: European herring gull

text: Whilst the European herring gull is fully capable (unlike humans) of consuming seawater, using specialized glands located above the eyes to remove excess salt from the body (which is then excreted in solution through the nostrils and drips from the end of the bill), it drinks fresh water in preference, if available.


title: European herring gull

text: The opportunistic diet of the herring gull has consequences for egg traits. A study found that larger eggs were laid in colonies where females consumed either a higher proportion of marine resources or terrestrial resources; smaller eggs were laid in colonies where females had an intermediate diet. In colonies where females consumed more marine items, they also laid eggs with higher maculation (intensity and size of spots) compared with colonies where females mainly consumed terrestrial food.


title: European herring gull

text: When forming a pair bond, the hen approaches the cock on his territory with a hunched, submissive posture, while making begging calls (similar to those emitted by young gulls). If the cock chooses not to attack her and drive her away, he responds by assuming an upright posture and making a mewing call. This is followed by a period of synchronised head-tossing movements, after which the cock then regurgitates some food for his prospective mate. If this is accepted, copulation follows. A nesting site is then chosen by both birds which is returned to in successive years. European herring gulls are almost exclusively sexually monogamous and may pair up for life, provided the couple is successful in hatching their eggs.


title: European herring gull

text: Two to four eggs, usually three, are laid on the ground or cliff ledges in colonies, and are defended vigorously by this large gull. The eggs are usually olive-brown in colour with dark speckles or blotches. They are incubated by both parents for 28–30 days. The chicks hatch with their eyes open, covered with fluffy down, and they are able to walk around within hours. Breeding colonies are preyed upon by great black-backed gulls, harriers, corvids and herons.


title: European herring gull

text: Juveniles use their beaks to peck at the red spot on the beaks of adults to indicate hunger. Parents then typically disgorge food for their offspring. The young birds are able to fly 35–40 days after hatching and fledge at five or six weeks of age. Chicks are generally fed by their parents until they are 11–12 weeks old, but the feeding may continue for more than six months of age if the young gulls continue to beg. The male feeds the chick more often than the female before fledging, with the female more often feeding after fledging.


title: European herring gull

text: Like most gulls, European herring gulls are long-lived, with a maximum age of 49 years recorded. Raptors (especially owls, peregrine falcons, and gyrfalcons) and seals (especially grey seals) occasionally prey on the non-nesting adults.


title: European herring gull

text: In the UK, the species, when taken as a whole, is declining significantly across the country, despite an increase in urban areas. The UK European herring gull population has decreased by 50% in 25 years and it is protected by law: since January 2010, Natural England has allowed lethal control only with a specific individual licence that is available only in limited circumstances. Natural England made the change following a public consultation in response to the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds in 2009 placing the species on its 'Red List' of threatened bird species, affording it the highest possible conservation status. (Previously, killing the species was allowed under a general licence obtainable by authorised persons (e.g. landowners or occupiers) under certain circumstances (e.g. to prevent serious damage to crops or livestock, to prevent disease, or to preserve public health or safety) without requiring additional permission beyond the general licence.)


title: European herring gull

text: The European herring gull is an increasingly common roof-nesting bird in urban areas of the UK, and many individual birds show little fear of humans. The Clean Air Act 1956 forbade the burning of refuse at landfill sites, providing the European herring gull with a regular and plentiful source of food. As a direct result, European herring gull populations in Britain skyrocketed. Faced with a lack of space at their traditional colonies, the gulls ventured inland in search of new breeding grounds. Dwindling fish stocks in the seas around Britain may also have been a significant factor in the gulls' move inland.


title: European herring gull

text: The gulls are found all year round in the streets and gardens of Britain, due to the presence of street lighting (which allows the gulls to forage at night), discarded food in streets, food waste contained in easy-to-tear plastic bin bags, food intentionally left out for other birds (or the gulls themselves), the relative lack of predators, and readily available, convenient, warm and undisturbed rooftop nesting space in towns and cities. Particularly large urban gull colonies (composed primarily of European herring gulls and lesser black-backed gulls) are now present in Cardiff, Bristol, Gloucester, Swindon, London, and Aberdeen. to name but a few.


