title: The Crow (upcoming film)

text: The film entered development in December 2008, with Stephen Norrington stating that he would write and direct a "reinvention" of "The Crow". It entered a complicated production process with various directors, screenwriters, and cast members attached at various points. Filmmakers Norrington, Juan Carlos Fresnadillo, F. Javier Gutiérrez, and Corin Hardy were initially signed to direct while Bradley Cooper, Luke Evans, Jack Huston, and Jason Momoa were all cast as Eric Draven during various points in development. Skarsgård was cast as Draven in April 2022 and Sanders was hired to direct soon after. Filming began in July, with locations including Prague and Munich.


title: The Crow (upcoming film)

text: On December 14, 2008, Stephen Norrington announced in "Variety" that he planned to write and direct a "reinvention" of "The Crow". Norrington distinguished between the original and his remake: "Whereas Alex Proyas' original was gloriously gothic and stylized, the new movie will be realistic, hard-edged and mysterious, almost documentary-style." Ryan Kavanaugh then announced on November 23, 2009, that his company, Relativity Media, was in negotiations with Edward R. Pressman for both the film's rights and financing. In July 2010, Australian musician Nick Cave was brought in to revise the script. In October 2010, reports emerged that Mark Wahlberg was offered the lead role.


title: The Crow (upcoming film)

text: Norrington later stepped out of the project and, on April 7, 2011, it was announced that "28 Weeks Later" director Juan Carlos Fresnadillo had been chosen to direct the film, which has since been regarded as a remake. Tucker Tooley of Relativity Media was chosen serve as executive producer, while Jose Ibanez, Jon Katz and Jesus de la Vega were to serve as co-producers. Meanwhile, Bradley Cooper was in talks to play the lead. F. Javier Gutiérrez was also in consideration to replace Norrington. It was reported on April 20, 2011, that the project was stalled due to a legal battle between Relativity Media's Ryan Kavanaugh and The Weinstein Company, who still retained the worldwide distribution rights to the series. In late June 2011, Relativity Media announced their plans to continue in mid-lawsuit and had tapped Alex Tse, who co-wrote "Watchmen". In mid-August 2011, it was announced that Cooper had dropped out due to scheduling difficulties and Wahlberg was again up for the part, with additional rumors of Channing Tatum or Ryan Gosling possibly taking the role, as well as James McAvoy. In October 2011, it was reported that Fresnadillo had departed the project as well.


title: The Crow (upcoming film)

text: It was confirmed in January 2012 that Gutiérrez had signed on to direct the remake, with Edward R. Pressman, Ryan Kavanaugh and Jeff Most on producing duties. Jesse Wigutow was attached as screenwriter while Dan Farah would join Bob Weinstein, Harvey Weinstein and Tooley as executive producers. In June 2012, Pressman assured fans that "the original 1994 "Crow" film holds a special place in my heart. The current film is a 'reinvention' of James O'Barr's graphic novel for the 21st century. We're thrilled to have teamed with director Javier Gutiérrez and screenwriter Jesse Wigutow on this story, which remains true to the core of Eric Draven's plight for revenge. On the news of future remakes, however, O'Barr stated: "[...] I don't have great expectations. I think the reality is, no matter whom you get to star in it, or if you get Ridley Scott to direct it and spend 200 million dollars, you're still not gonna top what Brandon Lee and Alex Proyas did in that first ten million dollar movie." "Warrior" screenwriter Cliff Dorfman was enlisted for a page-one rewrite, which ultimately got the project greenlit. The director courted production designer Bo Welch, effects artist Rick Baker, musician Atticus Ross, and makeup designer Bill Corso for the film. On April 19, 2013, it was announced that Tom Hiddleston was in talks to play Eric. That same month, there were reports that Hiddleston would not be doing the film, but that Alexander Skarsgård was in talks for the part. A week later, however, Skarsgård stated that he was not attached to the film.


title: The Crow (upcoming film)

text: On May 4, 2013, "Deadline" reported that Luke Evans had been cast as Eric Draven. Evans reaffirmed to Superhero Hype that the film would be as faithful as possible to the original. On July 3, 2013, "The Crow"s creator James O'Barr was named as the creative consultant of the film. In an October 2015 interview, O'Barr would discuss what had changed his mind about the reboot, and efforts to make the reboot a more faithful adaptation of the comic book, while remaining respectful to the original film. On November 21, 2013, Schmoes Know had reports that Norman Reedus was up for the role of a character named "James", and that Kristen Stewart had at one time been considered for the part of Shelly. Location scouting took place in New Orleans, Louisiana and later in the United Kingdom. In July 2014, Gutiérrez signed on to the then-titled "The Ring 3", which would force him to later drop out of directing the film. In November 2014, O'Barr announced he was co-writing the screenplay with Cliff Dorfman. In December 2014, the studio hired Corin Hardy to direct the film. Evans told "Den of Geek" in an interview that he might not do the film, and it was later revealed that Evans has dropped out of the film due to other projects. On February 9, 2015, O'Barr told "Blastr" in an interview that he was interested in Sam Witwer for the role.


title: The Crow (upcoming film)

text: As of October 24, 2014, the film was set to start production in the spring of 2015. On February 25, 2015, it was reported that Jack Huston was in talks to star in the film. On March 14, 2015, O'Barr confirmed to "Dread Central" at the Lexington Comic and Toy Convention that Huston had been cast as Draven in the reboot, and at a Q&A during the convention he further confirmed that Jessica Brown Findlay had been cast as Shelly Webster. On May 20, 2015, "Deadline" reported that Andrea Riseborough was in talks to co-star as the female version of Top Dollar. On June 15, 2015, "Variety" reported two stories: Forest Whitaker was in negotiations for a role and Huston had dropped out due to scheduling conflicts, but Relativity Studios were looking at Nicholas Hoult and Jack O'Connell for the role of Draven. On July 31, 2015, "The Hollywood Reporter" reported that production on the reboot stalled because of Relativity Media's bankruptcy. O'Barr told "Comic book" in an interview that the film would still happen.


title: The Crow (upcoming film)

text: "TheWrap" reported that filming on the reboot was going to start in March 2016 with Hardy on board as director. On June 15, 2016, "Deadline" reported that Hardy returned to the reboot. On August 10, 2016, Jason Momoa posted a photo of himself with Hardy on his Instagram account. On September 6, 2016, "TheWrap" reported that Momoa was cast and filming was set to begin in January 2017. On November 17, 2016, the film was retitled to "The Crow Reborn", with "The Hollywood Reporter" reporting that Highland Film Group and Electric Shadow have acquired the rights to finance, produce, and distribute the film from Relativity but may lose both Momoa and Hardy. In September 2017, it was announced that Sony Pictures would distribute the film. In March 2018, the film was slated for a release date of October 11, 2019. On May 31, 2018, it was announced that both director Hardy and star Momoa had exited the project. Production was expected to begin later that year in Budapest. On social media, Hardy revealed that he had creative differences with the rights holder Samuel Hadida of Davis Films, and that leaving the film was the "hardest decision of all".


title: The Crow (upcoming film)

text: In January 2020, the film was revived and development resumed. In March 2022, Pressman reaffirmed that the film was still on track. The following month, Rupert Sanders and Zach Baylin were announced as director and writer, while Edward R. Pressman and Malcolm Gray co-produced. On April 1, 2022, it was announced by "The Hollywood Reporter" that Bill Skarsgård would star as Eric Draven. Skarsgård's brother, Alexander Skarsgård, was originally in talks to portray Draven in April 2013. In the same month, it was reported that FKA Twigs would star as Eric's fiancée, while Victor Hadida, Molly Hassell, and John Jencks joined as producers.


title: The Crow (upcoming film)

text: Principal photography commenced on July 13, 2022 in Prague, Czech Republic. Paperwork filed from the film's production falsely identified the project as a six-episode television series. The film was previously set to commence in June 2022, shooting in Prague and Munich. By August 26, 2022, Danny Huston was cast in an undisclosed role. Huston's nephew, Jack Huston, was originally cast as Draven in March 2015. On September 16, 2022, the film wrapped production.


title: The Crow (upcoming film)

text: In September 2022, virtual production on the film occurred at Penzing Studios, in Penzing, Germany, while the digital asset creation and VFX work occurred in Bavaria, Germany. The film is the first major international production to shoot at the studio. By November 2022, Ashland Hill Media had financed the film's post-production.


title: The Crow (upcoming film)

text: The international distribution rights to "The Crow" were shopped to various buyers at the 2022 Cannes Film Festival in May. The international distribution rights were sold to Roadshow Films (Australia and New Zealand), Entertainment Film Distributors (United Kingdom), Vertical Entertainment (Eastern Europe), Leonine Distribution (Germany), Eagle Pictures (Italy), Nordisk Film (Scandinavia), Califórnia Filmes (Latin America), Tri Pictures (Spain), and MovieCloud (Taiwan). Other distribution sales include Italia Films (the Middle East), WWE Studios (the Benelux), M Pictures (Thailand), Square Box Films (Malaysia), Shaw Studios (Singapore), Pris Films (Portugal), Ascot Elite (Switzerland), Tanweer Films (Greece), Empire Films (South Africa), PVR Pictures (India), Yeni Bir (Turkey), and ACME Film (the Baltics).


title: Rick Brunson

text: Eric Daniel Brunson (born June 14, 1972) is an American basketball coach for the New York Knicks and former professional player. He played nine seasons in the National Basketball Association (NBA) and has also worked as an assistant coach for several teams. Brunson played college basketball for the Temple Owls.


title: Rick Brunson

text: Born in Syracuse, New York, he attended Salem High School, becoming one of two McDonald's All-American from Massachusetts in 1991.


title: Rick Brunson

text: Brunson graduated from Temple University. Not drafted by any NBA team in 1995, he played for the Adelaide 36ers in Australia in 1995–96 for whom he was their season MVP, and in the CBA next season. He was signed as a free agent by the Portland Trail Blazers in 1997–98, playing again in the CBA at the start of the 1998–99 season. Brunson then signed with the New York Knicks, and was a member of the 1999 Eastern Conference championship team. In 2000–01, he started off with the Boston Celtics, but finished the season with the Knicks again. He rejoined the Trail Blazers in 2001–02. He then signed with the Chicago Bulls the next season, splitting between the Bulls and the Toronto Raptors in 2003–04, before moving on to the Los Angeles Clippers in 2004–05. A breakout season in which he averaged a career-high 5.5 points per game landed him a 2005–06 contract with the Seattle SuperSonics, but only appeared in four games due to injury. On February 28, 2006, the Sonics waived Brunson. He was subsequently signed by the Houston Rockets, with whom he finished his ninth and final season as a professional basketball player.


