title: Denmark expedition

text: An exploration team was sent in April 1908 to Ardencaple Fjord, where the inner reaches had not yet been explored because previous expeditions could not go beyond its mouth on account of deep snow.


title: Denmark expedition

text: A second weather station was established at Mørkefjord, west of Danmarkshavn, in order to compare meteorological observations. Also the islands, the glaciers and the coastline of Dove Bay were explored, as well as mountains and lakes in Germania Land.


title: Denmark expedition

text: Although no living Inuit were found, the expedition discovered abundant evidence of their former habitation, such as tent rings, winter dwellings, meat caches and tools, all along the coast up to Danmark Fjord in the far north.


title: Denmark expedition

text: The Danmark left Greenland on 21 July, arriving to Copenhagen one month later. Since the unfortunate circumstances of Mylius-Erichsen's death cast a pall over the whole expedition, its results didn't receive the attention they deserved. Even so over 51 reports were published by its members, including those by the numerous scientists. Many of them continued the work in the same field, returning to Greenland in the decades that followed, such as Peter Freuchen. The Danske Islands were given their name by John Haller during the 1956–1958 Expedition to East Greenland led by Lauge Koch, in order to pay due homage to the authoritative work of the 1906–08 Denmark expedition.


title: Carl Walther GmbH

text: Carl Walther GmbH Sportwaffen (), or simply known as Walther, is a German firearm manufacturer, and a subsidiary of the PW Group. Founded by Carl Walther in 1886, the company has manufactured firearms and air guns at its facility in Germany for more than 100 years. Walther Arms, Inc. is the United States Walther business unit and is based in Fort Smith, Arkansas.


title: Carl Walther GmbH

text: The history of Walther started with the factory created by Matthias Conrad Pistor, the chief armorer of the Kassel Armory. Pistor is the ancestor of the Walther family. This plant was operating in 1780 and made pistols and other weapons. The granddaughter of Gustave Wilhelm Pistor married August Theodore Walther, whose son Carl Wilhelm Freund established the factory that employed apprentice Carl Walther. This small shop was established in 1886 in Zella-Mehlis, in what is today Thuringia. The company originally manufactured hunting and target rifles.


title: Carl Walther GmbH

text: Then in 1888, he married Minna Georgine Pickert, daughter of Christian Friedrich Pickert, from the well-established revolver manufacturer "Arminius Waffenwerk", in the same town.


title: Carl Walther GmbH

text: It was not until 1908 that, under the initiative of Fritz Walther, the oldest son of Carl Walther, they began to make pistols. Models 1 to 5 and 7 to 9 were in calibers .25 ACP (6.35mm) and .32 ACP (7.65mm). The Model 6 was Walther's first attempt at a 9mm Luger pistol. It used blowback rather than a locked breech and proved unsuccessful, with only around 1,000 made. Its rarity has made it highly sought after on the collectors market.


title: Carl Walther GmbH

text: In 1929 Walther began to make the popular Walther PP "Polizeipistole" (police pistol) models. Walther followed this in 1931 with the first PPKs ("Polizeipistole Kriminalmodell", or Police Pistol Detective Model). Walther manufactured both PP and PPKs in .22 Long Rifle, .32 ACP (the most common caliber), .380 ACP and a minimal number in .25 ACP. The PP models were the first mass-produced pistols with stamped parts. Still, the overall increase in dependability and high production quality with lower relative manufacturing costs made them the best option to replace the P-08 Luger. In 1938, Nazi Germany awarded the contract for that replacement to Walther for the 9mm P38.


title: Carl Walther GmbH

text: From 1942 until 1945, the company used slave labour at the Neuengamme concentration camp, and operated its own factory at the camp.


title: Carl Walther GmbH

text: With his factory destroyed in World War II and Zella-Mehlis in the Soviet occupation zone, Walther was reduced to just a collection of designs and patents. Fritz Walther started anew and began manufacturing in Ulm, West Germany in 1953.


title: Carl Walther GmbH

text: The company resumed production of the P38 (renamed the P1) in 1957 to equip the new West German Army, the Bundeswehr, with sidearms. When Fritz Walther died in December 1966, his son, Karl-Heinz, took over the company, concentrating on the sports sector.


title: Carl Walther GmbH

text: In 1993, Umarex Sportwaffen (now part of PW Group) of Arnsberg, Germany, acquired Walther. It continued to manufacture under the Walther name in Ulm and Arnsberg. The German Walther company is known as Carl Walther Sportwaffen.


title: Carl Walther GmbH

text: In 2012, the PW Group formed a new subsidiary, Walther Arms, Inc., located in Fort Smith, Arkansas, to take over the distribution of Walther arms in the United States.


title: A Hard Day's Night (song)

text: "A Hard Day's Night" is a song by the English rock band the Beatles. Credited to Lennon–McCartney, it was written by John Lennon, with some collaboration from Paul McCartney. It was released on the film soundtrack of the same name in 1964. It was also released as a single in the UK (with "Things We Said Today" as its B-side), and in the US (with "I Should Have Known Better" as its B-side.)


title: A Hard Day's Night (song)

text: The song featured prominently on the soundtrack to the Beatles' first feature film, "A Hard Day's Night", and was on their album of the same name. The song topped the charts in both the United Kingdom and United States when it was released as a single. The American and British singles of "A Hard Day's Night", as well as both the American and British albums of the same title, held the top position in their respective charts simultaneously for a couple of weeks in August 1964, the first time any artist had accomplished this feat.


title: A Hard Day's Night (song)

text: The song's title originated from something said by Ringo Starr, the Beatles' drummer. Starr described it this way in an interview with disc jockey Dave Hull in 1964: "We went to do a job, and we'd worked all day and we happened to work all night. I came up still thinking it was day I suppose, and I said, 'It's been a hard day …' and I looked around and saw it was dark so I said, '… night!' So we came to 'A Hard Day's Night.'"


title: A Hard Day's Night (song)

text: Starr's statement was the inspiration for the title of the film, which in turn inspired the composition of the song. According to Lennon in a 1980 interview with "Playboy" magazine: "I was going home in the car and Dick Lester [director of the movie] suggested the title, 'Hard Day's Night' from something Ringo had said. I had used it in "In His Own Write" [a book Lennon was writing then], but it was an off-the-cuff remark by Ringo. You know, one of those malapropisms. A Ringo-ism, where he said it not to be funny … just said it. So Dick Lester said, 'We are going to use that title.'"


title: A Hard Day's Night (song)

text: In a 1994 interview for "The Beatles Anthology", however, McCartney disagreed with Lennon's recollections, basically stating that it was the Beatles, and not Lester, who had come up with the idea of using Starr's verbal misstep: "The title was Ringo's. We'd almost finished making the film, and this fun bit arrived that we'd not known about before, which was naming the film. So we were sitting around at Twickenham studios having a little brain-storming session … and we said, 'Well, there was something Ringo said the other day.' Ringo would do these little malapropisms, he would say things slightly wrong, like people do, but his were always wonderful, very lyrical … they were sort of magic even though he was just getting it wrong. And he said after a concert, 'Phew, it's been a hard day's night.'"


title: A Hard Day's Night (song)

text: In 1996, yet another version of events cropped up. In an Associated Press report, the producer of the film "A Hard Day's Night", Walter Shenson, stated that Lennon described to Shenson some of Starr's funnier gaffes, including "a hard day's night", whereupon Shenson immediately decided that that was going to be the title of the movie (replacing other alternatives, including "Beatlemania"). Shenson then told Lennon that he needed a theme song for the film.


title: A Hard Day's Night (song)

text: Lennon dashed off the song in one night, and brought it in for comments the following morning. As he described in his 1980 "Playboy" interview, "the next morning I brought in the song … 'cuz there was a little competition between Paul and I as to who got the A-side – who got the hits. If you notice, in the early days the majority of singles, in the movies and everything, were mine … in the early period I'm dominating the group … The reason Paul sang on 'A Hard Day's Night' (in the bridge) is because I couldn't reach the notes." However, McCartney and others remember McCartney collaborating with Lennon.


title: A Hard Day's Night (song)

text: On 16 April 1964, the Beatles gathered at Studio 2 of the EMI Studios and recorded "A Hard Day's Night". It took them less than three hours to polish the song for its final release, eventually selecting the ninth take as the one to be released. "Evening Standard" journalist Maureen Cleave described a memorable taxi ride the morning the song was recorded:


title: A Hard Day's Night (song)

text: In the Associated Press report, Shenson described his recollection of what happened. At 8:30 in the morning, "There were John and Paul with guitars at the ready and all the lyrics scribbled on matchbook covers. They played it and the next night recorded it." Shenson declared, "It had the right beat and the arrangement was brilliant. These guys were geniuses."


title: A Hard Day's Night (song)

text: "A Hard Day's Night" is immediately identifiable by the unmistakable Rickenbacker 360/12 12-string guitar's "mighty opening chord" played by George Harrison. According to George Martin, "We knew it would open both the film and the soundtrack LP, so we wanted a particularly strong and effective beginning. The strident guitar chord was the perfect launch," having what Ian MacDonald called "a significance in Beatles lore matched only by the concluding E major of "A Day in the Life", the two opening and closing the group's middle period of peak creativity".


title: A Hard Day's Night (song)

text: According to musicologist Jeremy Summerly, "the sound of this chord is the most discussed pop opening of all time." Analysis of the chord has been much debated, it having been described as G7add9sus4, G7sus4, or G11sus4 and others below.


title: A Hard Day's Night (song)

text: According to Walter Everett the opening chord has an introductory dominant function because McCartney plays D in the bass: Harrison and Martin play F A C G, over the bass D, on twelve-string guitar and piano respectively, giving the chord a mixture-coloured neighbour, F; two diatonic neighbours, A and C; plus an anticipation of the tonic, G – the major subtonic as played on guitar being a borrowed chord commonly used by the Beatles, first in "P.S. I Love You" (see mode mixture), and later in "Every Little Thing", "Tomorrow Never Knows" and "Got to Get You into My Life" (in the latter two against a tonic pedal).


title: A Hard Day's Night (song)

text: Alan W. Pollack also interprets the chord as a surrogate dominant, the G being an anticipation that resolves on the G major chord that opens the verse. He suggests it is a mixture of D minor, F major, and G major (missing the B). Tony Bacon calls it a Dm7sus4 (D F G A C), which is the minor seventh chord (plus the fourth, G) (for more information regarding chord functions see diatonic function).