title: European herring gull

text: Where not persecuted, herring gulls can become tame in the presence of humans, and may live in proximity to certain humans they learn to trust, and may occasionally enter buildings to receive or steal food.


title: European herring gull

text: The survival rate for urban gulls is much higher than their counterparts in coastal areas, with an annual adult mortality rate less than 5%. Also, each European herring gull pair commonly rears three chicks per year. This, when combined with their long-lived nature, has resulted in a massive increase in numbers over a relatively short period of time and has brought urban-dwelling members of the species into conflict with humans.


title: European herring gull

text: Once familiar with humans, urban European herring gulls show little hesitation in swooping down to steal food from the hands of humans, although a study conducted in 2019 demonstrated that some gulls are more averse to snatching food in proximity to humans if the experimenter made eye contact with the bird. During the breeding season, the gulls also aggressively 'dive bomb' and attempt to strike with claws and wings (sometimes spraying faeces or vomit at the same time) at humans that they perceive to be a threat to their eggs and chicks—often innocent passers-by or residents of the buildings on which they have constructed their nests. Large amounts of gull excrement deposited on property and the noise from courting pairs and begging chicks in the summer is also considered to be a nuisance by humans living alongside the European herring gull.


title: European herring gull

text: Nonlethal attempts to deter the gulls from nesting in urban areas have been largely unsuccessful. The European herring gull is intelligent and will completely ignore most bird-scaring technology after determining that it poses no threat. Rooftop spikes, tensioned wires, netting, and similar are also generally ineffective against this species, as it has large, wide feet with thick, leathery skin, which affords the seagull excellent weight distribution and protection from sharp objects (the bird may simply balance itself on top of these obstacles with little apparent concern). If nests are removed and eggs are taken, broken, or oiled, the gulls simply rebuild and/or relay, or choose another nest site in the same area and start again.


title: European herring gull

text: Man-made models of birds of prey placed on top of buildings are generally ignored by the gulls once they realise they are not real, and attempts to scare the gulls away using raptors are similarly ineffective. Although they are intimidated by birds of prey, European herring gulls, in addition to being social birds with strength in numbers, are large, powerful, and aggressive as individuals and are more than capable of fighting back against the potential predator, particularly if they consider their chicks to be at risk; in fact, the gulls may actually pose a greater threat to a raptor than vice versa. European herring gulls are also naturally accustomed to predators (such as skuas and great black-backed gulls) living in the vicinity of their nest sites in the wild and are not particularly discouraged from breeding by their presence.


title: Crusaders (rugby union)

text: The Crusaders (formerly Canterbury Crusaders and BNZ Crusaders due to sponsorship by the Bank of New Zealand) are a New Zealand professional rugby union team based in Christchurch, who compete in the Super Rugby competition. They are the most successful team in the competition's history and have won 11 titles (1998, 1999, 2000, 2002, 2005, 2006, 2008, 2017, 2018, 2019 and 2022), as well as two regionalised titles in 2020 and 2021.


title: Crusaders (rugby union)

text: Formed in 1996 to represent the upper South Island of New Zealand in the Super 12, the Crusaders represent the Buller, Canterbury, Mid-Canterbury, South Canterbury, Tasman and West Coast provincial Rugby Unions. Their main home ground since 2012 is Rugby League Park (known for sponsorship reasons as Orangetheory Stadium). They formerly played out of Lancaster Park prior to it being damaged beyond repair in the 2011 Christchurch earthquake.