title: Rick Brunson

text: From January to April 2007, Brunson worked as an assistant coach with the Denver Nuggets, focusing on player development. From 2007 to 2009, he was with the University of Virginia as the Cavaliers' director of basketball operations. In May 2009, Brunson was hired as assistant coach for the Hartford Hawks men's basketball team. On September 9, 2010, Brunson was hired as an assistant coach for the Chicago Bulls.


title: Rick Brunson

text: During the 2012–13 season, Brunson served as an assistant coach to Mike Dunlap on the Charlotte Bobcats' staff.


title: Rick Brunson

text: Brunson was also an assistant coach with the Minnesota Timberwolves from 2016 to 2018. In May 2018, Brunson resigned amidst allegations made against him regarding misconduct toward women.


title: Rick Brunson

text: Brunson coached at Camden High School in Camden, New Jersey. He is Dajuan Wagner Jr.'s head coach. Brunson resigned prior to the 2020–21 season while Camden High was ranked the #7 team in the country, but changed his mind a couple days later and remained the coach until 2022.


title: Rick Brunson

text: Brunson met his wife, Sandra, at Temple University where he played for the Owls men's basketball team and she played volleyball. Rick went on to spend nine seasons in the NBA. The couple has two children: Jalen (born 1996) and Erica (born c. 2000/01). The family settled in Cherry Hill, New Jersey for much of his NBA career, but moved seven times before settling in Lincolnshire, Illinois, in 2010 where Jalen played his high school career for Adlai E. Stevenson High School before joining Villanova. Jalen was named the 2014 and 2015 Illinois Boys' Basketball Gatorade Player of the Year as a junior and senior, was named to the 2015 McDonald's All-American Boys Game roster, was named Illinois Mr. Basketball, and led his team to the 2015 Illinois High School Association Class 4A championship. Jalen is currently a player for the New York Knicks of the National Basketball Association (NBA).


title: Rick Brunson

text: Brunson was arrested in June 2014 and indicted on charges of attempted criminal sexual assault, criminal sexual abuse, aggravated battery and domestic battery following an encounter with a massage therapist at a Lifetime Fitness in Vernon Hills. Authorities say Brunson used the name of retired NBA star Patrick Ewing to book an appointment in April with the massage therapist who had previously notified Brunson that she would no longer provide him with massages. Brunson pleaded not guilty to all charges. He later testified that the incident that led to the charges was a consensual act as part of an ongoing extramarital relationship. He was eventually acquitted.


title: Will Clark

text: William Nuschler Clark Jr. (born March 13, 1964) is an American professional baseball first baseman who played in Major League Baseball (MLB) from 1986 through 2000. He played for the San Francisco Giants, Texas Rangers, Baltimore Orioles, and St. Louis Cardinals. Clark was known by the nickname of "Will the Thrill." The nickname has often been truncated to simply, "the Thrill."


title: Will Clark

text: Clark played college baseball for the Mississippi State Bulldogs, where he won the Golden Spikes Award, and at the 1984 Summer Olympics before playing in the major leagues. Clark was a six-time MLB All-Star, a two-time Silver Slugger Award winner, a Gold Glove Award winner, and the winner of the National League Championship Series Most Valuable Player Award in 1989.


title: Will Clark

text: Clark has been inducted into the National College Baseball Hall of Fame, Mississippi Sports Hall of Fame, Louisiana Sports Hall of Fame, and Bay Area Sports Hall of Fame. His uniform number was retired by the Giants during the 2022 season. Clark continues to be active in baseball, serving as a Special Assistant in the Giants' front office.


title: Will Clark

text: Clark graduated Jesuit High School in New Orleans, Louisiana. He grew up a Kansas City Royals fan and was drafted by the Royals in the 4th round of the 1982 draft but chose not to sign.


title: Will Clark

text: He attended Mississippi State University to play college baseball for the Mississippi State Bulldogs. In 1983, he played collegiate summer baseball for the Cotuit Kettleers of the Cape Cod Baseball League (CCBL). A league all-star, he batted .367 and was inducted into the CCBL Hall of Fame in 2004.


title: Will Clark

text: Clark played for the United States national baseball team at the 1984 Summer Olympics. During the five-game Olympic tournament, Clark led the team in batting average (.429), hits (9), runs batted in (8) and tied for the team lead in home runs (3).


title: Will Clark

text: In , "The Sporting News" named Clark an All-American and he later won the Golden Spikes Award from USA Baseball as the best amateur baseball player in the country. A teammate of Rafael Palmeiro, the two were known as "Thunder and Lightning." Clark and Palmeiro were known to dislike each other, dating back to their time at Mississippi State.


title: Will Clark

text: Clark was drafted with the second overall pick in the 1985 Major League Baseball draft by the San Francisco Giants.


title: Will Clark

text: In his first major league at-bat on April 8, 1986, on his first swing, Clark hit a home run—off future Hall of Fame member Nolan Ryan. A few days later, Clark also homered in his first home game at Candlestick Park (he debuted at age 22, wearing the number 22, playing first base). An elbow injury cost Clark 47 games in his rookie season. Clark finished his rookie year with a .287 batting average.


title: Will Clark

text: In his first full season in , Clark had a .308 batting average. Clark was voted the starting first baseman for the NL All-Star team every season from 1988 through 1992. In , Clark was the first Giants' player to drive in 90 or more runs in consecutive seasons since Bobby Murcer from -.


title: Will Clark

text: In , Clark batted .333 (losing the batting title to Tony Gwynn on the final day of the season) with 111 runs batted in (RBIs). Clark finished second in the NL Most Valuable Player voting to Giants teammate Kevin Mitchell.


title: Will Clark

text: In , Clark and the Giants defeated the Chicago Cubs in the National League Championship Series (NLCS). In Game 1, Clark had already hit a solo home run. Prior to a subsequent at-bat, Cubs' catcher Rick Wrona went to the mound to discuss with Greg Maddux how to pitch to Clark. From the on-deck circle, Clark watched the conversation and read Greg Maddux's lips saying "fastball high, inside." The first pitch was a fastball high and inside which Clark sent into the street beyond right field for a grand slam. Afterwards, pitchers began to cover their mouths with their gloves when having conversations on the pitcher's mound. (The "Chicago Tribune"'s front page the next day paid tribute to his performance with a headline of "Clark's night on Addison", referring to the street outside Wrigley Field where the home runs landed.)


title: Will Clark

text: In Game 5 of the series, Clark faced Cubs closer Mitch Williams with the score 1–1 in the bottom of the eighth inning. Clark singled to center field to drive in two runs, breaking the tie, eventually sending the Giants to the World Series. Clark's efforts, which included a .650 batting average and two home runs, resulted in him being named NLCS MVP. The Giants went on to face the Oakland Athletics in the 1989 World Series, but were swept. In the only World Series appearance of his career, Clark failed to contribute significantly at the plate, finishing with no runs batted in and a .250 batting average while battling tonsillitis.


title: Will Clark

text: Clark had become a very durable player since his rookie year injury, setting a San Francisco record with 320 consecutive games played from September 1987 through August 1989. However, a string of injuries reduced his playing time in the early 1990s and diminished his production. Clark drove in just 73 runs in , the lowest total since his rookie year.


title: Will Clark

text: The Texas Rangers signed Clark to replace his former Mississippi State teammate, Rafael Palmeiro, at first base. Clark made the American League All-Star team in 1994 and finished the season with a .329 batting average, the second-highest of his career. He maintained a high level of offensive production throughout his tenure with Texas, finishing below .300 only in 1996. Injuries limited his playing time to 123, 117 and 110 games from 1995 through 1997, but Clark led the Rangers to American League West Division titles in 1996 and 1998. Clark struggled offensively in both the 1996 and 1998 postseasons, though he put together his most productive regular season in seven years in 1998 (.305, 23 HRs, 41 2Bs, 102 RBIs). Following the 1998 season, the Rangers re-signed Rafael Palmeiro, effectively ending Clark's days with the team.


title: Will Clark

text: Clark signed a two-year deal with the Orioles before the season, again replacing Palmeiro, who had left Baltimore to return to Texas. Part of the reason Clark chose Baltimore was to be near Johns Hopkins University Hospital, as Clark's son, Trey, has autism.


title: Will Clark

text: Clark spent nearly two years with Baltimore but was plagued by injuries. On June 15, Clark got his 2000th hit versus the Kansas City Royals.


title: Will Clark

text: At the MLB trade deadline in 2000, the Orioles traded Clark to the St. Louis Cardinals for José León. He was acquired in part to play in place of the injured Mark McGwire. Clark batted .345 while hitting 12 home runs and driving in 42 runs in 51 games. Clark helped the Cardinals defeat the Atlanta Braves in the NLDS with four runs batted in during the series. In the NLCS, the Cardinals faced the New York Mets. Clark batted .412 in the series but the Mets won the series and the National League pennant. Despite being revitalized during his time with the Cardinals, he decided to retire at the end of the season, largely due to familial obligations. Clark batted .319 during his final season and went 1 for 3 in his final game on October 16, 2000.


title: Will Clark

text: Clark was inducted into the College Baseball Hall of Fame in . He was inducted into the Louisiana Sports Hall of Fame in June 2004, the Bay Area Sports Hall of Fame on April 26, 2007 and the Mississippi Sports Hall of Fame on August 1, 2008.


title: Will Clark

text: Clark final statistics were 284 home runs, 1,205 RBI, a .303 batting average, and a .881 OPS. In 2006 Hall of Fame balloting, Clark received 23 votes, 4.4% of the total, which withdrew him from consideration from future ballots, as he did not receive the required 5% threshold to stay on.


title: Will Clark

text: It was announced on August 11, 2019, that the Giants would retire Clark's #22 during the 2020 season. However, due to the COVID-19 pandemic the retirement ceremony was postponed to 2022. Clark's number was ceremoniously retired on July 30, 2022.


title: Will Clark

text: Clark is married to his wife, Lisa White Clark, whom he wed in 1994. Their son Trey was born in 1996. In 1998, at age two, Trey was diagnosed with autism. Will and Lisa also have a daughter, Ella.


title: Will Clark

text: In 1999, Clark's wife Lisa had open heart surgery to address a hole that had been undiagnosed since birth.


title: Motor neuron

text: A motor neuron (or motoneuron or efferent neuron) is a neuron whose cell body is located in the motor cortex, brainstem or the spinal cord, and whose axon (fiber) projects to the spinal cord or outside of the spinal cord to directly or indirectly control effector organs, mainly muscles and glands. There are two types of motor neuron – upper motor neurons and lower motor neurons. Axons from upper motor neurons synapse onto interneurons in the spinal cord and occasionally directly onto lower motor neurons. The axons from the lower motor neurons are efferent nerve fibers that carry signals from the spinal cord to the effectors. Types of lower motor neurons are alpha motor neurons, beta motor neurons, and gamma motor neurons.