title: A Hard Day's Night (song)

text: Dominic Pedler has also provided an interpretation of the chord, with the Beatles and George Martin playing the following:


title: A Hard Day's Night (song)

text: G-B-D-F-A-C (the B is a harmonic). One of the interesting things about this chord (as described by Pedler) is how McCartney's high bass note reverberates inside the soundbox of Lennon's acoustic guitar and begins to be picked up on Lennon's microphone or pick-up during the sounding of the chord. This gives the chord its special "wavy" and unstable quality. Pedler describes the effect as a "virtual pull-off".


title: A Hard Day's Night (song)

text: In 2004, Jason Brown, a mathematics professor at Dalhousie University, published a report titled "Mathematics, Physics and 'A Hard Day's Night'", in which he analysed the properties of the song's opening chord using Fourier transforms. He concluded that Martin's piano contribution provided the important element in the chord beside Harrison's playing. In November the following year, "Wired" published an article on Brown's use of Celemony's Melodyne Editor with Direct Note Access technology to further analyse the chord. Brown's findings were partly challenged in 2012 by another mathematician, Kevin Houston from the University of Leeds. Houston, who also used a Fourier transform, attributed a greater importance in Lennon's contribution on acoustic guitar, rather than the piano notes played by Martin.


title: A Hard Day's Night (song)

text: Harrison played a repeated guitar arpeggio, outlining the notes of the opening chord, thereby ending the song in a circular fashion. Martin said that the ending was his idea: "Again, that's film writing. I was stressing to them the importance of making the song fit, not actually finishing it but dangling on so that you're into the next mood." The song contains 12 other chords.


title: A Hard Day's Night (song)

text: The song is composed in the key of G major and in a time signature. The verse features the VII or major subtonic chord that was a part of the opening chord as an ornament or embellishment below the tonic. Transposed down a perfect fifth, the modal frame of the song though pentatonic features a ladder of thirds axially centred on G with a ceiling note of B and floor note of E (the low C being a passing tone).


title: A Hard Day's Night (song)

text: According to Middleton, the song, "at first glance major-key-with-modal-touches", reveals through its "Line of Latent Mode" "a deep kinship with typical blues melodic structures: it is centred on three of the notes of the minor-pentatonic mode (E-G-B), with the contradictory major seventh (B) set against that. Moreover, the "shape" assumed by these notes – the modal "frame" – as well as the abstract scale they represent, is revealed, too; and this – an initial, repeated circling round the dominant (G), with an excursion to its minor third (B), 'answered' by a fall to the 'symmetrical' minor third of the tonic (E) – is a common pattern in blues."


title: A Hard Day's Night (song)

text: Lennon opens the twelve-measure-long verse and carries it along, suddenly joined at the end by McCartney, who then sings the bridge.


title: A Hard Day's Night (song)

text: During the recording of "A Hard Day's Night", Lennon and McCartney doubletracked their vocals throughout including the chorus. Lennon sings the lead vocal on the verses and Paul sings lead on the middle eight. During the chorus, McCartney handles the high harmony and Lennon the low harmony. Take 7 reveals that the lyrics were still not set with Lennon singing "you make me feel all right" and McCartney and Harrison still unsteady with their respective lines, ending with Lennon chiding them with the line "I heard a funny chord".


title: A Hard Day's Night (song)

text: The instrumental break is played by Harrison on a Rickenbacker 12-string guitar, with Martin doubling on a piano, recorded to tape at half-speed and then sped up to normal. Recording this solo was the most time-consuming aspect of the session. A take that appeared on a bootleg in the 1980s reveals Harrison making multiple errors in his playing. In the description of "Rolling Stone"s editors: "But by the time the session ended at 10 that night, he had sculpted one of his most memorable solos – an upward run played twice and capped with a circular flourish, with the church-bell chime of his guitar echoed on piano by Martin."


title: A Hard Day's Night (song)

text: The lyrics speak about the singer's devotion to his lover, and how he works so she can buy the things she wants. The singer sings about his tiredness when he comes home from work, but how the things that his lover does perk him up.


title: A Hard Day's Night (song)

text: "A Hard Day's Night" was first released to the United States, coming out on 26 June 1964 on the album "A Hard Day's Night", the soundtrack to the film, and released by United Artists. It was the first song to be released before single release (see below).


title: A Hard Day's Night (song)

text: The United Kingdom first heard "A Hard Day's Night" when it was released there on 10 July 1964, both on the album "A Hard Day's Night", and as a single, backed with "Things We Said Today" on the B-side. Both the album and single were released by Parlophone Records. The single began charting on 18 July 1964, a week later ousting the Rolling Stones' "It's All Over Now" from the top spot on the British charts on 25 July 1964, coincidentally the day when both the American and British albums too hit the peak of their respective charts. The single stayed on top for three weeks, and lasted another nine weeks in the charts afterwards.


title: A Hard Day's Night (song)

text: The American single on 1 August started a two-week-long run at the top, setting a new record – nobody before had ever held the number one position on both the album and singles charts in the United Kingdom and the United States at the same time. The Beatles were the only ones who had done this until 1970 when Simon and Garfunkel achieved the same feat with their album "Bridge over Troubled Water" and its title track.


title: A Hard Day's Night (song)

text: The song was the fifth of seven songs by the Beatles to hit number 1 in a one-year period, an all-time record on the US charts. In order, these were "I Want to Hold Your Hand", "She Loves You", "Can't Buy Me Love", "Love Me Do", "A Hard Day's Night", "I Feel Fine" and "Eight Days a Week". It was also the sixth of seven songs written by Lennon-McCartney to hit number 1 in 1964, an all-time record on the US charts for writing the most songs to hit number 1 in the same calendar year (see List of Billboard Hot 100 chart achievements and milestones).


title: A Hard Day's Night (song)

text: The song's opening chord and closing arpeggios were highly influential on the Byrds. After watching the film "A Hard Day's Night" and seeing Harrison's choice of guitar, Roger McGuinn adopted the Rickenbacker as his and the Byrds' signature instrument. In this way, according to author Andrew Grant Jackson, "A Hard Day's Night" "birthed" the folk-rock sound that the Byrds popularised in 1965. That same year, "A Hard Day's Night" won the Grammy Award for Best Performance by a Vocal Group. In 2004, "Rolling Stone" magazine ranked the song at number 153 on its list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time.


title: A Hard Day's Night (song)

text: During his 2016 One on One tour, Paul McCartney played the song for the first time as a solo artist and for the first time by a Beatle in half a century. The Beatles played it for the last time on 31 August 1965 at the Cow Palace in Daly City, California.


title: A Hard Day's Night (song)

text: Many artists have covered the song. Among the most notable is the single by Peter Sellers, a comedy version in which he recited the lyrics in the style of Laurence Olivier in the film "Richard III". Sellers' version was a UK Top 20 hit in 1965. A version by Ramsey Lewis reached number 11 in Canada in February 1966.


title: Linux Foundation

text: The Linux Foundation (LF) is a non-profit technology consortium founded in 2000 as a merger between Open Source Development Labs and the Free Standards Group to standardize Linux, support its growth, and promote its commercial adoption. Additionally, it hosts and promotes the collaborative development of open source software projects. It is a major force in promoting diversity and inclusion in both Linux and the wider open source software community.


title: Linux Foundation

text: The foundation was launched in 2000, under the Open Source Development Labs (OSDL) and became the organization it is today when OSDL merged with the Free Standards Group (FSG). The Linux Foundation sponsors the work of Linux creator Linus Torvalds and lead maintainer Greg Kroah-Hartman. Furthermore, it is supported by members, such as AT&T, Cisco, Fujitsu, Google, Hitachi, Huawei, IBM, Intel, Meta, Microsoft, NEC, Oracle, Orange S.A., Qualcomm, Samsung, Tencent, and VMware, as well as developers from around the world.


title: Linux Foundation

text: In recent years, the Linux Foundation has expanded its support programs through events, training and certification, as well as open source projects. Projects hosted at the Linux Foundation include the Linux kernel project, Kubernetes, Automotive Grade Linux, ONAP (Open Network Automation Platform), Hyperledger, Cloud Native Computing Foundation, Cloud Foundry Foundation, Xen project, and many others.


title: Linux Foundation

text: The Linux Foundation is dedicated to building sustainable ecosystems around open source projects to accelerate technology development and commercial adoption. The foundation currently sponsors the work of Linux creator Linus Torvalds and lead maintainer Greg Kroah-Hartman, and aims to provide a neutral home where Linux kernel development can be protected and accelerated.


title: Linux Foundation

text: The foundation also hosts collaborative events among the Linux technical community, software developers, industry, and end users to solve pressing issues facing Linux and open source.


title: Linux Foundation

text: The Linux Foundation supports the Free software movement by offering technical information and education through its annual events, such as Open Source Leadership Summit, Linux Kernel Developers Summit and Open Source Summit. A developer travel fund is available.


title: Linux Foundation

text: Introduced in October 2017, the Community Data License Agreement (CDLA) is a legal framework for sharing data. There are two initial CDLA licenses:


title: Linux Foundation

text: On March 3, 2009, the Linux Foundation announced that they would take over the management of Linux.com from its previous owners, SourceForge, Inc.


title: Linux Foundation

text: The site was relaunched on May 13, 2009, shifting away from its previous incarnation as a news site to become a central source for Linux tutorials, information, software, documentation and answers across the server, desktop/netbook, mobile, and embedded areas. It also includes a directory of Linux software and hardware.


title: Linux Foundation

text: Much like Linux itself, Linux.com plans to rely on the community to create and drive the content and conversation.


title: Linux Foundation

text: In 2020 amidst the COVID-19 pandemic, the Linux Foundation announced the LFPH, a program dedicated to advancing and supporting the virus contact tracing work led by Google and Apple and their Bluetooth notification systems. The LFPH is focusing its efforts on public health applications, including the effort's first initiative: a notification app intended for governments wanting to launch their privacy-focused exposure notification networks. As of today, LFPH hosts two contact-tracing apps.


title: Linux Foundation

text: In September 2020, The Linux Foundation announced the LF Climate Finance Foundation (LFCF), a new initiative "to encourage investment in AI-enhanced open source analytics to address climate change." LFCF plans to build a platform that will utilize open-source open data to help the financial investment, NGO, and academia sectors to help better model companies’ exposure to climate change. Allianz, Amazon, Microsoft, and S&P Global will be the initiative's founding members.


title: Linux Foundation

text: The Linux Foundation Training Program features instructors and content from the leaders of the Linux developer and open source communities.


