title: Bode Miller

text: Many perceived his "party at an Olympic level" attitude as a violation of the "Olympic Spirit." When Nike's 2006 advertising campaign urged consumers to "Join Bode," "The Washington Post" sportswriter Sally Jenkins asked, "Where? At the bar?" in reference to his well-publicized nights on the town in Sestriere. He was even called the "biggest bust in Olympic history" for his performance. Some have argued that Miller's management and PR team were partly to blame for his crash-and-burn publicity, pointing out that they facilitated the media blitz in the months leading up to the Olympics. This overexposure was bound to backfire, given Miller's known uneven commitment to performing. Miller himself said:


title: Bode Miller

text: Miller's success in the 2010 Olympic Games has been contrasted with his 2006 results. Miller's explanation for his belated success was simple: "Most likely it's because I decided that's what I wanted to do." At the 2010 games, his coaches stated that he "helps inspire [them]," a very different attitude from that of four years previously. Miller himself said that the difference was that in 2006, his role as "poster boy" for the Olympics, after the corruption scandals associated with the 2002 Winter Olympics (bid scandal and figure skating scandal), was "the absolute thing I despise the most in the world" and "really draining on my inspiration, my level of passion." Ultimately, the publicity "had been happening for a year, and it was just too much." By contrast, in 2010, he noted that he was not so proud of the medals themselves but of the "absolutely amazing" feeling when "you ... magically ski at your absolute best." He ended the 2010 Olympic Games as the most successful American skier and athlete overall.


title: Bode Miller

text: Miller was nominated for the Associated Press' Male Athlete of the Year award for 2010, but finished second to Drew Brees of the New Orleans Saints football team thanks to votes cast for Kobe Bryant of the Los Angeles Lakers basketball team who finished third.


title: Bode Miller

text: Miller's surprisingly dominating performance in training for the downhill race helped to create a hype among press and fans, with his teammate Marco Sullivan saying that it was "his race to lose" and rival Kjetil Jansrud describing Miller's performance in trainings as "epic". Just a day before the race, Miller himself claimed that "The idea is to be unbeatable" and "I want to win". After finishing a disappointing 8th in the race, Miller pointed to various reasons for his failure including warmer temperatures, poor visibility, and his need for an eye surgery while U.S. Ski Team coach Sasha Rearick suggested that "Bode wanted it too much". The change in Miller's attitude compared to that in his previous Olympic appearances showed after he won a bronze medal at the super-G race when he admitted that "some days, like I said, medals don't matter. Today was one of the days where it does matter". After the race, NBC's reporter Christin Cooper caused some controversy by repeatedly asking Miller about his dead brother until he broke down in tears. Miller however defended Cooper afterwards in several occasions saying that "I know she didn't mean to push" and "I don't blame her at all".


title: Bode Miller

text: According to John Canzano, "Oregonian" reporter, Miller is generally unpopular with American reporters who cover skiing. One referred to him in 2009 as "a tedious bore given to statements that smack of hypocrisy." Another said that Miller's behavior had alienated him from "pretty much everyone but those who mindlessly celebrate rebels simply for their rebellion, however misplaced it might be."


title: Bode Miller

text: Miller's autobiography, "Bode: Go Fast, Be Good, Have Fun", co-written with his friend Jack McEnany, was published by Villard/Random House on October 18, 2005. Miller also became the first American alpine skier since Tommy Moe to endorse a video game when "Bode Miller Alpine Racing" was released for mobile phones on January 30, 2006, followed by "Bode Miller Alpine Skiing" for PlayStation 2 and Windows. In 2006 Miller was the subject of a biographical film produced by the Coruway Film Institute, "Flying Downhill", which looks at the people and the place Miller comes from, and where exactly each fits within his philosophy.


title: Bode Miller

text: Miller has used a variety of skis during his World Cup career. He originally started off on K2 skis, then raced on Fischer through the 2002 season. He switched to Rossignol for two seasons (2003 and 2004), then Atomic for the following two (2005 and 2006). In June 2006, he moved over to Head, along with Hermann Maier of Austria and Didier Cuche of Switzerland.


title: Bode Miller

text: In May 2007, Miller left the US Ski Team and raced independently for his personally financed Team America for two seasons. This allowed him more control of his training, equipment, staff, and sponsors. With fewer distractions, increased autonomy, and responsibility, Miller improved his focus and won his second overall title. However, the next season (2009) was the worst of his career after he crashed hard in the Beaver Creek Downhill, injuring his heel, and Miller folded Team America at the end of 2009. Miller departed the 2009 season before its completion and rejoined the US Ski Team in October 2009.


title: Bode Miller

text: In 2002, Miller won ABC Sports' "Superstars" competition, a televised event that pits athletes from different sports against one another in a series of athletic contests. In 2009, he competed in a "Superstars" team competition, which paired an athlete with a celebrity. Miller was paired with Paige Hemmis and they finished in second place.


title: Bode Miller

text: On July 29, 2006, Miller signed a one-day contract to play baseball for the Nashua Pride (Canadian-American League). He went 0–2 with two strikeouts, however he did make an acrobatic catch in left field, which earned national attention by being featured by ESPN, among others. The team said it would donate at least $5,000 from ticket sales for the game to Miller's Turtle Ridge Foundation, which will give the money to the Lance Armstrong Foundation.


title: Bode Miller

text: On July 23, 2007, Miller again signed a one-day contract, to play the first three innings July 24, 2007, for the Nashua Pride, to raise money for charity.


title: Bode Miller

text: In April 2010, Miller opened the Boston Red Sox's baseball season by throwing out the ceremonial first pitch at Fenway Park.


title: Bode Miller

text: On June 3, 2010, Miller competed for a spot in the 2010 US Open through the new national playoff system introduced by the USTA. The winner of the men's and women's playoff championships received a wild-card entry into the Open qualifying tournament. He lost 6–4, 6–2 to Erik Nelson-Kortland in an opening match at sectional playoffs in Hawaii.


title: Bode Miller

text: Miller has a daughter, Neesyn Dace (born 2008), with Chanel Johnson; and a son, Samuel Nathaniel (born 2013), with Sara McKenna.


title: Bode Miller

text: On October 7, 2012, Miller married professional beach-volleyball player and model Morgan Beck. Their son, Edward Nash Skan Miller, was born on May 18, 2015, and daughter, Emeline "Emmy" Grier, was born on November 5, 2016. In April 2018, the couple announced that they were expecting their third child. On June 10, 2018, 19-month-old Emeline died after drowning in a swimming pool at a neighbor's house in Orange County, California. Their second son, Easton Vaughn Rek Miller, was born on October 5, 2018. In August 2019, Bode and Morgan announced they were expecting twin boys on NBC's Today Show. The twin boys were born November 8, 2019, and are named Asher and Aksel. In May 2021, Bode and Morgan announced that they were expecting their sixth child. On November 26, 2021, the couple welcomed a daughter, Scarlet Olivia Khione Miller


title: Bode Miller

text: Miller's younger brother Chelone was a snowboarder who competed in the 2010 Winter X Games in the Snowboard X event. He suffered a traumatic brain injury in a 2005 dirt-bike crash and subsequently suffered from seizures, leading to his death in 2013 at age 29.


title: BCS theory

text: BCS theory or Bardeen–Cooper–Schrieffer theory (named after John Bardeen, Leon Cooper, and John Robert Schrieffer) is the first microscopic theory of superconductivity since Heike Kamerlingh Onnes's 1911 discovery. The theory describes superconductivity as a microscopic effect caused by a condensation of Cooper pairs. The theory is also used in nuclear physics to describe the pairing interaction between nucleons in an atomic nucleus.


title: BCS theory

text: It was proposed by Bardeen, Cooper, and Schrieffer in 1957; they received the Nobel Prize in Physics for this theory in 1972.


title: BCS theory

text: Rapid progress in the understanding of superconductivity gained momentum in the mid-1950s. It began with the 1948 paper, "On the Problem of the Molecular Theory of Superconductivity", where Fritz London proposed that the phenomenological London equations may be consequences of the coherence of a quantum state. In 1953, Brian Pippard, motivated by penetration experiments, proposed that this would modify the London equations via a new scale parameter called the coherence length. John Bardeen then argued in the 1955 paper, "Theory of the Meissner Effect in Superconductors", that such a modification naturally occurs in a theory with an energy gap. The key ingredient was Leon Cooper's calculation of the bound states of electrons subject to an attractive force in his 1956 paper, "Bound Electron Pairs in a Degenerate Fermi Gas".


title: BCS theory

text: In 1957 Bardeen and Cooper assembled these ingredients and constructed such a theory, the BCS theory, with Robert Schrieffer. The theory was first published in April 1957 in the letter, "Microscopic theory of superconductivity". The demonstration that the phase transition is second order, that it reproduces the Meissner effect and the calculations of specific heats and penetration depths appeared in the December 1957 article, "Theory of superconductivity". They received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1972 for this theory.


title: BCS theory

text: In 1986, high-temperature superconductivity was discovered in La-Ba-Cu-O, at temperatures up to 30 K. Following experiments determined more materials with transition temperatures up to about 130 K, considerably above the previous limit of about 30 K. It is believed that BCS theory alone cannot explain this phenomenon and that other effects are in play. These effects are still not yet fully understood; it is possible that they even control superconductivity at low temperatures for some materials.


title: BCS theory

text: At sufficiently low temperatures, electrons near the Fermi surface become unstable against the formation of Cooper pairs. Cooper showed such binding will occur in the presence of an attractive potential, no matter how weak. In conventional superconductors, an attraction is generally attributed to an electron-lattice interaction. The BCS theory, however, requires only that the potential be attractive, regardless of its origin. In the BCS framework, superconductivity is a macroscopic effect which results from the condensation of Cooper pairs. These have some bosonic properties, and bosons, at sufficiently low temperature, can form a large Bose–Einstein condensate. Superconductivity was simultaneously explained by Nikolay Bogolyubov, by means of the Bogoliubov transformations.