title: Motor neuron

text: A single motor neuron may innervate many muscle fibres and a muscle fibre can undergo many action potentials in the time taken for a single muscle twitch. Innervation takes place at a neuromuscular junction and twitches can become superimposed as a result of summation or a tetanic contraction. Individual twitches can become indistinguishable, and tension rises smoothly eventually reaching a plateau.


title: Motor neuron

text: Motor neurons begin to develop early in embryonic development, and motor function continues to develop well into childhood. In the neural tube cells are specified to either the rostral-caudal axis or ventral-dorsal axis. The axons of motor neurons begin to appear in the fourth week of development from the ventral region of the ventral-dorsal axis (the basal plate). This homeodomain is known as the motor neural progenitor domain (pMN). Transcription factors here include Pax6, OLIG2, Nkx-6.1, and Nkx-6.2, which are regulated by sonic hedgehog (Shh). The OLIG2 gene being the most important due to its role in promoting Ngn2 expression, a gene that causes cell cycle exiting as well as promoting further transcription factors associated with motor neuron development.


title: Motor neuron

text: Further specification of motor neurons occurs when retinoic acid, fibroblast growth factor, Wnts, and TGFb, are integrated into the various Hox transcription factors. There are 13 Hox transcription factors and along with the signals, determine whether a motor neuron will be more rostral or caudal in character. In the spinal column, Hox 4-11 sort motor neurons to one of the five motor columns.


title: Motor neuron

text: Upper motor neurons originate in the motor cortex located in the precentral gyrus. The cells that make up the primary motor cortex are Betz cells, which are a type of pyramidal cell. The axons of these cells descend from the cortex to form the corticospinal tract. Corticomotorneurons project from the primary cortex directly onto motor neurons in the ventral horn of the spinal cord. Their axons synapse on the spinal motor neurons of multiple muscles as well as on spinal interneurons. They are unique to primates and it has been suggested that their function is the adaptive control of the hands including the relatively independent control of individual fingers. Corticomotorneurons have so far only been found in the primary motor cortex and not in secondary motor areas.


title: Motor neuron

text: Nerve tracts are bundles of axons as white matter, that carry action potentials to their effectors. In the spinal cord these descending tracts carry impulses from different regions. These tracts also serve as the place of origin for lower motor neurons. There are seven major descending motor tracts to be found in the spinal cord:


title: Motor neuron

text: Lower motor neurons are those that originate in the spinal cord and directly or indirectly innervate effector targets. The target of these neurons varies, but in the somatic nervous system the target will be some sort of muscle fiber. There are three primary categories of lower motor neurons, which can be further divided in sub-categories.


title: Motor neuron

text: Somatic motor neurons originate in the central nervous system, project their axons to skeletal muscles (such as the muscles of the limbs, abdominal, and intercostal muscles), which are involved in locomotion. The three types of these neurons are the "alpha efferent neurons", "beta efferent neurons", and "gamma efferent neurons". They are called efferent to indicate the flow of information from the central nervous system (CNS) to the periphery.


title: Motor neuron

text: In addition to voluntary skeletal muscle contraction, alpha motor neurons also contribute to muscle tone, the continuous force generated by noncontracting muscle to oppose stretching. When a muscle is stretched, sensory neurons within the muscle spindle detect the degree of stretch and send a signal to the CNS. The CNS activates alpha motor neurons in the spinal cord, which cause extrafusal muscle fibers to contract and thereby resist further stretching. This process is also called the stretch reflex.


title: Motor neuron

text: These are also known as "branchial motor neurons", which are involved in facial expression, mastication, phonation, and swallowing. Associated cranial nerves are the oculomotor, abducens, trochlear, and hypoglossal nerves.


title: Motor neuron

text: These motor neurons indirectly innervate cardiac muscle and smooth muscles of the viscera ( the muscles of the arteries): they synapse onto neurons located in ganglia of the autonomic nervous system (sympathetic and parasympathetic), located in the peripheral nervous system (PNS), which themselves directly innervate visceral muscles (and also some gland cells).


title: Motor neuron

text: In consequence, the motor command of skeletal and branchial muscles is "monosynaptic" involving only one motor neuron, either "somatic" or "branchial", which synapses onto the muscle. Comparatively, the command of visceral muscles is "disynaptic" involving two neurons: the "general visceral motor neuron", located in the CNS, synapses onto a ganglionic neuron, located in the PNS, which synapses onto the muscle.


title: Motor neuron

text: All vertebrate motor neurons are cholinergic, that is, they release the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Parasympathetic ganglionic neurons are also cholinergic, whereas most sympathetic ganglionic neurons are noradrenergic, that is, they release the neurotransmitter noradrenaline. (see Table)


title: Motor neuron

text: A single motor neuron may innervate many muscle fibres and a muscle fibre can undergo many action potentials in the time taken for a single muscle twitch. As a result, if an action potential arrives before a twitch has completed, the twitches can superimpose on one another, either through summation or a tetanic contraction. In summation, the muscle is stimulated repetitively such that additional action potentials coming from the somatic nervous system arrive before the end of the twitch. The twitches thus superimpose on one another, leading to a force greater than that of a single twitch. A tetanic contraction is caused by constant, very high frequency stimulation - the action potentials come at such a rapid rate that individual twitches are indistinguishable, and tension rises smoothly eventually reaching a plateau.


title: Motor neuron

text: The interface between a motor neuron and muscle fiber is a specialized synapse called the neuromuscular junction. Upon adequate stimulation, the motor neuron releases a flood of acetylcholine (Ach) neurotransmitters from the axon terminals from synaptic vesicles bind with the plasma membrane. The acetylcholine molecules bind to postsynaptic receptors found within the motor end plate. Once two acetylcholine receptors have been bound, an ion channel is opened and sodium ions are allowed to flow into the cell. The influx of sodium into the cell causes depolarization and triggers a muscle action potential. T tubules of the sarcolemma are then stimulated to elicit calcium ion release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. It is this chemical release that causes the target muscle fiber to contract.


title: Motor neuron

text: In invertebrates, depending on the neurotransmitter released and the type of receptor it binds, the response in the muscle fiber could be either excitatory or inhibitory. For vertebrates, however, the response of a muscle fiber to a neurotransmitter can only be excitatory, in other words, contractile. Muscle relaxation and inhibition of muscle contraction in vertebrates is obtained only by inhibition of the motor neuron itself. This is how muscle relaxants work by acting on the motor neurons that innervate muscles (by decreasing their electrophysiological activity) or on cholinergic neuromuscular junctions, rather than on the muscles themselves.


title: Muhoozi Kainerugaba

text: Gen. Muhoozi Kainerugaba (born 24 April 1974) is an Ugandan general and son of president Yoweri Museveni. He has been commander of the Special Forces Command (SFC) from 2008 to 2017, and again from December 2020 to 2021, then commander of the land forces of the Uganda People's Defence Force (UPDF) from 24 June 2021 to 4 October 2022, when he was removed following tweets claiming to be able to capture Nairobi. Both the UPDF and the SFC are accused of using excessive force, as well as abductions; Muhoozi and other senior officials are mentioned in an International Criminal Court complaint. In 2017, Muhoozi was appointed Presidential Adviser, fueling speculations he is being prepared for the presidency.


title: Muhoozi Kainerugaba

text: On 30 November 2021, Uganda and the Democratic Republic of Congo launched a joint military offensive in Eastern Congo dubbed 'Operation Shujaa', led by Muhoozi. The stated reason is to fight against the Ugandan rebel group Allied Democratic Forces (ADF).


title: Muhoozi Kainerugaba

text: Muhoozi Kainerugaba was born on 24 April 1974 in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, to Yoweri Museveni and Hope Rwaheru. His father has been President of Uganda since 1986 during his time with FRONASA, a guerrilla outfit he led during the fight against Idi Amin’s dictatorial government by exiles based in Tanzania.


title: Muhoozi Kainerugaba

text: As a child, Muhoozi attended schools in Tanzania, Mount Kenya Academy in Nyeri Kenya, and Sweden. After his father became President of Uganda in 1986, he attended Kampala Parents School, King's College Budo, and St. Mary's College Kisubi. He graduated in 1994.


title: Muhoozi Kainerugaba

text: Muhoozi was admitted to the Egyptian Military Academy where he took both the company and battalion commanders courses. He also has attended the Kalama Armoured Warfare Training School.


title: Muhoozi Kainerugaba

text: In 2007 he was admitted to a one-year course at the United States Army Command and General Staff College at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, graduating in June 2008. Following that, he successfully completed the Executive National Security Programme at the South African National Defence College.


title: Muhoozi Kainerugaba

text: Muhoozi does not hold a degree in any verifiable non-military post-secondary education. It is not clear whether he was able to graduate from the University of Nottingham where some sources indicate he had a two-year study period for a "BA Political Science" degree starting 1996 to 1998, but the program is three years, not two.


title: Muhoozi Kainerugaba

text: In 1999, Muhoozi joined the Uganda People's Defence Force (UPDF) at the rank of officer cadet and graduated in 2000 from the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst, the British Army’s officer training school. He quickly made promotion within UPDF although many of Museveni's former NRA comrades such as David Sejusa and Kizza Besigye opposed this.


title: Muhoozi Kainerugaba

text: In September 2011 Muhoozi was promoted to Colonel. In early 2012 Muhoozi enrolled at the South African National Defence College for the Executive National Security Program. In August 2012 he was promoted to Brigadier General and appointed Commander Special Forces Command. In 2013 and 2014 Muhoozi was one of the senior UPDF commanders who deployed to South Sudan to support the Government of South Sudan after fighting broke out in Juba between rival factions of the SPLA.


title: Muhoozi Kainerugaba

text: In 2017 Muhoozi was appointed Senior Presidential Advisor on Special Duties, a position he held until December 2020.


title: Muhoozi Kainerugaba

text: He has been commander of the Special Forces Command (SFC) from 2008 to 2017, and again from December 2020 to 2021,


title: Muhoozi Kainerugaba

text: In February 2019, President Museveni, Muhoozi's father, promoted him to the rank of Colonel, the second-highest rank in the UPDF army after General.


title: Muhoozi Kainerugaba

text: In June 2021, Muhoozi was appointed Commander of UPDF Land Forces, taking over from Lt. Gen. Peter Elwelu who is now his deputy. Elwelu is known to have commanded the infamous raid on the Rwenzururu palace in Western Uganda in November 2016 in which he ordered UPDF to open fire on Rwenzururu royal guards, killing more than 100 of them.


title: Muhoozi Kainerugaba

text: In 2013, General David Sejusa Tinyefuza wrote a letter in which he explained a plan with the intention of having Muhoozi succeed his father as president. Army officers opposed to it were at risk of being assassinated. Sejusa told the BBC that Uganda was being turned into a "political monarchy," which Muhoozi denied. The letter led to the government's most aggressive attack on the media. The police laid siege to the Daily Monitor for more than 10 days, while many in Uganda were surprised by the silence of the international community. Tinyefuza spent over a year in exile in the United Kingdom before he returned. He was later arrested for insubordination in 2016. The term 'Muhoozi project' is no longer a taboo and even used frequently by Muhoozi fans on social media.