title: Linux Foundation

text: Participants receive Linux training that is vendor-neutral and created with oversight from leaders of the Linux development community. The Linux Foundation's online and in-person training programs aim to deliver broad, foundational knowledge and networking opportunities.


title: Linux Foundation

text: In March 2014, the Linux Foundation and edX partnered to offer a free massive open online class titled Introduction to Linux. This was the first in a series of ongoing free offerings from both organizations whose current catalogue of MOOCs include Intro to DevOps, Intro to Cloud Foundry and Cloud Native Software Architecture, Intro to Apache Hadoop, Intro to Cloud Infrastructure Technologies, and Intro to OpenStack.


title: Linux Foundation

text: In December 2015, the Linux Foundation introduced a self-paced course designed to help prepare administrators for the OpenStack Foundation's Certified OpenStack Administrator exam.


title: Linux Foundation

text: As part of a partnership with Microsoft, it was announced in December 2015 that the Linux on Azure certification would be awarded to individuals who pass both the Microsoft Exam 70-533 (Implementing Microsoft Azure Infrastructure Solutions) and the Linux Foundation Certified System Administrator (LFCS) exam.


title: Linux Foundation

text: In early 2017, at the annual Open Source Leadership Summit, it was announced that the Linux Foundation would begin offering an Inclusive Speaker Orientation course in partnership with the National Center for Women & Information Technology. The free course is designed to give participants "practical skills to promote inclusivity in their presentations."


title: Linux Foundation

text: In September 2020, the Linux Foundation released a free serverless computing training course with CNCF. It is taught by Alex Ellis, founder of OpenFaaS.


title: Linux Foundation

text: Among many other organization with similar offerings, The Linux Foundation has reported a 40% increase in demand for their online courses in 2020 during the coronavirus pandemic and the resulting social-distancing measures.


title: Linux Foundation

text: The "patent commons" consists of all patented software which has been made available to the open source community. For software to be considered to be in the commons the patent owner must guarantee that developers will not be sued for infringement, though there may be some restrictions on the use of the patented code. The concept was first given substance by Red Hat in 2001 when it published its Patent Promise.


title: Linux Foundation

text: The Patent Commons Project was launched on November 15, 2005, by the Open Source Development Labs (OSDL). The core of the project is an online patent commons reference library aggregating and documenting information about patent-related pledges and other legal solutions directed at the open-source software community. , the project listed 53 patents.


title: Linux Foundation

text: Linux Foundation Projects (originally "Collaborative Projects") are independently funded software projects that harness the power of collaborative development to fuel innovation across industries and ecosystems. More than 500 companies and thousands of developers from around the world contribute to these open source software projects.


title: Linux Foundation

text: , the total lines of source code present in Linux Foundation's Collaborative Projects are 115,013,302. The estimated, total amount of effort required to retrace the steps of collaborative development for these projects is 41,192.25 person years. In other words, it would take 1,356 developers 30 years to recreate the code bases. At that time, the total economic value of development costs of Linux Foundation Collaborative Projects was estimated at $5 billion. Through continued investment in open source projects and growth in the number of projects hosted, this number rose to $15.6 billion by September 2017.


title: Linux Foundation

text: All Linux Foundation projects are covered by the Contributor Covenant code of conduct developed by Coraline Ada Ehmke, which is intended to ensure a safe and harassment-free environment for minorities.


title: Linux Foundation

text: ACRN is a flexible, lightweight reference hypervisor, built with real-time and safety-criticality in mind, optimized to streamline embedded development through an open source platform.


title: Linux Foundation

text: AllJoyn is an open source application framework for connected devices and services was formed under Allseen Alliance in 2013. The project is now sponsored as an independent Linux Foundation project by the Open Connectivity Foundation (OCF).


title: Linux Foundation

text: Automotive Grade Linux (AGL) is a collaborative open source project developing a Linux-based, open platform for the connected car that can serve as the "de facto" standard for the industry. Although initially focused on In-Vehicle Infotainment (IVI), the AGL roadmap includes instrument cluster, heads up display, telematics and autonomous driving. The goals of AGL are to provide:


title: Linux Foundation

text: On June 30, 2014, AGL announced their first release, which was based on Tizen IVI and was primarily for demo applications. AGL expanded the first reference platform with the Unified Code Base (UCB) distribution. The first UCB release, nicknamed Agile Albacore, was released in January 2016 and leverages software components from AGL, Tizen and GENIVI Alliance, now called COVESA (Connected Vehicle Systems Alliance). UCB 2.0, nicknamed Brilliant Blowfish, was made available in July 2016 and included new features like rear seat display, video playback, audio routing and application framework. UCB 3.0, or Charming Chinook was released in January 2017. AGL plans to support additional use cases such as instrument clusters and telematics systems.


title: Linux Foundation

text: The "CGL" Workgroup's main purpose is to "interface with network equipment providers and carriers to gather requirements and produce specifications that Linux distribution vendors can implement." It also serves to use unimplemented requirements to foster development projects that will assist in the upstream integration of these requirements.


title: Linux Foundation

text: The Continuous Delivery Foundation serves as the vendor-neutral home of many of the fastest-growing projects for continuous delivery, including Jenkins, Jenkins X, Spinnaker, and Tekton. It supports DevOps practitioners with an open model, training, industry guidelines, and a portability focus.


title: Linux Foundation

text: Cloud Foundry is an open source, multi cloud application platform as a service (PaaS) governed by the Cloud Foundry Foundation, a 501(c)(6) organization. In January 2015, the Cloud Foundry Foundation was created as an independent not-for-profit Linux Foundation Project. The foundation exists to increase awareness and adoption of Cloud Foundry, grow the contributor community, and create a cohesive strategy across all member companies. The Foundation serves as a neutral party holding all Cloud Foundry intellectual property.


title: Linux Foundation

text: Founded in 2015, the Cloud Native Computing Foundation (CNCF) exists to help advance container technology and align the tech industry around its evolution. It was announced with Kubernetes 1.0, an open source container cluster manager, which was contributed to the foundation by Google as a seed technology. Today, CNCF is backed by over 450 sponsors. Founding members include Google, CoreOS, Mesosphere, Red Hat, Twitter, Huawei, Intel, Cisco, IBM, Docker, Univa, and VMware.


title: Linux Foundation

text: The Community Health Analytics Open Source Software (CHAOSS) project was announced at the 2017 Open Source Summit North America in Los Angeles. Overall, the project aims to provide transparency and health and security metrics for open-source projects.


title: Linux Foundation

text: Code Aurora Forum is a consortium of companies with projects serving the mobile wireless industry. Software projects it concerns itself with are e.g. Android for MSM, Femto Linux Project, LLVM, MSM WLAN and Linux-MSM.


title: Linux Foundation

text: Started in 2003, the Core Embedded Linux Project aims to provide a vendor-neutral place to establish core embedded Linux technologies beyond those of the Linux Foundation's Projects. From the start, any Linux Foundation member company has been allowed to apply for membership in the Core Embedded Linux Project.


title: Linux Foundation

text: The Core Infrastructure Initiative was announced on 25 April 2014 in the wake of Heartbleed to fund and support free and open-source software projects that are critical to the functioning of the Internet.


title: Linux Foundation

text: Delta Lake is an open-source storage layer that brings ACID transactions to Apache Spark and big data workloads.


title: Linux Foundation

text: The DiaMon Workgroup works toward improving interoperability between open source tools and improve Linux-based tracing, profiling, logging, and monitoring features. According to the workgroup, DiaMon "aims to accelerate this development by making it easier to work together on common pieces."


title: Linux Foundation

text: The Data Plane Development Kit consists of libraries to accelerate CPU architecture-running packet processing workloads. According to Intel, "DPDK can improve packet processing performance by up to ten times."


title: Linux Foundation

text: Started in 2014, Dronecode began as an open source, collaborative project to unite current and future open source drone initiatives under the auspices of the Linux Foundation. The goal is a common, shared open source stack for Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs). Chris Anderson (CEO of 3D Robotics & founder of DIY Drones) serves as the chairman of the board of directors. Lorenz Meier, creator of PX4, MAVLink, QGC, and Pixhawk serves as the community representative on the Board.


title: Linux Foundation

text: Founded in 2017, EdgeX Foundry acts as a vendor-neutral interoperability framework. It is hosted in a hardware and OS agnostic reference platform and seeks to enable an ecosystem of plug-and-play components, uniting the marketplace and accelerating IoT deployment. The project wants to enable collaborators to freely work on open and interoperable IoT solutions with existing and self-created connectivity standards.


title: Linux Foundation

text: The ELISA (Enabling Linux In Safety Applications) project was started to make it easier for companies to build and certify Linux kernel-based safety-critical applications – systems whose failure could result in loss of human life, significant property damage or environmental damage. ELISA members are working together to define and maintain a common set of tools and processes that can help companies demonstrate that a Linux-based system meets the necessary safety requirements for certification.


title: Linux Foundation

text: The Fast Data Project-referred to as "Fido"- provides an IO services framework for the next wave of network and storage software. In the stack, FD.io is the universal data plane. "FD.io runs completely in the user space," said Ed Warnicke (consulting engineer with Cisco and chair of the FD.io technical steering committee).


title: Linux Foundation

text: The FinOps Foundation supports practitioners of FinOps, a discipline that helps finance and IT operations teams to work together to manage public cloud spending collaboratively, to get the maximum value out of cloud investments in a way that aligns to organizational goals. FinOps principles, best practices and framework allow for more accountability and predictability to the highly variable, self-service, consumption based billing models of public cloud.


title: Linux Foundation

text: FOSSology is primarily a project dedicated to an open source license compliance software system and toolkit. Users are able to run license, copyright and export control scans from the command line. A database and web UI provide a compliance workflow.


title: Linux Foundation

text: FRRouting (FRR) is an IP routing protocol suite for Unix and Linux platforms. It incorporates protocol daemons for BGP, IS-IS, LDP, OSPF, PIM, and RIP.


title: Linux Foundation

text: On 7 November 2018, the GraphQL project was moved from Facebook to the newly established GraphQL Foundation, hosted by the non-profit Linux Foundation.


title: Linux Foundation

text: The Hyperledger project is a global, open source effort based around advancing cross-industry blockchain technologies. In addition to being hosted by the Linux Foundation, it is backed by finance, banking, IoT, supply chain, manufacturing and technology leaders. The project is the foundation's fastest growing to date, boasting over 115 members since founding in 2016. In May 2016, co-founder of the Apache Software Foundation, Brian Behlendorf, joined the project as its executive director.