title: BCS theory

text: In many superconductors, the attractive interaction between electrons (necessary for pairing) is brought about indirectly by the interaction between the electrons and the vibrating crystal lattice (the phonons). Roughly speaking the picture is the following:


title: BCS theory

text: An electron moving through a conductor will attract nearby positive charges in the lattice. This deformation of the lattice causes another electron, with opposite spin, to move into the region of higher positive charge density. The two electrons then become correlated. Because there are a lot of such electron pairs in a superconductor, these pairs overlap very strongly and form a highly collective condensate. In this "condensed" state, the breaking of one pair will change the energy of the entire condensate - not just a single electron, or a single pair. Thus, the energy required to break any single pair is related to the energy required to break "all" of the pairs (or more than just two electrons). Because the pairing increases this energy barrier, kicks from oscillating atoms in the conductor (which are small at sufficiently low temperatures) are not enough to affect the condensate as a whole, or any individual "member pair" within the condensate. Thus the electrons stay paired together and resist all kicks, and the electron flow as a whole (the current through the superconductor) will not experience resistance. Thus, the collective behavior of the condensate is a crucial ingredient necessary for superconductivity.


title: BCS theory

text: BCS theory starts from the assumption that there is some attraction between electrons, which can overcome the Coulomb repulsion. In most materials (in low temperature superconductors), this attraction is brought about indirectly by the coupling of electrons to the crystal lattice (as explained above). However, the results of BCS theory do "not" depend on the origin of the attractive interaction. For instance, Cooper pairs have been observed in ultracold gases of fermions where a homogeneous magnetic field has been tuned to their Feshbach resonance. The original results of BCS (discussed below) described an s-wave superconducting state, which is the rule among low-temperature superconductors but is not realized in many unconventional superconductors such as the d-wave high-temperature superconductors.


title: BCS theory

text: Extensions of BCS theory exist to describe these other cases, although they are insufficient to completely describe the observed features of high-temperature superconductivity.


title: BCS theory

text: BCS is able to give an approximation for the quantum-mechanical many-body state of the system of (attractively interacting) electrons inside the metal. This state is now known as the BCS state. In the normal state of a metal, electrons move independently, whereas in the BCS state, they are bound into Cooper pairs by the attractive interaction. The BCS formalism is based on the reduced potential for the electrons' attraction. Within this potential, a variational ansatz for the wave function is proposed. This ansatz was later shown to be exact in the dense limit of pairs. Note that the continuous crossover between the dilute and dense regimes of attracting pairs of fermions is still an open problem, which now attracts a lot of attention within the field of ultracold gases.


title: BCS theory

text: The hyperphysics website pages at Georgia State University summarize some key background to BCS theory as follows:


title: BCS theory

text: BCS derived several important theoretical predictions that are independent of the details of the interaction, since the quantitative predictions mentioned below hold for any sufficiently weak attraction between the electrons and this last condition is fulfilled for many low temperature superconductors - the so-called weak-coupling case. These have been confirmed in numerous experiments:


title: Greg Schiano

text: Gregory Edward Schiano (born June 1, 1966) is an American football coach. He is the head football coach at Rutgers University, a position he held from 2001 to 2011 and resumed before the 2020 season. Schiano served as the head coach for the Tampa Bay Buccaneers of the National Football League (NFL) from 2012 to 2013.


title: Greg Schiano

text: Schiano was born and grew up in Wyckoff, New Jersey, and attended Ramapo High School. He then attended Bucknell University, where he was a member of Phi Gamma Delta fraternity, and graduated in 1988 with a B.S. in business administration. Despite being a 190-pound linebacker in high school, Bucknell assistant Joe Susan felt he was a perfect fit for the defense. Susan would later join Schiano at Rutgers.


title: Greg Schiano

text: Playing at linebacker, Schiano was a three-year letterman at Bucknell. In his junior year, he led the team with 114 tackles and was named to the All-Conference team. In his senior year, he was named team captain, and was named to the "Sporting News" Pre-season All-America Team.


title: Greg Schiano

text: Schiano began his coaching career in 1988 as an assistant coach at Ramapo High School for the Raiders football team. In 1989, he served as a graduate assistant at Rutgers. In 1990, he took the same position at Penn State, and later served as the defensive backfield coach there from 1991 until 1995.


title: Greg Schiano

text: From 1996 to 1998, Schiano was an assistant coach in the NFL with the Chicago Bears. For his first two seasons there, he was a defensive assistant, and then was promoted in his third and final season with the Bears to defensive backfield coach.


title: Greg Schiano

text: Schiano served as defensive coordinator for the University of Miami Hurricanes from 1999 to 2000. In 1999, Miami finished the year ranked 12th in the NCAA's Division I-A in points allowed per game (17.2), and in 2000 moved up to 5th (15.5 points allowed per game). His brief 18-month stint at Miami and his roots in New Jersey made him a candidate for his next position as head coach at Rutgers University.


title: Greg Schiano

text: While at the University of Miami, Schiano coached NFL Pro Bowlers Dan Morgan, Jonathan Vilma, and Ed Reed.


title: Greg Schiano

text: On December 1, 2000, Schiano accepted the head coaching position at Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey. He was given the task of turning around a struggling program that had been without a bowl game appearance since the 1978 Garden State Bowl, and had just four winning seasons since 1980. Although Schiano was producing solid recruiting classes, especially by Rutgers standards, the Scarlet Knights struggled to losing records in his first four seasons as head coach. It was believed coming into the 2005 season that Schiano was on the hot seat and would need to take Rutgers to a bowl game to keep his job.


title: Greg Schiano

text: Despite the rough start to his tenure at Rutgers, Schiano began to turn around the program during the 2005 season. Schiano recruited New York native Ray Rice, who was considered the top running back in the tri-state area. He coached Rutgers to a 7–4 record that season. The highlight of their season came in a nationally televised 37–29 upset win over Pittsburgh and their coach Dave Wannstedt, a long-time friend of Schiano's, who hired him while coaching the Chicago Bears. At season's end, Schiano and the Scarlet Knights accepted a bid to play in the Insight Bowl against Arizona State, which Rutgers lost by a score of 45–40. Just prior to the game, Schiano was offered a new contract, extending his contract through the 2012 season. The 2005 season laid the foundation for a rebirth of the Rutgers football program.


title: Greg Schiano

text: In the 2006 season, Schiano's Scarlet Knights raced off to a 9–0 record, highlighted by their November 9 victory over the third-ranked, undefeated Louisville Cardinals. After this game, Rutgers jumped to seventh in the national AP Poll, which was their highest ranking in school history and first Top 25 ranking since 1976. The euphoria from the win and high ranking quickly faded the following week with a loss to Cincinnati, but the Scarlet Knights bounced back to finish 11–2 and qualify for the inaugural Texas Bowl. There, they would defeat the Kansas State Wildcats 37–10, capturing their first-ever bowl game win in school history.


title: Greg Schiano

text: Throughout the season, coach Schiano and Rutgers were featured prominently in both the local and national media, and Schiano's motivational phrase "keep choppin'" became part of the lexicon of college football. Rutgers finished the season ranked 12th in the national poll, their best finish in school history. For his work in the 2006 season, Coach Schiano was awarded several Coach of the Year honors, including the Home Depot Coach of the Year award and the inaugural Liberty Mutual Coach of the Year Award.


title: Greg Schiano

text: With high expectations after their "Cinderella" season, Schiano coached Rutgers to respectable finishes and three more bowl game victories to give them four in a row. Schiano's team experienced tragedy in 2010, when defensive tackle Eric LeGrand suffered a spinal cord injury. This clearly affected the team's play: when the extent of LeGrand's injury became apparent, it contributed to sending Rutgers into a funk that resulted in a six-game losing streak to end the season.


title: Greg Schiano

text: Schiano has been credited for his involvement in LeGrand's recovery, essentially treating LeGrand's family like his own and assisting the family in any way needed, and being with LeGrand every day he was in the hospital. Though LeGrand was initially given a diagnosis of lifetime paralysis, he has since regained movement in his arms and shoulders and sensation throughout his body.


title: Greg Schiano

text: In 2011, Rutgers rebounded from the previous season to post a 9–4 record and once again earn a bowl game berth. In the Pinstripe Bowl, they defeated Iowa State 27–13, which would be his final game as Rutgers coach. He led the team to winning seasons and bowl game berths in six of his final seven seasons, with wins in the final five bowl games.


title: Greg Schiano

text: On January 26, 2012, Schiano accepted his first head coaching opportunity at the professional level, with the NFL's Tampa Bay Buccaneers. The Buccaneers ended the 2012 regular season with a 7–9 record, missing the playoffs in the process. In the 2013 season, the team regressed to 4–12. On December 30, 2013, the Buccaneers fired Schiano along with Mark Dominik, the general manager who had selected him.


title: Greg Schiano

text: In 2016, after two seasons coaching Berkeley Preparatory School and sending two players to Davidson College in North Carolina, Schiano was hired by head coach Urban Meyer to serve as defensive coordinator/associate head coach for the Ohio State Buckeyes football program, replacing Chris Ash who, coincidentally, left Ohio State to accept the head coaching position at Rutgers.


title: Greg Schiano

text: Following two successful seasons with top ten defenses as Ohio State's defensive coordinator, Schiano became a target for several coaching jobs both in the NCAA and NFL. On November 26, 2017, it was reported that he was going to be the next head coach for the Tennessee Volunteers. Due to fan disapproval due to his connection with the Penn State sexual abuse case, the University backed out of the deal and he remained at Ohio State. Less than six weeks later, it was once again reported that Schiano would be leaving, but this time he would be going back to the NFL as the New England Patriots' defensive coordinator. On February 7, 2018, Schiano decided to turn down the Patriots job and stay with the Buckeyes.


title: Greg Schiano

text: In 2018, Schiano was named 247Sports Recruiter of the Year in the Big Ten after helping the Buckeyes land the nation's second-ranked recruiting class. He finished second nationally in 247Sports Recruiter of the Year rankings. Schiano served as the primary recruiter for five-star offensive tackle Nicholas Petit-Frere, the nation's second-ranked tight end Jeremy Ruckert and the nation's top-ranked center Matthew Jones. Schiano also served as the primary recruiter on center Luke Wypler, safety Josh Proctor, safety Ronnie Hickman, defensive tackle Tyler Friday and linebacker Javontae Jean-Baptiste. Schiano was also credited with helping land cornerback Jeffrey Okudah. In a story written by Okudah in "The Players Tribune", Okudah said: Last June, Coach Schiano at Ohio State said something that really stuck with me. In fact, I think it ultimately played a big part in my decision to go there. He told me, "Jeff, you've had a tough life up to this point. It's time for some good things to happen to you."