title: Muhoozi Kainerugaba

text: In February 2019, Rwanda closed the border accusing Uganda of supporting rebel groups in order to destabilize Rwanda. Uganda accused the Rwanda government of spying. In 2019 Rwanda’s key demands included Uganda ceasing to host anti-Kigali elements and the release of its abducted citizens. In 2022, Muhoozi took on a task that Angola’s President João Manuel Lourenço and Democratic Republic of Congo’s Félix Tshisekedi failed to accomplish in 2019, when they facilitated four meetings between Paul Kagame and Museveni. Rwanda’s main Gatuna border post between the two countries reopened in late January, following a meeting between Kagame and Muhoozi.


title: Muhoozi Kainerugaba

text: Muhoozi has been commander of the Special Forces Command (SFC) from 2008 to 2017, and again from December 2020 to 2021, then commander of the land forces of the Uganda People's Defence Force (UPDF) from 24 June 2021 to 4 October 2022, when he was removed following tweets claiming to be able to capture Nairobi.The SFC has been criticised for the extrajudicial abductions, tortures, disappearances and killings of political opposition. In his role as commander of the SFC, Kainerugaba has been named in a complaint to the International Criminal Court.


title: Muhoozi Kainerugaba

text: In 2007 he commanded the decisive defeat of the ADF in Bundibugyo, in an operation where 80 enemy forces and the ADF’s third in command were killed in action.


title: Muhoozi Kainerugaba

text: In 2008 he was deployed as Second-In-Command of “Operation Lightening Thunder” in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. This successful operation was organized to degrade the combat capacities of the rebel Lord’s Resistance Army in Garamba, deep in the jungles of the DR Congo.


title: Muhoozi Kainerugaba

text: In 2009 he participated in training and commissioning the UPDF’s first paratrooper element. Uganda’s first paratroopers since 1976.


title: Muhoozi Kainerugaba

text: On 31 December 2020, three days after being re-appointed SFC commander, Muhoozi posted a number of tweets attacking Bobi Wine; the tweets were considered by many Ugandans to promote tribalism. After many negative reactions, he removed the tweets.


title: Muhoozi Kainerugaba

text: A US$17 million tender contract to deliver medical oxygen was awarded to Muhoozi's wife Charlotte's company Silverbacks, leading to accusations of corruption. During the COVID-19 outbreak of June 2021, oxygen production struggled, causing many COVID-19 patients to die of oxygen shortages.


title: Muhoozi Kainerugaba

text: On 28 December 2021 Ugandan security forces put under house arrest, and subsequently arrested, journalist and writer Kakwenza Rukira after he had insulted Muhoozi on Twitter. During the period he was tortured Kakwenza allegedly had three meetings with Muhoozi in which he had to apologize for the tweets.


title: Muhoozi Kainerugaba

text: When Muhoozi was still an active serving officer in the UPDF, some had criticized his latest active involvement in politics and taking on roles typically meant for civilian diplomats as breaking the UPDF code of conduct for a serving officer. For instance, he played an active role in the mending of the Rwanda-Uganda relationship culminating in the successful re-opening of Uganda's border with Rwanda. Active serving military personnel are barred from engaging in active political roles in Uganda, according to UPDF rules.


title: Muhoozi Kainerugaba

text: Moreover, Muhoozi is known to enjoy alcoholic beverages and as such, he has been criticized about tweeting while drunk and posting often controversial tweets. It is also stated in the UPDF Act 7 of 2005, under Disgraceful conduct, section 139, that, "A person in the Defence Forces who is drunk, whether or not on duty, commits an offence and is on conviction, liable to imprisonment not exceeding seven years." No case has been brought to the UPDF court martial's attention about Muhoozi's behavior as a drunk serving officer.


title: Muhoozi Kainerugaba

text: In October 2022, Muhoozi received attention for publicly offering 100 cows as a bride price for Italian politician Giorgia Meloni, who at that point was widely expected to become the next Prime Minister of Italy, threatening to conquer Rome if this bride price were rebuffed.


title: Muhoozi Kainerugaba

text: On 3 October 2022, Muhoozi caused a diplomatic incident with Kenya when, on Twitter, he threatened to invade the country and conquer Nairobi, forcing his father to apologise for the comments.


title: Muhoozi Kainerugaba

text: Having been previously known to be generally a silent observer on Uganda's political scene, Muhoozi has recently taken to Twitter, suddenly becoming outspoken on a number of socio-political issues in Uganda, but mostly in praise of the UPDF which he hails as 'the greatest Army in the world'. In a 2013 speech to the UPDF High Command, President Museveni said this of the then Brig. Muhoozi, '“I am most pleased that Muhoozi has turned out to be a very serious officer, quiet and devoted to the building of the army" in reference to Muhoozi's work in building the Special Forces Command. Muhoozi has been dubbed by some in the media as the 'tweeting General' in reference to his sudden prolific use of Twitter, frequently posting content that some do not view as befitting of someone of his rank and position in the Army and in Uganda's social sphere.


title: Muhoozi Kainerugaba

text: Through Twitter, Muhoozi has actively commented on Uganda's fractured relationship with Rwanda promising to speak with his 'uncle' President Paul Kagame of Rwanda to allow for the re-opening of the Rwanda-Uganda border. The Rwanda-Uganda border was closed by Rwanda in 2019 in a diplomatic protest accusing Uganda of harboring and supporting elements Kigali considered active in attempting to destabilize Rwanda. On March 6, 2022, Muhoozi took to Twitter to announce that the Rwanda-Uganda border would be fully re-opened on March 7, 2022, after several diplomatic engagements that saw Muhoozi travel to Kigali twice in early 2022. He said in praise of the successful negotiations to re-open the border, "The border is fully opening tomorrow. Me and my uncle (President Kagame) achieved in 7 hours what all the diplomats on earth failed to achieve. I think we need a prize."


title: Muhoozi Kainerugaba

text: The Muhoozi Project has alleged that there is a plan for Muhoozi to become Uganda's next president to succeed his father, the current President of Uganda President Museveni, who has ruled since January 1986 under the National Resistance Movement (NRM). However, there are some who believe that the President's son-in-law and Senior Presidential Advisor for Special Duties, Odrek Rwabwogo, is also interested in succeeding President Museveni, creating two competing camps. It is not clear who the ruling NRM party will back to succeed president Museveni who has not indicated when or if he will leave office.


title: Muhoozi Kainerugaba

text: On 8 March 2022, Muhoozi took to Twitter to announce that he would be retiring from the UPDF, although no timeline for the retirement was given. He said that, "After 28 years of service in my glorious military, the greatest military in the world, I am happy to announce my retirement. Me and my soldiers have achieved so much! I have only love and respect for all those great men and women that achieve greatness for Uganda


title: Muhoozi Kainerugaba

text: everyday." The tweet generated a lot of national and international media attention, with Reuters writing that the move was seen by some as a preparation for the presidency. However, celebrated Ugandan journalist Andrew Mwenda, Muhoozi's friend and long-time confidant, posted a video on his Twitter timeline with Muhoozi a few hours after Muhoozi's retirement tweet, appearing to clarify that the retirement will only come in "exactly eight years" [2030]. Uganda's next presidential election is slated for 2026.


title: Muhoozi Kainerugaba

text: On April 11, 2022, Muhoozi de-activated his Twitter account which had a verified Twitter handle @mkainerugaba. It was not immediately clear why he de-activated his account but some sources stated that Muhoozi feared that, "there was sabotage against him and that he was being targeted by 'Big Tech' to silence him and his supporters".


title: Muhoozi Kainerugaba

text: Prior to de-activating his account, Muhoozi had put in place plans to celebrate his upcoming 48th birthday with Uganda's Attorney General Kiryowa Kiwanuka as the Chairperson of his 48th birthday organising committee. The list of nearly 28 members of the organizing committee consisted of other very high-profile members of the Uganda society including prominent musicians, army officers, government officials, media personalities and members of parliament.


title: Muhoozi Kainerugaba

text: The unusual approach Muhoozi had taken to using his Twitter handle to comment publicly on somewhat sensitive issues across Uganda and the region placed him and the UPDF under heavy spotlight as he is the Commander Land Forces of the country's armed forces. This came at a time when the UPDF is fighting against prolonged civil conflict in the Karamoja region involving notorious cattle rustlers where Muhoozi threatened to abandon diplomatic channels to ending the conflict promising to bring "hell" to those involved in what he called 'robbery and violence' in Karamoja. At the same time, the UPDF along with DRC forces are fighting against the ADF militant group in Eastern DRC in Operation Shujaa that commenced in November 2021.


title: Muhoozi Kainerugaba

text: On 16 April 2022, five days after deactivating his Twitter account, Muhoozi re-activated it, writing, “Never fear my followers and supporters. I’m back. I had some decisions to make.” It was not immediately clear what those decisions were.


title: Muhoozi Kainerugaba

text: On 3 October 2022 Muhoozi sparked controversy yet again when he tweeted that it would take him two weeks to capture Nairobi, and the next day he was removed from the UPDF lead.


title: Lower Canada

text: The Province of Lower Canada () was a British colony on the lower Saint Lawrence River and the shores of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence (1791–1841). It covered the southern portion of the current Province of Quebec and the Labrador region of the current Province of Newfoundland and Labrador (until the Labrador region was transferred to Newfoundland in 1809).


title: Lower Canada

text: Lower Canada consisted of part of the former colony of Canada of New France, conquered by Great Britain in the Seven Years' War ending in 1763 (also called the French and Indian War in the United States). Other parts of New France conquered by Britain became the Colonies of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island.


title: Lower Canada

text: The Province of Lower Canada was created by the "Constitutional Act 1791" from the partition of the British colony of the Province of Quebec (1763–1791) into the Province of Lower Canada and the Province of Upper Canada. The prefix "lower" in its name refers to its geographic position farther downriver from the headwaters of the St. Lawrence River than its contemporary Upper Canada, present-day southern Ontario.


title: Lower Canada

text: Lower Canada was abolished in 1841 when it and adjacent Upper Canada were united into the Province of Canada.


title: Lower Canada

text: Like Upper Canada, there was significant political unrest. Twenty-two years after an invasion by the United States in the War of 1812, a rebellion now challenged the British rule of the predominantly French population. After the Patriote Rebellion in the Rebellions of 1837–1838 was suppressed by government troops and Loyal volunteers, the 1791 Constitution was suspended on 27 March 1838 and a special council was appointed to administer the colony. An abortive attempt by revolutionary Robert Nelson to declare a Republic of Lower Canada was quickly thwarted.


title: Lower Canada

text: The provinces of Lower Canada and Upper Canada were combined as the United Province of Canada in 1841, when the "Act of Union 1840" came into force. Their separate legislatures were combined into a single parliament with equal representation for both constituent parts, even though Lower Canada had a greater population.