title: Linux Foundation

text: IO Visor is an open source project and community of developers that will enable a new way to innovate, develop and share IO and networking functions. It will advance IO and networking technologies to address new requirements presented by cloud computing, the Internet of Things (IoT), Software-Defined Networking (SDN) and Network Function Virtualization (NFV).


title: Linux Foundation

text: IoTivity is an OSS framework enabling seamless device-to-device connectivity to aid the Internet of Things as it grows. While Allseen Alliance and Open Connectivity Foundation merged in October 2016, the IoT projects of each (AllJoyn and IoTivity, respectively) will continue operating under The Linux Foundation. The two projects will "collaborate to support future versions of the OCF specification with a single IoTivity implementation."


title: Linux Foundation

text: JanusGraph aims to continue open source development of the TitanDB graph database. It is a fork TitanDB, "the distributed graph database that was originally released in 2012 to enable users to find connections among large data sets composed of billions of vertices and edges."


title: Linux Foundation

text: JS Foundation existed from 2016 to 2019. It was created in 2016 when the Dojo Foundation merged with jQuery Foundation, which merged subsequently rebranded itself as JS Foundation and became a Linux Foundation project. In 2019, the JS Foundation merged with the Node.js Foundation to form the new OpenJS Foundation with a stated mission to foster healthy growth of the JavaScript and web ecosystem as a whole.


title: Linux Foundation

text: The Kinetic Open Storage Project is dedicated to creating an open source standard around Ethernet-enabled, key/value Kinetic devices for accessing their drives. By creating this standard, it expands the available ecosystem of software, hardware, and systems developers. The project is the result of an alliance including major hard drive manufacturers - Seagate, Toshiba and Western Digital - in addition to Cisco, Cleversafe, Dell, DigitalSense, NetApp, Open vStorage, Red Hat and Scality.


title: Linux Foundation

text: The Linux Standard Base, or LSB, is a joint project by several Linux distributions under the organizational structure of the Linux Foundation to standardize the software system structure, or filesystem hierarchy, used with Linux operating system. The LSB is based on the POSIX specification, the Single UNIX Specification, and several other open standards, but extends them in certain areas.


title: Linux Foundation

text: The LSB specifies for example: standard libraries, a number of commands and utilities that extend the POSIX standard, the layout of the file system hierarchy, run levels, the printing system, including spoolers such as CUPS and tools like Foomatic and several extensions to the X Window System.


title: Linux Foundation

text: LTSI is a project created/supported by Hitachi, LG Electronics, NEC, Panasonic, Qualcomm Atheros, Renesas Electronics, Samsung Electronics, Sony and Toshiba, hosted at The Linux Foundation. It aims to maintain a common Linux base for use in a variety of consumer electronics products.


title: Linux Foundation

text: MLflow is an open source platform to manage the ML lifecycle, including experimentation, reproducibility, deployment, and a central model registry.


title: Linux Foundation

text: The Node.js Foundation existed from 2015 to 2019. In 2019, the Node.js Foundation merged with the JS Foundation to form the new OpenJS Foundation. with a stated mission to foster healthy growth of the JavaScript and web ecosystem as a whole.


title: Linux Foundation

text: ODPi (Open Data Platform initiative) hosts open source projects that accelerate the development and delivery of big data solutions. It aims to deliver well-defined open source and open data technologies that run across distributed devices. It promotes these technologies worldwide through certification programs and other forms of marketing.


title: Linux Foundation

text: ONOS (Open Network Operating System) is an open source community with a mission of bringing the promise of software-defined networking (SDN) to communications service providers in order to make networks more agile for mobile and data center applications with better economics for both users and providers.


title: Linux Foundation

text: OAI is committed to standardizing how REST APIs are described. SmartBear Software has donated the "Swagger Specification" directly to the initiative. The new name for the specification is OpenAPI Specification.


title: Linux Foundation

text: The OpenBMC project is a collaborative open-source project whose goal is to produce an open source implementation of the Baseboard Management Controllers (BMC) Firmware Stack.


title: Linux Foundation

text: The OpenChain Project aims to define effective open source software compliance in software supply chains. A key output is a reference specification for "good" open source compliance, which has become the ISO/IEC 5230 standard. Another output is a simple self-certification scheme that companies can submit to test their conformance with the standard.


title: Linux Foundation

text: In 2015, Docker & CoreOS launched the Open Container Initiative in partnership with The Linux Foundation to create a set of industry standards in the open around container formats and runtime.


title: Linux Foundation

text: OpenDaylight is the leading open SDN platform, which aims to accelerate the adoption of Software-Defined Networking (SDN) and Network Functions Virtualization (NFV) in service provider, enterprise and research networks.


title: Linux Foundation

text: The OpenJS Foundation is made up of 29 open source JavaScript projects including Appium, Dojo, jQuery, and Node.js, and webpack. Founding members included Google, Microsoft, IBM, PayPal, GoDaddy, and Joyent. It was founded in 2019 from a merger of JS Foundation and Node.js Foundation. Its stated mission is to foster healthy growth of the JavaScript and web ecosystem by providing a neutral organization to host projects and collaboratively fund activities that benefit the ecosystem as a whole.


title: Linux Foundation

text: The Open Mainframe Project aims to drive harmony across the mainframe community and to developed shared tool sets and resources. The project also endeavors to heighten participation of academic institutions in educating mainframe Linux engineers and developers.


title: Linux Foundation

text: OpenMAMA (Open Middleware Agnostic Messaging API) is a lightweight vendor-neutral integration layer for systems built on top of a variety of message-oriented middleware.


title: Linux Foundation

text: Announced in October 2017, the goal of OpenMessaging is to act as a vendor-neutral open standard for distributed messaging/stream. The project is supported by Alibaba, Verizon's Oath business unit, and others.


title: Linux Foundation

text: The OpenPrinting workgroup is a website belonging to the Linux Foundation which provides documentation and software support for printing under Linux. Formed as LinuxPrinting.org, in 2006 it became part of the Free Standards Group.


title: Linux Foundation

text: They developed a database that lists a wide variety of printers from various manufacturers. The database allows people to give a report on the support and quality of each printer, and they also give a report on the support given to Linux by each printer vendor. They have also created a foomatic (formerly cupsomatic) script which plugs into the Common Unix Printing System (CUPS).


title: Linux Foundation

text: OpenSDS is an open source software defined storage controller. As journalist Swapnil Bhartiya explained for CIO, it was formed to create "an industry response to address software-defined storage integration challenges with the goal of driving enterprise adoption of open standards." It is supported by storage users/vendors, including Dell, Huawei, Fujitsu, HDS, Vodafone and Oregon State University.


title: Linux Foundation

text: Originally created at Nicira before moving to VMware (and eventually the Linux Foundation), OvS is an open source virtual switch supporting standard management interfaces and protocols.


title: Linux Foundation

text: The Open Network Automation Platform is the result of OPEN-O and Open ECOMP projects merging in April 2017. The platform allows end users to design, manage, and automate services and virtual functions.


title: Linux Foundation

text: The Open Platform for Network Function Virtualization (NFV) "aims to be a carrier-grade, integrated platform that introduces new products and services to the industry more quickly." In 2016, the project began an internship program, created a working group and an "End User Advisory Group" (founded by users & the board)


title: Linux Foundation

text: In mid-December 2022, the foundation announced the launch of a new mapping collaboration, the Overture Maps Foundation. Its stated mission is "powering current and next-generation map products by creating reliable, easy-to-use, and interoperable open map data." Overture founding members were Amazon Web Services (AWS), Meta, Microsoft and TomTom. Overture is to be complementary to the crowdsourced OpenStreetMap (OSM) project and the foundation encourages members to contribute data directly to OSM.


title: Linux Foundation

text: PNDA (Platform for Network Data Analytics) is a platform for scalable network analytics, rounding up data from "multiple sources on a network and works with Apache Spark to crunch the numbers in order to find useful patterns in the data more effectively."


title: Linux Foundation

text: The R Consortium is dedicated to expanding the use of R language and developing it further. R Consortium works with the R Foundation and other organizations working to broaden the reach of the language. The consortium is supported by a collection of tech industry heavyweights including Microsoft, IBM, Oracle, Google, and Esri.


title: Linux Foundation

text: Real-Time Linux has an overall goal of encouraging widespread adoption of Real Time. It was formed to coordinate efforts to mainline codice_1 and assist maintainers in "continuing development work, long-term support and future research of RT." Before 2004 there were research projects but no serious attempt at merging with mainline kernel. In 2004 Ingo Molnar start work on a patchset joined by Thomas Gleixner, who was working with Douglas Niehaus, and Steven Rostedt along with others. The patchset has seen rewriting and configuration has been merged into mainline kernel.


title: Linux Foundation

text: Project is aimed at deterministic RTOS with work involving threaded interrupts and priority inheritance. There is a wide range of requirements and use cases for RTOS and while project aims at large amounts of them it is not aiming for the most narrow and specialized range of cases.


title: Linux Foundation

text: After RethinkDB announced its shutdown as a business, the Linux Foundation announced that it had purchased the intellectual property under its Cloud Native Computing Foundation project, which was then relicensed under the Apache License (ASLv2). RethinkDB describes itself as "the first open-source, scalable JSON database built from the ground up for the realtime web."


title: Linux Foundation

text: The RISC-V International association is chartered to standardize and promote the open RISC-V instruction set architecture together with its hardware and software ecosystem for use in all computing devices.


title: Linux Foundation

text: is the only microkernel in existence which has been developed using formal verification techniques. It belongs to the L4 microkernel family and was, like the other L4 microkernels, designed to attain great security and performance.


title: Linux Foundation

text: Servo is a browser engine developed to take advantage of the memory safety properties and concurrency features of the Rust programming language. It was originally developed by Mozilla and later donated to the Linux Foundation.


title: Linux Foundation

text: Streaming Network Analytics System (project SNAS.io) is an open source framework to collect and track millions of routers, peers, prefixes (routing objects) in real time. SNAS.io is a Linux Foundation Project announced in May 2017.


title: Linux Foundation

text: The Software Package Data eXchange (SPDX) project was started in 2010, to create a standard format for communicating the components, licenses and copyrights associated with software packages. As part of the project, there is a team that curates the SPDX License List, which defines a list of identifiers for commonly found licenses and exceptions used for open source and other collaborative software.