title: Crusaders (rugby union)

text: The Crusaders struggled in the first season of the Super 12, 1996, finishing last. Their performance improved in 1997 and the team finished sixth (out of twelve teams). The team went on to win three titles from 1998 to 2000 despite each final being played away from home. They again won the competition in 2002 after going through the season unbeaten. In the following two seasons, they again reached the final, although they were beaten on both occasions. 2005 was the last season of the Super 12 before its expansion. After finishing top of the table in that season, the Crusaders went on to host the final in which they defeated the Waratahs. As a result of winning their fifth Super 12 title, the Crusaders were given the trophy to keep. In 2006, the Crusaders hosted the Hurricanes in the inaugural Super 14 final and won 19–12. In 2008 the Crusaders hosted the final at AMI Stadium against the Waratahs, and won the match 20–12 to claim their seventh title. Their eighth championship came in 2017 against the Lions. The Crusaders hosted the Lions in the 2018 final and won 37–18, securing their ninth title. The Crusaders won their tenth Super Rugby title at home against Jaguares in 2019. The Crusaders have won their 11th and 12th title in both editions of Super Rugby Aotearoa in 2020 and 2021. They have won their 13th title(Their 11th Full Super Rugby Title), by winning the inaugural Super Rugby Pacific Grand Final in 2022.


title: Crusaders (rugby union)

text: The Crusaders have been led by only three CEOs throughout their 27-Year history; former New Zealand Rugby CEO Steve Tew, Hamish Riach and incumbent Colin Mansbridge.


title: Crusaders (rugby union)

text: The Crusaders franchise was created as one of five New Zealand teams in the Super 12. Originally named the "Canterbury Crusaders", the Crusaders' franchise area encompassed the upper South Island of New Zealand (see "Super Rugby franchise areas"), and was formed from the Buller, Canterbury, Marlborough, Mid-Canterbury, Nelson Bays, South Canterbury, and West Coast rugby unions. The original Crusaders team of 1996 was captained by All Blacks prop Richard Loe and coached by Vance Stewart. The Crusaders struggled in the inaugural season and finished bottom of the table with only two wins. Their eight losses included a 49–18 loss to the Blues and a 52–16 loss to the Queensland Reds. And the First ever tour was a pre-visit to South Africa prior start of Super 12.


title: Crusaders (rugby union)

text: The following season saw a change in captain and coach, with Todd Blackadder succeeding Loe as captain and Wayne Smith taking over as coach. With five wins, the team finished the round-robin stage in sixth place. The improvement was particularly illustrated by the Crusaders' 29–28 loss to the defending champions, the Blues, which contrasted with their 49–18 loss the previous season. (The Blues also went on to win the 1997 title). During this loss, Leon MacDonald was taken out with a shoulder charge by Robin Brooke. While the Crusaders attempted to get MacDonald back on the field, the Blues scored two tries, including one by Brooke, who was later suspended for two weeks for the shoulder charge. In their last game of 1997, the Crusaders beat the Queensland Reds 48–3 at Lancaster Park, now known as AMI Stadium.


title: Crusaders (rugby union)

text: The Crusaders won their first title in 1998, despite starting the season with three losses in their first four games. They finished the round-robin by winning their last seven games, culminating in a last-round win over the Coastal Sharks (now the ) that gave them second place in the round-robin phase of the competition. Their second-placing allowed them to host their semi-final at Lancaster Park, where they won the match 36–32 against the Coastal Sharks.


title: Crusaders (rugby union)

text: In the final at Eden Park, the Crusaders faced the Blues, who were heavy favourites. According to Crusaders' hooker Mark Hammett, "If we'd been polled in that week, and had to give an honest answer, most of the boys, deep down, would probably have thought that the Blues would beat us." The Crusaders were ahead 3–0 at half time, but the Blues scored first after half time to take a 10–3 lead after 53 minutes. After Crusader Norm Maxwell scored a try, the game was tied 10 all. Then, after a penalty each, the two teams were tied 13 all with one minute of regulation time remaining. At that moment, Andrew Mehrtens chipped the ball for James Kerr to run onto and score, giving the Crusaders a 20–13 win after the try was converted. The ten points scored by Andrew Mehrtens in the final contributed to his total of 206 points for the season − a record for the Super 12. Upon the Crusaders' return to Christchurch, they were given a parade through the city that drew 100,000 people.


title: Crusaders (rugby union)

text: The 1999 season was equally successful for the Crusaders despite struggling to make the play-offs in fourth place after winning their last four round-robin matches. They defeated the favoured Queensland Reds (who had finished top in the round-robin) in their semi-final to advance to the final against the Otago Highlanders (since renamed the "Highlanders"). The all-South Island final in Dunedin was promoted as "the party at Tony Brown's house" after Highlanders first five-eighths Tony Brown. Again playing away from home, the Crusaders won 24–19. The decisive try of the match was scored by Crusaders winger Afato So'oalo when he chipped the ball, then out-sprinted All Blacks winger Jeff Wilson to collect the ball and score.