title: Lower Canada

text: The Province of Lower Canada inherited the mixed set of French and English institutions that existed in the Province of Quebec during the 1763–1791 period and which continued to exist later in Canada-East (1841–1867) and ultimately in the current Province of Quebec (since 1867).


title: Lower Canada

text: Lower Canada was populated mainly by Canadiens, an ethnic group who trace their ancestry to French colonists who settled in Canada from the 17th century onward.


title: Lower Canada

text: Travelling around Lower Canada was mainly by water along the St. Lawrence River. On land the only long-distance route was the Chemin du Roy or King's Highway, built in the 1730s by New France. The King's Highway was, in addition to the mail route, the primary means of long-distance passenger travel until steamboats (1815) and railways (1850s) began to challenge the royal road. The royal road's importance waned after the 1850s and would not re-emerge as a key means of transportation until the modern highway system of Quebec was created in the 20th century.


title: Lionel Hampton

text: Lionel Leo Hampton (April 20, 1908 – August 31, 2002) was an American jazz vibraphonist, pianist, percussionist, and bandleader. Hampton worked with jazz musicians from Teddy Wilson, Benny Goodman, and Buddy Rich, to Charlie Parker, Charles Mingus, and Quincy Jones. In 1992, he was inducted into the Alabama Jazz Hall of Fame, and he was awarded the National Medal of Arts in 1996.


title: Lionel Hampton

text: Lionel Hampton was born in 1908 in Louisville, Kentucky, and was raised by his mother. Shortly after he was born, he and his mother moved to her hometown of Birmingham, Alabama. He spent his early childhood in Kenosha, Wisconsin, before he and his family moved to Chicago, Illinois, in 1916. As a youth, Hampton was a member of the Bud Billiken Club, an alternative to the Boy Scouts of America, which was off-limits because of racial segregation.


title: Lionel Hampton

text: During the 1920s, while still a teenager, Hampton took xylophone lessons from Jimmy Bertrand and began to play drums. Hampton was raised Catholic, and started out playing fife and drum at the Holy Rosary Academy near Chicago.


title: Lionel Hampton

text: Lionel Hampton began his career playing drums for the "Chicago Defender" Newsboys' Band (led by Major N. Clark Smith) while still a teenager in Chicago. While he lived in Chicago, Hampton saw Louis Armstrong at the Vendome, recalling that the entire audience went crazy after his first solo.


title: Lionel Hampton

text: He moved to California in 1927 or 1928, playing drums for the Dixieland Blues-Blowers. He made his recording debut with The Quality Serenaders led by Paul Howard, then left for Culver City and drummed for the Les Hite band at Sebastian's Cotton Club. One of his trademarks as a drummer was his ability to do stunts with multiple pairs of sticks such as twirling and juggling without missing a beat.


title: Lionel Hampton

text: During this period, he began practicing on the vibraphone. In 1930 Louis Armstrong came to California and hired the Les Hite band for performances and recordings. Armstrong was impressed with Hampton's playing after Hampton reproduced Armstrong's solo on the vibraphone and asked him to play behind him like that during vocal choruses. So began his career as a vibraphonist, popularizing the use of the instrument in the process. Invented ten years earlier, the vibraphone is essentially a xylophone with metal bars, a sustain pedal, and resonators equipped with electric-powered fans that add tremolo.


title: Lionel Hampton

text: While working with the Les Hite band, Hampton also occasionally did some performing with Nat Shilkret and his orchestra. During the early 1930s, he studied music at the University of Southern California. In 1934 he led his own orchestra, and then appeared in the Bing Crosby film "Pennies From Heaven" (1936) alongside Louis Armstrong (wearing a mask in a scene while playing drums).


title: Lionel Hampton

text: Also in November 1936, the Benny Goodman Orchestra came to Los Angeles to play the Palomar Ballroom. When John Hammond brought Goodman to see Hampton perform, Goodman invited him to join his trio, which soon became the Benny Goodman Quartet with pianist Teddy Wilson and drummer Gene Krupa completing the lineup. The Trio and Quartet were among the first racially integrated jazz groups to perform before audiences, and were a leading small group of the day.


title: Lionel Hampton

text: During his nearly four years with Goodman, Hampton became a household name in the swing world, not only adding fire, color and inventive ideas to Goodman's quartet and occasionally filling in on drums with the big band, but staying long enough to be one of the stars at Goodman's famed Carnegie Hall concert in 1938, and to be part of the clarinetist's sextet with the pioneering electric guitarist Charlie Christian. At the same time, Hampton led a series of mostly superb all-star sessions for the Victor label.


title: Lionel Hampton

text: While Hampton worked for Goodman in New York, he recorded with several different small groups known as the Lionel Hampton Orchestra, as well as assorted small groups within the Goodman band. In 1940 Hampton left the Goodman organization under amicable circumstances to form his own big band.


title: Lionel Hampton

text: Hampton's orchestra developed a high profile during the 1940s and early 1950s. His third recording with them in 1942 produced the version of "Flying Home", featuring a solo by Illinois Jacquet that anticipated rhythm & blues. Although Hampton first recorded "Flying Home" under his own name with a small group in 1940 for Victor, the best known version is the big band version recorded for Decca on May 26, 1942, in a new arrangement by Hampton's pianist Milt Buckner. The 78 RPM disc became successful enough for Hampton to record "Flyin' Home #2" in 1944, this time a feature for Arnett Cobb. The song went on to become the theme song for all three men.


title: Lionel Hampton

text: Guitarist Billy Mackel first joined Hampton in 1944, and would perform and record with him almost continuously through to the late 1970s. In 1947, Hamp performed "Stardust" at a "Just Jazz" concert for producer Gene Norman, also featuring Charlie Shavers and Slam Stewart; the recording was issued by Decca. Later, Norman's GNP Crescendo label issued the remaining tracks from the concert.


title: Lionel Hampton

text: Hampton was a featured artist at numerous Cavalcade of Jazz concerts held at Wrigley Field in Los Angeles and produced by Leon Hefflin Sr. His first performance was at the second Cavalcade of Jazz concert held on October 12, 1946, and also featured Jack McVea, Slim Gaillard, T-Bone Walker, the Honeydrippers and Louis Armstrong.


title: Lionel Hampton

text: The fifth Cavalcade of Jazz concert was held in two locations, Wrigley Field in Los Angeles and Lane Field in San Diego, July 10, 1949, and September 3, 1949, respectively. Betty Carter, Jimmy Witherspoon, Buddy Banks, Smiley Turner and Big Jay McNeely also played with Hampton.


title: Lionel Hampton

text: It was at the sixth Cavalcade of Jazz, June 25, 1950, that Hampton's playing precipitated the closest thing to a riot in the show's eventful history. Lionel and his band paraded around the ball park's infield playing ‘Flying High’. The huge crowd, around 14,000, went berserk, tossed cushions, coats, hats, programs, and just about anything else they could lay hands on and swarmed on the field. Dinah Washington, Roy Milton, PeeWee Crayton, Lillie Greenwood, Tiny Davis and Her Hell Divers were also featured.


title: Lionel Hampton

text: His final Cavalcade of Jazz concert held on July 24, 1955 (Eleventh) also featured Big Jay McNeely, The Medallions, The Penguins and James Moody and his Orchestra.


title: Lionel Hampton

text: From the mid-1940s until the early 1950s, Hampton led a lively rhythm & blues band whose Decca Records recordings included numerous young performers who later had significant careers. They included bassist Charles Mingus, saxophonist Johnny Griffin, guitarist Wes Montgomery, vocalist Dinah Washington, and vocal stylist "Little" Jimmy Scott. Other noteworthy band members were trumpeters Dizzy Gillespie, Cat Anderson, Kenny Dorham, and Snooky Young, trombonist Jimmy Cleveland, and saxophonists Jerome Richardson and Curtis Lowe.


title: Lionel Hampton

text: The Hampton orchestra that toured Europe in 1953 included Clifford Brown, Gigi Gryce, Anthony Ortega, Monk Montgomery, George Wallington, Art Farmer, Quincy Jones, and singer Annie Ross. Hampton continued to record with small groups and jam sessions during the 1940s and 1950s, with Oscar Peterson, Buddy DeFranco, and others. In 1955, while in California working on "The Benny Goodman Story" he recorded with Stan Getz and made two albums with Art Tatum for Norman Granz as well as with his own big band.


title: Lionel Hampton

text: Hampton performed with Louis Armstrong and Italian singer Lara Saint Paul at the 1968 Sanremo Music Festival in Italy. The performance created a sensation with Italian audiences, as it broke into a real jazz session. That same year, Hampton received a Papal Medal from Pope Paul VI.


title: Lionel Hampton

text: During the 1960s, Hampton's groups were in decline; he was still performing what had succeeded for him earlier in his career. He did not fare much better in the 1970s, though he recorded actively for his Who's Who in Jazz record label, which he founded in 1977/1978.


title: Lionel Hampton

text: Beginning in February 1984, Hampton and his band played at the University of Idaho's annual jazz festival, which was renamed the Lionel Hampton Jazz Festival the following year. In 1987, the UI's school of music was renamed for Hampton, the first university music school named for a jazz musician.


title: Lionel Hampton

text: During much of the 1980s, some notable sidemen in Hampton's orchestra included Thomas Chapin, Paul Jeffrey, Frankie Dunlop, Arvell Shaw, John Colianni, Oliver Jackson and George Duvivier. Hampton remained active until a stroke in Paris in 1991 led to a collapse on stage. That incident, combined with years of chronic arthritis, forced him to cut back drastically on performances. However, he did play at the Smithsonian National Museum of American History in 2001 shortly before his death.


title: Lionel Hampton

text: Hampton died from congestive heart failure at Mount Sinai Hospital, New York City, on August 31, 2002. He was interred at the Woodlawn Cemetery, Bronx, New York. His funeral was held on September 7, 2002, and featured a performance by Wynton Marsalis and David Ostwald's Gully Low Jazz Band at Riverside Church in Manhattan; the procession began at The Cotton Club in Harlem.


title: Lionel Hampton

text: On November 11, 1936, in Yuma, Arizona, Lionel Hampton married Gladys Riddle (1913–1971). Gladys was Lionel's business manager throughout much of his career. Many musicians recall that Lionel ran the music and Gladys ran the business.


title: Lionel Hampton

text: Around 1945 or 1946, he handed a pair of vibraphone mallets to then-five year old (later jazz musician) Roy Ayers.


title: Lionel Hampton

text: During the 1950s he had a strong interest in Judaism and raised money for Israel. In 1953 he composed a King David suite and performed it in Israel with the Boston Pops Orchestra. Later in life Hampton became a Christian Scientist. Hampton was also a Thirty-third degree Prince Hall freemason.