title: Greg Schiano

text: While the Ohio State defense struggled in 2018 after losing defensive end Nick Bosa, Schiano took on a larger role, helping then interim head coach Ryan Day during head coach Urban Meyer's suspension. After the win against TCU, Day credited Schiano for his help leading the program during tough times. "What Greg Schiano has done for me in the last month is something I'll never forget. He is the classiest person I've ever been around in the coaching profession. The way he's handled himself, helping me along the way, counseling me on day-to-day stuff." Schiano also led the punt block unit and was credited for a unique scheme design that led to punt blocks for a safety against Nebraska and a touchdown against Michigan. Per Urban Meyer after the Nebraska game, "That was a tremendous momentum-changer. You wish you could have recovered it for a touchdown but we got a safety and got the ball back."


title: Greg Schiano

text: In Schiano's three seasons as defensive coordinator with the Buckeyes, eleven defensive players were drafted to the NFL, including five first round picks (Lattimore, Hooker, Conley) and two top five selections (Ward and Bosa). Former Browns interim head coach and defensive coordinator Greg Williams credited Schiano with cornerback Denzel Ward's early development. "He (Ward) came here and has already shown some people—I think (Ohio State associate head coach/defensive coordinator) Greg Schiano did a great job of teaching some of those things there. He has been an example from Day 1 on how to play the ball in the air in man to man, and it has kind of bled to the group. I think Denzel set that example pretty well back in the spring. He still does a pretty good job of playing the ball. He has a very natural way of doing that."


title: Greg Schiano

text: In February 2019, it was announced that Schiano would not be returning to Ohio State. It was reported that he was hired to join the New England Patriots as their defensive coordinator, but prior to the Patriots confirming this report, Schiano unexpectedly resigned from the Patriots on March 28, citing a desire to spend more time on his "faith and family."


title: Greg Schiano

text: On December 1, 2019, after several weeks of negotiations and a groundswell of fan and booster support, Schiano rejoined Rutgers as the head coach, signing an eight-year, $32 million contract.


title: Greg Schiano

text: In 2016, a Philadelphia court released documents in relation to the Penn State child sex abuse scandal revealing testimony from Mike McQueary stating that Schiano was aware of the abuse by fellow assistant coach Jerry Sandusky. In his testimony, McQueary claimed that Tom Bradley told him that: "only that he had—I can't remember if it was one night or one morning—but that Greg had come into his office white as a ghost and said he just saw Jerry doing something to a boy in the shower. And that's it. That's all he ever told me." Schiano denied having knowledge of the abuse. Bradley also denied telling McQueary that story and the police denied other events that McQueary had asserted.


title: Greg Schiano

text: On November 26, 2017, the University of Tennessee was set to announce Schiano as the head football coach. However, due to a social media campaign including state representatives, alumni, national and local sportswriters, fans, and gubernatorial candidates, unhappy with Schiano's tenure at Penn State during the child sex abuse scandal, Tennessee backed out of the deal. Afterwards, officials from both Penn State and Ohio State defended Schiano, saying he had nothing to do with the scandal. Tennessee received criticism from some national sportswriters for a perceived overreactive handling as a response to social media.


title: Greg Schiano

text: Schiano is married and has four children. Schiano's wife Christy was born Christina Mitchell, on October 29, 1968; she is one of four children born to Ella Alexander and the late Tom Mitchell. Schiano's father-in-law was a former Colts tight end who had played his college football at Bucknell. Mitchell died of cancer at 72 on July 16, 2017. Son Joe Schiano is a defensive lineman at Bucknell.


title: Greg Schiano

text: Schiano received most of the major 2006 national Coach of the Year awards after orchestrating what was considered by many to be one of the great turnaround stories in college football history, transforming the hapless Scarlet Knights into a winning football program (see above).


title: Greg Schiano

text: On December 4, 2006, one day after Rutgers accepted a bid to play in the 2006 Texas Bowl against Kansas State, Schiano announced that he would not be a candidate for the recently vacated head coaching job at his previous employer, the University of Miami, ending rumors and speculation that he would leave his creation at upstart Rutgers to return to Miami. He stated that he is "very happy at Rutgers" and that Rutgers is just beginning to "scratch the surface" of what the team can accomplish. He confirmed this by signing yet another contract extension, announced on February 16, 2007, upping his yearly compensation to $1.5 million per year and extending his deal with Rutgers to 2016. Schiano's 2011 salary and compensation of $2.3 million made him "by far" the highest-paid public employee in New Jersey, as well as the highest-paid coach in the Big East.


title: Greg Schiano

text: In December 2007, the Star-Ledger reported that Schiano spoke with University of Michigan athletic direftor Bill Martin "for quite a while" on December 5 about the head-coaching vacancy at the school. Two days later, he withdrew his name from consideration and remained Rutgers' head coach. In 2008, after a bad start, his Knights ended up 8–5 with their fourth straight bowl bid. Schiano's name once again came up in general speculation about the Miami head coaching position in 2010, after the firing of Randy Shannon.


title: Greg Schiano

text: In 2011, after Eric LeGrand was paralyzed during a kickoff, Schiano came up with an idea for eliminating kickoffs from football, replacing them with a punt, which is less likely to cause serious injury to the players. Under his proposal, the team would start from their own 30 (or 35) yard line and have the choice of either punting the ball or, in lieu of an onside kick, face the equivalent of a 4th down and 15. As of 2020, neither the NFL nor NCAA has seriously considered this proposal. Sportswriter Jon Bois has been an advocate for the proposal, saying "it's simple, obvious, less dangerous, and more fun".


title: Gabriel Basso

text: Louis Gabriel Basso III (born December 11, 1994) is an American actor, known for his roles in the Showtime series "The Big C", the 2011 science fiction film "Super 8", and the 2013 comedy-drama "The Kings of Summer".


title: Gabriel Basso

text: Basso was born in St. Louis, Missouri, the son of Marcie and Louis J. Basso Jr. He was homeschooled along with his two sisters, actresses Alexandra and Annalise Basso. His family attended Grace Doctrine Church in St. Charles, Missouri. Basso initially wanted to become a professional football player before he found acting.


title: Gabriel Basso

text: Basso played minor roles in two feature films in early 2007, while living in St. Louis: "Meet Bill", starring Aaron Eckhart; and "Alice Upside Down", starring Alyson Stoner. Basso's older sister Alexandria also had a role in the latter. He later moved with his mother and sisters to Los Angeles. He found representation his first week there, securing a lead role in the Dailymotion Kids web series "Ghost Town".


title: Gabriel Basso

text: Basso has had several television guest roles in popular series such as Nickelodeon's "iCarly", and ABC's "The Middle". From 2010 until 2013, he maintained a regular role in the Showtime comedy series "The Big C", portraying Adam Jamison, the son of the lead character played by Laura Linney. He then starred as Hal Mitchell in the independent film "Alabama Moon" (2009), starring John Goodman and Clint Howard, directed by Tim McCanlies, and based on the best-selling novel by Watt Key.


title: Gabriel Basso

text: Basso appeared in the J. J. Abrams science fiction adventure film "Super 8" (2011), and Jordan Vogt-Roberts' comedy-drama "The Kings of Summer" (2013), which had its premiere at the 2013 Sundance Film Festival. He then appeared in Kyle Newman's action comedy "Barely Lethal" (2015), with Hailee Steinfeld and Dove Cameron. In September 2014, he joined the cast of Meg Ryan's directorial debut film "Ithaca", alongside Tom Hanks. Basso also appeared in the courtroom drama film "The Whole Truth" (2016), directed by Courtney Hunt and starring Keanu Reeves and Renée Zellweger. In 2020, he starred as author J. D. Vance in Netflix' film adaptation "Hillbilly Elegy".


title: Gabriel Basso

text: In September 2021, Basso was added to the cast of Netflix's action-thriller film "Trigger Warning" directed by Mouly Surya. In November 2021, he was set to lead the political conspiracy thriller series "The Night Agent" with Luciane Buchanan on Netflix, created by Shawn Ryan and based on the 2019's New York Times bestselling novel of the same name by author Matthew Quirk.


title: Fairphone

text: Fairphone is a Dutch electronics manufacturer that designs and produces smartphones with the goal of having a lower environmental footprint and better social impact than is common in the industry. In particular, the company aims to minimize the use of conflict minerals in its devices, maintain fair labor conditions for its workforce and suppliers, and allow users to maintain their own devices. The company was founded in 2013 as a social enterprise with the support of the Waag Society, and is based in Amsterdam, the Netherlands.


title: Fairphone

text: , the company's most recent model is the Fairphone 4, a modular smartphone which supports 5G connectivity, has dual 48MP cameras with optical image stabilization, an IP54 rating and MIL810G drop test certification. It's only being sold in Europe. The purpose of modularity is to make the phone easily repairable and customisable by the user, and therefore longer-lasting. According to the company, increasing the lifespan of a phone by two years reduces CO₂ emissions by 30%.


title: Fairphone

text: Fairphone was founded by Bas van Abel, Tessa Wernink and Miquel Ballester as a social enterprise company in January 2013, having existed as a campaign for two and a half years. The company states on its website that it "designs and produces smartphones with minimal harm to society and the environment".


title: Fairphone

text: Fairphone's founder Bas van Abel acknowledged in 2017 that it was currently impossible to produce a 100% fair phone, suggesting it was more accurate to call his company's phones "fairer".


title: Fairphone

text: The Fairphones are priced in the middle of the range of mobile phone prices; for example, the Fairphone 4 in 2022 was priced from €579.


title: Fairphone

text: The Shiftphone is another small mobile telephone manufacturer with focus on sustainability, and also developed a modular smartphone. The founder of Shiftphone considers that the two companies working in collaboration could have more influence on bigger competitors.


title: Fairphone

text: In 2015, Fairphone – a certified benefit corporation – won the award for fastest-growing European tech startup at The Next Web conference.


title: Fairphone

text: Fairphone 2 was the first smartphone to be awarded with a 10/10 score at iFixit for repairability and the first mobile phone to receive Blue Angel certification.


title: Fairphone

text: In 2016, Fairphone's founder and first CEO Bas van Abel was one of the three recipients of the German Environmental Award.