title: Crusaders (rugby union)

text: Following the All Blacks' semi-final loss in the 1999 Rugby World Cup, Wayne Smith succeeded John Hart as All Blacks coach. Crusaders manager Robbie Deans replaced Smith as Crusaders coach. In Deans' first year in charge, the Crusaders won their third title in a row − a feat that would be repeated in the 2017-2018-2019 seasons. The Crusaders finished second in the round-robin, earning them the right to host a semi-final in which they faced the Highlanders at Jade Stadium. Two tries in the final 20 minutes by Marika Vunibaka helped the Crusaders to a 37–15 win. The 2000 Super 12 Final was played against the Brumbies in Canberra, Australia, where the weather for the final was icy, with sleet and snow. The game was low-scoring, with only one try each. Four penalties by Mehrtens gave the Crusaders a 12–6 half time lead. Following a Brumbies penalty four minutes from time, the Brumbies led 19–17. However, the Crusaders were awarded a penalty from the resulting kick-off, and after Mehrtens converted the penalty, the Crusaders went on to win the game 20–19.


title: Crusaders (rugby union)

text: After winning three consecutive Super 12 titles, the Crusaders finished tenth in 2001 – their worst finish since 1996. The season was the last for captain Todd Blackadder before he left to play for Edinburgh in Scotland.


title: Crusaders (rugby union)

text: The Crusaders bounced back dramatically in 2002 when they went through the Super 12 season unbeaten, achieving their fourth title. Although the Crusaders won all eleven of their round-robin matches, six of them were won by a margin of seven points or less. Their eleven round-robin games also included a record 96–19 win over the Waratahs in the final match of the round-robin stage, which was especially noteworthy given that both teams finished at the top of the table.


title: Crusaders (rugby union)

text: The Crusaders met the Highlanders in their 2002 semi-final, which they eventually won 34–23 after being ahead 18–6 at half time. The following week, they faced the Brumbies in the first final to be hosted at Jade Stadium. The Brumbies trailed 11–3 after the first half, having had only 30 per cent possession. Although the Brumbies closed the gap to 14–13 with eight minutes to go, the Crusaders held on and steadied to win 31–13 with a last-minute try to Caleb Ralph. The season was their first under the captaincy of Reuben Thorne, who went on to captain the All Blacks until the end of the 2003 Rugby World Cup.


title: Crusaders (rugby union)

text: The Crusaders' winning run finally came to an end when they were beaten 39–5 by the Blues in the third round of the 2003 Super 12 season. Although their 15-match unbeaten streak had ended, Richie McCaw said of the loss, "...in some ways it was almost a relief. We'd finally been beaten, the run was over, so people could stop talking about it and we could get on with playing it week by week." The Crusaders recovered to finish second on the table with eight wins. They hosted a semi-final against the Hurricanes, who were coached by Colin Cooper, a former assistant coach for the Crusaders. Despite this inside knowledge of the team by the Wellington coach, the Crusaders won the match 39–16. In the final, the Crusaders met the Blues, another team coached by a former Crusaders assistant coach, Peter Sloane. Hooker Mark Hammett scored two tries to give the Crusaders a 10–6 lead at half-time. The Blues hit back to lead 21–10 with ten minutes to go. The Crusaders managed another converted try, but it was not enough, and the Blues won 21–17.


title: Crusaders (rugby union)

text: The Crusaders' 2004 season began with two losses: first to the Waratahs, then to the Blues. They recovered to again finish second on the table with seven wins. They played the Stormers at Jade Stadium in their semi-final, and won 27–16. They met the Brumbies at Canberra Stadium in a replay of the 2000 final. The Brumbies dominated in the final, scoring 33 unanswered points in the first 19 minutes. The Crusaders managed to salvage some pride by narrowing the loss to a 47–38 finish.