title: Linux Foundation

text: Tizen is a free and open-source, standards-based software platform supported by leading mobile operators, device manufacturers, and silicon suppliers for multiple device categories such as smartphones, tablets, netbooks, in-vehicle infotainment devices, and smart TVs.


title: Linux Foundation

text: TODO (Talk Openly, Develop Openly) is an open source collective housed under the Linux Foundation. It helps companies interested in open source collaborate better and more efficiently. TODO aims to reach companies and organizations that want to turn out the best open source projects and programs. "The TODO Group reaches across industries to collaborate with open source technical and business leaders to share best practices, tools and programs for building dependable, effective projects for the long term," said Jim Zemlin at Collaboration Summit 2016.


title: Linux Foundation

text: The Xen Project team is a global open source community that develops the Xen Hypervisor, contributes to the Linux PVOPS framework, the Xen® Cloud Platform, and Xen® ARM.


title: Linux Foundation

text: The Yocto Project is an open source collaboration project that provides templates, tools and methods to help create custom Linux-based systems for embedded products regardless of the hardware architecture. It was founded in 2010 as a collaboration among many hardware manufacturers, open-source operating systems vendors, and electronics companies to bring some order to the chaos of embedded Linux development.


title: Linux Foundation

text: Zephyr is a small real-time operating system for connected, resource-constrained devices supporting multiple architectures. It is developed as an open source collaboration project and released under the Apache License 2.0. Zephyr became a project of the Linux Foundation in February 2016.


title: Linux Foundation

text: For the Linux kernel community, the Linux Foundation hosts its IT infrastructure and organizes conferences such as the Linux Kernel Summit and Linux Plumbers Conference. It also hosts a Technical Advisory Board made up of Linux kernel developers. One of these developers is appointed to sit on the Linux Foundation board.


title: Linux Foundation

text: In January 2016, the Linux Foundation announced a partnership with Goodwill Central Texas to help hundreds of disadvantaged individuals from underserved communities and a variety of backgrounds get the training they need to start new and lucrative careers in Linux IT.


title: Linux Foundation

text: To fund deserving developers to accelerate technical problem solving and collaboration in the open source community, the Linux Foundation launched the Community Developer Travel Fund. Sponsorships are open to elite community developers with a proven track record of open source development achievement who cannot get funding to attend technical events from employers.


title: Linux Foundation

text: In July 2020, the Linux Foundation announced an initiative allowing open source communities to create Open Standards using tools and methods inspired by open source developers.


title: Linux Foundation

text: The Core Infrastructure Initiative (CII), a project managed by the Linux Foundation that enables technology companies, industry stakeholders and esteemed developers to collaboratively identify and fund critical open source projects in need of assistance. In June 2015, the organization announced financial support of nearly $500,000 for three new projects to better support critical security elements of the global information infrastructure. In May 2016, CII launched its Best Practice Badge program to raise awareness of development processes and project governance steps that will help projects have better security outcomes. In May 2017, CII issued its 100th badge to a passing project.


title: Linux Foundation

text: The Linux Foundation's Open Compliance Program provides an array of programs for open source software compliance. The focus in this initiative is to educate and assist developers (and their companies) on license requirements in order to build programs without friction. The program consists primarily of self-administered training modules, but it is also meant to include automated tools to help programmatically identify license compliance issues.


title: Linux Foundation

text: As of June 2022, there are over 1000 members who identify with the ideals and mission of the Linux Foundation and its projects.


title: Linux Foundation

text: Funding for the Linux Foundation comes primarily from its Platinum Members, who pay US$500,000 per year according to Schedule A in LF's bylaws, adding up to US$4 million. The Gold Members contribute a combined total of US$1.6 million, and smaller members less again.


title: Linux Foundation

text: Before early 2018, the Linux Foundation's website stated that it "uses [donations] in part to help fund the infrastructure and fellows (like Linus Torvalds) who help develop the Linux kernel."


title: Linux Foundation

text: The Linux Foundation events are where the creators, maintainers, and practitioners of the most important open source projects meet. Linux Foundation events in 2017, for example, were expected to attract nearly 25,000 developers, maintainers, system administrators, thought leaders, business executives and other industry professionals from more than 4,000 organizations across 85 countries. Many open source projects also co-locate their events at the Linux Foundation events to take advantage of the cross-community collaboration with projects in the same industry.


title: Linux Foundation

text: 2017 events covered various trends in open source, including big data, cloud native, containers, IoT, networking, security, and more.


title: Linux Foundation

text: Linux Foundation events are covered by a comprehensive code of conduct prohibiting inappropriate behavior, including harassment and offensive language. This applies at all times, either before, during or after the event, not only in person but also on social media and any other form of electronic communication. Persons witnessing such behavior are encouraged to report it to conference staff immediately and offenders may face penalties up to and including a lifetime ban from all future events. Additionally, to further improve diversity at events, all-male panels or speaker line-ups are specifically disallowed.


title: Linux Foundation

text: Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the Linux Foundation has transitioned their events to a digital model until the virus has been successfully managed. The Foundation's largest event, Open Source Summit, was held remotely from June 29 to July 2, 2020 — it had originally been planned to take place in Austin, Texas.


title: Billy the Puppet

text: Billy (commonly known as Jigsaw or combined name Billy Jigsaw) is a puppet that has appeared in the "Saw" franchise. It was used by John "Jigsaw" Kramer to communicate with his test subjects by delivering recorded messages, often appearing on a television screen, or occasionally in person, to describe the details of the traps and the means by which the test subjects could survive.


title: Billy the Puppet

text: In the film series, before becoming the Jigsaw Killer, John created a puppet similar to Billy to be given as a toy to his unborn child. However, Jill Tuck, his wife, is shown to miscarry after being hit in the stomach by a swinging hospital door due to Cecil Adams ramming it open without looking. John's unresolved anger was likely a primary motive for using a more sinister version of the puppet to convey his instructions to victims of his traps. The traps he created can be seen as a manifestation of his anger with people who he feels do not appreciate having their life, when his unborn baby was killed before having a life of its own.


title: Billy the Puppet

text: Although never actually identified in the films, "Billy" is the name by which writers, directors, and members of the cast and crew refer to it in documentaries and interviews. The name was given to it by Australian creator James Wan, who is the director and co-writer of "Saw". Some claim that the name is spelled "Billie", though Wan himself spells it "Billy".


title: Billy the Puppet

text: The endurance and popularity of the "Saw" franchise has resulted in the production of Billy merchandise, as well as references in other media.


title: Billy the Puppet

text: Billy is a male ventriloquist's dummy, as his jaw is movable to give the suggestion that it is talking; however, it is not used in the same manner, as the entire doll is frequently seen moving on its own. Its face is white, with a protruding brow and cheeks that have red spirals painted on them. Its red lips form a grin. Its eyes are black with red irises, and its head is topped with black hair.


title: Billy the Puppet

text: Billy is always depicted wearing a black tuxedo with a white shirt and gloves, red bow tie, and red handkerchief in the breast pocket. It also has red Mary Janes for shoes. In the short film, it is seen wearing a green bowler hat. It is often riding an old fashioned red tricycle. The only sound originating directly from him is an electronic cackle.


title: Billy the Puppet

text: According to Wan, the construction of the original puppet's face for "Saw" involved clay, papier-mâché, and black ping pong balls with the irises painted in for the eyes. Paper towel rolls were used internally. To make him move, the puppeteers pulled him along on a fishing line.


title: Billy the Puppet

text: For "Saw II", Billy was redesigned with mechanical features that could be manipulated by a remote control, including his unhinged jaw and his eyes.


title: Billy the Puppet

text: For "Saw III", the prop crew was given the original puppet, but found it unfit for work, as time had damaged it. Instead, they recreated Billy, using waterjet-cut foam for his body instead of fiberglass, equipped with plates to hold the puppet together and magnets to attach him to his tricycle. The back of his head was removable, to make it easier to slide animatronic pieces in.


title: Billy the Puppet

text: For "Saw IV", the prop crew made the body of waterjet-cut foam, held together by metal rods. They used strong magnets to make a flat rear surface for the puppet so it could be easily positioned on any metal surface. The mouth and resin-filled ping-pong ball eyes were moved by remote control.


title: Billy the Puppet

text: In the first "Saw" film, Billy is seen on a television set by Amanda Young, telling her about the reverse bear trap that was hooked into her jaws, and explaining that the key to remove it is in the stomach of her "dead cellmate" (who is actually a heavily sedated man) lying in the room. After she disembowels the man and frees herself, Billy comes into the room on his tricycle to congratulate her.


title: Billy the Puppet

text: Later, Adam Stanheight remembers seeing the puppet in his apartment when the lights went out. As he searches the dark rooms using his camera's flash, the puppet's eerie laugh rings through the apartment, and Adam hits it with a bat until it stops.


title: Billy the Puppet

text: When Detectives David Tapp and Steven Sing discover Jigsaw's latest hideout, they remove blankets from several covered items, one of which is Billy.


title: Billy the Puppet

text: In "Saw II", Billy is seen on the screen at the beginning of the film, giving Michael Marks hints about the death mask he is wearing.


title: Billy the Puppet

text: Later, when the detectives discover Jigsaw's new hideout, several officers walk up a caged staircase and are greeted by Billy, who wheels into sight at the top of the stairs on his tricycle and laughs. The cage then becomes electrified after one officer steps on a rigged step that breaks his legs.


title: Billy the Puppet

text: In a flashback in "Saw III", Jigsaw is seen constructing Billy for Amanda's game, painting the puppet's face. Later, Billy appears on videotape to inform Troy and Detective Allison Kerry of their respective traps.


title: Billy the Puppet

text: Billy is also used to remind Jeff Denlon of his dead son, by appearing next to his tricycle in the same position Jeff's son was in when he was killed. The puppet gives a mocking laugh until Jeff beats it into silence.


title: Billy the Puppet

text: Billy is first seen in "Saw IV" when Officer Daniel Rigg awakes after being attacked in his apartment and rendered unconscious. Rigg opens his bathroom door, pulling a trigger wire from a TV set. Billy appears on the screen to explain Rigg's game. Upon leaving the room, Rigg is greeted by another message concerning his first test, referring to a woman Jigsaw deemed to be a criminal, who had been placed in a machine that would scalp her.