title: Lionel Hampton

text: In January 1997, his apartment caught fire and destroyed his awards and belongings; Hampton escaped uninjured.


title: Lionel Hampton

text: Hampton was deeply involved in the construction of various public housing projects, and founded the Lionel Hampton Development Corporation. Construction began with the Lionel Hampton Houses in Harlem, New York, in the 1960s, with the help of then Republican governor Nelson Rockefeller. Hampton's wife, Gladys Hampton, also was involved in construction of a housing project in her name, the Gladys Hampton Houses. Gladys died in 1971. In the 1980s, Hampton built another housing project called Hampton Hills in Newark, New Jersey.


title: Lionel Hampton

text: Hampton was a staunch Republican and served as a delegate to several Republican National Conventions. He served as vice-chairman of the New York Republican County Committee for some years and also was a member of the New York City Human Rights Commission. He served as Director of Special Events for Gerald Ford's 1976 re-election campaign. Hampton donated almost $300,000 to Republican campaigns and committees throughout his lifetime. However, in 1996 he endorsed Clinton/Gore, saying that the Republican party, which he had joined because it was the party of Lincoln, no longer represented moderates like himself.


title: Lionel Hampton

text: note: every recording by Lionel Hampton & His Orchestra is included in this 12 volume series from the CLASSICS reissue label ...


title: Robert Emms

text: Robert Emms (born Robert James MacPherson; 20 May 1986) is an English film, stage and television actor, known for portraying Pythagoras in the BBC One fantasy-adventure series "Atlantis", and Leonid Toptunov in HBO's Miniseries "Chernobyl".


title: Robert Emms

text: Emms was born in Horley, Surrey, England. He went to a local secondary school, Oakwood School, Horley. He studied at the BRIT School for Performing Arts and Technology from 2002 to 2004, and then the London Academy of Music and Dramatic Art (LAMDA) from 2004 to 2007.


title: Robert Emms

text: In March 2009 Emms played the lead role of Albert in the National Theatre's production of "War Horse". After Steven Spielberg saw him in "War Horse" at the New London Theatre, he was cast as David Lyons in Spielberg's film adaptation of the play.


title: Robert Emms

text: His other film work includes "Kick Ass 2" alongside Jim Carrey, and Rick ‘Broken’ Buckley in Broken directed by Rufus Norris for BBC films. He appeared as the Elizabethan playwright Thomas Dekker in "Anonymous" directed by Roland Emmerich, in


title: Robert Emms

text: Tarsem Singh's version of the Brothers Grimm's "Snow White", in "Mirror Mirror", with Julia Roberts and in the BAFTA-nominated film "The Arbor", directed by "Clio Barnard". More recently he has portrayed Vitas Gerulaitis in the film Borg/McEnroe directed by Janus Metz Pederson (alongside Shia LaBeouf).


title: Robert Emms

text: Emms' notable television appearances include "Happy Valley" by Sally Wainwright, "The Street" by Jimmy McGovern, and "Scott & Bailey". In 2015, Emms played the part of Smitty, the artistic grandson of Petunia Howe, in the three-part BBC series "Capital" based on John Lanchester's novel of the same name. Most recently he portrays John Gerard in the BBC series "Gunpowder" alongside Kit Harington and Liv Tyler. He also played Pythagoras in the series Atlantis for the BBC.


title: Hyper Text Coffee Pot Control Protocol

text: The Hyper Text Coffee Pot Control Protocol (HTCPCP) is a facetious communication protocol for controlling, monitoring, and diagnosing coffee pots. It is specified in , published on 1 April 1998 as an April Fools' Day RFC, as part of an April Fools prank. An extension, HTCPCP-TEA, was published as RFC 7168 on 1 April 2014 to support brewing teas, which is also an April Fools' Day RFC.


title: Hyper Text Coffee Pot Control Protocol

text: RFC 2324 was written by Larry Masinter, who describes it as a satire, saying "This has a serious purpose – it identifies many of the ways in which HTTP has been extended inappropriately." The wording of the protocol made it clear that it was not entirely serious; for example, it notes that "there is a strong, dark, rich requirement for a protocol designed espressoly for the brewing of coffee".


title: Hyper Text Coffee Pot Control Protocol

text: Despite the joking nature of its origins, or perhaps because of it, the protocol has remained as a minor presence online. The editor Emacs includes a fully functional client side implementation of it, and a number of bug reports exist complaining about Mozilla's lack of support for the protocol. Ten years after the publication of HTCPCP, the "Web-Controlled Coffee Consortium" ("WC3") published a first draft of "HTCPCP Vocabulary in RDF" in parody of the World Wide Web Consortium's (W3C) "HTTP Vocabulary in RDF".


title: Hyper Text Coffee Pot Control Protocol

text: HTCPCP is an extension of HTTP. HTCPCP requests are identified with the Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) scheme codice_1 (or the corresponding word in any other of the 29 listed languages) and contain several additions to the HTTP methods:


title: Hyper Text Coffee Pot Control Protocol

text: On 5 August 2017, Mark Nottingham, chairman of the IETF HTTPBIS Working Group, called for the removal of status code 418 "I'm a teapot" from the Node.js platform, a code implemented in reference to the original 418 "I'm a teapot" established in Hyper Text Coffee Pot Control Protocol. On 6 August 2017, Nottingham requested that references to 418 "I'm a teapot" be removed from the programming language Go and subsequently from Python's Requests and ASP.NET's HttpAbstractions library as well.


title: Hyper Text Coffee Pot Control Protocol

text: In response, 15-year-old developer Shane Brunswick created a website, save418.com, and established the "Save 418 Movement", asserting that references to 418 "I'm a teapot" in different projects serve as "a reminder that the underlying processes of computers are still made by humans". Brunswick's site went viral in the hours following its publishing, garnering thousands of upvotes on the social platform Reddit, and causing the mass adoption of the "#save418" Twitter hashtag he introduced on his site. Heeding the public outcry, Node.js, Go, Python's Requests, and ASP.NET's HttpAbstractions library decided against removing 418 "I'm a teapot" from their respective projects. The unanimous support from the aforementioned projects and the general public prompted Nottingham to begin the process of having 418 marked as a reserved HTTP status code, ensuring that 418 will not be replaced by an official status code for the foreseeable future.


title: Hyper Text Coffee Pot Control Protocol

text: On 5 October 2020, Python 3.9 released with an updated http library including codice_2 status code. In the corresponding pull request, the Save 418 movement was directly cited in support of adoption.


title: Hyper Text Coffee Pot Control Protocol

text: The status code 418 is sometimes returned by servers when blocking a request, instead of the more appropriate 403 Forbidden. Around the time of the 2021–2022 Russo-Ukrainian crisis, the Russian military website mil.ru returned the HTTP 418 status code when accessed from outside of Russia as a DDoS attack protection measure. The change was first noticed in December of 2021.


title: Voiceless alveolar affricate

text: A voiceless alveolar affricate is a type of affricate consonant pronounced with the tip or blade of the tongue against the alveolar ridge (gum line) just behind the teeth. This refers to a class of sounds, not a single sound. There are several types with significant perceptual differences:


title: Voiceless alveolar affricate

text: The voiceless alveolar sibilant affricate is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. The sound is transcribed in the International Phonetic Alphabet with or (formerly with or ). The voiceless alveolar affricate occurs in many Indo-European languages, such as German, Kashmiri, Marathi,


title: Voiceless alveolar affricate

text: Pashto, Russian and most other Slavic languages such as Polish and Serbo-Croatian; also, among many others, in Georgian, in Mongolia, and Tibetan Sanskrit, in Japanese, in Mandarin Chinese, and in Cantonese. Some international auxiliary languages, such as Esperanto, Ido and Interlingua also include this sound.


title: USS United States (CVA-58)

text: USS "United States" (CVA-58) was to be the lead ship of a new design of aircraft carrier. On 29 July 1948, President Harry Truman approved construction of five "supercarriers", for which funds had been provided in the Naval Appropriations Act of 1949. The keel of the first of the five planned postwar carriers was laid down on 18 April 1949 at Newport News Drydock and Shipbuilding. The program was canceled in 1949, "United States" was not completed, and the other four planned carriers were never built.


title: USS United States (CVA-58)

text: The chief proponent for the new large carrier was Admiral Marc Mitscher. He wanted a carrier that would be able to handle the most effective weapons of the day. Early design discussions centered around developing a carrier that would be able to support combat missions using the new jet aircraft. These were faster, larger and significantly heavier than the aircraft the - and -class carriers were handling at the end of the Second World War. It was thought that the aircraft carried would have to have longer range to allow the carrier to operate farther away from the target. The deck would have to be able to handle the weight of the heavy jet aircraft landing on the deck. The implication was that the ship's strength deck would have to be the flight deck rather than the hangar deck, as had been the case for earlier U.S. carriers. Armoring the flight deck would mean the ship would have a greater tendency to roll in rough seas, as a greater part of the ship's weight would be high above the waterline.


title: USS United States (CVA-58)

text: Based on the size of the aircraft that the new ship was to carry, the design of the carrier was to be flush decked, meaning that the ship would have no island control structure. This would be done to create more space for large winged aircraft. The flush-deck design carried with it two major concerns. The first concern was over how smoke from the power plants would be diverted from the flight deck. This had been a major issue with the US Navy's first aircraft carrier, , in the 1920s when carrier development was first underway. The second concern was the placement of early warning radar equipment to allow the ship to detect incoming attacks. One solution was for a command ship to be close by which would carry the commander of the task force and the early detection radar. The command ship would radio electronic information and orders from its command center over to the carrier. This command ship role was termed a 'pilotfish' and the would be built in part to fulfill this role. A second solution was for the ship to carry aircraft that could fly the early warning radar. These would fly overhead and detect approaching aircraft. In truth, the ship as designed would not be able to safely operate by itself, but would need to operate in conjunction with traditional fleet carriers as a complementary bomber-carrier. In fact, the ship was being designed on the basis of the aircraft that it was thought it would carry, and these were based on projections of what aircraft would be in existence in the period 1952 to 1960.


title: USS United States (CVA-58)

text: Discussions included debate on the aircraft carrier's mission. One view was that it would carry a group of large bombers that would be secured to the flight deck, with no hangar for these aircraft, as they would be too large to move up and down in an elevator. Though they would be built to carry large, nuclear weapons, the total amount of space used for munition storage would be reduced as multiple strikes would not be likely. A small hangar deck would be available for a limited fighter escort and a small magazine for a small number of heavy nuclear weapons. Another plan was that it could be built with conventional attack capability with a large hangar deck for a large air wing and a large magazine. The nuclear attack supporters won in the initial design stage, but the design was modified to carry more fighters. The flush-deck "United States" was designed to launch and recover the 100,000 pound (45 t) aircraft required to carry early-model nuclear weapons, which weighed as much as five tons. The ship would have no permanently raised island or command tower structure. It would be equipped with four aircraft elevators located at the deck edges to avoid decreasing the structural strength of the flight deck. Four catapults would be used to launch aircraft, with two at the bow and two others on the outer edge of the deck staggered back. The carrier was designed so that it could land aircraft at the rear while at the same time launching aircraft from the catapults at the bow and forward area simultaneously. The construction cost of the new ship was estimated at US$189 million (equivalent to US$ billion in ).