title: Crusaders (rugby union)

text: The 2005 season started with a repeat of the previous year's final: a Brumbies victory over the Crusaders in Canberra. There was a win the following week at home over the Chiefs, followed by a win over the Reds at Trafalgar Park. Although there was a 35–20 loss to the Bulls after Crusaders captain Richie McCaw was knocked unconscious, they eventually finished the regular season top of the table. McCaw returned from his five weeks on the sideline to lead the Crusaders in their semi-final victory over the Hurricanes. They faced the Waratahs in the final at Jade Stadium.


title: Crusaders (rugby union)

text: Leading 14–6 at halftime, the Crusaders then moved out to a 29-point lead. Despite three late tries by the Waratahs, the Crusaders won their fifth title with a 35–20 win.


title: Crusaders (rugby union)

text: As a reward for their seventh finals appearance and fifth title, the Crusaders were allowed to keep the Super 12 trophy. After the 2005 season, the franchise saw the departure of stalwarts Andrew Mehrtens and Justin Marshall, both of whom had played for the team since its formation in 1996.


title: Crusaders (rugby union)

text: In 2006, the Super 12 expanded to form the Super 14 when the Western Force from Perth, Australia, and the Cheetahs from the Free State and Northern Cape Provinces, South Africa joined the competition. An unbeaten run of sixteen matches was nearly halted when the Crusaders drew with the Western Force in Perth in round eleven. The following week, the unbeaten run was ended when the Crusaders lost to the Stormers in Cape Town. That loss was their only one of the year, as they finished top of the table with eleven wins. After beating the Bulls in their semi-final, the Crusaders faced the Hurricanes in the final at Jade Stadium that was played in a thick fog, causing poor visibility. Sections of the crowd could not see the field, and many spectators left during the match. The scorers were tied 9–9 going into the game's last 20 minutes. The Crusaders' Casey Laulala then scored the game's only try before the match finished 19–12.


title: Crusaders (rugby union)

text: In the 2007 Super 14 season, seven Crusaders players missed the first seven rounds of the competition to participate in an All Black "conditioning programme". The conditioning programme was part of the All Blacks' 2007 Rugby World Cup preparations; 22 players were selected for the programme. The Crusaders' seven players in the programme was more than any other New Zealand Super 14 franchise. The Crusaders players were Chris Jack, Richie McCaw, Greg Somerville, Reuben Thorne, Dan Carter, Leon MacDonald, and Aaron Mauger. All but one of the seven returned to play for the Crusaders in their eighth round match against the Stormers (Greg Somerville did not return due to injury). The Crusaders climbed to second on the table before defeating the Western Force 53–0 at Jade Stadium in the tenth round. The victory over the Force was the one hundredth Super rugby win for the Crusaders – the first franchise to reach the milestone.


title: Crusaders (rugby union)

text: The Crusaders were top of the table going into the last round of the Super 14 before the play-offs. To guarantee a home semi-final they needed to defeat the Chiefs at Jade Stadium. The Chiefs won 30–24 – and ended the Crusaders 26 game winning streak at home. As the Bulls defeated the Reds 92–3 in the same round, they overtook the Crusaders to finish second in the round robin. The Crusaders then travelled to Pretoria to face the Bulls in their semi-final where they lost 27–12.


title: Crusaders (rugby union)

text: After finishing top of the table at the end of the last round, they comfortably defeated the Hurricanes 33–22 in the semi-final, and went on to beat the Waratahs in the final 20–12. It was a fitting way to send off long-serving coach Robbie Deans before he departed to coach Australia. It was also the last game for Crusaders stalwarts Caleb Ralph and former captain Reuben Thorne. In July that year former captain Todd Blackadder was appointed Crusaders coach, and his former teammates Mark Hammett and Daryl Gibson were appointed as assistants.


title: Crusaders (rugby union)

text: The 2009 season started with a sole win and a draw from the Crusaders' first five matches; this included a 6–0 loss to the Highlanders. The side found its feet later in the season, and won key away games which ultimately saw them finish in fourth place on the table – just ahead of the Waratahs. Both the Crusaders and Waratahs finished the season with 41 competition points, but the Crusaders advanced through to the semi-finals due to a greater 'points for and against' difference.