title: Billy the Puppet

text: Agents Peter Strahm and Lindsey Perez later find Billy in a room in a school, sitting on a chair surrounded by candles. From a microcassette recorder hung around the puppet's neck, Perez learns that her partner will soon take the life of an innocent man (later revealed to be Jeff Denlon), and that her next move is critical. Billy's eyes begin turning to Perez. She leans in to hear this last, at which point Billy's face explodes, blowing shrapnel into her face and neck. Perez collapses into Strahm's arms as Billy laughs.


title: Billy the Puppet

text: There is also a flashback of Jigsaw giving a less menacing, early version of Billy to Jill Tuck as a gift for their unborn son Gideon. An interview with Tobin Bell revealed that this was the beginning of a storyline concerning Billy's origins, as that of his tricycle, to be explored in future "Saw" films.


title: Billy the Puppet

text: Billy appears in the opening sequence to tell Seth Baxter the rules of his game. It is unknown how Mark Hoffman created the videotape for this game. According to a list of potential Jigsaw victims, Seth was the third person tested after Cecil Adams and Mark Wilson. In those tests, Jigsaw did not use a puppet. However, Jigsaw's testing spree had already begun beforehand, as shown during the events of "Jigsaw", where Billy does appear.


title: Billy the Puppet

text: Billy is also seen at the beginning of the tests designed for Ashley Kazon, Luba Gibbs, Charles Salomon, Brit Stevenson, and Mallick Scott.


title: Billy the Puppet

text: In "Saw VI", Billy appears on tape in the opening trap, which pits Simone and Eddie against each other. He also addresses William Easton during two of his four tests. He appears in William's second test hanging from a noose, and on videotape in the fourth test. "Saw VI" marks the first time Billy appears "in person" to deliver test details to victims.


title: Billy the Puppet

text: Billy appears in "Saw 3D". He gives Brad and Ryan instructions for their trap in person (and is covered in Dina's blood when she is killed by the trap), does the same for Bobby Dagen's second test, and appears on videotape for the others. When Hoffman goes to his hideout after killing Jill Tuck with the reverse bear trap, multiple Billy heads can be seen. Billy's final appearance is in Hoffman's secret hideout at the end of the film; Hoffman blows it up, destroying Billy in the explosion.


title: Billy the Puppet

text: Billy appears in "Jigsaw". This time, he has illuminated eyes. He appears on his tricycle with a letter around his neck with the word "Confess" written on it. He later appears on a videotape with his eyes illuminated, explaining to Ryan how he can save Anna and Mitch before they are buried alive.


title: Billy the Puppet

text: A photograph of Billy is seen in "Spiral", while the film's Jigsaw copycat killer and main antagonist, Billy Emmerson (portrayed by Max Minghella as an adult and Leonidas Castrounis as a child) is named in tribute to the puppet. Masquerading as police detective "William Schenk", Emmerson showcases his own new puppet inspired by both Billy and the pig motif of the previous films.


title: Billy the Puppet

text: In this short film, Billy is seen on a television set by David, telling him about the reverse bear trap that was hooked into his jaws, and explaining that the key to remove it is in the stomach of his "dead cellmate" (who is actually a heavily sedated man) lying in the room. After he disembowels the man and frees himself, Billy comes into the room on his tricycle to congratulate him.


title: Billy the Puppet

text: In the 2007 film "Dead Silence", one of the puppets, who appears on the film's poster and wears the same outfit as Jigsaw's puppet, is named Billy.


title: Billy the Puppet

text: A graffiti-style painting of Billy's face can be seen on a wall in James Wan's film "Death Sentence".


title: Billy the Puppet

text: In the 2011 film "Insidious" there is a scene in which Josh (the father) is working late in the classroom and Billy is drawn in chalk on the blackboard behind his head. Underneath the drawing the number eight is shown, hinting at "Jigsaw".


title: Billy the Puppet

text: A graffiti-style painting of Billy's face can be seen on a fence in Leigh Whannell's film "The Invisible Man".


title: Billy the Puppet

text: Billy can be seen in the corners of two panels near the beginning of "", foreshadowing John Kramer's eventual transformation into Jigsaw. The comic also marks Billy as one of John's creations at the toy factory where he worked, but this backstory was negated in "Saw IV".


title: Billy the Puppet

text: On season 30 of "Dancing with the Stars", the Halloween/horror-themed episode featured Amanda Kloots performing while costumed as Billy. The show, however mis-identified the character being portrayed as "Jigsaw".


title: Billy the Puppet

text: Billy, voiced by Tobin Bell, appears throughout "Saw: The Video Game", delivering hints and objectives to the player. He also featured prominently in marketing for the game. In the "Freedom" ending, Billy's reflection is seen on a TV when Tapp commits suicide.


title: Billy the Puppet

text: He returns in "", the sequel to the first game, also voiced by Tobin Bell. Billy repeats his role as in the first game, giving hints and clues to the player. The player can also collect small Billy dolls throughout the game, which require solving more complicated puzzles to obtain them; they are off of the main path, so the player does not have to get them. "Saw II: Flesh & Blood" is also the only time in the "Saw" franchise that he is actually called "Billy".


title: Billy the Puppet

text: Billy the Puppet is featured on some cosmetic items, such as a car decal, in the popular free-to-play online game "Rocket League" from 19 October 2022 as part of the Halloween update titled "Haunted Hallows".


title: Billy the Puppet

text: Billy is in the video game "Dead by Daylight" as a prop as part of the "Saw" chapter. He appears sitting on the character-specific prop boxes that appear in maps when the player chooses "The Pig", a licensed character from "Saw" (who is Amanda Young in her Jigsaw apprentice reliefs).


title: Billy the Puppet

text: A costume of Billy was added to "" for Warzone operator Morte as a part of "The Haunting of Verdansk" event.


title: Billy the Puppet

text: Billy appears on numerous screens throughout the queue line of "Saw – The Ride" at Thorpe Park, England, telling riders that they are not worthy of the life they have been given, implicating the ride to be one of Jigsaw's traps. He also appears on his tricycle at the start of the ride itself; the second dispatched car (two cars are dispatched one after the other) will stop while Billy gives a speech, informing the riders that there is no escape, and proclaiming, "Here's what happens when you lose", before allowing the train to pass – this regulates the distance between cars. He can also be seen before the car travels up the lift hill, appearing on a screen and saying "Game over", and at the end of the ride, where his head can be seen on a shelf covered with body parts.


title: Billy the Puppet

text: In the U.S., Billy appears several times in the maze "Saw: Game Over" at Orlando Horror Nights at Universal Studios Florida.


title: Richard Cheese

text: Richard Cheese & Lounge Against The Machine (or simply Richard Cheese) is a cover band and comedy act, performing popular songs in a lounge/swing style. Lounge singer Richard Cheese is a character created and portrayed by Los Angeles-based actor/comedian/singer Mark Jonathan Davis.


title: Richard Cheese

text: Davis developed the Richard Cheese lounge singer idea in the mid-1990s. The band's work was first broadcast in 2000 by KROQ-FM and the Dr. Demento show.


title: Richard Cheese

text: The band's debut album "Lounge Against the Machine" was released in 2000 by Oglio Records. Cheese's second and third albums, "Tuxicity" and "I'd Like a Virgin" were independently released in 2002 and 2004 by Cheese's own label, Ideatown Entertainment (later renamed to Coverage Records). From 2004–2006, Surfdog Records released three Richard Cheese CDs: "Aperitif for Destruction", a studio album, "Silent Nightclub", a collection of songs tangentially related to the holiday season, and "The Sunny Side of the Moon: The Best of Richard Cheese", which included newly re-recorded versions of six covers plus three new covers. Surfdog also re-released the Richard Cheese albums "Tuxicity" and "I'd Like a Virgin" on their label.


title: Richard Cheese

text: Beginning in 2007, the band returned to releasing its own albums through its independent Coverage Records label: "Dick at Nite", "Viva La Vodka: Richard Cheese Live", "OK Bartender", "A Lounge Supreme", "Live at the Royal Wedding" and its companion behind-the-scenes album "The Royal Baby Album", "Back in Black Tie", and a Christmas album, "Cocktails with Santa". Cheese released a studio album on CD titled "Licensed to Spill" in 2017, and a greatest hits digital compilation titled "Lord of the Swings: The Best of Richard Cheese, Volume 2" in 2018. In 2019, the band released "Richard Cheese's Big Swingin' Organ", an album of instrumental organ versions of nine of their songs. Also, in 2019 it released a one-track parody album titled "Richard Cheese: Live on Titan" which satirized the ending of the motion picture "". A studio album titled "Numbers Of The Beast" was released digitally on July 31, 2020, and another studio album titled "Big Cheese Energy" was released digitally on February 26, 2021.


title: Richard Cheese

text: Richard Cheese's cover of Disturbed's "Down with the Sickness" was featured in the 2004 Zack Snyder-directed remake of "Dawn of the Dead". In 2016, the band had two songs in the motion picture "", and released a one-track parody album called "Live at Wayne Financial Tower" in which the band's performance is cut short by Superman's heat vision. Warner Bros. hired the band to perform and appear as animated LEGO mini-figs in the 2017 film "The Lego Batman Movie". In May 2021, Snyder's "Army of the Dead" movie featured Richard Cheese singing the opening song "Viva Las Vegas" in a duet with Allison Crowe.


title: Richard Cheese

text: The character of Richard Cheese appeared in the Kristen Wiig comedy "Barb and Star Go to Vista Del Mar", released in February 2021.


title: Richard Cheese

text: The role of pianist and musical director Bobby Ricotta is currently played by Noel Melanio. The band's first drummer Buddy Gouda was played by Todd LaValley, and then by Charles Byler. Byler left the band in 2004; he was replaced by Brian Fishler and the drummer's stage name was changed to Frank Feta. The current bass player, Billy Bleu, is portrayed by Ron Belcher.


title: Greifswald

text: Greifswald (), officially the University and Hanseatic City of Greifswald (, Low German: "Griepswoold") is the fourth-largest city in the German state of Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania after Rostock, Schwerin and Neubrandenburg. In 2021 it surpassed Stralsund for the first time, and became the largest city in the Pomeranian part of the state. It sits on the River Ryck, at its mouth into the Danish Wiek ("Dänische Wiek"), a sub-bay of the Bay of Greifswald ("Greifswalder Bodden"), which is itself a sub-bay of the Bay of Pomerania ("Pommersche Bucht") of the Baltic Sea.