title: Fairphone

text: Fairphones can run several operating systems, including CalyxOS, DivestOS, /e/, iodeOS, LineageOS, Ubuntu Touch, and more. Companies associated with e foundation also sell Fairphones with /e/ included, but Ron Amadeo at ars Technica in April 2020 warned /e/ users, "they'll most likely be on an old version of Android".


title: Sailboat

text: A sailboat or sailing boat is a boat propelled partly or entirely by sails and is smaller than a sailing ship. Distinctions in what constitutes a sailing boat and ship vary by region and maritime culture.


title: Sailboat

text: Although sailboat terminology has varied across history, many terms have specific meanings in the context of modern yachting. A great number of sailboat-types may be distinguished by size, hull configuration, keel type, purpose, number and configuration of masts, and sail plan.


title: Sailboat

text: The cutter is similar to a sloop with a single mast and mainsail, but generally carries the mast further aft to allow for a jib and staysail to be attached to the head stay and inner forestay, respectively. Once a common racing configuration, today it gives versatility to cruising boats, especially in allowing a small staysail to be flown from the inner stay in high winds.


title: Sailboat

text: A catboat has a single mast mounted far forward and does not carry a jib. Most modern designs have only one sail, the mainsail; however, the traditional catboat could carry multiple sails from the gaff rig.


title: Sailboat

text: A dinghy is a type of small open sailboat commonly used for recreation, sail training, and tending a larger vessel. They are popular in youth sailing programs for their short LOA, simple operation and minimal maintenance. They have three (or fewer) sails: the mainsail, jib, and spinnaker.


title: Sailboat

text: Ketches are similar to a sloop, but there is a second shorter mast astern of the mainmast, but forward of the rudder post. The second mast is called the mizzen mast and the sail is called the mizzen sail. A ketch can also be Cutter-rigged with two head sails.


title: Sailboat

text: A schooner has a mainmast taller than its foremast, distinguishing it from a ketch or a yawl. A schooner can have more than two masts, with the foremast always lower than the foremost main. Traditional topsail schooners have topmasts allowing triangular topsails sails to be flown above their gaff sails; many modern schooners are Bermuda rigged.


title: Sailboat

text: The most common modern sailboat is the sloop, which features one mast and two sails, typically a Bermuda rigged main, and a headsail. This simple configuration is very efficient for sailing into the wind.


title: Sailboat

text: A fractional rigged sloop has its forestay attached at a point below the top of the mast, allowing the mainsail to be flattened to improve performance by raking the upper part of the mast aft by tensioning the backstay. A smaller headsail is easier for a short-handed crew to manage.


title: Sailboat

text: A yawl is similar to a ketch, with a shorter mizzen mast carried astern the rudderpost more for balancing the helm than propulsion.


title: Sailboat

text: Traditional sailboats are monohulls, but multi-hull catamarans and trimarans are gaining popularity. Monohull boats generally rely on ballast for stability and usually are displacement hulls. This stabilizing ballast can, in boats designed for racing, be as much as 50% of the weight of the boat, but is generally around 30%. It creates two problems; one, it gives the monohull tremendous inertia, making it less maneuverable and reducing its acceleration. Secondly, unless it has been built with buoyant foam or air tanks, if a monohull fills with water, it will sink.


title: Sailboat

text: Multihulls rely on the geometry and the broad stance of their multiple hulls for their stability, eschewing any form of ballast. Some multihulls are designed to be as light-weight as possible while still maintaining structural integrity. They can be built with foam-filled flotation chambers and some modern trimarans are rated as unsinkable, meaning that, should every crew compartment be completely filled with water, the hull itself has sufficient buoyancy to remain afloat.


title: Sailboat

text: A multihull optimized for light weight (at the expense of cruising amenities and storage for food and other supplies), combined with the absence of ballast can result in performance gains in terms of acceleration, top speed, and manoeuvrability.


title: Sailboat

text: The lack of ballast makes it much easier to get a lightweight multihull on plane, reducing its wetted surface area and thus its drag. Reduced overall weight means a reduced draft, with a much reduced underwater profile. This, in turn, results directly in reduced wetted surface area and drag. Without a ballast keel, multihulls can go in shallow waters where monohulls can not.


title: Sailboat

text: There are trade-offs, however, in multihull design. A well designed ballasted boat can recover from a capsize, even from turning over completely. Righting a multihull that has gotten upside down is difficult in any case and impossible without help unless the boat is small or carries special equipment for the purpose. Multihulls often prove more difficult to tack, since the reduced weight leads directly to reduced momentum, causing multihulls to more quickly lose speed when headed into the wind. Also, structural integrity is much easier to achieve in a one piece monohull than in a two or three piece multihull whose connecting structure must be substantial and well connected to the hulls.


title: Sailboat

text: All vessels have a keel, it is the backbone of the hull. In traditional construction, it is the structure upon which all else depends. Modern monocoque designs include a virtual keel. Even multihulls have keels. On a sailboat, the word "keel" is also used to refer to the area that is added to the hull to improve its lateral plane. The lateral plane is what prevents leeway and allows sailing towards the wind. This can be an external piece or a part of the hull.


title: Sailboat

text: Most monohulls larger than a dinghy require built-in ballast. Depending on the design of the boat, ballast may be 20 to 50 percent of the displacement. The ballast is often integrated into their keels as large masses of lead or cast iron. This secures the ballast and gets it as low as possible to improve its effectiveness. External keels are cast in the shape of the keel. A monohull's keel is made effective by a combination of weight, depth, and length.


title: Sailboat

text: Most modern monohull boats have fin keels, which are heavy and deep, but short in relation to the hull length. More traditional yachts carried a full keel which is generally half or more of the length of the boat. A recent feature is a winged keel, which is short and shallow, but carries a lot of weight in two "wings" which run sideways from the main part of the keel. Even more recent is the concept of canting keels, designed to move the weight at the bottom of a sailboat to the upwind side, allowing the boat to carry more sails. A twin keel has the benefit of a shallower draft and can allow the boat to stand on dry land.


title: Sailboat

text: Multihulls, on the other hand, have minimal need for such ballast, as they depend on the geometry of their design, the wide base of their multiple hulls, for their stability. Designers of performance multihulls, such as the Open 60's, go to great lengths to reduce overall boat weight as much as possible. This leads some to comment that designing a multihull is similar to designing an aircraft.


title: Sailboat

text: A centreboard or daggerboard is retractable lightweight keel which can be pulled up in shallow water.


title: Sailboat

text: On small sailboats, masts may be "stepped" (put in place) with the bottom end in a receptacle that is supported above the keel of the boat or on the deck or other superstructure that allows the mast to be raised at a hinge point until it is erect. Some masts are supported solely at the keel and laterally at the deck and are called "unstayed". Most masts rely in part or entirely (for those stepped on the deck) on standing rigging, supporting them side-to-side and fore-and aft to hold them up. Masts over may require a crane and are typically stepped on the keel through any cabin or other superstructure.


title: Sailboat

text: Many sailboats have an alternate means of propulsion, in case the wind dies or where close maneuvering under sail is impractical. The smallest boats may use a paddle; bigger ones may have oars; still others may employ an outboard motor, mounted on the transom; still others may have an inboard engine.


title: Belgian cuisine

text: Belgian cuisine is widely varied with significant regional variations, while also reflecting the cuisines of neighbouring France, Germany and the Netherlands. It is sometimes said that Belgian food is served in the quantity of German cuisine but with the quality of French food. Outside the country, Belgium is best known for its chocolate, waffles, fries and beer.


title: Belgian cuisine

text: Though Belgium has many distinctive national dishes, many internationally popular foods like hamburgers and "spaghetti bolognese" are also popular in Belgium, and most of what Belgians eat is also eaten in neighbouring countries. “Belgian cuisine” therefore usually refers to dishes of Belgian origin, or those considered typically Belgian.


title: Belgian cuisine

text: Belgian cuisine traditionally prizes regional and seasonal ingredients. Ingredients typical in Belgian dishes include potatoes, leeks, grey shrimp, white asparagus, Belgian endives and local beer, in addition to common European staples including meat, cheese and butter. Belgians typically eat four meals a day, with a light breakfast, medium lunch, a snack, and a large dinner.


title: Belgian cuisine

text: Belgium has a plethora of dishes and products that are local to a specific area. Examples include "waterzooi" from Ghent, "couque" biscuit from the town of Dinant, and "tarte au riz" from Verviers. While their local origins are acknowledged, most such dishes are enjoyed throughout Belgium.


title: Belgian cuisine

text: Belgian cuisine was influenced by that of the Roman Empire, and later that of France, Germany and the Netherlands.


title: Belgian cuisine

text: Little is known about early Belgian cuisine. It can only be assumed that it was similar to that of other early European tribes. The ancient Belgians probably foraged, kept animals like sheep and cattle, grew root vegetables, hunted for animals such as the wild boar, fished and foraged for berries and herbs. Beer was brewed as well, although not with hops (that was a later discovery). It was probably brewed with barley instead.


title: Belgian cuisine

text: Later, under the Roman Empire, many more foods were presumably introduced to Belgium, such as cabbage and other brassicas, as well as many fruits such as apples, pears and grapes. Belgium was known to be a large supplier of ham and pork for many cities in the Roman Empire.


title: Belgian cuisine

text: Fries, deep-fried chipped potatoes, are very popular in Belgium, where they are thought to have originated. The earliest evidence of the dish comes from a book entitled "Curiosités de la table dans les Pays-Bas-Belgiques" written in 1781, which described how inhabitants of Namur, Dinant and Andenne around the river Meuse had eaten fried potatoes since around 1680. Though they are usually known as "French fries" in the United States, it is argued that American soldiers during the First World War called them "French fries" because the Belgian soldiers who introduced them to the dish spoke French.


title: Belgian cuisine

text: In Belgium, fries are sold at fast-food stands or in dedicated fast-food restaurants called "friteries", "frietkot", or "frituur" (loosely: “fry shack”). They are often served with a variety of sauces and eaten either on their own or in the company of other snacks. Traditionally, they are served in a "cornet de frites" (French) or "" (Flemish), a cone-shaped white piece of thick paper then wrapped in a piece of thin (and coloured) paper, with the sauce on the top. Larger portions are often served in cardboard trays for practicality's sake. Other street foods like "frikandel", "gehaktbal" or "kroket" are sold alongside. In some cases, the fries are served in the form of a baguette sandwich along with their sauce and meat; this is known as a "mitraillette". In areas with immigration, the same combination is also available in a wrap called a "dürüm" instead of on a baguette.