title: Crusaders (rugby union)

text: The Crusaders lost their semi-final to the Bulls 36–23 at Loftus Versfeld, Pretoria in front of a capacity 52,000 crowd. The Bulls went on to win the 2009 Super 14 title beating the Chiefs 61–17. Statistically, the Crusaders had the best defensive record of the 2009 competition – conceding just 198 points. However, points for, and total tries scored was the second lowest in the competition with just 231 points and 27 tries.


title: Crusaders (rugby union)

text: In 2010 the Crusaders had a very good start to the season before a poor finish with three losses in four games caused them to have to travel to Orlando Stadium, Soweto to face the Bulls. They lost the semi-final 39–24.


title: Crusaders (rugby union)

text: The 2011 season had a minor hiccup at the very beginning with a two-point loss to the Blues. Their second round match against the Hurricanes was cancelled, and match declared a draw after the Christchurch earthquake on 22 February which caused 182 deaths. In their first match after the earthquake they played the Waratahs, a team that had only conceded six points in their previous two games. The Crusaders triumphed 33–18 in a convincing display in front of a sold-out stadium. They next played the Brumbies and brushed them aside in a 52–10 demolition. They next played the Highlanders who had previously only lost one match in the season, to the undefeated and table-topping Stormers. The Crusaders won comfortably 44–13 in Dunedin. The next team they played, the Sharks, had like the Highlanders previously only lost one match in the season before the Crusaders won 44–28 at Twickenham for a one-off match due to earthquake damage at their own ground. They played the second match in Timaru Alpine Stadium against the Bulls in a sell out crowd winning 27–0. Round 9 they played the Chiefs in Mt Maunganui and gained four tries winning 34–16 with Richie McCaw returning after eight weeks off with injury. The Crusaders lost the final at the Suncorp Stadium to the Queensland Reds. Will Genia scored a crucial try for the Reds to help them to an 18–13 win.


title: Crusaders (rugby union)

text: The 2012 season, the first in the new home ground of Christchurch Stadium, saw the Crusaders again reach the playoffs. However, they were defeated by the (eventual champion) Chiefs in the semi-final.


title: Crusaders (rugby union)

text: In 2017, Scott Robertson took over as head coach. The Crusaders lost 12–3 to the British & Irish Lions at Christchurch, during the Lions tour to New Zealand.


title: Crusaders (rugby union)

text: The team went on to win their 8th Super Rugby title, defeating the 25–17 in the final on 5 August 2017 at Ellis Park Stadium in Johannesburg.


title: Crusaders (rugby union)

text: In 2018, the Crusaders again played the Lions in the final. This time they won 37–18 at home to capture their ninth title.


title: Crusaders (rugby union)

text: In 2019, they defeated the from Argentina 19–3 at home to win their 3rd consecutive Super Rugby title, and 10th championship overall.


title: Crusaders (rugby union)

text: After 7 rounds of the 2020 Super Rugby season, the Crusaders were leading the NZ conference and were in 3rd overall (behind the Sharks and Brumbies) but the COVID-19 pandemic stopped the competition after the 7th round. However, in June 2020 a domestic Super Rugby competition started called Super Rugby Aotearoa. The Crusaders won the overall title in Super Rugby Aotearoa 2020, winning 7 out of 8 games. Their 36-game win streak at Orangetheory Stadium was however broken by the Hurricanes in Round 7, who defeated them 32–34. They also dropped the physical trophy in post-match celebrations, chipping the pounamu "mere" on it.


title: Crusaders (rugby union)

text: The Crusaders returned to Super Rugby Aotearoa in 2021 and made it all the way to the final, despite losses to the Highlanders (12–33) and the Chiefs (26–25) where they faced the Chiefs and won their 5th consecutive title in a 24–13 win. Following that, they went into the Super Rugby Trans Tasman competition and beat the Brumbies (31-29), Reds (28-63), Waratahs (28-54), Force (29-21) and Rebels (26-52) but just came up short on points needed to be able to make the final.