title: Greifswald

text: It is the seat of the district of Western Pomerania-Greifswald, and is located roughly in the middle between the two largest Pomeranian islands of Rugia ("Rügen") and Usedom. The closest larger cities are Stralsund, Rostock, Szczecin and Schwerin. It lies west of the River Zarow, the historical cultural and linguistic boundary between West (west of the river) and Central Pomerania (east of the river). The city derives its name from the dukes of Pomerania, the House of Griffin ("Greifenherzöge"), and thus ultimately from the Pomeranian Griffin ("Pommerscher Greif"), and its name hence translates as "Griffin's Forest".


title: Greifswald

text: The University of Greifswald, which was founded in 1456, is the second-oldest university in the Baltic Region after the University of Rostock. The city is well-known for the ruins of Eldena Abbey (formerly "Hilda Abbey"), a frequent subject of Caspar David Friedrich's paintings, who was born in the city when it was part of Swedish Pomerania. Greifswald is the seat of the Pomeranian State Museum ("Pommersches Landesmuseum"). The recently built Ryck Barrier ("Rycksperrwerk") protects the city from exceptionally high tides and storm surges moving up from the Baltic.


title: Greifswald

text: The city's population was listed at 59,332 in 2021, including many of the 12,500 students and 5,000 employees of the University of Greifswald. Greifswald draws international attention due to the university, its surrounding BioCon Valley, the Nord Stream 1 gas pipeline which ends at nearby Lubmin, and the Wendelstein 7-X nuclear fusion projects.


title: Greifswald

text: Greifswald is located in the northeast of Germany, approximately equidistant from Germany's two largest islands, Rügen and Usedom. The city is situated at the south end of the Bay of Greifswald, the historic centre being about up the river Ryck that crosses the city. The area around Greifswald is mainly flat, and hardly reaches more than 20 m above sea level. Two islands, Koos and Riems, are also part of Greifswald. Three of Germany's fourteen national parks can be reached by car in one hour or less from Greifswald.


title: Greifswald

text: Greifswald is also roughly equidistant from Germany's two largest cities, Berlin () and Hamburg (). The nearest larger cities are Stralsund and Rostock.


title: Greifswald

text: The coastal part of Greifswald at the mouth of the Ryck, named Greifswald-Wieck, evolved from a fishing village. Today it provides a small beach, a marina and the main port for Greifswald.


title: Greifswald

text: Greifswald was founded in 1199 when Cistercian monks founded the Eldena Abbey. In 1250, Wartislaw III, Duke of Pomerania, granted town privileges to Greifswald according to the Lübeck law.


title: Greifswald

text: In medieval times, the site of Greifswald was an unsettled woodland which marked the border between the Danish Principality of Rügen and the Pomeranian County of Gützkow, which at that time was also under Danish control. In 1199, the Rugian Prince Jaromar I allowed Danish Cistercian monks to build Hilda Abbey, now Eldena Abbey, at the mouth of the River Ryck. Among the lands granted the monks was a natural salt evaporation pond a short way up the river, a site also crossed by an important south–north "via regia" trade route. This site was named "Gryp(he)swold(e)", which is the Low German precursor of the city's modern name – which means "Griffin's Forest." Legend says the monks were shown the best site for settlement by a mighty griffin living in a tree that supposedly grew on what became Greifswald's oldest street, the "Schuhagen". The town's construction followed a scheme of rectangular streets, with church and market sites reserved in central positions. It was settled primarily by Germans in the course of the Ostsiedlung, but settlers from other nations and Wends from nearby were attracted, too.


title: Greifswald

text: The salt trade helped Eldena Abbey to become an influential religious center, and Greifswald became a widely known market. When the Danes had to surrender their Pomeranian lands south of the Ryck, after losing the Battle of Bornhöved in 1227, the town succeeded to the Pomeranian dukes. In 1241, the Rugian prince Wizlaw I and the Pomeranian duke Wartislaw III both granted Greifswald market rights. In 1250, the latter granted the town a charter under Lübeck law, after he had been permitted to acquire the town site as a fief from Eldena Abbey in 1248.


title: Greifswald

text: When Jazco of Salzwedel from Gützkow founded a Franciscan friary within the walls of Greifswald, the Cistercians at Eldena lost much of their influence on the city's further development. Just beyond Greifswald's western limits, a town-like suburb ("Neustadt") arose, separated from Greifswald by a ditch. In 1264, Neustadt was incorporated and the ditch was filled in.


title: Greifswald

text: Eldena Abbey and the major buildings of Greifswald were erected in the North German Brick Gothic ("Backsteingotik") style, found along the entire southern coast of the Baltic.


title: Greifswald

text: Due to a steady population increase, Greifswald became at the end of the 13th century one of the earliest members of the Hanseatic League, which further increased its trade and wealth. After 1296, Greifswald's citizens no longer needed to serve in the Pomeranian army, and Pomeranian dukes did not reside in the city.


title: Greifswald

text: In 1456, Greifswald's mayor Heinrich Rubenow laid the foundations of one of the oldest universities in the world, the University of Greifswald, which was one of the first in Germany, and was, successively, the single oldest in Sweden and Prussia.


title: Greifswald

text: In the course of Reformation, Eldena Abbey ceased to function as a monastery. Its possessions fell to the Pomeranian dukes; the bricks of its Gothic buildings were used by the locals for other construction. Eldena lost its separate status and was later absorbed into the town of Greifswald. The religious houses within the town walls, the priories of the Blackfriars (Dominicans) in the northwest and the Greyfriars (Franciscans) in the southeast, were secularized. The buildings of the Dominicans (the "black monastery") were turned over to the university; the site is still used as part of the medical campus. The Franciscan friary ("the "grey monastery") and its succeeding buildings are now the Pomeranian State Museum.


title: Greifswald

text: During the Thirty Years' War, Greifswald was occupied by (Catholic) Imperial forces from 1627 to 1631, and thereafter, under the Treaty of Stettin (1630), by (Protestant) Swedish forces.


title: Greifswald

text: During the Thirty Years' War, Swedish forces entered the Duchy of Pomerania in 1630. Greifswald was besieged by Swedish troops on 12 June 1631 and surrendered on 16 June. Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden had returned from Brandenburg to supervise the siege, and upon his arrival received the university's homage for the liberation from Catholic forces. After the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648), Greifswald and the region surrounding it became part of the Kingdom of Sweden. Swedish Pomerania, as it was then called, remained part of the Swedish kingdom until 1815, when it became part of the Kingdom of Prussia as the Province of Pomerania. In 1871, it devolved to Germany.


title: Greifswald

text: The Thirty Years' War had caused starvation throughout Germany, and by 1630 Greifswald's population had shrunk by two-thirds. Many buildings were left vacant and fell into decay. Soon, other wars followed: the Swedish-Polish War and the Swedish-Brandenburg War both involved the nominally Swedish town of Greifswald. In 1659 and 1678, Brandenburgian troops bombarded the town. The first bombardment hit mainly the northeast part of town, wrecking 16 houses. The second bombardment leveled 30 houses and damaged hundreds more all over the city. Cannonballs of this second bombardment can still be seen in the walls of St Mary's Church.


title: Greifswald

text: During the Great Northern War (1700–1721, Greifswald was compelled to house soldiers. While besieging neighboring Stralsund, Russian tsar Peter the Great allied with George I of Great Britain in the Treaty of Greifswald. Large fires in 1713 and 1736 destroyed houses and other buildings, including City Hall. The Swedish government had issued decrees in 1669 and 1689 absolving anyone of taxes who built or rebuilt a house. These decrees remained essentially in force, under Prussian administration, until 1824.


title: Greifswald

text: During the 19th century, Greifswald attracted many Polish students. After Breslau (now Wrocław, Poland) and Berlin, Greifswald hosted the third-largest group of Polish students in Germany.


title: Greifswald

text: About 1900, the town – for the first time since the Middle Ages – expanded significantly beyond the old town walls. Also, a major railway connected Greifswald to Stralsund and Berlin; a local railway line further connected Greifswald to Wolgast.


title: Greifswald

text: The city survived World War II without much destruction, even though it housed a large German Army ("Wehrmacht") garrison. During the war it was a site of a camp for prisoners of war held by Nazi Germany called Stalag II-C. In April 1945, German Army Colonel ("Oberst") Rudolf Petershagen defied orders and surrendered the city to the Red Army without a fight.


title: Greifswald

text: From 1949 to 1990, Greifswald was part of the German Democratic Republic (DDR). During this time, most historical buildings in the medieval parts of the city were neglected and a number of old buildings were pulled down. The population increased significantly, because of the construction of a nominal 1760 MW Soviet-made nuclear power plant in Lubmin, which was closed in the early 1990s. New suburbs were erected in the monolithic industrial socialist style ("see Plattenbau"). They still house most of the city's population. These new suburbs were placed east and southeast of central Greifswald, shifting the former town center to the northwestern edge of the modern town.


title: Greifswald

text: Reconstruction of the old town began in the late 1980s. Nearly all of it has been restored. Before that almost all of the old northern town adjacent to the port was demolished and subsequently rebuilt. The historic marketplace is considered one of the most beautiful in northern Germany. The town attracts many tourists, due in part to its proximity to the Baltic Sea.


title: Greifswald

text: Greifswald's greatest population was reached in 1988, with about 68,000 inhabitants, but it decreased afterward to 55,000, where it has now stabilized. Reasons for this included migration to western German cities as well as suburbanisation. However, the number of students quadrupled from 3,000 in 1990 to more than 11,000 in 2007 and the university employs 5,000 people; nearly one in three people in Greifswald are linked in some way to higher education.


title: Greifswald

text: Despite its relatively small population, Greifswald retains a supra-regional relevance linked to its intellectual role as a university town and to the taking of the central functions of the former Prussian Province of Pomerania after World War II, such as the seat of the bishop of the Pomeranian Lutheran Church, the state archives ("Landesarchiv") and the Pomeranian Museum ("Pommersches Landesmuseum"). Three courts of the state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern are also based at Greifswald:


title: Greifswald

text: Greifswald and Stralsund are the largest cities in the Vorpommern part of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. Of great importance to the city's economy is the local university with its 12,000 students and nearly 5,000 employees in addition to many people employed at independent research facilities such as the Friedrich Loeffler Institute and spin-off firms.


title: Greifswald

text: Greifswald is also the seat of the diocese of the Pomeranian Evangelical Church as well as the seat of the state's chief constitutional court, and chief financial court.


title: Greifswald

text: Tourism plays a vital role as Greifswald is situated between the islands of Rügen and Usedom on the popular German Baltic coast, which brings in many tourists.