title: Belgian cuisine

text: The vast majority of Belgian households have a deep fryer, allowing them to make their own fries and other deep-fried foods at home. Supermarkets sell a range of liquid and solid animal- and plant-based fats for use in home deep fryers; beef fat is particularly prized.


title: Belgian cuisine

text: In June 2017 the European Commission issued a recommendation to limit the chemical acrylamide—a natural result of frying some foods at high temperatures—from reaching consumers, due to its alleged carcinogenic properties. The document proposed a change in the preparation of Belgian fries to prevent the formation of acrylamide, by blanching them before frying, as opposed to the traditional method of double frying. This led to a wave of protests from several Belgian politicians, who viewed it as an assault on the country's culture and gastronomical tradition.


title: Belgian cuisine

text: Traditionally, fries are usually served with mayonnaise in Belgium. Friteries and other fast-food establishments tend to offer a number of different sauces for the fries and meats, including "aïoli" and "sauce américaine" but also much more elaborate varieties, including béarnaise sauce. There are frequently over a dozen options, and most of them are mayonnaise-based, so the varieties include:


title: Belgian cuisine

text: Occasionally, warm sauces are offered by "friteries", including Hollandaise sauce, Provençale sauce, béarnaise sauce, or even a "carbonade flamande". Most of the sauces above are also readily available in supermarkets. The use of these sauces is not limited to fries; they are used on a variety of other dishes as well.


title: Belgian cuisine

text: For a comparatively small country, Belgium produces a very large number of beers in a range of different styles—in fact, it has more distinct types of beer per capita than anywhere else in the world. In 2011, there were 1,132 different varieties of beer being produced in the country. The brewing tradition in Belgium can be traced back to the early Middle Ages and 6 Trappist Monasteries still produce beer, which was initially used to fund their upkeep.


title: Belgian cuisine

text: On average, Belgians drink 157 litres of beer each year, down from around 260 each year in 1900. Most beers are bought or served in bottles, rather than cans, and almost every style of beer has its own particular, uniquely shaped glass or other drinking-vessel. Using the correct glass is considered to improve its flavour.


title: Belgian cuisine

text: The varied nature of Belgian beers makes it possible to match them against each course of a meal, for instance:


title: Belgian cuisine

text: A number of traditional Belgian dishes use beer as an ingredient. One is "carbonade", a stew of beef cooked in beer, similar to beef bourguignon. The beer used is typically the regional speciality: lambic in Brussels, De Koninck in Antwerp, so that the taste of the dish varies. Another is rabbit in "gueuze". The Trappist monastery at Chimay also manufactures cheese that is "washed" with beer to enhance its flavour.


title: Belgian cuisine

text: Jenever, also known as "genièvre", "genever", "peket" or "Dutch gin", is the national spirit of Belgium from which gin evolved. While beer may be Belgium's most famous alcoholic beverage, jenever has been the country's traditional and national spirit for over 500 years. Jenever is a "Protected Product of Origin", having received eleven different appellations or AOCs from the European Union, and can only be crafted in Belgium, the Netherlands and a few areas in France and Germany. Most of the jenever AOC's are exclusive to Belgium making Belgian jenever (Belgian genever) one of the best-kept secrets in the liquor industry.


title: Belgian cuisine

text: For centuries jenever has been bottled in jugs handcrafted from clay. Its iconic shape is recognizable and unique to jenever. Traditionally the Belgians serve jenever in completely full shot glasses that have just been pulled from the freezer. The first step to drinking the jenever properly is to keep the glass on the table, bend down and take the first sip without holding the glass. Once this traditional first sip is completed one can drink the rest of the drink normally.


title: Belgian cuisine

text: Belgium is famed for its high quality chocolate and over 2,000 "chocolatiers", both small and large. Belgium's association with chocolate goes back as far as 1635 when the country was under Spanish occupation. By the mid-18th century, chocolate had become extremely popular in upper and middle class circles, particularly in the form of hot chocolate, including with Charles-Alexander of Lorraine, the Austrian governor of the territory. From the early 20th century, the country was able to import large quantities of cocoa from its African colony, the Belgian Congo. Both the chocolate bar and praline are inventions of the Belgian chocolate industry. Today, chocolate is very popular in Belgium, with 172,000 tonnes produced each year, and widely exported.


title: Belgian cuisine

text: The composition of Belgian chocolate has been regulated by law since 1884. In order to prevent adulteration of the chocolate with low-quality fats from other sources, a minimum level of 35% pure cocoa was imposed. Adherence to traditional manufacturing techniques also serves to increase the quality of Belgian chocolate. In particular, vegetable-based fats are not used. Many firms produce chocolates by hand, which is laborious and explains the prevalence of small, independent chocolate outlets, which are popular with tourists. Famous chocolate companies, like Neuhaus and Guylian, strictly follow traditional (and sometimes secret) recipes for their products.


title: Belgian cuisine

text: Seafood pralines (pralines shaped like sea shells or fish) are popular with tourists and are sold all over Belgium.


title: Interlingua

text: Interlingua (; ISO 639 language codes codice_1, codice_2) is an international auxiliary language (IAL) developed between 1937 and 1951 by the American International Auxiliary Language Association (IALA). It ranks among the most widely used IALs and is the most widely used naturalistic IAL – in other words, those IALs whose vocabulary, grammar, and other characteristics are derived from natural languages, rather than being centrally planned. Interlingua literature maintains that (written) Interlingua is comprehensible to the hundreds of millions of people who speak Romance languages, though it is actively spoken by only a few hundred.


title: Interlingua

text: Interlingua was developed to combine a simple, mostly regular grammar with a vocabulary common to the widest possible range of western European languages, making it unusually easy to learn, at least for those whose native languages were sources of Interlingua's vocabulary and grammar. Conversely, it is used as a rapid introduction to many natural languages.


title: Interlingua

text: The name Interlingua comes from the Latin words ', meaning "between", and ', meaning "tongue" or "language". These morphemes are the same in Interlingua, thus "Interlingua" would mean "between language".


title: Interlingua

text: Interlingua recognises that many European languages share common vocabulary – due to the historical prominence of Latin and Greek – and therefore aims to extract and standardize the most widespread words for a concept. To qualify for inclusion in Interlingua, the presence of words must be shown in the primary control languages (English, French, Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese) or secondary control languages (German and Russian). However, words from a diverse range of languages are found in Interlingua, including Japanese ("geisha" and "samurai"), Arabic ("califa"), Guugu Yimithirr ("gangurru") (Interlingua: kanguru), and Finnish ("sauna").


title: Interlingua

text: Speakers of other languages can learn to speak and write Interlingua in a relatively short time, due to simple grammar and regular word formation using a small number of roots and affixes. This is particularly true for speakers with a good knowledge of Romance languages and international scientific vocabulary.


title: Interlingua

text: Research with Swedish students has shown that, after a year of learning Interlingua, they can accurately translate elementary texts from Italian, Portuguese, and Spanish. A 1974 study showed that students who had taken a year-long Interlingua class could translate Spanish and French texts that students who had taken 150 hours of either Spanish or French found too difficult to understand. Gopsill has suggested that Interlingua's freedom from irregularities allowed the students to grasp the mechanisms of Romance languages quickly.


title: Interlingua

text: The American heiress Alice Vanderbilt Morris (1874–1950) became interested in linguistics and the international auxiliary language movement in the early 1920s. In 1924, Morris and her husband, Dave Hennen Morris, established the non-profit International Auxiliary Language Association (IALA) in New York City. Their aim was to place the study of IALs on a more complex and scientific basis. Morris developed the research program of IALA in consultation with Edward Sapir, William Edward Collinson, and Otto Jespersen.


title: Interlingua

text: Investigations of the auxiliary language problem were in progress at the International Research Council, the American Council on Education, the American Council of Learned Societies, the British, French, Italian, and American Associations for the advancement of science, and other groups of specialists. Morris created IALA as a continuation of this work.


title: Interlingua

text: The IALA became a major supporter of mainstream American linguistics. Numerous studies by Sapir, Collinson, and Morris Swadesh in the 1930s and 1940s, for example, were funded by IALA. Alice Morris edited several of these studies and provided much of IALA's financial support. For example, Morris herself edited Sapir and Morris Swadesh's 1932 cross-linguistic study of ending-point phenomena, and Collinson's 1937 study of indication. IALA also received support from such prestigious groups as the Carnegie Corporation, the Ford Foundation, the Research Corporation, and the Rockefeller Foundation.


title: Interlingua

text: In its early years, IALA concerned itself with three tasks: finding other organizations around the world with similar goals; building a library of books about languages and interlinguistics; and comparing extant IALs, including Esperanto, Esperanto II, Ido, Peano's Interlingua (Latino sine flexione), Novial, and Interlingue (Occidental). In pursuit of the last goal, it conducted parallel studies of these languages, with comparative studies of national languages, under the direction of scholars at American and European universities. It also arranged conferences with proponents of these IALs, who debated features and goals of their respective languages. With a "concession rule" that required participants to make a certain number of concessions, early debates at IALA sometimes grew from heated to explosive.


title: Interlingua

text: At the Second International Interlanguage Congress, held in Geneva in 1931, IALA began to break new ground; 27 recognized linguists signed a testimonial of support for IALA's research program. An additional eight added their signatures at the third congress, convened in Rome in 1933. That same year, Herbert N. Shenton and Edward Thorndike became influential in IALA's work by authoring key studies in the interlinguistic field.


title: Interlingua

text: The first steps towards the finalization of Interlingua were taken in 1937, when a committee of 24 eminent linguists from 19 universities published "Some Criteria for an International Language and Commentary". However, the outbreak of World War II in 1939 cut short the intended biannual meetings of the committee.


title: Interlingua

text: Originally, the association had not intended to create its own language. Its goal was to identify which auxiliary language already available was best suited for international communication, and how to promote it more effectively. However, after ten years of research, many more members of IALA concluded that none of the existing interlanguages were up to the task. By 1937, the members had made the decision to create a new language, to the surprise of the world's interlanguage community.


title: Interlingua

text: To that point, much of the debate had been equivocal on the decision to use naturalistic (e.g., Peano's Interlingua, Novial and Occidental) or systematic (e.g., Esperanto and Ido) words. During the war years, proponents of a naturalistic interlanguage won out. The first support was Thorndike's paper; the second was a concession by proponents of the systematic languages that thousands of words were already present in many, or even a majority, of the European languages. Their argument was that systematic derivation of words was a Procrustean bed, forcing the learner to unlearn and re-memorize a new derivation scheme when a usable vocabulary was already available. This finally convinced supporters of the systematic languages, and IALA from that point assumed the position that a naturalistic language would be best.


title: Interlingua

text: IALA's research activities were based in Liverpool, before relocating to New York due to the outbreak of World War II, where E. Clark Stillman established a new research staff. Stillman, with the assistance of Alexander Gode, developed a "prototyping" technique – an objective methodology for selecting and standardizing vocabulary based on a comparison of "control languages".


title: Interlingua

text: In 1943 Stillman left for war work and Gode became Acting Director of Research. IALA began to develop models of the proposed language, the first of which were presented in Morris's "General Report" in 1945.


title: Interlingua

text: From 1946 to 1948, French linguist André Martinet was Director of Research. During this period IALA continued to develop models and conducted polling to determine the optimal form of the final language. In 1946, IALA sent an extensive survey to more than 3,000 language teachers and related professionals on three continents.


title: Interlingua

text: The results of the survey were striking. The two more schematic models were rejected – K overwhelmingly. Of the two naturalistic models, M received somewhat more support than P. IALA decided on a compromise between P and M, with certain elements of C.


title: Interlingua

text: Martinet took up a position at Columbia University in 1948, and Gode took on the last phase of Interlingua's development. The vocabulary and grammar of Interlingua were first presented in 1951, when IALA published the finalized "" and the 27,000-word Interlingua–English Dictionary (IED). In 1954, IALA published an introductory manual entitled "Interlingua a Prime Vista" ("Interlingua at First Sight").


title: Interlingua

text: Interlingua as presented by the IALA is very close to Peano's Interlingua (Latino sine flexione), both in its grammar and especially in its vocabulary. Accordingly, the very name "Interlingua" was kept, yet a distinct abbreviation was adopted: IA instead of IL.


title: Interlingua

text: Model P was unchanged from 1945; Model M was relatively modern in comparison to more classical P. Model K was slightly modified in the direction of Ido.


title: Interlingua

text: The vote total ended up as follows: P 26.6%, M 37.5%, C 20%, and K 15%. The results of the survey were striking. The two more schematic models, C and K, were rejected – K overwhelmingly. Of the two naturalistic models, M attracted somewhat more support than P. Taking national biases into account (for example, the French who were polled disproportionately favored Model M), IALA decided on a compromise between models M and P, with certain elements of C.


title: Interlingua

text: When Martinet took up a position at Columbia University in 1948, Gode took on the last phase of Interlingua's development. His task was to combine elements of Model M and Model P; take the flaws seen in both by the polled community and repair them with elements of Model C as needed; and simultaneously develop a vocabulary.


title: Interlingua

text: The vocabulary and verb conjugations of Interlingua were first presented in 1951, when IALA published the finalized "" and the 27,000-word Interlingua–English Dictionary (IED). In 1954, IALA published an introductory manual entitled "Interlingua a Prime Vista" ("Interlingua at First Sight").


title: Interlingua

text: An early practical application of Interlingua was the scientific newsletter "Spectroscopia Molecular", published from 1952 to 1980. In 1954, Interlingua was used at the Second World Cardiological Congress in Washington, D.C. for both written summaries and oral interpretation. Within a few years, it found similar use at nine further medical congresses. Between the mid-1950s and the late 1970s, some thirty scientific and especially medical journals provided article summaries in Interlingua. Science Service, the publisher of "Science Newsletter" at the time, published a monthly column in Interlingua from the early 1950s until Gode's death in 1970. In 1967, the International Organization for Standardization, which normalizes terminology, voted almost unanimously to adopt Interlingua as the basis for its dictionaries.


title: Interlingua

text: The IALA closed its doors in 1953 but was not formally dissolved until 1956 or later. Its role in promoting Interlingua was largely taken on by Science Service, which hired Gode as head of its newly formed Interlingua Division. Hugh E. Blair, Gode's close friend and colleague, became his assistant. A successor organization, the Interlingua Institute, was founded in 1970 to promote Interlingua in the US and Canada. The new institute supported the work of other linguistic organizations, made considerable scholarly contributions and produced Interlingua summaries for scholarly and medical publications. One of its largest achievements was two immense volumes on phytopathology produced by the American Phytopathological Society in 1976 and 1977.


title: Interlingua

text: Interlingua had attracted many former adherents of other international-language projects, notably Occidental and Ido. The former Occidentalist Ric Berger founded The Union Mundial pro Interlingua (UMI) in 1955, and by the late 1950s, interest in Interlingua in Europe had already begun to overtake that in North America. Media coverage at the time, for example, was apparently heaviest in Northern and Eastern Europe. Frequent European coverage has continued to date, joined by media attention in South America in the early 1990s.


title: Interlingua

text: Beginning in the 1980s, UMI has held international conferences every two years (typical attendance at the earlier meetings was 50 to 100) and launched a publishing programme that eventually produced over 100 volumes. Other Interlingua-language works were published by university presses in Sweden and Italy, and in the 1990s, Brazil and Switzerland. Several Scandinavian schools undertook projects that used Interlingua as a means of teaching the international scientific and intellectual vocabulary.


title: Interlingua

text: In 2000, the Interlingua Institute was dissolved amid funding disputes with the UMI; the American Interlingua Society, established the following year, succeeded the institute and responded to new interest emerging in Mexico.


title: Interlingua

text: Interlingua was spoken and promoted in the Soviet bloc, despite attempts to suppress the language. In East Germany, government officials confiscated the letters and magazines that the UMI sent to Walter Rädler, the Interlingua representative there.


title: Interlingua

text: In Czechoslovakia, Július Tomin published his first article on Interlingua in the Slovak magazine "Príroda a spoločnosť" (Nature and Society) in 1971, after which he received several anonymous threatening letters. He went on to become the Czech Interlingua representative, teach Interlingua in the school system, and publish a series of articles and books.


title: Interlingua

text: Interest in Interlingua has expanded from the scientific community to the general public. Individuals, governments, and private companies use Interlingua for learning and instruction, travel, online publishing, and communication across language barriers. Interlingua is promoted internationally by the Union Mundial pro Interlingua. Periodicals and books are produced by many national organizations, such as the Societate American pro Interlingua, the Svenska Sällskapet för Interlingua, and the Union Brazilian pro Interlingua.


title: Interlingua

text: Panorama In Interlingua is the most prominent of several Interlingua periodicals. It is a 28-page magazine published bimonthly that covers current events, science, editorials, and Interlingua. Thanks to the Internet, Interlingua has seen a resurgence over the last decade, with the number of speakers jumping tenfold by some estimates.


title: Interlingua

text: It is not certain how many people have an active knowledge of Interlingua. As noted above, Interlingua is claimed to be the most widely spoken naturalistic auxiliary language.


title: Interlingua

text: Interlingua's greatest advantage is that it is the most widely "understood" international auxiliary language besides Interlingua (IL) de A.p.I. by virtue of its naturalistic (as opposed to schematic) grammar and vocabulary, allowing those familiar with a Romance language, and educated speakers of English, to read and understand it without prior study.


title: Interlingua

text: Interlingua has active speakers on all continents, especially in South America and in Eastern and Northern Europe, most notably Scandinavia; also in Russia and Ukraine. There are copious Interlingua web pages, including editions of Wikipedia and Wiktionary, and a number of periodicals, including "Panorama in Interlingua" from the Union Mundial pro Interlingua (UMI) and magazines of the national societies allied with it. There are several active mailing lists, and Interlingua is also in use in certain Usenet newsgroups, particularly in the europa.* hierarchy. Interlingua is presented on CDs, radio, and television.


title: Interlingua

text: Interlingua is taught in many high schools and universities, sometimes as a means of teaching other languages quickly, presenting interlinguistics, or introducing the international vocabulary. The University of Granada in Spain, for example, offers an Interlingua course in collaboration with the Centro de Formación Continua.


title: Interlingua

text: Every two years, the UMI organizes an international conference in a different country. In the year between, the Scandinavian Interlingua societies co-organize a conference in Sweden. National organizations such as the Union Brazilian pro Interlingua also organize regular conferences.


title: Interlingua

text: Interlingua uses the 26 letters of the ISO basic Latin alphabet with no diacritics. The alphabet, pronunciation in IPA and letter names in Interlingua are:


title: Interlingua

text: The book "Grammar of Interlingua" defines in §15 a "collateral orthography" that defines how a word is spelt in Interlingua once assimilated regardless of etymology.


title: Interlingua

text: Interlingua is primarily a written language, and the pronunciation is not entirely settled. The sounds in parentheses are not used by all speakers.


title: Interlingua

text: For the most part, consonants are pronounced as in English, while the vowels are like Spanish. Written double consonants may be geminated as in Italian for extra clarity or pronounced as single as in English or French. Interlingua has five falling diphthongs, , and , although and are rare.


title: Interlingua

text: The "general rule" is that stress falls on the vowel before the last consonant (e.g., "lingua", 'language', "esser", 'to be', "requirimento", 'requirement') ignoring the final plural "-(e)s" (e.g. "linguas", the plural of "lingua", still has the same stress as the singular), and where that is not possible, on the first vowel ("via", 'way', "io crea", 'I create'). There are a few exceptions, and the following rules account for most of them:


title: Interlingua

text: Speakers may pronounce all words according to the general rule mentioned above. For example, "kilometro" is acceptable, although "kilometro" is more common.


title: Interlingua

text: Interlingua has no explicitly defined phonotactics. However, the prototyping procedure for determining Interlingua words, which strives for internationality, should in general lead naturally to words that are easy for most learners to pronounce. In the process of forming new words, an ending cannot always be added without a modification of some kind in between. A good example is the plural "-s", which is always preceded by a vowel to prevent the occurrence of a hard-to-pronounce consonant cluster at the end. If the singular does not end in a vowel, the final "-s" becomes "-es."


title: Interlingua

text: Unassimilated foreign loanwords, or borrowed words, are spelled as in their language of origin. Their spelling may contain diacritics, or accent marks. If the diacritics do not affect pronunciation, they are removed.


title: Interlingua

text: Words in Interlingua may be taken from any language, as long as their internationality is verified by their presence in seven "control" languages: Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, French, and English, with German and Russian acting as secondary controls. These are the most widely spoken Romance, Germanic, and Slavic languages, respectively. Because of their close relationship, Spanish and Portuguese are treated as one unit. The largest number of Interlingua words are of Latin origin, with the Greek and Germanic languages providing the second and third largest number. The remainder of the vocabulary originates in Slavic and non-Indo-European languages.


title: Interlingua

text: A word, that is a form with meaning, is eligible for the Interlingua vocabulary if it is verified by at least three of the four primary control languages. Either secondary control language can substitute for a primary language. Any word of Indo-European origin found in a control language can contribute to the eligibility of an international word. In some cases, the archaic or "potential" presence of a word can contribute to its eligibility.


title: Interlingua

text: A word can be potentially present in a language when a derivative is present, but the word itself is not. English "proximity", for example, gives support to Interlingua "proxime", meaning 'near, close'. This counts as long as one or more control languages actually have this basic root word, which the Romance languages all do. Potentiality also occurs when a concept is represented as a compound or derivative in a control language, the morphemes that make it up are themselves international, and the combination adequately conveys the meaning of the larger word. An example is Italian "fiammifero" (lit. flamebearer), meaning "match, lucifer", which leads to Interlingua "flammifero", or "match". This word is thus said to be potentially present in the other languages although they may represent the meaning with a single morpheme.


title: Interlingua

text: Words do not enter the Interlingua vocabulary solely because cognates exist in a sufficient number of languages. If their meanings have become different over time, they are considered different words for the purpose of Interlingua eligibility. If they still have one or more meanings in common, however, the word can enter Interlingua with this smaller set of meanings.


title: Interlingua

text: If this procedure did not produce an international word, the word for a concept was originally taken from Latin (see below). This only occurred with a few grammatical particles.


title: Interlingua

text: The form of an Interlingua word is considered an "international prototype" with respect to the other words. On the one hand, it should be neutral, free from characteristics peculiar to one language. On the other hand, it should maximally capture the characteristics common to all contributing languages. As a result, it can be transformed into any of the contributing variants using only these language-specific characteristics. If the word has any derivatives that occur in the source languages with appropriate parallel meanings, then their morphological connection must remain intact; for example, the Interlingua word for 'time' is spelled "tempore" and not "*tempus" or "*tempo" in order to match it with its derived adjectives, such as "temporal".


title: Interlingua

text: The language-specific characteristics are closely related to the sound laws of the individual languages; the resulting words are often close or even identical to the most recent form common to the contributing words. This sometimes corresponds with that of Vulgar Latin. At other times, it is much more recent or even contemporary. It is never older than the classical period.


title: Interlingua

text: The French "œil", Italian "occhio", Spanish "ojo", and Portuguese "olho" appear quite different, but they descend from a historical form "oculus". German "Auge", Dutch "oog" and English "eye" (cf. Czech and Polish "oko", Russian and Ukrainian "око" "(óko)") are related to this form in that all three descend from Proto-Indo-European "*okʷ". In addition, international derivatives like "ocular" and "oculista" occur in all of Interlingua's control languages. Each of these forms contributes to the eligibility of the Interlingua word. German and English base words do not influence the form of the Interlingua word, because their Indo-European connection is considered too remote. Instead, the remaining base words and especially the derivatives determine the form "oculo" found in Interlingua.


title: Interlingua

text: Words can also be included in Interlingua by deriving them using Interlingua words and affixes; a method called free word-building. Thus, in the Interlingua–English Dictionary (IED), Alexander Gode followed the principle that every word listed is accompanied by all of its clear compounds and derivatives, along with the word or words it is derived from. A reader skimming through the IED notices many entries followed by large groups of derived and compound words. A good example is the Interlingua word "nation," which is followed by "national, nationalismo, nationalista, nationalitate, nationalisar, international, internationalitate," and many other words.


title: Interlingua

text: Other words in the IED do not have derivatives listed. Gode saw these words as potential word families. Although all derived words in the IED are found in at least one control language, speakers may make free use of Interlingua roots and affixes. For example, "jada" (jade) can be used to form "jadificar", (to jadify, make into jade, make look like jade), "jadification", and so on. These word forms would be impermissible in English but would be good Interlingua.


title: Interlingua

text: Gode and Hugh E. Blair explained in the that the "basic principle of practical word-building" is analogical. If a pattern can be found in the existing international vocabulary, new words can be formed according to that pattern. A meaning of the suffix "-ista" is "person who practices the art or science of..." This suffix allows the derivation of "biologista" from "biologia," "physicista" from "physica," and so on. An Interlingua speaker can freely form "saxophonista" from "saxophone" and "radiographista" from "radiographia" by following the same pattern.


title: Interlingua

text: As noted above, the only limits to free word-building in Interlingua are "clarity" and "usefulness". These concepts are touched upon here:


title: Interlingua

text: Any number of words could be formed by stringing roots and affixes together, but some would be more useful than others. For example, the English word "rainer" means "a person who rains," but most people would be surprised that it is included in English dictionaries. The corresponding Interlingua word "pluviator" is unlikely to appear in a dictionary because of its lack of utility. Interlingua, like any traditional language, "could" build up large numbers of these words, but this would be undesirable.


title: Interlingua

text: Gode stressed the principle of "clarity" in free word-building. As Gode noted, the noun "marinero" ("mariner") can be formed from the adjective "marin", because its meaning is clear. The noun "marina" meaning "navy" cannot be formed, because its meaning would not be clear from the adjective and suffix that gave rise to it.


title: Interlingua

text: Interlingua has been developed to omit any grammatical feature that is absent from any one primary control language. Thus, Interlingua has no noun–adjective agreement by gender, case, or number (cf. Spanish and Portuguese "gatas negras" or Italian "gatte nere", 'black female cats'), because this is absent from English, and it has no progressive verb tenses (English "I am reading"), because they are absent from French. Conversely, Interlingua distinguishes singular nouns from plural nouns because all the control languages do. With respect to the secondary control languages, Interlingua has articles, unlike Russian.


title: Interlingua

text: The definite article "le" is invariable, as in English. Nouns have no grammatical gender. Plurals are formed by adding "-s", or "-es" after a final consonant. Personal pronouns take one form for the subject and one for the direct object and reflexive. In the third person, the reflexive is always "se". Most adverbs are derived regularly from adjectives by adding "-mente", or "-amente" after a "-c". An adverb can be formed from any adjective in this way.


title: Interlingua

text: Verbs take the same form for all persons ("io vive, tu vive, illa vive", 'I live', 'you live', 'she lives'). The indicative ("pare", 'appear', 'appears') is the same as the imperative ("pare!" 'appear!'), and there is no subjunctive. Three common verbs usually take short forms in the present tense: "es" for 'is', 'am', 'are;' "ha" for 'has', 'have;' and "va" for 'go', 'goes'. A few irregular verb forms are available, but rarely used.


title: Interlingua

text: There are four simple tenses (present, past, future, and conditional), three compound tenses (past, future, and conditional), and the passive voice. The compound structures employ an auxiliary plus the infinitive or the past participle (e.g., "Ille ha arrivate", 'He has arrived'). Simple and compound tenses can be combined in various ways to express more complex tenses (e.g., "Nos haberea morite", 'We would have died').


title: Interlingua

text: Word order is subject–verb–object, except that a direct object pronoun or reflexive pronoun comes before the verb ("io les vide", 'I see them'). Adjectives may precede or follow the nouns they modify, but they most often follow it. The position of adverbs is flexible, though constrained by common sense.


title: Interlingua

text: The grammar of Interlingua has been described as similar to that of the Romance languages, but greatly simplified, primarily under the influence of English. More recently, Interlingua's grammar has been likened to the simple grammars of Japanese and particularly Chinese.


title: Interlingua

text: Critics argue that, being based on a few European languages, Interlingua is suitable only for speakers of European languages. Others contend that Interlingua has spelling irregularities that, while internationally recognizable in written form, increase the time needed to fully learn the language, especially for those unfamiliar with Indo-European languages.


title: Interlingua

text: Proponents counter that Interlingua's source languages include not only Romance languages but English, German, and Russian as well. Moreover, the source languages are widely spoken, and large numbers of their words also appear in other languages – still more when derivative forms and loan translations are included. Tests had shown that if a larger number of source languages were used, the results would be about the same.


title: Interlingua

text: As with Esperanto, there have been proposals for a flag of Interlingua; the proposal by Czech translator Karel Podrazil is recognized by multilingual sites. It consists of a white four-pointed star extending to the edges of the flag and dividing it into an upper blue and lower red half. The star is symbolic of the four cardinal directions, and the two halves symbolize Romance and non-Romance speakers of Interlingua who understand each other.


title: Interlingua

text: Another symbol of Interlingua is the "Blue Marble" surrounded by twelve stars on a black or blue background, echoing the twelve stars of the Flag of Europe (because the source languages of Interlingua are purely European).


title: Niihau incident

text: The Niʻihau incident occurred on December 7–13, 1941, when Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service pilot crash-landed his Zero on the Hawaiian island of Niʻihau after participating in the attack on Pearl Harbor. The Imperial Japanese Navy had designated Niʻihau as an uninhabited island for damaged aircraft to land and await rescue.


title: Niihau incident

text: Native Hawaiians, unaware of the attack, treated Nishikaichi as a guest but took the precaution of removing his weapons. They brought a resident who had been born in Japan to translate. That night, the Hawaiians learned of the Pearl Harbor attack and apprehended the Japanese pilot. They allowed him to stay with the Haradas, the only two other residents of Japanese descent, but posted guards. The pilot then told the Haradas about the attack and the two agreed to help him. Nishikaichi and Yoshio Harada overcame a guard and escaped to destroy the plane and papers, then took Niihauans Benehakaka "Ben" Kanahele and his wife Kealoha "Ella" Kanahele prisoner. The Kanaheles later overcame the guard and eventually killed the pilot. Ben Kanahele was wounded in the process, and one of Nishikaichi's collaborators, Yoshio Harada, died by suicide. Ben Kanahele was decorated for his action because he was wounded. Ella Kanahele, who killed Nishikaichi, received no official recognition.


title: Niihau incident

text: Niʻihau, the westernmost and second smallest of the primary Hawaiian Islands, has been privately owned by the Robinsons, a white "kamaʻaina" family, since 1864. At the time of the incident, it had 136 inhabitants, almost all of whom were Native Hawaiians whose first language was Hawaiian. In 1941 the owner was Aylmer Robinson, a Harvard University graduate who was fluent in Hawaiian. Robinson ran the island without interference from any government authority, and although he lived on the nearby island of Kauaʻi, he made weekly visits by boat to Niʻihau. The island was accessible only with Robinson’s permission, which was almost never given except to friends or relatives of Niihauans. The handful of non-Native residents included three of Japanese ancestry: Ishimatsu Shintani, a first-generation immigrant from Japan ("Issei") and Hawaiian-born "Nisei" Yoshio Harada and his wife Irene Harada (an "Issei"), all of whom were involved in the incident.


title: Niihau incident

text: Prior to the Pearl Harbor attack, the Imperial Japanese Navy had designated Niʻihau, mistakenly believed to be uninhabited, as a location for aircraft damaged in the attack to land. Pilots were told they could wait on the island until they were rescued by submarine.


title: Niihau incident

text: On December 7, 1941, Airman First Class Shigenori Nishikaichi, who had taken part in the second wave of the Pearl Harbor attack, crash-landed his battle-damaged aircraft, an A6M2 Zero "B11-120" from the carrier "Hiryu", in a Niʻihau field near where native Hawaiian Hawila Kaleohano was standing. Kaleohano was unaware of the attack at Pearl Harbor, but knew from newspapers that the relationship between the U.S. and Japan was poor because of disputes over Japanese expansionism and the resulting U.S. oil embargo on Japan. Recognizing Nishikaichi and his plane as Japanese, Kaleohano seized Nishikaichi's pistol and papers before the dazed airman could react. He and the other Hawaiians who gathered about treated the pilot with courtesy and traditional Hawaiian hospitality, even throwing a party for Nishikaichi later that afternoon. However, the Hawaiians could not understand Nishikaichi, who spoke only Japanese with a limited amount of English. They sent for "issei" Ishimatsu Shintani, who was married to a native Hawaiian, to translate.


title: Niihau incident

text: Having been briefed on the situation beforehand and approaching the task with evident distaste, Shintani exchanged just a few words with the pilot and departed without explanation. The puzzled Hawaiians then sent for Yoshio Harada, who was born in Hawaiʻi of Japanese ancestry, and his wife Irene (an "issei"), who constituted the remainder of the Niʻihau population of Japanese ancestry. Nishikaichi informed Harada of the attack on Pearl Harbor, and Harada chose not to share the information with the non-Japanese natives. Nishikaichi desperately wanted his papers returned, as he had been instructed not to let them fall into American hands, but Kaleohano refused to return them. The Haradas decided to help Nishikaichi retrieve his papers and escape.


title: Niihau incident

text: Niʻihau had neither electricity nor telephones, but later that night, the Hawaiians heard a radio report about the Pearl Harbor attack on a battery-operated radio. They confronted the pilot, and this time Harada translated what was said about the attack. The owner of the island, Aylmer Robinson, was scheduled to arrive on his regular weekly trip from Kauaʻi, a much larger island just away, the next morning. It was decided that the pilot would return to Kauaʻi with Robinson.


title: Niihau incident

text: However, Robinson could not reach Niʻihau because the American military had instituted a ban on boat traffic within the islands soon after the attack, and the Niʻihauans did not know of the ban. Nishikaichi was permitted to stay with the Haradas, but with a contingent of five guards. There was now ample opportunity for the Haradas to converse with Nishikaichi.


title: Niihau incident

text: On December 12, Shintani approached Kaleohano privately on behalf of Harada and Nishikaichi. He offered their bribe of ¥200 for the pilot's papers, but Kaleohano again refused. Shintani fled into the woods to avoid reporting his failure. Yoshio Harada and Nishikaichi, not waiting for Shintani's return, attacked the lone guard who had been posted outside the Harada residence, while Irene Harada played music on a phonograph to disguise the sounds of the struggle. Three other guards were stationed to watch the Harada residence but were not present at the time of the attack. Harada and Nishikaichi locked the guard in a warehouse, where Harada acquired a shotgun and Nishikaichi's pistol that had been stored there. They proceeded to Kaleohano's house.


title: Niihau incident

text: Having left Shintani just minutes before, Kaleohano was in his outhouse when he saw Harada and Nishikaichi approaching with the 16-year-old guard whom they were prodding with a gun. With Kaleohano hiding in the outhouse, Harada and Nishikaichi turned their attention to the nearby plane. Kaleohano ran from the outhouse as Harada and Nishikaichi fired at him, and he alerted the residents of the nearby village, warning them to evacuate, but they were skeptical regarding Kaleohano's news. However, when the captive guard escaped and reached the village, the residents fled to caves, thickets and distant beaches.


title: Niihau incident

text: Robinson was aware that there was trouble on Niʻihau because the Niihauans had flashed signals toward Kauaʻi with kerosene lanterns and reflectors. Nishikaichi unsuccessfully attempted to make contact with the Japanese military using the downed aircraft's radio. With the help of Harada and one of their Hawaiian captives, Nishikaichi removed at least one of the plane's two 7.7 mm machine guns with some ammunition, torched the plane, and proceeded to Kaleohano's house, setting it ablaze in the early morning hours in a final effort to destroy Nishikaichi's papers, which included maps, radio codes, and Pearl Harbor attack plans.


title: Niihau incident

text: During the night, Niʻihau resident Kaahakila Kalimahuluhulu, known as Kalima, had also been taken captive. He was released to help in the search for Kaleohano, who had escaped with Nishikaichi's papers. Instead, Kalima enlisted his friend Benehakaka "Ben" Kanahele to sneak back in the darkness to steal the machine guns and ammunition. That morning, Saturday, December 13, Harada and Nishikaichi captured Kanahele and his wife Kealoha "Ella" Kanahele. They ordered Kanahele to find Kaleohano, keeping Ella as a hostage. Kanahele knew that Kaleohano was rowing toward Kauaʻi with five others but pretended to look for him. He soon became concerned about Ella and returned to her. Nishikaichi realized that he was being deceived. Harada told Kanahele that Nishikaichi would kill him and everyone in the village if Kaleohano was not found.


title: Niihau incident

text: Kanahele and his wife, taking advantage of the fatigue and discouragement of his two captors, leapt at them as Nishikaichi handed the shotgun to Harada. When Nishikaichi pulled his pistol out of his boot, Ella Kanahele grabbed his arm and brought it down. Harada pulled her off the pilot, who then shot Ben Kanahele three times: in the groin, stomach and upper leg. However, Kanahele was still able to pick up Nishikaichi and hurl the pilot into a stone wall, knocking him unconscious. Ella Kanahele then killed the Japanese pilot by bashing his head with a rock. Harada then killed himself with the shotgun.


title: Niihau incident

text: After the incident, Ella Kanahele went for help, dropping the shotgun and the pistol on the way. (About five years later, a flood washed the shotgun into a wall where it was found by islanders. The pistol and one of the machine guns were never found.) Ben Kanahele was taken to Waimea Hospital on Kauaʻi to recuperate; he was awarded the Medal for Merit and the Purple Heart, but Ella did not receive any official recognition.


title: Niihau incident

text: The next afternoon, December 14, the military authorities, the six Hawaiians who had rowed to Kauaʻi, and Robinson arrived together. The pilot's papers (containing local maps, money, and things needed if forced down) were turned over, and the crashed plane was studied.


title: Niihau incident

text: The grieving Irene Harada and Ishimatsu Shintani were taken into custody. Shintani was sent to an internment camp and later rejoined his family on Niʻihau, where he attained U.S. citizenship in 1960.


title: Niihau incident

text: Irene Harada was imprisoned for 31 months until her release in June 1944. She was not charged with any crimes resulting from the incident. She maintained her innocence, but added in a 1992 interview with Japanese television that she felt sorry for the pilot and wanted to help him. She moved to the island of Kauaʻi. Mitsuo Fuchida, a naval commander during the attack on Pearl Harbor and later a Christian evangelist who settled in the U.S., visited her after his short trip to Niʻihau.


title: Niihau incident

text: Composer R. Alex Anderson was inspired by the incident to compose "They Couldn't Take Niihau, Nohow!" It was played on August 15, 1945, when Kanahele was decorated for his actions in Honolulu.


title: Niihau incident

text: Historian Gordon Prange notes that "the rapidity with which the three resident Japanese went over to the pilot's cause" troubled the Hawaiians and added: "The more pessimistic among them cited the Niʻihau incident as proof that no one could trust any Japanese, even if an American citizen, not to go over to Japan if it appeared expedient." Novelist William Hallstead argues that the Niʻihau incident influenced decisions leading to the Japanese American internment on the continental United States. According to Hallstead, the behavior of Shintani and the Haradas was included in an official Navy report dated January 26, 1942. The report's author Navy Lieutenant C. B. Baldwin wrote: "The fact that the two Niʻihau Japanese who had previously shown no anti-American tendencies went to the aid of the pilot when Japanese domination of the island seemed possible, indicate[s] [the] likelihood that Japanese residents previously believed loyal to the United States may aid Japan if further Japanese attacks appear successful."


title: Niihau incident

text: Despite this, the Japanese population in Hawaii was largely spared from mass internment throughout the war because of economic concerns (more than one-third of Hawaii's total population were Japanese-Americans who comprised "over 90 percent of the carpenters, nearly all of the transportation workers, and a significant portion of the agricultural laborers"). However, Hawaii was subjected to martial law and lookouts were established.


title: Niihau incident

text: The coastal town of Hashihama, Imabari, Ehime Prefecture, Japan erected a granite cenotaph in Nishikaichi's honor when it was still believed that he had perished on the day of the attack, December 7, 1941. For many years, Nishikaichi's remains were those of an unknown Japanese soldier, and it was not until 1956 that the circumstances of his death were revealed to his family, and they claimed his ashes. Engraved on the column is what was believed at the time: "Having expended every effort, he achieved the greatest honor of all by dying a soldier's death in battle, destroying both himself and his beloved plane... His meritorious deed will live forever." In June 2017, the pilot's "nafuda", a set of seven wooden sticks that carried the names of Nishikaichi's colleagues, the identifying markings of his Zero and his administrative command, was returned to his family in Japan.