title: Crusaders (rugby union)

text: According to the club, the Crusaders' name was chosen to reflect the "crusading nature of Canterbury rugby". A potential name was also the "Plainsmen"; however, this was not chosen, as "Crusaders" recalled the English heritage of the city of Christchurch.


title: Crusaders (rugby union)

text: In the aftermath of the 15 March 2019 Christchurch mosque shootings at Al Noor Mosque and Linwood Islamic Centre in Christchurch, New Zealand which killed 51 people and injured 50 more by Australia-born Brenton Harrison Tarrant, the Crusaders considered the idea changing the team name because the symbolism and imagery was considered to be "offensive to some in the community due to its association with the religious Crusades between Christians and Muslims" according to New Zealand Rugby Executive Steve Tew but ultimately though it was kept and remained unchanged for the 2020 season. The Crusaders management led by Colin Mansbridge, revealed a new logo to replace the knight and sword in late 2019.


title: Crusaders (rugby union)

text: The Crusaders' franchise area consists of the regions controlled by the Buller, Canterbury, Mid-Canterbury, South Canterbury, Tasman and West Coast rugby unions. Before 2006, when the NPC was reorganised, Canterbury was the only union playing division one (now Bunnings NPC) within the Crusaders' catchment. As a result, the majority of Crusaders players were also listed with Canterbury. Today, the Crusaders' catchment contains two Bunnings NPC sides – Canterbury and Tasman.


title: Crusaders (rugby union)

text: The Crusaders' main home ground was the 36,000-capacity AMI Stadium in Christchurch. However, they stopped playing there during the 2011 Super Rugby season due to damage inflicted by the February Christchurch earthquake. The Crusaders usually took one game each year to another part of the franchise area, most often when the New Zealand cricket team was playing at AMI Stadium. Previous venues included Trafalgar Park in Nelson, and Alpine Energy Stadium in Timaru.


title: Crusaders (rugby union)

text: With AMI Stadium still out of commission, the Crusaders adopted Rugby League Park (which has been renamed Christchurch Stadium temporarily) in Addington as their home ground for that and future seasons to recentralise their games in one location as opposed to the road show that was the 2011 season. The ground had a limited makeover, taking it to an 18,600 capacity stadium and bringing its facilities to the minimum standards required by the Super Rugby competition.


title: Crusaders (rugby union)

text: The Crusaders' management proposed playing a 2005 regular season match in Melbourne when Jade Stadium was unavailable. Although five of the seven unions within the Crusaders region supported having the regular season game in Melbourne, the New Zealand Rugby Union (NZRU) vetoed the proposal. In 2006, the Crusaders did play a pre-season match in Melbourne against the Western Force at Olympic Park Stadium. They did the same in the 2008 preseason as well, also against the Force.


title: Crusaders (rugby union)

text: Due to the 2011 earthquake, the Crusaders played four games at Trafalgar Park, and two in Timaru during their 2011 season. They also played a "home" game in Wellington in Round 18 against Hurricanes, and a special home match against the Sharks at Twickenham in London. The London match was a fundraiser for earthquake relief, and was the first Super Rugby match ever contested outside of the three participating countries. In the first 30 hours of ticket sales, over 30,000 were purchased; a spokesman for United Ticketmaster indicated that the response was the strongest he had experienced for a rugby match outside of internationals.


title: Crusaders (rugby union)

text: The Crusaders have fielded a development team in competitions such as the Pacific Rugby Cup and in matches against other representative teams for several seasons. Known as the Crusaders Development XV or Crusaders Knights, the squad is selected from the best emerging rugby talent in the Crusaders catchment area and is composed of Crusaders contracted players, wider training group members, under 20s, and selected club players.


title: Crusaders (rugby union)

text: In addition to winning more Super Rugby titles than any other team, the franchise also holds several competition records, including most points in a game and most tries in a game, both achieved in their 96–19 victory over the Waratahs in 2002. The Crusaders also hold the record for the fewest points scored in a game when they were defeated by the Highlanders 6–0 in 2009. They have also scored the most points (541) and most tries (71) in one season, both achieved in 2005.