title: USS United States (CVA-58)

text: USS "United States" was designed with the primary mission of carrying long-range bomber aircraft that could carry a heavy enough load to undertake nuclear bombardment missions. It would also carry long range escort fighters that would fly along and protect its bombers. The ship could also take on other roles, such as providing air support for amphibious forces and to conduct sea control operations, but it was primarily to be a "bomber carrier". It was thought it would operate in a task force coupled with traditional attack carriers, which would provide the air cover for the task force. That mission was virtually certain to make the ship a target of inter-service rivalries over missions and funding. The United States Air Force viewed "United States" as a challenge to their monopoly on strategic nuclear weapons delivery.


title: USS United States (CVA-58)

text: Looking to cut the military budget and accepting without question the Air Force argument on nuclear deterrence by means of large, long-range bombers, Secretary of Defense Louis A. Johnson announced the cancellation of "United States" on 23 April 1949, five days after the ship's keel was laid. Secretary of the Navy John Sullivan immediately resigned, and Congress held an inquiry into the manner and wisdom of Johnson's decision. In the subsequent "Revolt of the Admirals", the Navy was unable to advance its case that large carriers would be essential to national defense.


title: USS United States (CVA-58)

text: Soon afterward, Johnson and Francis P. Matthews, the man he advanced to be the new Secretary of the Navy, set about punishing those officers that let their opposition be known. Navy Admiral Louis Denfeld was forced to resign as Chief of Naval Operations, and a number of other admirals and lesser ranks were punished. The invasion of South Korea six months later resulted in an immediate need for a strong naval presence, and Matthews' position as Secretary of the Navy and Johnson's position as Secretary of Defense crumbled, both ultimately resigning.


title: USS United States (CVA-58)

text: The Navy soon found a means to carry nuclear weapons at sea, placed aboard the aircraft carrier in 1950. Thus the question of which service would have primary responsibility for strategic nuclear strikes was not answered with Johnson's cancellation of USS "United States".


title: Bad Company (album)

text: Bad Company is the debut studio album by the English hard rock supergroup Bad Company. The album was recorded at Headley Grange with Ronnie Lane's Mobile Studio in November 1973, and it was the first album released on Led Zeppelin's Swan Song Records label.


title: Bad Company (album)

text: The album reached the top of the US "Billboard" 200. Since then, the album has been certified five times platinum by the RIAA, and became the 46th best selling album of the 1970s. The album spent 25 weeks in the UK Albums Chart, entering at No. 10 on June 15, 1974, and reaching its highest position of No. 3 in the second week. "Kerrang!" magazine listed the album at No. 40 among the "100 Greatest Heavy Metal Albums of All Time". The album was also included in the book "1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die". In 2000 it was voted number 323 in Colin Larkin's "All Time Top 1000 Albums".


title: Bad Company (album)

text: The singles "Can't Get Enough" and "Movin' On" peaked at No. 5 and No. 19 on the "Billboard" Hot 100, respectively. "Rock Steady", "Bad Company" and "Ready for Love" (the last originally recorded by guitarist Mick Ralphs during his tenure with Mott the Hoople on their 1972 album "All the Young Dudes") are also classic rock radio staples.


title: Bad Company (album)

text: The album was remastered and re-released in 1994. In 2006 an audiophile mastered 24K gold CD was released by Audio Fidelity.


title: Castle (season 4)

text: The fourth season of American crime-comedy-drama television series "Castle" was ordered on January 10, 2011, by ABC. The season aired from September 19, 2011, to May 7, 2012. The fourth season initially contained 22 episodes, but on December 8, 2011, ABC ordered an additional episode, bringing the total episode count to 23 episodes. Penny Johnson Jerald joined the cast as the new captain, Victoria "Iron" Gates for the fourth season.


title: Castle (season 4)

text: Richard Castle (Fillion) is a famous mystery novelist who has killed off the main character in his popular book series and has writer's block. He is brought in by the NYPD for questioning regarding a copy-cat murder based on one of his novels. He is intrigued by this new window into crime and murder, and uses his connection with the mayor to charm his way into shadowing Detective Kate Beckett (Katic). Castle decides to use Beckett as his muse for Nikki Heat, the main character of his next book series. Beckett, an avid reader of Castle's books, initially disapproves of having Castle shadow her work, but later warms up and recognizes Castle as a useful resource in her team's investigations.


title: Castle (season 4)

text: The fourth season of "Castle" received positive reviews from critics, many of whom was pleased that the show finally united Fillion and Katic's characters Castle and Beckett after having four seasons of on-again-off-again relationship. Sandra Gonzalez from "Entertainment Weekly" was pleased in the way the relationship happened.


title: Anbil Mahesh Poyyamozhi

text: Anbil Mahesh Poyyamozhi (born 2 December 1977 as "Nallamuththu Poyyamozhi") is an Indian politician serving as the Minister for School Education in Tamil Nadu and in charge for Trichy district-South (Trichy east, Thiruverumbur & Manapparai constituencies) of Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam party. He was the Member of Legislative Assembly from 2016–2021. He served as the State Secretary of DMK Youth Wing from 2014–2019.


title: Anbil Mahesh Poyyamozhi

text: He started his political life as a party worker in the year 2000. He actively took part in various party activities and was appointed the Youth Wing Secretary in 2014. He was elected as a Member of Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly from Thiruverumbur constituency in 2016.


title: Anbil Mahesh Poyyamozhi

text: He was again elected as MLA in May 2021 from the Thiruverumbur constituency consecutively and appointed the School Education Minister of Tamil Nadu.


title: Stephan Winkelmann

text: Stephan Winkelmann (born 18 October 1964) is a German manager and has been President of Bugatti Automobiles since January 1, 2018 and also President and CEO of Automobili Lamborghini S.p.A. since December 1, 2020.


title: Stephan Winkelmann

text: As a young child, Winkelmann moved with his parents from Berlin to Rome, as his father worked as a diplomat at the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Stephan Winkelmann lived there for almost 20 years and graduated from the local German school. He then began studying political science, graduating with an M. A. in Munich in 1991. During his studies, Winkelmann served for two years in the paratroopers of the German Armed Forces in Calw, Nagold, and Altenstadt and reached the rank of lieutenant of the reserve.


title: Stephan Winkelmann

text: Starting in 1993, Winkelmann entered the automotive industry, working first in Munich as a sales representative for Mercedes-Benz and finally, from 1994 to 2004, for Fiat and Alfa Romeo, Lancia, and Fiat Professional, respectively. There, Winkelmann held marketing and sales management positions, first as head of Alfa Romeo Germany, then as head of marketing for Fiat's southern region. From 1996 to 1999 for Italy, beginning with the launch of the Alfa Romeo 156. Winkelmann then worked as area manager for several European markets until he was appointed head of sales in Austria and then Fiat's managing director for Austria and Switzerland. In 2004, Winkelmann moved to Germany as CEO of Fiat Automobil AG.


title: Stephan Winkelmann

text: In January 2005, Stephan Winkelmann joined the Volkswagen Group and took over as President and CEO of Automobili Lamborghini in Sant'Agata Bolognese. In the period up to 2016, his responsibilities included the launch of the new Gallardo, Murciélago, Aventador, and Huracán models, plus a large number of unique models and one-offs. Under Winkelmann's aegis, Lamborghini also developed the Urus SUV, which was launched in 2018. Between 2005 and 2016, Lamborghini vehicle sales increased by 300 percent.


title: Stephan Winkelmann

text: At the end of 2020, it was announced that Winkelmann would once again take over as head of Lamborghini from December 1, in personal union with his previous role at Bugatti. He succeeded Stefano Domenicali, who became head of Formula 1 on January 1, 2021. Winkelmann also sits on the supervisory boards at Comité Colbert, an association of French luxury manufacturers, and Altagamma, an Italian committee for luxury brands.


title: Stephan Winkelmann

text: Stephan Winkelmann has been president of Bugatti Automobiles since January 1, 2018. He replaced the previous president, Wolfgang Dürheimer, who held the position for five years and retired at the end of 2017. Since he took office, new models such as Divo, Centodieci, La Voiture Noire, and derivatives based on the Chiron have been created.


title: Stephan Winkelmann

text: In 2009, Stephan Winkelmann was awarded the decoration of Grand Officer in the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic ("Grande Ufficiale dell’Ordine al Merito della Repubblica Italiana").


title: Stephan Winkelmann

text: The award is a tribute to his commitment to relaunching the Italian marque, which has attained a leading position on the international automotive scene.


title: Stephan Winkelmann

text: On May 22, 2014 Stephan Winkelmann received the highest decoration in the Order of Merit of The Italian Republic, Knight Grand Cross. The decoration was awarded through the presidential “Motu Proprio” for the valued results achieved by Winkelmann as leader of one of the most important companies of Made in Italy.


title: Leona Lishoy

text: Leona Lishoy is an Indian actress and model who is known for her works primarily in Malayalam cinema. She is the daughter of Malayalam actor Lishoy.


title: Leona Lishoy

text: Leona is the daughter of Malayalam movie and television actor Lishoy. She did her schooling in Hari Sri Vidhya Nidhi School, Thrissur, Kerala. She is an alumnus of Christ University, Bangalore and went on to receive an MBA diploma from Symbiosis University, Bangalore.


title: Leona Lishoy

text: Leona started off as a model for various advertisements. She was subsequently signed on to play the role of Sharada's daughter in Kalikaalam. Her first substantial role was in Jawan of Vellimala, starring Mammootty, Mamtha Mohandas in which she played Asif Ali's love interest in 2012.


title: Leona Lishoy

text: In the 2013 she played the female lead in science fiction movie Red Rain, which had an international cast and crew.


title: Leona Lishoy

text: She was also seen in cameo roles in North 24 Kaatham and Haram, both of which starred Fahadh Faasil in the lead. Leona essayed a serious role as Dr. Treesa, the mother of Sara Arjun in Annmariya Kalippilannu in 2016.


title: Leona Lishoy

text: She expanded her repertoire with notable performances in Vishwasapoorvam Mansoor, Maradona, Queen and Athiran.


title: Leona Lishoy

text: Her performance as Sameera, a movie actress in the movie Mayanadi was widely accepted. Leona played the role of Mariya in the thriller-drama Ishq, starring Ann Sheetal and Shane Nigam.


title: Leona Lishoy

text: In Prasobh Vijayan's Anveshanam, Leona starred alongside Jayasuriya and Shruthi Ramachandran. She received widespread acclaim for her nuanced portrayal of a police officer.