title: Greifswald

text: One of Europe's largest producers of photovoltaic modules, Berlin-based Solon SE, has a production site in Greifswald. The world's third-largest producer of yachts worldwide, HanseYachts, is based in Greifswald. In the energy sector, an offshore natural gas pipeline from Russia to Germany, Nord Stream 1, stops in Lubmin (near Greifswald). Riemser Arzneimittel is a pharmaceutical company based on the island of Riems, which is part of the city of Greifswald. Siemens Communications F & E produces goods here as well.


title: Greifswald

text: In a 2008 study, Greifswald was declared Germany's most dynamic city. According to another 2008 study, Greifswald is the "youngest city" in Germany having the highest percentage of heads of household under 30 years of age.


title: Greifswald

text: Politics in Greifswald, as in most of Western Pomerania, is traditionally dominated by the centre-right CDU. The city council is elected for five year terms. Since the last election on 25 May 2014, the 43 city council seats are allocated as follows:


title: Greifswald

text: Founded in 1456, the University of Greifswald is one of the oldest universities in both Germany and Europe. Currently, about 12,300 students study at five faculties: theology, law/economics, medicine, humanities and social sciences, and mathematics/natural sciences.


title: Greifswald

text: Greifswald has a number of museums and exhibitions, most notably the Pomeranian State Museum (): history of Pomerania and arts, including works by Caspar David Friedrich, a native of Greifswald. The University of Greifswald also has a large number of collections, some of which are on display for the public.


title: Greifswald

text: Art house is shown regularly at the film club "Casablanca", which has existed since 1992. It puts its focus on the heritage of 35mm films. The Koeppenhaus shows art house cinema as part of its special programmes. The cinema initiative "KinoAufSegeln" screening art house open air on the site of the Greifswalder Museumswerft, Greifswald's shipyard museum. It exists since 2015. All three are active members of the "Verband für Filmkommunikation" (Association for Film Communication) of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, the umbrella organisation of art house cinemas and film clubs.


title: Greifswald

text: Among Greifswald's brick gothic churches is the Dom St. Nikolai (St. Nicholas collegiate church) in the city center, which, with its tall tower, is the symbol of the city. The exact date of its founding is unknown, but the original church dates from the late 13th century. The tower was built, and an organ installed in the church, in the late 14th century. In the mid-17th century, when Greifswald was part of Swedish Pomerania, severe storm damage was repaired with support from the Swedish Crown. Neglect during the early DDR period necessitated extensive refurbishment, completed in 1989, the last full year of the DDR.


title: Greifswald

text: The St.-Marien-Kirche (St. Mary's Church), built adjacent to the Old Town marketplace in the mid-13th century, contains ground-level brick walls four and one-half meters (14 ft) thick. Medieval murals depicting scenes from the Passion of Christ were restored in 1977–84. The church organ, known as the "Marienorgel" (St. Mary's Organ), was installed by the Stralsund organ builder Friedrich Mehmel in 1866, replacing an earlier instrument. It features 37 registers.


title: Greifswald

text: On the west side of the Old Town stands the St.-Jacobi-Kirche (St. James's Church), dating from the early 13th century. In 1400 it was rebuilt to contain a nave and two transepts, requiring the addition of four buttresses. The original half-timbered tower, heavily damaged in a 1955 fire, was rebuilt in brick.


title: Greifswald

text: "Stolpersteine", part of the European "Stolperstein" (literally "stumbling stone") memorial project, are scattered around Greifswald. The brass plaques, engraved with the names of Jewish residents who were murdered in the Holocaust, are embedded in the sidewalk in front of houses where they once lived. Some of the "Stolpersteine" in Greifswald mark the nationwide November 9, 1938, "Kristallnacht" pogroms in which members of the Nazi SA and SS murdered many German Jews, vandalized Jewish property and burned down synagogues – including the Greifswald Synagogue, dating from 1787. In 2012 all the 13 Stolpersteine were stolen, presumably by pro-Nazi extremists. The following year (2013) they were replaced.


title: Greifswald

text: A memorial plaque was installed on the site of the synagogue in 2008 in a ceremony attended by German Chancellor Angela Merkel.


title: Greifswald

text: According to a 2009 study, 44% of all people in Greifswald use their bicycle for daily transport within the city, which, at the time, was the highest rate in Germany. There are also public local and regional bus operators.


title: Greifswald

text: Greifswald is situated at an equal distance of about to Germany's two largest cities, Berlin and Hamburg, which can be reached via the Autobahn 20 by car in about two hours. There are also train connections to and from Hamburg (via Stralsund and Rostock), and Berlin. The popular summer tourist destinations Usedom and Rügen can be reached both by car and train.


title: Greifswald

text: Greifswald railway station connects Greifswald with Stralsund, Züssow, Usedom, Angermünde, Eberswalde, Berlin and Szczecin (through Pasewalk). The station is also served by ICE and EuroCity services to cities in Germany and the Czech Republic.


title: Greifswald

text: Greifswald has a port on the Baltic Sea as well as several marinas. The historic city centre is about off the shore, and can be reached by yachts and small boats on the river Ryck. The Bay of Greifswald is a popular place for sailing and surfing, with Germany's two largest islands, Rügen and Usedom, just off the coast.


title: Sōhei

text: The prominence of the "sōhei" rose in parallel with the ascendancy of the Tendai school's influence between the 10th and 17th centuries. The warriors protected land and intimidated rival schools of Buddhism, becoming a significant factor in the spread of Buddhism and the development of different schools during the Kamakura period.


title: Sōhei

text: The "sōhei" shared many similarities with the European lay brothers, members of a monastic order who might not have been ordained. Much like the Teutonic Order, the warrior monks of Holy Roman Empire, and the crusading orders, "sōhei" did not operate as individuals, or even as members of small, individual temples, but rather as warriors in a large extended brotherhood or monastic order. The home temple of a "sōhei" monastic order might have had several, if not dozens or a hundred, smaller monasteries, training halls, and subordinate temples connected to it. A famous "sōhei" monastery is Enryaku-ji on Mount Hiei, just outside Kyoto, while Kōfuku-ji in Nara also fielded a large "sōhei" army.


title: Sōhei

text: Warrior monks first appeared during the Heian period, when bitter political feuds began between different temples, different subsects of Buddhism, over imperial appointments to the top temple positions in the sōkan system ("zasu" or Buddhist abbot). Much of the fighting over the next four centuries was over these sorts of political feuds, and centered around the temples of Kyoto, Nara, and Ōmi, namely the Tōdai-ji, Kōfuku-ji, Enryaku-ji, and Mii-dera, the four largest temples in the country.


title: Sōhei

text: The first armed conflict broke out in 949, when 56 monks from Tōdai-ji staged a protest at the residence of a Kyoto official, over an appointment that displeased them. Protests of this sort continued through the 10th century, often breaking out into brawls in which some participants would be killed. In 970, following a dispute between Enryaku-ji and the Yasaka Shrine of Kyoto, the former established the first standing army of warrior monks. It is not entirely clear whether this standing army consisted of monks from Enryaku-ji or was more like a mercenary army, since Ryōgen, the abbot who established this army, also established a code of monastic conduct that prevented monks from leaving Mount Hiei during their twelve-year training, from covering their faces, and from carrying weapons.


title: Sōhei

text: Beginning in 981, there were a number of armed conflicts between Enryaku-ji and Mii-dera, each the head temple of a different sub-sect of Tendai. These disputes were, as before, over political appointments and dishonorable etiquette. More often than not, these were cases of members of one faction being chosen as the abbot of the other faction's temple, and the monks would protest. This continued, on and off, once stopping for as long as 40 years, through the 11th and into the 12th century. The armies became larger and the violence increased, until in 1121 and 1141 Mii-dera was burned to the ground by monks from Enryaku-ji. Other temples became embroiled in the conflicts as well, and Enryaku-ji and Mii-dera united against Kōfuku-ji, and, another time, against Kiyomizu-dera.


title: Sōhei

text: At the end of the 12th century, Japan was plunged into the Genpei War and, while the feuds between the temples did not end, they became subsumed by larger events. The warring Minamoto and Taira clans both tried to obtain the aid of the warrior monks of Nara and Kyoto, adding the temples' forces to the clans' already mighty armies of samurai.


title: Sōhei

text: Taira no Kiyomori sent generous gifts of rice and silk to Enryakuji, ensuring they would not help his enemies, the Minamoto, who had allied themselves with the monks of Mii-dera. In the Battle of Uji in 1180, one of the more famous battles in which "sōhei" participated, the monks of Mii-dera, along with a force of Minamoto samurai, tried to defend the bridge over the Uji River, and the Byōdō-in, a temple behind it, from an attacking Taira force. The monks pulled up the planks of the bridge to impair the ability of the horse mounted samurai to cross. The warrior monks stood their ground with bow and arrow, "naginata," sword and dagger, but were ultimately defeated. Following his victory, Taira no Kiyomori ordered that revenge be taken upon the monks that opposed him. Mii-dera was burned to the ground once again, as were many of the temples of Nara. Only the Enryaku-ji escaped unscathed.


title: Sōhei

text: Three years later, when Minamoto no Yoshinaka betrayed his clan by storming into Kyoto, setting the Hōjōji Palace aflame and kidnapping Emperor Go-Shirakawa, he was opposed by many of the monks of Kyoto, including those from Mount Hiei.


title: Sōhei

text: Following the Genpei War, the monasteries, to a large extent, turned their attention to rebuilding, first physically, and then politically. Their political influence grew stronger through peaceful means, and the warrior monks played only very minor roles in the wars of the 13th and 14th centuries. Violent conflict between the temples still occurred on occasion, once again over political and spiritual appointments, and related matters.


title: Sōhei

text: During the wars of the Nanboku-chō period, Mount Hiei took in the rebel Emperor Go-Daigo, and offered him sanctuary. Emperor Go-Daigo, along with his son, and the help of the "sōhei" of Mount Hiei, launched a brief rebellion against the Kamakura shogunate. The Ashikaga shogunate took power shortly afterwards, and supported Zen over the other Buddhist sects, drawing the ire of the warrior monks. Over the course of the 1340s–1360s a number of conflicts erupted between the Tendai sect temples, and those of Zen, especially Nanzen-ji.


title: Sōhei

text: The Ōnin War, starting in 1467, was the prelude to over a century of civil war in Japan, and the stimulus for a reorganization of the warrior monks. Unlike the Jōkyū War and Mongol invasions of the 13th century, the Ōnin War was fought primarily in Kyoto, and thus the warrior monks could no longer remain non-violent and neutral.