title: Leona Lishoy

text: Her upcoming releases are Jijo Joseph's Varayan, Djinn, directed by Siddharth Bharathan and starring Soubin Shahir and Ram, directed by Jeethu Joseph and starring Mohanlal, Trisha and Indrajith.


title: History of Madagascar

text: The history of Madagascar is distinguished clearly by the early isolation of the landmass from the ancient supercontinent containing Africa and India, and by the island's late colonization by human settlers from the Sunda islands (Malay Archipelago) and from East Africa.


title: History of Madagascar

text: These two factors facilitated the evolution and survival of thousands of endemic plant and animal species, some of which have gone extinct or are currently threatened with extinction.


title: History of Madagascar

text: Trade in the Indian Ocean at the time of first colonization of Madagascar was dominated by Indonesian ships, probably of Borobudur ship and K'un-lun po types.


title: History of Madagascar

text: Over the past two thousand years the island has received waves of settlers of diverse origins including Austronesian, Bantu, Arab, South Asian, Chinese, and European. The majority of the population of Madagascar today is a mixture of Austronesian and Bantu settlers. Despite popular belief, there has been no genetic input from Arabs or Indians, although one tribe, the Antemoro, claims descent from Somali Arab traders. European and Middle eastern paternal ancestry is also present.


title: History of Madagascar

text: Centuries of intermarriages created the Malagasy people, who primarily speak Malagasy, an Austronesian language with Bantu, Malay, Arabic, French, and English influences. Most of the genetic makeup of the average Malagasy, however, reflects an almost equal blend of Austronesian and Bantu. One study concludes that Madagascar was first settled approximately 1,200 years ago by a very small group containing approximately 30 women, with 28 of them of maritime Southeast Asian descent and 2 of African descent. But this result is not consistent with more extensive data accumulated. The Malagasy population formed through the intermixing of the first founding population with later immigrants.


title: History of Madagascar

text: Other ethnic groups often intermixed with the existent population to a more limited degree or have sought to preserve a separate community from the majority Malagasy.


title: History of Madagascar

text: By the Middle Ages, over a dozen distinct ethnic identities had emerged on the island, typified by rule under a local chieftain. Some communities, such as the Sakalava, Merina and Betsimisaraka, were unified by leaders who established true kingdoms, which gained wealth and power through commerce with Europeans, Arabs, and other seafarers, including pirates.


title: History of Madagascar

text: Between the 16th and 18th centuries, pirate activity in the coastal areas of Madagascar was common. The purported free pirate colony of Libertatia was established on Île Sainte-Marie, originally populated by local Malagasy. The Sakalava and Merina kingdoms in particular exploited European trade to strengthen the power of their kingdoms, trading Malagasy slaves for European firearms and other goods. Throughout this time, European and Arab seafarers operating in the Indian Ocean traded with coastal communities, and Europeans made several unsuccessful attempts to claim and colonize the island. Beginning in the early 19th century, the British and French competed for influence in Madagascar.


title: History of Madagascar

text: By the turn of the 19th century, King Andrianampoinimerina had reunited the highly populous Kingdom of Imerina in the central highlands, with its capital at Antananarivo. His son Radama I the Great expanded its authority to the island's other polities and was the first Malagasy sovereign to be recognized by foreign states as the ruler of the greater Merina Kingdom. Following the ferocious attemps by Queen Ranavalona I (r. 1828–1861) to eradicate the Christian influence, over the 19th century, some of Merina monarchs engaged in the process of modernization through close diplomatic ties to Britain that led to the establishment of European-style schools, government institutions and infrastructure. Christianity, introduced by the London Missionary Society, was made the state religion under Queen Ranavalona II and her powerful prime minister Rainilaiarivony. Political wrangling between Britain and France in the 1880s resulted in Britain recognizing France's authority on the island. This led in 1890 to the Malagasy Protectorate, which was however rejected by the native government of Madagascar. The French launched the two Franco-Hova Wars to force submission, finally capturing the capital in September 1895. The conflict continued in the widespread Menalamba rebellion against French rule that was crushed in 1897. The native monarchy was dissolved, and the queen and her entourage exiled to Reunion and later Algeria, where she died in 1917. Following conquest, the French abolished slavery in 1896, freeing approximately 500,000 slaves.


title: History of Madagascar

text: In French Madagascar, Malagasy people were required to fulfill corvée labor on French-run plantations, which generated high revenues for the colonial administration. Opportunities for Malagasy to access education or skilled positions within the colonial structure were limited, although some basic services like schools and clinics were extended to coastal areas for the first time. The capital city was largely transformed and modernized, and the royal palace was transformed into a school and later a museum. Although Malagasy were initially prevented from forming political parties, several militant nationalist secret societies emerged, of which the most prominent was Vy Vato Sakelika, founded by Ny Avana Ramanantoanina.


title: History of Madagascar

text: Many Malagasy were conscripted to fight for France in World Wars I and II, and during the latter Madagascar came under Vichy control before being captured and occupied by the British in the Battle of Madagascar. At the Brazzaville Conference of 1944, Charles de Gaulle gave the colony the status of an overseas territory with the right to representatives in the French National Assembly. When a bill proposed by Malagasy delegates of the Mouvement démocratique de la rénovation malgache for Madagascar's independence was not passed, militant nationalists led an unsuccessful Malagasy uprising (1947–1948), during which the French military committed atrocities that deeply scarred the population. The country gained full independence from France in 1960 in the wake of decolonization.


title: History of Madagascar

text: Under the leadership of President Philibert Tsiranana, Madagascar's First Republic (1960–1972) was established as a democratic system modeled on that of France. This period was characterized by continued economic and cultural dependence upon France, provoking resentment and sparking the "rotaka", popular movements among farmers and students that ultimately ushered in the socialist Democratic Republic of Madagascar under Admiral Didier Ratsiraka (1975–1992) distinguished by economic isolationism and political alliances with pro-Soviet states. As Madagascar's economy quickly unraveled, standards of living declined dramatically and growing social unrest was increasingly met with violent repression on the part of the Ratsiraka government. By 1992, free and fair multiparty elections were held, ushering in the democratic Third Republic (1992–2009). Under the new constitution, the Malagasy public elected successive presidents Albert Zafy, Didier Ratsiraka, and Marc Ravalomanana. This latter was ousted in the 2009 Malagasy political crisis by a popular movement under the leadership of Andry Rajoelina, then-mayor of Antananarivo, in what was widely characterized as a coup d'état. Rajoelina ushered in the Malagasy constitutional referendum, 2010 and ruled Madagascar as president of the High Transitional Authority without recognition from the international community. Elections were held on December 20, 2013 to elect a new president and return the country to constitutional governance.


title: History of Madagascar

text: The earliest unambiguous evidence of continuous human presence in Madagascar was found at Andavakoera and dates to 490 CE, and there is no archaeological evidence for human occupation in the highlands until around 1200. However, there is scattered evidence for much earlier human visits.


title: History of Madagascar

text: In 2009, archaeological excavations at Christmas River (south-central Madagascar) by Pat Wright and James Hansford located a purported elephant bird kill site, with bones showing human cut marks. These were dated to 8,500 BCE, but as yet there is no indication as to the identity of the hunters. Archaeological finds such as cut marks on bones found in the northwest and stone tools in the northeast indicate that Madagascar was visited by foragers around 2000 BCE.


title: History of Madagascar

text: There is potential evidence in the form of a cutmarked subfossil lemur bone from a palaeontological site, Taolambiby, in the southwest. One date was obtained, calibrated 530 to 300 BCE (Godfrey & Jungers 2003). The cutmarking looks plausible, but there is a potential problem of old carbon from the limestone landscape compromising the date, and there are no associated artifacts or archaeological sites in the vicinity. Nearly contemporaneous potential evidence comes from cannabis or humulus pollen which occurs in a pollen column from the central highlands at an interpolated date of c. 2200 Before Present (BP). There is a hypothesis that cannabis may have reached Africa 3000 years ago.


title: History of Madagascar

text: Necho II's Phoenician expedition c. 595 BCE circumnavigated Africa but did not see Madagascar when passing through the Mozambique Channel, as it stayed within sight of the African mainland. The island was likely uninhabited.


title: History of Madagascar

text: Finally, a cutmarked pygmy hippo bone from Ambolisatra has been dated and calibrated to between 60 BCE and 130 CE (2 SDs), but it is from a coastal swamp without indications of settlement in a heavily karstic region. Moreover, a similar bone from the same collection from a nearby site gave two widely divergent dates of 2020 and 3495 BP (MacPhee & Burney 1991). Transient visits to Madagascar that did not result in enduring settlement cannot be ruled out, and may have left some traces.


title: History of Madagascar

text: Factual information about the peopling of Madagascar remains incomplete, but much recent multidisciplinary research and work in archaeology, genetics, linguistics, and history confirms that the Malagasy people were originally and overwhelmingly Austronesian peoples native to the Sunda Islands. They probably arrived on the west coast of Madagascar with outrigger canoes ("waka") at the beginning of our era or as much as 300 years sooner according to archaeologists, and perhaps even earlier under certain geneticists' assumptions. On the basis of plant cultigens, Blench proposed the migrations occurred "at the earliest century BCE". Archaeological work of Ardika and Bellwood suggests migration between 500 and 200 BCE.


title: History of Madagascar

text: The Borobudur Ship Expedition in 2003–2004 affirmed scholars' ideas that ships from ancient Indonesia could have reached Madagascar and the west African coast for trade from the 8th century and after. A traditional Borobudur ship with outriggers was reconstructed and sailed in this expedition from Jakarta to Madagascar and Ghana. As for the ancient route, one possibility is that Indonesian Austronesians came directly across the Indian Ocean from Java to Madagascar. It is likely that they went through the Maldives where evidence of old Indonesian boat design and fishing technology persists until the present. The Malagasy language originated from the Southeast Barito language, and Ma'anyan language is its closest relative, with numerous Malay and Javanese loanwords. It is known that Ma'anyan people were brought as laborers and slaves by Malay and Javanese people in their trading fleets, which reached Madagascar by ca. 50–500 AD. These pioneers are known in the Malagasy oral tradition as the "Ntaolo", from Proto-Malayo-Polynesian "*tau-ulu", literally 'first men', from "*tau", 'man', and "*ulu", 'head; first; origin, beginning. It is likely that those ancient people called themselves *"va-waka", "the canoe people" from Proto-Malayo-Polynesian "*va", 'people', and "*waka" 'canoe'. Today the term means 'people' in Malagasy.


title: History of Madagascar

text: The Southeast Asian origin of the first Malagasy people explains certain features common among the Malagasy, for instance, the epicanthic fold common among all Malagasy whether coastal or highlands, whether pale, dark or copper skinned. This original population ("vahoaka ntaolo") can be called the "Proto-Malagasy". They are the source of: