title: Rylands v Fletcher

text: The next element of "Rylands" is that the thing be something "likely to do mischief if it escapes". Before "Transco plc v Stockport Metropolitan Borough Council" this did not have to be a dangerous item (see below); the risk was instead in its behaviour if it escapes. In "Rylands" the "thing" was water. Other examples are fire, as in "Jones v Festiniog Railway", gas, as in "Batchellor v Tunbridge Wells Gas Co", fumes, as in "West v Bristol Tramways Co", and electricity, as in "Hillier v Air Ministry". The extent of the "thing"'s accumulation can also be considered, as in "Mason v Levy", where it was not just the type of thing kept but the sheer amount which created the danger. It is essential for a "Rylands" claim that there be an escape of a dangerous thing "from a place where the defendant has occupation of or control over land to a place which is outside his occupation or control". In "Read v J Lyons & Co Ltd", an explosion in a munitions factory killed an inspector on the property. "Rylands" was held not to apply, because there was no escape. The dangerous thing that escapes does not always have to be the thing which was accumulated, but there must be a causal link. In "Miles v Forest Rock Granite Co (Leicestershire) Ltd", explosives stored on the defendant's land led to the escape of rocks in a blast, and the defendant was found liable.


title: Rylands v Fletcher

text: In "Transco plc v Stockport Metropolitan Borough Council", Lord Bingham stated "obiter" that "I do not think the mischief or danger test should be at all easily satisfied. It must be shown that the defendant has done something which he recognised, or judged by the standards appropriate at the relevant place and time, he ought reasonably to have recognised, as giving rise to an exceptionally high risk of danger or mischief if there should be an escape, however unlikely an escape may have been thought to be."


title: Rylands v Fletcher

text: The requirement of "non-natural use", which was created when the case went to the House of Lords, was described by Lord Moulton, in "Rickards v Lothian", as "some special use bringing with it increased danger to others". Because the idea of something being "non-natural" is a subjective one, the interpretation of this principle has varied over the years. In "Musgrove v Pandelis", a car filled with petrol was considered "non-natural", while in "Rainham Chemical Works Ltd v Belvedere Fish Guano Co Ltd", so was the operation of a munitions factory during war-time. There is no single concrete test to define what is "non-natural", for reasons given by Lord Bingham in "Transco plc v Stockport Metropolitan Borough Council"; "[non-natural use] is not a test to be inflexibly applied: a use may be extraordinary and unusual at one time or in one place but not so at another time or in another place...I also doubt whether a test of reasonable user is helpful, since a user may well be quite out of the ordinary but not unreasonable"...


title: Rylands v Fletcher

text: There are several defences in England and Wales to a claim under "Rylands v Fletcher"; act of an unknown third party, contributory negligence, consent and statutory authority. An act of an unknown third party will absolve the defendant of liability, as in "Perry v Kendricks Transport Ltd". In "Northwestern Utilities Ltd v London Guarantee and Accident Co Ltd", the principle was established that if a claimant knows of the unknown third party and their actions, the defendant is additionally likely to be able to deny liability. As "Rylands" requires strict liability, any contributory negligence voids most of the claim. Initially it was sufficient to offset the case itself; with the Law Reform (Contributory Negligence) Act 1945, courts instead apportion damages, taking into account how much of the harm was contributed by the claimant. Nevertheless, contributory negligence is still a viable partial defence to a "Rylands" claim. Other valid defences are where the claimant has consented, expressly or impliedly, to the accumulation of the "thing", and where there is statutory authority for the accumulation.


title: Rylands v Fletcher

text: The principles of "Rylands v Fletcher" were initially applied in Scots law, first in the case of "Mackintosh v Mackintosh", where a fire spreading from the defendant's land to the claimant's land caused property damage. Scots lawyers and judges applied "Rylands" differently from their English counterparts, however. While the rule is interpreted in England and Wales as being distinct from negligence and the rules of duty of care and liability applied there, the principle in Scotland was that "negligence is still the ground of liability. The only difference is that in such cases the proprietor is doing something upon his property which is in its nature dangerous and not necessary (or usual?) in the ordinary management of the particular kind of property, and he is therefore bound to observe a higher degree of diligence to prevent injury to his neighbour". The use of "Rylands" in Scots law, which was started in "Mackintosh", finally came to an end in "RHM Bakeries v Strathclyde Regional Council". Lord Fraser, as part of his judgment, stated that the idea of strict liability that was brought into play by "Rylands" was not a part of Scots law, and the idea that it ever had been valid was "a heresy that ought to be extirpated".


title: Rylands v Fletcher

text: Within the United States, there are many situations in which strict liability is applied to actions, and "Rylands" is commonly cited as the origin of that rule (particularly where strict liability is based on the defendant's "ultrahazardous activity"); it was first applied in "Ball v. Nye", by the Supreme Judicial Court of Massachusetts. The Supreme Court of Minnesota also adopted it in "Cahill v. Eastman", while the highest courts of New York, New Hampshire and New Jersey all rejected the principle, in "Losee v. Buchanan", "Brown v. Collins", and "Marshall v. Welwood" respectively. The Supreme Court of New Jersey, however, reversed "Welwood" in 1983 in "Department of Environmental Protection v. Ventron Corp". Many courts in the United States have attempted to use "Rylands" to justify absolute liability, which it was never intended to do; while absolute liability is where no defence is applicable, in "Rylands" itself Lord Cairns accepted that there were some situations where the case should not be applied.


title: Rylands v Fletcher

text: In Australia, the principles of "Rylands v Fletcher" were "killed off" by the High Court of Australia in "Burnie Port Authority v General Jones Pty Ltd". The High Court's view was that the "Rylands" principles "should now been seen ... as absorbed by the principles of ordinary negligence, and not as an independent principle of strict liability". Contrasting this, the principles have escaped destruction in Hong Kong, where the courts are yet to follow the examples set by Australia and England and Wales, and "Rylands" remains an independent tort.


title: Rylands v Fletcher

text: The rule of strict liability famously laid down by Blackburn J., in "Rylands v. Fletcher", proved to be rather ineffective with the passage of time to counter the dangerous use of one’s property or an industry that produced substances or wastes detrimental to public health. The pre-requirements essential for establishing a liability under the principle of strict liability viz., the non-natural use of land, use of a dangerous thing, and the element of escape provided substantial loopholes to the enterprises to escape liability under the "Rylands v. Fletcher" rule. Moreover, the exceptions provided within the rule (and restated by the Supreme Court of India in "MC Mehta v. Union of India") afford ample opportunity to the commercial enterprises to escape liability.


title: Rylands v Fletcher

text: The Supreme Court of India in "MC Mehta v. Union of India" evolved a more stringent rule of strict liability than the "Rylands v. Fletcher" rule. In this case, which involved the leakage of and the harm caused by Oleum gas from one of the units of Shriram industries in Delhi, the court held that keeping in mind the needs and demands of a modern society with highly advanced scientific knowledge and technology where for the sake of development programme, it was necessary to carry out inherently dangerous or hazardous industry, a new rule had to be laid down to adequately deal with the problems arising in a highly industrialised economy. This new rule had to be based on the English rule of strict liability, but had to be even more stringent, as a result of which no firm carrying out an inherently dangerous or hazardous activity might escape from liability, irrespective of whether there was any negligence involved on the part of the firm or not.


title: Rylands v Fletcher

text: The court also pointed out that the duty owed by such an enterprise to the society is “absolute and non-delegable” and that the enterprise cannot escape liability by showing that it had taken all reasonable care and there was no negligence on its part. The bases of the new rule as indicated by the Supreme Court are two:


title: Rylands v Fletcher

text: The rule in "Rylands v. Fletcher" requires non-natural use of land by the defendant and escape of the thing from his land, which causes damage. But the rule in "MC Mehta v. Union of India" is not dependent upon any such condition. The necessary requirements for applicability of the new rule of absolute liability are that the defendant is engaged in hazardous or inherently dangerous activity and that harm results to anyone on account of an accident in the operation of such hazardous or inherently dangerous activity.


title: Rylands v Fletcher

text: The rule in "Rylands v. Fletcher" will not cover cases of harm to persons within the premises where the inherently dangerous activity is carried out, for the rule requires escape of the thing which causes harm from the premises. The new rule makes no distinction between the persons within the premises where the enterprise is operating and persons outside the premises because escape of the thing causing harm from the premises is not a necessary condition for the applicability of the rule. Further, the rule in "Rylands v. Fletcher", though strict in the sense that it is not dependent on any negligence on the part of the defendant and in this respect similar to the new rule, is not absolute as it is subject to many exceptions but the new rule in Mehta’s case is not only strict but absolute and is subject to no exception.


title: Rylands v Fletcher

text: Another important point of distinction between the two rules is in the matter of award of damages. Damages awardable where the rule in "Rylands v. Fletcher" applies will be ordinary or compensatory; but in cases where the rule applicable is the one laid down in MC Mehta’s case the court can allow exemplary damages, and the bigger and more prosperous the enterprise, the greater can be the amount of compensation payable by it. A small bump in the road was encountered in "Charan Lal Sahu v. Union of India" and doubts were expressed as to the quantum of damages payable. But the Supreme Court set all doubts aside in another landmark decision in the case of "Indian Council for Enviro-Legal Action v. Union of India" where, it was held that the rule laid down in Mehta’s case was not "obiter" and was appropriate and suited to the conditions prevailing in the country.


title: Famous Dex

text: Dexter Tiewon Gore Jr. (born September 6, 1993), better known by his stage name Famous Dex, is an American rapper and singer. His 2018 debut album "Dex Meets Dexter" peaked at number 12 on the "Billboard" 200, while its singles "Pick It Up" (featuring ASAP Rocky) and "Japan" peaked at number 54 and 28 respectively on the "Billboard" Hot 100.


title: Famous Dex

text: Dexter Tiewon Gore Jr. was born on September 6, 1993, in the Harlem neighborhood of Manhattan, New York City, but had since moved to Chicago, Illinois, and was raised in the city's Englewood neighborhood on the South Side. He decided to pursue music after the death of his mother in September 2014. In 2016, he tattooed a pink ribbon on his face to commemorate his mother after she died of breast cancer.


title: Famous Dex

text: In 2015, he self-released his first mixtape, "Never Seen It Coming". Later in 2015, he released his second mixtape, "Dexter's Laboratory" (not to be confused with the animated television series of the same name).


title: Famous Dex

text: In March 2016, Gore announced that he was officially signed to Rich the Kid's label, Rich Forever Music.<ref name="rich forever music/300"></ref> Shortly thereafter, Gore and Rich released their collaborative effort, "Rich Forever". This was followed by three sequels, with the third exclusively featuring Rich Forever newcomer New York rapper Jay Critch. In October 2016, Gore was featured in the Soulja Boy music video, "Draco".


title: Famous Dex

text: In March 2017, Gore announced the title of his debut album, "Dex Meets Dexter". The album was released on April 6, 2018.


title: Famous Dex

text: In October 2017, he released "Pick It Up" featuring ASAP Rocky as the first single from the album, which peaked at number 54 on the "Billboard" Hot 100, becoming his first song to chart. The album's second single "Japan" was released on March 16, 2018. On March 30, 2018, he released the single "Light" featuring Drax Project.


title: Famous Dex

text: The single "Nervous" which features Lil Baby, Jay Critch, and Rich The Kid was released on September 21, 2018.


title: Famous Dex

text: On May 8, 2019, the single "Fully Loaded" was released which featured Lil Gotit. A music video was released later on May 27, 2019. Gore appeared on the Rich Forever Music compilation album, "Rich Forever 4", which was released on August 2, 2019, and featured new artists signed to the label.


title: Famous Dex

text: On November 1, 2019, Gore suffered a epileptic seizure during a performance at 1 OAK in West Hollywood, California. A representative later confirmed he was recovering.


title: Famous Dex

text: On December 31, 2019, Gore released the EP, "Dexter 2031", on SoundCloud. The single "What I Like" which features Tyga and Rich the Kid was released on April 3, 2020. On July 23, he released the single "Couped Out" with Fivio Foreign. In August 2020, he released the single "Hold On". On October 9, he released the album "Diana".


title: Famous Dex

text: In 2018, prior to the University of California, Irvine's Shocktoberfest music event, the university's Student Services was criticized for allowing Gore to perform at the event after a security video from two years prior emerged showing Gore chasing his girlfriend down a hallway and then hitting her several times. Gore was permitted to perform despite the domestic abuse revelations, and while doing so jumped into the crowded audience causing safety barriers to be knocked over by a rush of audience members. The event was shut down as a result. While leaving the event, it was alleged someone in Gore's vehicle pointed a gun at students. According to the university's official campus newspaper, "Gore bragged online about shutting down the event saying, 'I just shut the show down. And it was all positive vibes.'"


title: Famous Dex

text: On December 22, 2018, Gore uploaded a video post to his Instagram page in which he made racially charged jokes at the expense of an elderly Indian American Hindu cashier at a gas station he was frequenting with a friend. During the video, he remarks "Witcho' lil", referring to the man's tilaka on his forehead. He then adds "That's a mark of Buddha in between yo' face?", laughing along with his friend.


title: Famous Dex

text: Dex has struggled with substance abuse throughout his career. Following release of a video showing him in an extremely inebriated position fans expressed concern. Shortly after he checked into a rehabilitation facility.


title: Famous Dex

text: In June 2021, Gore was arrested while appearing in court for violating a protection order put in place by his former partner. He was subsequently sentenced to 364 days in a Los Angeles, California, jail on September 1, 2021.


title: Harmeet Dhillon

text: Harmeet Kaur Dhillon (born 1969) is an American lawyer and Republican Party official. She is the former vice chairwoman of the California Republican Party, and a National Committeewoman of the Republican National Committee for California. She is the founder of a law practice called Dhillon Law Group Inc. In 2018, she helped launch the nonprofit Center for American Liberty, which does legal work related to civil liberties. She is a regular guest on Fox News.


title: Harmeet Dhillon

text: During the coronavirus pandemic, she filed numerous unsuccessful lawsuits to halt the implementation of stay-at-home orders and other emergency restrictions implemented to halt the spread of the coronavirus. She criticized requirements that people wear face masks (claiming that "the masks don't work", contradicting the recommendations of the US CDC), called for the re-opening of the economy, and criticized voting reforms intended to make it easier to vote through postal voting at a time when in-person voting posed a public health risk.


title: Harmeet Dhillon

text: in December 2022, Dhillon announced her candidacy to replace Ronna McDaniel as chairperson of the Republican National Committee.


title: Harmeet Dhillon

text: Dhillon was born in Chandigarh, India to a Punjabi Sikh family in 1969. Her family moved to the United States when she was a child so that her father could pursue a career as an orthopedic surgeon. Her family eventually settled in Smithfield, North Carolina. After finishing high school at age 16, she attended Dartmouth College. She became a writer and eventually editor-in-chief at "The Dartmouth Review". After graduating from Dartmouth, she attended law school, graduating from the University of Virginia School of Law where she was on the editorial board of the "Virginia Law Review". After law school, she clerked for Judge Paul Victor Niemeyer of the United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit.


title: Harmeet Dhillon

text: In 2008, Dhillon ran for a seat in the California Assembly. She lost the race, garnering 17% of the vote in the traditionally Democratic district. She ran for the California Senate in 2012, but was again unsuccessful. She served as the chair of the San Francisco Republican Party.


title: Harmeet Dhillon

text: Dhillon became a board member of the northern California chapter of the American Civil Liberties Union after the September 11 attacks, in connection with her work on discrimination against Sikhs and other South Asians, and stayed on the board for three years. She has been heavily criticized by Republican activists for her ties to the ACLU, as well as her past contributions to the political campaigning of Kamala Harris.


title: Harmeet Dhillon

text: Dhillon was chosen to be a member of the California Republican Party's Board in 2013; she became a national committeewoman for the Republican National Committee in 2016. She also gave the opening prayer at the 2016 Republican National Convention.


title: Harmeet Dhillon

text: In early 2017, Dhillon interviewed to be the Assistant Attorney General for Civil Rights in the Department of Justice. She was not nominated for the position.


title: Harmeet Dhillon

text: Dhillon led the successful effort to remove Chad Mayes as the California State Assembly Republican caucus leader in August 2017.


title: Harmeet Dhillon

text: On July 11, 2019, Dhillon gave a speech at the President Trump's "Social Media Summit". Dhillon is a co-chair of Women for Trump. She has described Laura Ingraham as a "long-time mentor."


title: Harmeet Dhillon

text: Dhillon filed a lawsuit in April 2017 against University of California, Berkeley on behalf of the Berkeley College Republicans (BCR) and Young America's Foundation for freedom of speech issues, particularly the school cancelling Ann Coulter's speech quoting security reasons. The suit was settled in December 2018, with Dhillon arguing that it had forced the university to change its policies about controversial speakers, whereas the university maintained that it had already been following the amended policies before.


title: Harmeet Dhillon

text: In August 2017, James Damore, a former Google employee, hired Dhillon to be his lawyer against Google. Dhillon's firm has said it is also willing to represent more employees from Google who have similar stories to Damore. though Dhillon has already lost an appeal to the National Labor Relations Board. Damore's lawsuit against Google also was dismissed pursuant to a mandatory arbitration clause; however, the case continues without him.


title: Harmeet Dhillon

text: Conservative social media activist and journalist Andy Ngo retained Dhillon as his attorney after being assaulted on the street in Portland, Oregon, in June 2019. In June 2020, Dhillon filed suit on behalf of Ngo against antifa seeking $900,000 in damages for assault and emotional distress, and an injunction to prevent further harassment. The lawsuit cites Rose City Antifa, five other named defendants, and additional unknown assailants. It stems from multiple alleged attacks on Ngo in Portland during 2019, and accuses Rose City Antifa in particular of a "pattern of racketeering activities".


title: Harmeet Dhillon

text: During the coronavirus pandemic, Dhillon was behind many lawsuits challenging stay-at-home orders enacted during the COVID-19 pandemic to halt the spread of the virus. By June 2020, she had filed more than a dozen lawsuits against California.


title: Harmeet Dhillon

text: On April 13 and 24, 2020, Dhillon filed suits against the state of California challenging its stay-at-home order. On behalf of two pastors in Riverside County, two parishioners in San Bernardino County, and seven businesses, including restaurants, a pet grooming shop, and a gondola company, she argued that their constitutional rights were being violated. Dhillon also filed lawsuits against the governors of New Jersey and Virginia over their restrictions on religious services. Most of these lawsuits were filed through the Center for American Liberty. Dhillon later argued that her lawsuits led to "large sectors of California’s economy opening up much sooner than the governor originally intended", which in the assessment of "The New York Times" contributed to an "alarming surge in cases" in the second half of June. She criticized California's decision to send mail-in ballots to all registered voters for the 2020 election because of the public health risks of in-person voting during the coronavirus pandemic. In July 2020, it was reported that she was suing state and local governments in California to keep nail salons and barbers open and to prevent the closure of schools during the pandemic.


title: Harmeet Dhillon

text: In May 2020, Dhillon criticized Virginia for requiring the use of face masks in public. She claimed that "the masks don't work" (contradicting the recommendation of health experts and the US CDC).


title: Harmeet Dhillon

text: In June 2020, she criticized California for requiring the use of face masks in public when individuals were unable to physically distance. She argued that people should be free to make their own decisions. She called on California to reopen its economy, even though coronavirus cases were surging. In July 2020, she said that she was considering filing a lawsuit over a restriction on singing or chanting in church to prevent the spread of the coronavirus.


title: Harmeet Dhillon

text: She filed a lawsuit against Hawaii when the state required that visitors to Hawaii undergo quarantine upon arrival. In July 2020, a judge ruled that the emergency mandate was a reasonable response to the public health threat posed by the coronavirus.


title: Harmeet Dhillon

text: She was a legal adviser on the Trump 2020 campaign. While the Trump campaign was making false and unsubstantiated voter fraud claims during the 2020 election (as the ballots were being counted), Dhillon said the campaign was hoping that the Supreme Court, including Trump-appointed justices such as Amy Coney Barrett, would help Trump win the presidency.


title: Kenneth Grahame

text: Kenneth Grahame ( ; 8 March 1859 – 6 July 1932) was a British writer born in Edinburgh, Scotland. He is most famous for "The Wind in the Willows" (1908), a classic of children's literature, as well as "The Reluctant Dragon". Both books were later adapted for stage and film, of which A. A. Milne's "Toad of Toad Hall", based on part of "The Wind in the Willows", was the first. Other adaptations include Cosgrove Hall Films' "The Wind in the Willows" (and its subsequent long-running television series), and the Walt Disney films ("The Adventures of Ichabod and Mr. Toad" and "The Reluctant Dragon").


title: Kenneth Grahame

text: Kenneth Grahame was born on 8 March 1859 in Edinburgh. When he was a little more than a year old, his father, an advocate, received an appointment as sheriff-substitute in Argyllshire, at Inveraray on Loch Fyne. When he was five, his mother died of scarlet fever, and his father, who had a drinking problem, assigned care of Kenneth, his brother Willie, his sister Helen and the new baby Roland to Granny Ingles, the children's maternal grandmother, in Cookham Dean in the village of Cookham in Berkshire.


title: Kenneth Grahame

text: There the children lived in a spacious, dilapidated house called The Mount, in expansive grounds, and were introduced to the riverside and boating by their uncle, David Ingles, who was a curate at Cookham Dean church. This ambience, particularly Quarry Wood and the River Thames, is believed by Grahame's biographer Peter Green to have inspired the setting for "The Wind in the Willows".


title: Kenneth Grahame

text: Grahame was an outstanding pupil at St Edward's School, Oxford. In his early years there, no sports regimen had been established and the boys were free to explore the old city and its surroundings.


title: Kenneth Grahame

text: Grahame wanted to attend Oxford University, but was not allowed to do so by his guardian on grounds of cost. Instead he was sent to work at the Bank of England in 1879, and rose through the ranks until retiring as its Secretary in 1908 due to ill health, which may have been precipitated by a possibly political shooting incident at the bank in 1903. Grahame was shot at three times, but all the shots missed him.


title: Kenneth Grahame

text: An alternative explanation, given in a letter on display in the Bank museum, is that he had quarrelled with Walter Cunliffe, one of the bank's directors, who would later become Governor of the Bank of England, in the course of which he was heard to say that Cunliffe was "no gentleman". His retirement was enforced ostensibly on health grounds. He was awarded an annual pension of £400, but a worked example on display indicates he was actually due to receive £710.


title: Kenneth Grahame

text: Grahame married Elspeth Thomson, the daughter of Robert William Thomson in 1899. They had one child, a boy named Alastair (nicknamed "Mouse"), who was born blind in one eye and plagued by health problems throughout a short life. On Grahame's retirement, the family returned to Cookham, his childhood home, where they lived at Mayfield, now Herries Preparatory School. There Grahame produced bedtime stories that he told Alastair and turned into "The Wind in the Willows". Alastair took his own life on a railway track while an undergraduate at Oxford University on 7 May 1920, five days before his 20th birthday. His demise was recorded as an accidental death out of respect for his father.


title: Kenneth Grahame

text: According to Cardiff University Professor Emeritus Peter Hunt, Grahame shared a house in London with a set designer, W. Graham Robertson, while Grahame's wife and son lived in Berkshire.


title: Kenneth Grahame

text: Grahame died in Pangbourne, Berkshire, in 1932. He is buried in Holywell Cemetery, Oxford. Grahame's cousin Anthony Hope, also a successful author, wrote him an epitaph: "To the beautiful memory of Kenneth Grahame, husband of Elspeth and father of Alastair, who passed the river on the 6th of July, 1932, leaving childhood and literature through him the more blest for all time." He was buried side by side with his son in the same grave.


title: Kenneth Grahame

text: While still a young man in his twenties, Grahame began to publish light stories in London periodicals such as the "St. James Gazette". Some of these were collected and published as "Pagan Papers" in 1893, and two years later "The Golden Age". These were followed by "Dream Days" in 1898, which contains "The Reluctant Dragon".


title: Kenneth Grahame

text: There is a ten-year gap between "Dream Days" and the publication of Grahame's triumph, "The Wind in the Willows". During that decade, Grahame became a father. The wayward, headstrong nature he saw in his little son Alastair he transformed into the swaggering Mr. Toad, one of its four principal characters. The character in the book known as Ratty was inspired by his good friend, and writer, Sir Arthur Quiller-Couch. Grahame mentions this in a signed copy he gave to Quiller-Couch's daughter, Foy Felicia. Despite its success, he never attempted a sequel. The book is still widely enjoyed by adults and children. It has given rise to many film and television adaptations, while Toad remains one of the most celebrated and beloved characters in children's literature. In 1929, A. A. Milne wrote the play "Toad of Toad Hall", which is based on part of "The Wind in the Willows", which won the Lewis Carroll Shelf Award in 1958. In the 1990s, William Horwood produced a series of sequels.


title: Ichi-go ichi-e

text: The term can be traced back to the 16th century to an expression by tea master Sen no Rikyū: . Rikyū's apprentice Yamanoue Sōji instructs in "Yamanoue Sōji Ki" to give respect to your host . Ichigo () is a Buddhist term meaning "from one's birth to death", i.e. one's lifetime.


title: Ichi-go ichi-e

text: Later, in the mid-19th century, Ii Naosuke, Tairō (chief administrator) of the Tokugawa shogunate, elaborated on the concept in "Chanoyu Ichie Shū":


title: Ichi-go ichi-e

text: Great attention should be given to a tea gathering, which we can speak of as "one time, one meeting" ("ichigo, ichie"). Even though the host and guests may see each other often socially, one day's gathering can never be repeated exactly. Viewed this way, the meeting is indeed a once-in-a-lifetime occasion. The host, accordingly, must in true sincerity take the greatest care with every aspect of the gathering and devote himself entirely to ensuring that nothing is rough. The guests, for their part, must understand that the gathering cannot occur again and, appreciating how the host has flawlessly planned it, must also participate with true sincerity. This is what is meant by "one time, one meeting."


title: Ichi-go ichi-e

text: This passage established the "yojijukugo" (four-letter idiomatic) form "ichi-go ichi-e" () known today.


title: Ichi-go ichi-e

text: "Ichi-go ichi-e" is linked with Zen Buddhism and concepts of transience. The term is particularly associated with the Japanese tea ceremony, and is often brushed onto scrolls which are hung in the tea room.


title: Ichi-go ichi-e

text: The term is also much repeated in budō (martial ways). It is sometimes used to admonish students who become careless or frequently stop techniques midway to "try again", rather than moving on with the technique despite the mistake. In a life-or-death struggle, there is no chance to try again. Even though techniques may be attempted many times in the dojo, each should be seen as a singular and decisive event. Similarly, in noh theater, performances are only rehearsed together once, a few days before the show, rather than the many times that are typical in the West, this corresponding to the transience of a given show.


title: Semigroup

text: In mathematics, a semigroup is an algebraic structure consisting of a set together with an associative internal binary operation on it.


title: Semigroup

text: The binary operation of a semigroup is most often denoted multiplicatively: "x"·"y", or simply "xy", denotes the result of applying the semigroup operation to the ordered pair . Associativity is formally expressed as that for all "x", "y" and "z" in the semigroup.


title: Semigroup

text: Semigroups may be considered a special case of magmas, where the operation is associative, or as a generalization of groups, without requiring the existence of an identity element or inverses. As in the case of groups or magmas, the semigroup operation need not be commutative, so "x"·"y" is not necessarily equal to "y"·"x"; a well-known example of an operation that is associative but non-commutative is matrix multiplication. If the semigroup operation is commutative, then the semigroup is called a "commutative semigroup" or (less often than in the analogous case of groups) it may be called an "abelian semigroup".


title: Semigroup

text: A monoid is an algebraic structure intermediate between semigroups and groups, and is a semigroup having an identity element, thus obeying all but one of the axioms of a group: existence of inverses is not required of a monoid. A natural example is strings with concatenation as the binary operation, and the empty string as the identity element. Restricting to non-empty strings gives an example of a semigroup that is not a monoid. Positive integers with addition form a commutative semigroup that is not a monoid, whereas the non-negative integers do form a monoid. A semigroup without an identity element can be easily turned into a monoid by just adding an identity element. Consequently, monoids are studied in the theory of semigroups rather than in group theory. Semigroups should not be confused with quasigroups, which are a generalization of groups in a different direction; the operation in a quasigroup need not be associative but quasigroups preserve from groups a notion of division. Division in semigroups (or in monoids) is not possible in general.


title: Semigroup

text: The formal study of semigroups began in the early 20th century. Early results include a Cayley theorem for semigroups realizing any semigroup as transformation semigroup, in which arbitrary functions replace the role of bijections from group theory. A deep result in the classification of finite semigroups is Krohn–Rhodes theory, analogous to the Jordan–Hölder decomposition for finite groups. Some other techniques for studying semigroups, like Green's relations, do not resemble anything in group theory.


title: Semigroup

text: The theory of finite semigroups has been of particular importance in theoretical computer science since the 1950s because of the natural link between finite semigroups and finite automata via the syntactic monoid. In probability theory, semigroups are associated with Markov processes. In other areas of applied mathematics, semigroups are fundamental models for linear time-invariant systems. In partial differential equations, a semigroup is associated to any equation whose spatial evolution is independent of time.


title: Semigroup

text: There are numerous special classes of semigroups, semigroups with additional properties, which appear in particular applications. Some of these classes are even closer to groups by exhibiting some additional but not all properties of a group. Of these we mention: regular semigroups, orthodox semigroups, semigroups with involution, inverse semigroups and cancellative semigroups. There are also interesting classes of semigroups that do not contain any groups except the trivial group; examples of the latter kind are bands and their commutative subclass—semilattices, which are also s.


title: Semigroup

text: A semigroup is a set formula_1 together with a binary operation "formula_2" (that is, a function formula_3) that satisfies the associative property:


title: Semigroup

text: A left identity of a semigroup formula_1 (or more generally, magma) is an element formula_7 such that for all formula_8 in formula_1, formula_10. Similarly, a right identity is an element formula_11 such that for all formula_8 in formula_1, formula_14. Left and right identities are both called one-sided identities. A semigroup may have one or more left identities but no right identity, and vice versa.


title: Semigroup

text: A two-sided identity (or just identity) is an element that is both a left and right identity. Semigroups with a two-sided identity are called monoids. A semigroup may have at most one two-sided identity. If a semigroup has a two-sided identity, then the two-sided identity is the only one-sided identity in the semigroup. If a semigroup has both a left identity and a right identity, then it has a two-sided identity (which is therefore the unique one-sided identity).


title: Semigroup

text: A semigroup formula_1 without identity may be embedded in a monoid formed by adjoining an element formula_16 to formula_1 and defining formula_18 for all formula_19. The notation formula_20 denotes a monoid obtained from formula_1 by adjoining an identity "if necessary" (formula_22 for a monoid).


title: Semigroup

text: Similarly, every magma has at most one absorbing element, which in semigroup theory is called a zero. Analogous to the above construction, for every semigroup formula_1, one can define formula_24, a semigroup with 0 that embeds formula_1.


title: Semigroup

text: The semigroup operation induces an operation on the collection of its subsets: given subsets "A" and "B" of a semigroup "S", their product , written commonly as "AB", is the set (This notion is defined identically as it is for groups.) In terms of this operation, a subset "A" is called


title: Semigroup

text: If "S" is a semigroup, then the intersection of any collection of subsemigroups of "S" is also a subsemigroup of "S".


title: Semigroup

text: An example of a semigroup with no minimal ideal is the set of positive integers under addition. The minimal ideal of a commutative semigroup, when it exists, is a group.


title: Semigroup

text: Green's relations, a set of five equivalence relations that characterise the elements in terms of the principal ideals they generate, are important tools for analysing the ideals of a semigroup and related notions of structure.


title: Semigroup

text: The subset with the property that every element commutes with any other element of the semigroup is called the center of the semigroup. The center of a semigroup is actually a subsemigroup.


title: Semigroup

text: A semigroup homomorphism is a function that preserves semigroup structure. A function between two semigroups is a homomorphism if the equation


title: Semigroup

text: holds for all elements "a", "b" in "S", i.e. the result is the same when performing the semigroup operation after or before applying the map "f".


title: Semigroup

text: A semigroup homomorphism between monoids preserves identity if it is a monoid homomorphism. But there are semigroup homomorphisms which are not monoid homomorphisms, e.g. the canonical embedding of a semigroup formula_1 without identity into formula_20. Conditions characterizing monoid homomorphisms are discussed further. Let formula_28 be a semigroup homomorphism. The image of formula_11 is also a semigroup. If formula_30 is a monoid with an identity element formula_31, then formula_32 is the identity element in the image of formula_11. If formula_34 is also a monoid with an identity element formula_35 and formula_35 belongs to the image of formula_11, then formula_38, i.e. formula_11 is a monoid homomorphism. Particularly, if formula_11 is surjective, then it is a monoid homomorphism.


title: Semigroup

text: Two semigroups "S" and "T" are said to be isomorphic if there exists a bijective semigroup homomorphism . Isomorphic semigroups have the same structure.


title: Semigroup

text: A semigroup congruence formula_41 is an equivalence relation that is compatible with the semigroup operation. That is, a subset formula_42 that is an equivalence relation and formula_43 and formula_44 implies formula_45 for every formula_46 in "S". Like any equivalence relation, a semigroup congruence formula_41 induces congruence classes


title: Semigroup

text: Because formula_41 is a congruence, the set of all congruence classes of formula_41 forms a semigroup with formula_49, called the quotient semigroup or factor semigroup, and denoted formula_54. The mapping formula_55 is a semigroup homomorphism, called the quotient map, canonical surjection or projection; if "S" is a monoid then quotient semigroup is a monoid with identity formula_56. Conversely, the kernel of any semigroup homomorphism is a semigroup congruence. These results are nothing more than a particularization of the first isomorphism theorem in universal algebra. Congruence classes and factor monoids are the objects of study in string rewriting systems.


title: Semigroup

text: A semigroup "S" satisfies the maximal condition on congruences if any family of congruences on "S", ordered by inclusion, has a maximal element. By Zorn's lemma, this is equivalent to saying that the ascending chain condition holds: there is no infinite strictly ascending chain of congruences on "S".


title: Semigroup

text: Every ideal "I" of a semigroup induces a factor semigroup, the Rees factor semigroup, via the congruence ρ defined by if either , or both "x" and "y" are in "I".


title: Semigroup

text: A semigroup T is a quotient of a semigroup S if there is a surjective semigroup morphism from S to T. For example, formula_57 is a quotient of formula_58, using the morphism consisting of taking the remainder modulo 2 of an integer.


title: Semigroup

text: A semigroup T divides a semigroup S, noted formula_59 if T is a quotient of a subsemigroup S. In particular, subsemigroups of S divides T, while it is not necessarily the case that there are a quotient of S.


title: Semigroup

text: For any subset "A" of "S" there is a smallest subsemigroup "T" of "S" which contains "A", and we say that "A" generates "T". A single element "x" of "S" generates the subsemigroup { "x" | "n" ∈ Z }. If this is finite, then "x" is said to be of finite order, otherwise it is of infinite order.


title: Semigroup

text: A semigroup generated by a single element is said to be monogenic (or cyclic). If a monogenic semigroup is infinite then it is isomorphic to the semigroup of positive integers with the operation of addition.


title: Semigroup

text: A subsemigroup which is also a group is called a subgroup. There is a close relationship between the subgroups of a semigroup and its idempotents. Each subgroup contains exactly one idempotent, namely the identity element of the subgroup. For each idempotent "e" of the semigroup there is a unique maximal subgroup containing "e". Each maximal subgroup arises in this way, so there is a one-to-one correspondence between idempotents and maximal subgroups. Here the term "maximal subgroup" differs from its standard use in group theory.


title: Semigroup

text: More can often be said when the order is finite. For example, every nonempty finite semigroup is periodic, and has a minimal ideal and at least one idempotent. The number of finite semigroups of a given size (greater than 1) is (obviously) larger than the number of groups of the same size. For example, of the sixteen possible "multiplication tables" for a set of two elements eight form semigroups whereas only four of these are monoids and only two form groups. For more on the structure of finite semigroups, see Krohn–Rhodes theory.


title: Semigroup

text: There is a structure theorem for commutative semigroups in terms of semilattices. A semilattice (or more precisely a meet-semilattice) formula_60 is a partially ordered set where every pair of elements formula_61 has a greatest lower bound, denoted formula_62. The operation formula_63 makes formula_64 into a semigroup satisfying the additional idempotence law formula_65.


title: Semigroup

text: Given a homomorphism formula_66 from an arbitrary semigroup to a semilattice, each inverse image formula_67 is a (possibly empty) semigroup. Moreover, formula_68 becomes graded by formula_64, in the sense that


title: Semigroup

text: If formula_71 is onto, the semilattice formula_64 is isomorphic to the quotient of formula_1 by the equivalence relation formula_74 such that formula_75 if and only if formula_76. This equivalence relation is a semigroup congruence, as defined above.


title: Semigroup

text: Whenever we take the quotient of a commutative semigroup by a congruence, we get another commutative semigroup. The structure theorem says that for any commutative semigroup formula_1, there is a finest congruence formula_74 such that the quotient of formula_68 by this equivalence relation is a semilattice. Denoting this semilattice by formula_80, we get a homomorphism formula_71 from formula_1 onto formula_80. As mentioned, formula_68 becomes graded by this semilattice.


title: Semigroup

text: Furthermore, the components formula_85 are all Archimedean semigroups. An Archimedean semigroup is one where given any pair of elements formula_86, there exists an element formula_87 and formula_88 such that formula_89.


title: Semigroup

text: The Archimedean property follows immediately from the ordering in the semilattice formula_64, since with this ordering we have formula_91 if and only if formula_89 for some formula_87 and formula_88.


title: Semigroup

text: The group of fractions or group completion of a semigroup "S" is the group generated by the elements of "S" as generators and all equations which hold true in "S" as relations. There is an obvious semigroup homomorphism which sends each element of "S" to the corresponding generator. This has a universal property for morphisms from "S" to a group: given any group "H" and any semigroup homomorphism , there exists a unique group homomorphism with "k"="fj". We may think of "G" as the "most general" group that contains a homomorphic image of "S".


title: Semigroup

text: An important question is to characterize those semigroups for which this map is an embedding. This need not always be the case: for example, take "S" to be the semigroup of subsets of some set "X" with set-theoretic intersection as the binary operation (this is an example of a semilattice). Since holds for all elements of "S", this must be true for all generators of "G"("S") as well: which is therefore the trivial group. It is clearly necessary for embeddability that "S" have the cancellation property. When "S" is commutative this condition is also sufficient and the Grothendieck group of the semigroup provides a construction of the group of fractions. The problem for non-commutative semigroups can be traced to the first substantial paper on semigroups. Anatoly Maltsev gave necessary and sufficient conditions for embeddability in 1937.


title: Semigroup

text: Semigroup theory can be used to study some problems in the field of partial differential equations. Roughly speaking, the semigroup approach is to regard a time-dependent partial differential equation as an ordinary differential equation on a function space. For example, consider the following initial/boundary value problem for the heat equation on the spatial interval and times :


title: Semigroup

text: Let be the "L" space of square-integrable real-valued functions with domain the interval and let "A" be the second-derivative operator with domain


title: Semigroup

text: where "H" is a Sobolev space. Then the above initial/boundary value problem can be interpreted as an initial value problem for an ordinary differential equation on the space "X":


title: Semigroup

text: On an heuristic level, the solution to this problem "ought" to be . However, for a rigorous treatment, a meaning must be given to the exponential of "tA". As a function of "t", exp("tA") is a semigroup of operators from "X" to itself, taking the initial state "u" at time to the state at time "t". The operator "A" is said to be the infinitesimal generator of the semigroup.


title: Semigroup

text: The study of semigroups trailed behind that of other algebraic structures with more complex axioms such as groups or rings. A number of sources attribute the first use of the term (in French) to J.-A. de Séguier in "Élements de la Théorie des Groupes Abstraits" (Elements of the Theory of Abstract Groups) in 1904. The term is used in English in 1908 in Harold Hinton's "Theory of Groups of Finite Order".


title: Semigroup

text: Anton Sushkevich obtained the first non-trivial results about semigroups. His 1928 paper "Über die endlichen Gruppen ohne das Gesetz der eindeutigen Umkehrbarkeit" ("On finite groups without the rule of unique invertibility") determined the structure of finite simple semigroups and showed that the minimal ideal (or Green's relations J-class) of a finite semigroup is simple. From that point on, the foundations of semigroup theory were further laid by David Rees, James Alexander Green, Evgenii Sergeevich Lyapin, Alfred H. Clifford and Gordon Preston. The latter two published a two-volume monograph on semigroup theory in 1961 and 1967 respectively. In 1970, a new periodical called "Semigroup Forum" (currently edited by Springer Verlag) became one of the few mathematical journals devoted entirely to semigroup theory.


title: Semigroup

text: The representation theory of semigroups was developed in 1963 by Boris Schein using binary relations on a set "A" and composition of relations for the semigroup product. At an algebraic conference in 1972 Schein surveyed the literature on B, the semigroup of relations on "A". In 1997 Schein and Ralph McKenzie proved that every semigroup is isomorphic to a transitive semigroup of binary relations.


title: Semigroup

text: In recent years researchers in the field have become more specialized with dedicated monographs appearing on important classes of semigroups, like inverse semigroups, as well as monographs focusing on applications in algebraic automata theory, particularly for finite automata, and also in functional analysis.


title: Semigroup

text: If the associativity axiom of a semigroup is dropped, the result is a magma, which is nothing more than a set "M" equipped with a binary operation that is closed .


title: Semigroup

text: Generalizing in a different direction, an n"-ary semigroup (also n"-semigroup, polyadic semigroup or multiary semigroup) is a generalization of a semigroup to a set "G" with a "n"-ary operation instead of a binary operation. The associative law is generalized as follows: ternary associativity is , i.e. the string "abcde" with any three adjacent elements bracketed. "N"-ary associativity is a string of length with any "n" adjacent elements bracketed. A 2-ary semigroup is just a semigroup. Further axioms lead to an "n"-ary group.


title: Semigroup

text: A third generalization is the semigroupoid, in which the requirement that the binary relation be total is lifted. As categories generalize monoids in the same way, a semigroupoid behaves much like a category but lacks identities.


title: Semigroup

text: Infinitary generalizations of commutative semigroups have sometimes been considered by various authors.


title: Nate Torrence

text: Nathan Andrew Torrence (born December 1, 1977) is an American comedic actor known for several TV and film roles, most notably including Devon from "She's Out of My League", Wade from HBO‘s "Hello Ladies", Sully on the CW series "Supernatural" and for voicing the character of Clawhauser in Disney’s animated film "Zootopia".


title: Nate Torrence

text: Torrence was born in Canton, Ohio, where he began his education. Torrence attended Hiland High School in Berlin, Ohio, and went on to attend Kent State University: Stark Campus. His family used to own and operate a bed and breakfast in Berlin. After studying with Second City's Players Workshop in Chicago, Illinois, Torrence began touring in a comedy troupe called Corn, Beef and Cabbage, where he wrote, improvised and performed with his older brother, Jay and friend Josh Ruth. Torrence additionally studied improv at Second City in Cleveland and in Los Angeles, and The Groundlings and Comedy Sportz in Los Angeles.


title: Nate Torrence

text: Torrence has appeared on television programs including "", "Malcolm in the Middle", "How I Met Your Mother", "Las Vegas", "Brooklyn Nine-Nine", "House M.D.", and "Ghost Whisperer". He had a recurring role as Dylan Killington on the NBC drama "Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip" and played Roman Cohen in the ABC network short-lived comedy "Mr. Sunshine", a midseason replacement for the 2010-11 television season.


title: Nate Torrence

text: He is perhaps best known for his role as a credit card customer service representative with David Spade, in the Capital One "What's In Your Wallet" advertising campaign. He has also appeared in several other commercials, including for Enterprise Rent-A-Car, Volkswagen, Golden Grahams, H-E-B, and NFL.com.


title: Nate Torrence

text: In December 2006, Torrence appeared in a season two episode of "Top Chef" on Bravo TV. The contestants were showcasing holiday food; Nate Torrence was one of the tasters, although he is not credited.


title: Nate Torrence

text: He played Lloyd, a lab assistant, in the film "Get Smart" and reprised the role to star in the direct-to-DVD spinoff "". Torrence has also played a crazy shirtless boxer on "Reno 911!", and Devon in the 2010 comedy "She's Out of My League".


title: Nate Torrence

text: He voices Chuck on the animated show "Motorcity" and played Wade Bailey in the HBO series "Hello Ladies". In the 2013-14 TV season, he was the recurring character "James" on the ABC comedy "Super Fun Night", and he guest-starred on a 2014 "Brooklyn Nine-Nine" episode as a costumed vigilante named "Super Dan". Torrence appeared as Eric Lewandowski on the Fox sitcom "Weird Loners" and voices Ferguson on the animated show "Star vs. the Forces of Evil". In 2015, he appeared on the episode of "Supernatural" entitled "Just My Imagination" as Sully, Sam's imaginary friend. In 2016, he had a voice role in the animated hit "Zootopia", as Officer Benjamin Clawhauser.


title: Krishna Vrinda Vihari

text: Krishna Vrinda Vihari is a 2022 Indian Telugu-language romantic comedy film directed by Anish R. Krishna and produced by Usha Mulpuri under the banner of Ira Creations. The film stars Naga Shaurya and Shirley Setia.


title: Krishna Vrinda Vihari

text: Krishna Chari (Naga Shaurya) is from a restricted and strict Brahmin family who gets a software job in Hyderabad. The moment he sees Vrinda (Shirley Setia) in his office, he falls for her. But she is quite stubborn and does not accept his love due to an issue. Krishna finally wins her love but he is quite confused as to how to convince his orthodox family. After a while, he somehow manages to persuade them by playing a trick and marries Vrinda. This makes him land in big trouble. What is this trouble? How did Krishna manage it? That forms the story.


title: Krishna Vrinda Vihari

text: The film was officially announced on 16 October 2020. The film was formally launched on 28 October 2020. The film was tentatively titled as "NS22" and "IRA4". On 22 January 2022, the film's official title was unveiled as "Krishna Vrinda Vihari". Principal photography of the film began on 9 December 2020.


title: Krishna Vrinda Vihari

text: The music composed by Mahati Swara Sagar collaborating with Naga Shourya for the fourth time after "Jadoogadu", "Nartanasala" and "Chalo". The audio rights were bagged by Saregama. The first single titled "Varshamllo Vennella" was sung by Adtiya RK and Sanjana Kalmanje and it was released on 9 April 2022.


title: Krishna Vrinda Vihari

text: "Krishna Vrinda Vihari" was released on 23 September 2022. Earlier, the film was scheduled to be released in theatres on 22 April 2022. It was pushed back to 20 May and later 24 June 2022 but was not released.


title: Krishna Vrinda Vihari

text: Neeshita Nyayapati of "The Times of India" rated the film 2 out of 5 stars and wrote ""Krishna Vrinda Vihari" needed better writing and direction for it to work, because it relies a little too much on the shoddily written light-hearted moments to pull it through".


title: Krishna Vrinda Vihari

text: Arvind V of "Pinkvilla" rated the film 2 out of 5 stars and wrote "Ideally, a film like this should have strictly stayed away from action. You can have a fight if you can't resist the temptation of making your hero tear off his shirt and flash his ripped body. But there is an impossibly asinine situation when you can't have a fighting scene. 'KVV' misses this lesson, like it misses almost all script-writing lessons".


title: Ross Dependency

text: The Ross Dependency is a region of Antarctica defined by a sector originating at the South Pole, passing along longitudes 160° east to 150° west, and terminating at latitude 60° south. It is claimed by New Zealand, a claim accepted only by the other six countries with territorial claims in Antarctica. Under the 1961 Antarctic Treaty, of which all territorial claimants are signatories, including New Zealand, all claims are held in abeyance. Article IV states: "No acts or activities taking place while the present Treaty is in force shall constitute a basis for asserting, supporting or denying a claim to territorial sovereignty in Antarctica or create any rights of sovereignty in Antarctica".


title: Ross Dependency

text: The Dependency takes its name from Sir James Clark Ross, who discovered the Ross Sea, and includes part of Victoria Land, and most of the Ross Ice Shelf. Ross, Balleny, Scott and Roosevelt Islands also form part of the Dependency.


title: Ross Dependency

text: Following his discovery of Victoria Land in 1841, James Clark Ross took possession of this territory, along with the surrounding sea, on behalf of Britain. On 30 July 1923, the British Government passed an Order in Council under the British Settlements Act 1887, which defined the current borders of the Ross Dependency as follows:


title: Ross Dependency

text: The Order in Council then went on to appoint the governor-general and commander-in-chief of New Zealand as the governor of the territory. This Order in Council was published in the "New Zealand Gazette" on 16 August 1923, and on 14 November 1923, the governor-general issued regulations extending New Zealand law to the Ross Dependency.


title: Ross Dependency

text: After the Order in Council was read in the New Zealand House of Representatives by the Prime Minister of New Zealand William Massey, a clarification was made by the Attorney-General Sir Francis Bell in the legislative council. Bell stated that:


title: Ross Dependency

text: It has been said that the Order in Council contained no suggestion of a transfer to New Zealand of the United Kingdom's claim, but the fact remains that the territory is administered by the Government of New Zealand. Technically, the claim is that of the monarch and they can exercise it through any of their governments.


title: Ross Dependency

text: At an Imperial Conference in 1930, it was agreed that the governors-general of the Dominions would be appointed by the king on the advice of the Dominion in question. And following the passing of the Statute of Westminster in 1931 (which was adopted in full by New Zealand in 1947), the Government of the United Kingdom relinquished all control over the government of New Zealand. This however had no bearing on the obligations of the governor-general of New Zealand in their capacity as governor of the Ross Dependency on the appointment of the Government of the United Kingdom. Then in the year 1959, the Antarctic Treaty was signed by twelve nations, which included both the United Kingdom and New Zealand.


title: Ross Dependency

text: The actual amount of land mass claimed is not large; most of the area defined as being in the Ross Dependency is either in the Ross Sea or the Antarctic Ocean. It is the second-smallest of the claims which were made prior to the implementation of the Antarctic Treaty System and the suspension of all territorial claims to Antarctica proper. Officers of the Government of the Ross Dependency are annually appointed to run the Dependency. The New Zealand Geographic Board has named many features within the Dependency.


title: Ross Dependency

text: The scientific bases of Scott Base (New Zealand), McMurdo Station (US), Zucchelli Station (Italy) and Jang Bogo Station (South Korea) are the only permanently occupied human habitations in the area, though Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station (US) is partially within the territory and dependent on logistics operations based in New Zealand. China is establishing a year-round research station at Inexpressible Island in Terra Nova Bay of the Ross Sea that is expected to open in 2022. The Dependency has access to US Antarctic Program maintained snow runways at Williams Field and Phoenix Airfield, and – depending on conditions and time of year – the Ice Runway. This guarantees accessibility by wheeled and ski equipped aircraft year round.


title: Ross Dependency

text: From 1969 to 1995 New Zealand operated a summer-only base called Vanda Station in the Dry Valley area of the Dependency.


title: Ross Dependency

text: Greenpeace maintained its own Antarctic station in the Ross Dependency called World Park Base from 1987 to 1992, which was on Ross Island. As this base was a non-governmental entity, the official policy of the signatory nations of the Antarctic Treaty was not to give any support or assistance to it.


title: Ross Dependency

text: In 1979, an Air New Zealand sightseeing flight crashed into the slopes of Mount Erebus killing all 257 people on board. It was the most deadly air crash in the history of both Antarctica and New Zealand (see Mount Erebus disaster).


title: Ross Dependency

text: In the summer of 1985, when the British non-governmental exploratory vessel "Southern Quest" sank in the Ross Sea, the United States Coast Guard helicopters rescued the crew, who were taken to McMurdo Station. The British expedition was criticised by scientists in the Antarctic because the rescue and return of the crew disrupted their work.


title: Ross Dependency

text: In 2006, the New Zealand police reported that jurisdictional issues prevented them issuing warrants for potential American witnesses who were reluctant to testify during the Christchurch Coroner's investigation into the poisoning death of Rodney Marks at the South Pole base.


title: Philipp Kirkorov

text: Philipp Bedrosovich Kirkorov PAR (; ; born 30 April 1967) is a Bulgarian-born Russian pop singer. He is a five-time winner of the "Best Selling Russian Artist" title at the World Music Awards ceremonies.


title: Philipp Kirkorov

text: Philipp Kirkorov was born on 30 April 1967 in Varna, Bulgaria. His father, Bedros Kirkorov, is a Bulgarian-born singer of Armenian descent.


title: Philipp Kirkorov

text: In 1990, Kirkorov won the Grand Prix in the competition "Shlyager-90" (Hit-90) in Leningrad with the song "Nebo i Zemlya" (Sky and Earth). In 1992, his music video to the song "Atlantida" was selected as "Music Video of the Year". His popularity began to spread outside of Russia and he toured in the United States, Canada, Germany, and Israel.


title: Philipp Kirkorov

text: In 1994, he proposed to Alla Pugacheva and she accepted. On 13 January the couple announced their engagement in Moscow. On 15 March the marriage was registered in St. Petersburg by then-mayor Anatoly Sobchak. On 15 May the wedding of Kirkorov and Pugacheva took place in Jerusalem. Kirkorov represented Russia in the Eurovision Song Contest 1995 held in Dublin with the song "Kolybelnaya dlya vulkana" ('Lullaby for the volcano') and finished in 17th place. He co-wrote the Belarusian entry at the Eurovision Song Contest 2007, "Work Your Magic" for Dmitry Koldun, wrote the 2008 Ukrainian entry "Shady Lady", performed by Ani Lorak, and also co-composed Moldova's Eurovision entry for the contest, "Sugar", which was performed by Natalia Gordienko. He was also a judge in the second season of "Music Idol" in Bulgaria. Kirkorov makes a cameo in Verka Serduchka's video "Do Re Mi". Other than his native Bulgarian, he is fluent in Russian, and is proficient in Spanish and English.


title: Philipp Kirkorov

text: In December 2012 he signed an open letter criticizing a St. Petersburg bill banning "homosexual propaganda", along with pop stars like Dima Bilan and Valery Syutkin.


title: Philipp Kirkorov

text: Kirkorov has maintained a "bad boy" public image for most of his career and has caused a number of media controversies.


title: Philipp Kirkorov

text: The most notorious scandal followed an incident in Rostov-on-Don on 20 May 2004. At a press conference he insulted (using Russian obscene language) Irina Aroyan, a female journalist who had asked why so many of his songs were covers of American and European hits. During the ensuing discussion, Kirkorov eventually told Aroyan that he was "tired of her pink blouse, her tits, and her microphone" and demanded that she leave the room immediately. When she eventually did, his bodyguards attacked her outside and destroyed her tape recorder. The incident led to a major response and discussions in the mass media. On 11 August 2004, Kirkorov was found guilty of insults (article 130 of the Russian penal code) and was fined 60,000 rubles (about 2000 US dollars at the time).


title: Philipp Kirkorov

text: At a pro-Viktor Yanukovych candidacy concert during the 2004 Ukrainian presidential election Kirkorov's father, Bulgarian singer Bedros Kirkorov, mistakenly called on Ukrainians to vote for the opposing candidate Viktor Yushchenko – to wild cheers from the audience.


title: Philipp Kirkorov

text: There was also an incident where Kirkorov sent his guards to attack the Russian rock singer and DDT band frontman Yuri Shevchuk after their emotional skirmish in a public place (as known, Shevchuk keeps no guards of his own). The reason for the argument reportedly were Shevchuk's offensive statements against Kirkorov, his wife, and his alleged lip-synching.


title: Philipp Kirkorov

text: On 15 May 2009 Kirkorov resigned as head of the Russian jury at the 2009 Eurovision Song Contest, which has a 50% say in who will be national Russian Eurovision representative, after having been seen posing for cameras with Greek entry Sakis Rouvas and having dinner with Norwegian entry Alexander Rybak. Furthermore, Kirkorov admitted that he and Rouvas had been personal friends for years. Since the integrity of the jury was deemed damaged, Kirkorov had little option but to resign once these stories had been made public.


title: Philipp Kirkorov

text: On 3 September 2009 Philipp Kirkorov, clad in his (in)famous 2008 Music Awards 'gold' suit was caught on camera while 'confiscating' the camera belonging to journalist Veronica Kozlova. Since the act could have been interpreted according to the law as a robbery, some reports said the singer was facing 2 to 7 years' imprisonment and a heavy fine. All charges were dropped, however, and Kirkorov stated that his actions were 'provoked' by the journalist. Kozlova was immediately dubbed 'Pink Blouse the Second' by her colleagues and other journalists.


title: Philipp Kirkorov

text: Another incident occurred on 4 December 2010, when he allegedly slapped a female assistant because he was unhappy with the lighting at a concert venue. The woman, later identified as Marina Yablokova, threatened to sue Kirkorov. As a result, Kirkorov fled to Israel and had himself interned at a psychiatric hospital. On 7 December 2010 the singer publicly admitted that he had psychological problems on his official website and apologized to his latest victim.


title: Philipp Kirkorov

text: Russian actor Nikita Dzhigurda during a talk show hinted on non-hetero sexual orientations of several prominent Russian pop stars, including Kirkorov. Dzhigurda concluded with the warning: "Come out! Come out from below ground, before it's too late!"


title: Philipp Kirkorov

text: On 29 November 2016, Russian media reported that Didier Marouani has been detained in Moscow by Russian police on charges of extortion and defamation. The charges were based on a complaint by Kirkorov with whom Marouani had a disagreement regarding a copyright infringement case.


title: Philipp Kirkorov

text: In April 2022, Kirkorov criticized RT editor-in-chief Margarita Simonyan for questioning the sexual orientation of Russian comedian and television presenter Maxim Galkin, who fled Russia in protest of the war in Ukraine.


title: Philipp Kirkorov

text: Due to his public support of the 2014 Russian annexation of Crimea, Lithuania has blacklisted Kirkorov starting from 19 January 2021, meaning the performer will not be able to enter the country for five years. Several of his concerts had been scheduled in Lithuanian cities that year. On 23 June 2021 Kirkorov was included in the list of "persons who pose a threat to Ukraine's national security" and was thus banned from entering Ukraine for speaking in support of Russia's annexation of Crimea.


title: Philipp Kirkorov

text: Philipp Kirkorov has covered a few songs which appeared in the Eurovision Song Contest and its national finals, as well as entering a song in his own right. Songs include:


title: Khlysts

text: The Khlysts or Khlysty (, "whips") were an underground Spiritual Christian sect, which split from the Russian Orthodox Church and existed from the 1600s until the late 20th century.


title: Khlysts

text: The members of the sect referred to themselves by various names, including "God's People" ("liudi bozh'i"), "followers of Christ's faith" ("Khristovovery"), or simply "Christs" ("Khristy"). The appellation "Khlysty" is a derogatory term applied by critics of the sect. The origin of the term is disputed. It is probably a corruption of the group's aforementioned self-designation of "Khristy", but may also allude to the sect's practice of ritual self-flagellation; the Russian word "khlyst" means a "whip" or "thin rod".


title: Khlysts

text: It is also possible that the word is related to the Greek word "Khiliaste" (meaning "chiliast" or "millennialist"), or "klyster" ("one that purges").


title: Khlysts

text: According to its own oral tradition, the sect was founded in 1645 by Danilo Filippov (or Daniil Filippovich), a peasant of Kostroma and a runaway soldier. He was said to have become a "living god" after the Lord of Hosts descended upon him on Gorodino Hill, Vladimir Oblast. He delivered twelve commandments to his disciples, which forbade (among other things) sexual intercourse, drinking and swearing. He later named as his successor Ivan Suslov, a peasant of Murom. Suslov, transformed by Filippov into a "new Christ", acquired a following of twelve apostles, along with a woman who was given the title of "Mother of God". The tradition relates that Suslov was crucified twice by the Russian authorities, but rose from the dead each time.


title: Khlysts

text: There is no written evidence to support this story, or to confirm the existence of Filippov. The first historical references to the Khlysty are found in the writings of the Old Believers, a Christian community which resisted the 17th-century reforms of the Russian State Church. The Old Believers condemned the Khlysty as heretics, and warnings about them can be found in letters dating from around the 1670s. The Orthodox Church also attacked the Khlysty; Dimitry of Rostov wrote against them in "An Investigation of the Schismatic Faith" (c. 1709).


title: Khlysts

text: Suslov died around 1716, at which time Prokofii Lupkin became the new "Christ". The oral tradition claims that Lupkin was the son of Filippov, but this is unlikely to be true.


title: Khlysts

text: Lupkin was a trader, and made use of his frequent journeys to places such as Uglich and Venev to organise secret assemblies for his followers. He encouraged his followers to worship in the manner of the Old Believers, such as by making the sign of the cross with two fingers instead of three, but he also instructed them to attend the State Church and take communion. Many Khlysty, including Lupkin's wife and son, even took monastic vows. Lupkin also made large donations to the Church, which helped to protect the sect from persecution.


title: Khlysts

text: The Khlysty renounced priesthood, holy books and veneration of the saints (excluding the Theotokos). They believed in a possibility of direct communication with the Holy Spirit and of its embodiment in living people. Each of their leaders was a "living god", and each congregation (or "ark") had its own "Christ" and "Mother of God", appointed by the overall leader of the sect. Furthermore, they believed that the Holy Spirit could descend upon any one of them during the state of ecstasy which they attained during the ritual of "radenie" ("rejoicing").


title: Khlysts

text: This ritual, which formed the focus of their worship, took place on holy feast days. The congregation would gather during the evening at a prearranged location, such as a member's house. They would remove their outer clothing, and enter the sacred space dressed only in an undershirt. After a period of singing or chanting the Jesus Prayer ("Lord Jesus Christ, Son of God, have mercy on me, a sinner"), some of the worshippers would feel the Holy Spirit come upon them, and would begin dancing wildly, prophesying in unintelligible language. This would continue for half an hour or more, until the dancers collapsed with exhaustion. Finally, they would share a sacramental meal of nuts, bread, pastry and kvass.


title: Khlysts

text: The Khlysty practiced an extreme asceticism, in order to prepare themselves for the reception of the Holy Spirit into their bodies. They abstained from alcohol, and often fasted for days or weeks at a time. Although marriage was permitted for practical purposes, "because the help of a wife was indispensable for a peasant", it was a sin to engage in sexual intercourse, even with one's own wife. Connected with this mortification of the flesh was the practice of self-flagellation which often accompanied the "radenie" rite.


title: Khlysts

text: Russian author Edvard Radzinsky has described a "radenie" ritual which he witnessed on the island of Chechen in 1964:


title: Khlysts

text: Radzinsky says that they referred to the whirling dance as "spiritual beer", on account of its intoxicating effect. He reports that after the dance had continued for some time, the worshippers fell to the floor: "And that was the end of it. But apparently only because I was present." Radzinsky claims that in some arks, the Khlysts would at this point engage in "group sinning" – a frenzied sexual orgy, which they believed would purify them from the lusts of the flesh. Similarly, C. L. Sulzberger, in his book "The Fall of Eagles", writes that the Khlysty's "foremost idea was that salvation could be attained only by total repentance and that this became far more achievable for one who had truly transgressed. 'Sin in order that you may obtain forgiveness,' was the practical side of the Khlysty."


title: Khlysts

text: Other scholars have dismissed these rumours. Frederick Cornwallis Conybeare, referencing a study by Karl Konrad Grass, writes:


title: Khlysts

text: Historian Joseph T. Fuhrmann claims that "splinter groups practiced 'holy intercourse,' but most khlysty were devout pentecostalists who condemned such behaviour."


title: Khlysts

text: Accusations of sexual immorality pursued the sect from its earliest days, and provoked numerous government investigations.


title: Khlysts

text: In 1717, Lupkin and twenty other Khlysty were arrested in Uglich. They were held for five months, during which time they were interrogated and beaten. While some of his followers remained in custody, Lupkin managed to negotiate his own release, with the help of a 300-ruble bribe. Despite officially repenting, he continued to lead the movement until his death in 1732.


title: Khlysts

text: From 1733 to 1739, a specially-formed government commission arrested hundreds of suspected Khlyst members, charging them with participation in sexual orgies and ritual infanticide. These accusations were repeatedly denied, but the commission nevertheless convicted over three hundred people. They handed out sentences of hard labour, beatings, and mutilation of the nostrils and the tongue, and sent many of the prisoners into exile in Siberia or Orenburg.


title: Khlysts

text: However, the Khlysty were undeterred, and continued practising. Some of those who had been sent into exile began to spread the movement through Siberia. In 1745, therefore, a new commission was formed, this time using "far crueler methods of interrogation". This commission, although eliciting false confessions of sexual deviation and cannibalistic communion, and sending another 200 people into exile, likewise failed to stamp out the movement.


title: Khlysts

text: Around 1750, some doctrinal changes took place within the sect, and they became known as the Postniki ("Fasters"). The leaders of the sect were now seen as "personifications of Christ", rather than only playing host to his spirit. It was no longer considered possible for ordinary members to receive the Holy Spirit during "radenie", although the ritual still held a central position in their worship.


title: Khlysts

text: In 1840, a new splinter sect broke away from the Postniki. Calling themselves Israelites, they shortly afterwards split again into Old Israel and New Israel. The beliefs of the latter group departed considerably from the traditional teachings of the Khlysts.


title: Khlysts

text: These schisms weakened the movement, and their numbers began to decline. By the start of the twentieth century, estimates of the Khlysty's numbers ranged at around one hundred thousand. Prior to the outbreak of World War I, there were reported to be around 20,000 New Israelites, 15,000 Old Israelites and 3,000 Postniki in Russia. By the 1970s, there were only "a few isolated groups" remaining.


title: Khlysts

text: The Khlysty are said to have been "the root of all Russian sectarianism", having spawned sects such as the Skoptsy, the Dukhobors and the Molokans.


title: Khlysts

text: Grigori Rasputin was twice investigated (in 1903 and 1907) by the Tobolsk Theological Consistory, under charges of spreading Khlyst doctrine. Both investigations were closed without any evidence being found against him, but popular rumour continued to link Rasputin to the sect.


title: Khlysts

text: C. L. Sulzberger, in 1977, claimed that Rasputin "adopted the philosophy (if not proven membership)" of the Khlysts.


title: Khlysts

text: In "The Man Behind the Myth", co-authored by Rasputin's daughter Maria, it is claimed that Rasputin attended several Khlyst gatherings in the years before his arrival in St. Petersberg, but ultimately became disillusioned with the sect. The factual accuracy of this book has been called into question, and according to Brian Moynahan, Maria's story is the only evidence that Rasputin had any Khlyst connections. The consensus of modern historians is that Rasputin was never a member of the sect.


title: Chihuahua City

text: The city of Chihuahua "(La Ciudad de Chihuahua)" () is the state capital of the Mexican state of Chihuahua. , the city of Chihuahua had a population of 925,762 inhabitants. while the metropolitan area had a population of 988,065 inhabitants.


title: Chihuahua City

text: Among cities in Mexico, the city of Chihuahua is highly ranked in human and social development. According to the UNCP report on human development, Chihuahua municipality's HDI is 0.840 as of 2015 – this is equal or higher than some Western European countries, with the literacy rate in the city among the highest in the country at 99%. Another report about competitiveness from the CIDE organization ranks Chihuahua as the second most competitive city in the country just behind Monterrey and ahead of Mexico City. This report also ranks Chihuahua as the most Socially Competitive city in the country.


title: Chihuahua City

text: The predominant activity is industry, including domestic heavy, light industries, consumer goods production, and to a smaller extent "maquiladoras". The city is served by the General Roberto Fierro Villalobos International Airport.


title: Chihuahua City

text: It has been said that the name derives from the Nahuatl language, meaning "between two waters", other accepted definitions are "place of the holed-rock" or from Tarahumara, "dry and sandy place". The name itself is older than the Spanish conquest of Mexico. The city was founded on October 12, 1709, by Blas Cano de los Rios and Antonio Deza y Ulloa, a Spanish explorer, as El Real de Minas de San Francisco de Cuéllar. Don Ildefonso de Irigoyen donated the land for the city foundation. The town was erected a Villa in 1718 (or 1715) with the name of San Felipe el Real de Chihuahua, and the name was shortened in 1823.


title: Chihuahua City

text: The location was chosen because it is the intersection of the rivers Chuviscar and Sacramento. It is also the midpoint between the Río Bravo del Norte (Rio Grande) and the then-important mining city of Hidalgo del Parral. For much of the 18th century, Chihuahua served as the de facto capital of Nueva Vizcaya because most governors preferred to reside there rather than in Durango, the capital of the province at that time.


title: Chihuahua City

text: Just as in other parts of Northern Mexico, Roman Catholic missionaries were an important influence during the colonial era, and the city became a meeting point for missionaries heading to and from the 'sierra', the mountainous region in western Chihuahua State where the native Tarahumara still live.


title: Chihuahua City

text: During the War of Independence, the city saw little action. However, it was in Chihuahua where Miguel Hidalgo, considered the Father of the Country, was held prisoner in the Federal Palace of Chihuahua and executed in 1811 at the nearby Government Palace by the Spaniards.


title: Chihuahua City

text: During the Mexican–American War, Chihuahua fell to U.S. forces in 1847, after the Mexican Army was defeated at the Battle of the Sacramento, north of the city.


title: Chihuahua City

text: During the French invasion, President Benito Juárez made the city the seat of his government-in-exile from 1864 to 1867. During the presidency of Porfirio Díaz the city experienced explosive growth and became one of the most important cities in Mexico. The city became the seat for important banks and wealthy families.


title: Chihuahua City

text: The city was more involved during the Mexican Revolution (1910–1917), for it became at times the operations base for the División del Norte, the army led by Pancho Villa. Many sites and memories remain of the Revolutionary era; the most important of these is the Historical Museum of the Mexican Revolution at Villa's former estate house near downtown Chihuahua. La Quinta Luz was turned into a museum by his widow, Sra. María Luz Corral de Villa, and is now managed by the federal government.


title: Chihuahua City

text: During the 20th century, the city grew in population and learned to take advantage of its proximity with the U.S. border. Until the establishment of foreign manufacturing plants in the 1970s, the city was largely a trade post for cattle and agricultural products. During the 1990s the city grew dramatically economically, becoming the third wealthiest municipality (per capita) in the republic, after Benito Juárez borough of the Federal District (Mexico City), and San Pedro Garza García in Nuevo León.


title: Chihuahua City

text: In 2002, Mayor Jorge Barousse Moreno from the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) died and was succeeded by Alejandro Cano Ricaud. During Cano's administration, the city experienced dramatic growth in the security sector when the Police Department was certified by the ISO and surveillance aircraft bought.


title: Chihuahua City

text: Between 2002 and 2005, the city experimented with the introduction of certain new commercial innovations, like the first large mall in the city, Plaza del Sol, and the rise of the commercial Zone of the Sun, all along the Periférico de la Juventud, one of the main thoroughfares in the city.


title: Chihuahua City

text: In 2004 Juan Blanco Zaldívar, of the National Action Party (PAN), won the election for mayor (municipal president) of the city for the term 2004–2007. Since 2005, the International Festivals of Chihuahua have been celebrated by both the state and city governments during the months of September/October with art shows, plays, stage presentations and concerts by such bands as America, Foreigner, Creedence and Los Lobos being held at venues throughout the city.


title: Chihuahua City

text: Elections for mayor for the term 2007–2010 were held at the beginning of July 2007; Carlos Borruel Baquera of the PAN defeated former mayor Alejandro Cano Ricaud (PRI) by less than one-quarter of a percentage point of almost 200,000 votes cast. The turnout of registered voters, at about 41%, was the lowest in years.


title: Chihuahua City

text: In January, 2010, Mayor Carlos Borruel submitted his resignation in order to campaign for election to the office of Governor of Chihuahua. His deputy, Lic. Alvaro Guillermo Madero Muñoz, assumed the office of mayor for the balance of his term. On July 4, 2013,


title: Chihuahua City

text: In December 2015, Eugenio Baeza Fares assumed office as mayor of the City of Chihuahua, after Javier Garfio Pacheco requested licence to pursue the possibility to become the candidate for the political party PRI to Governor of the State of Chihuahua. After Garfio lost his bid for Governor Candidate, he returned and ended his period as mayor.


title: Chihuahua City

text: In July 2016, María Eugenia Campos Galván (PAN) was elected mayor. Her term started on October 10, 2016, and is expected to last for two years, with the possibility of reelection for three more years.


title: Chihuahua City

text: The origin of the city of Chihuahua begins with the discovery of the nearby mines and foundation of the population of Santa Eulalia in 1652 by Spanish captain Diego del Castillo, however; due to the climate and constant attacks of the indigenous people the exploitation was suspended and Santa Eulalia remained several years uninhabited. Some fifty years later, in 1707, more wealthy mining discoveries were made, leading to the immediate population of Santa Eulalia and its prosperity.


title: Chihuahua City

text: However, Santa Eulalia is located in the middle of a mountain range and the difficult terrain hindered the construction and expansion of the city; because of this, when in 1709 the governor of Nueva Vizcaya, Antonio de Deza y Ulloa, with the instruction to found the head of the Real de Minas visited the population, decided to convene 16 notable neighbors (miners, traders, government officials and priests) to resolve with them the desirability of setting up Santa Eulalia herself at the head of the Royal de Minas or founding for them a new population in the nearby valley where the rivers converged Rio Chuvíscar' Chuvíscar and Sacramento.


title: Chihuahua City

text: On 12 October 1709 the vote of the notables was held on the founding of the Royal de Minas, eight of them voted for establishment in Santa Eulalia itself, while the remaining eight did so for foundation in the valley. Faced with the tie, the governor Deza and Ulloa intervened with his deciding vote for foundation in the valley of the junta de los ríos; this is what is seen as the official foundation of Chihuahua and Antonio Deza and Ulloa as its founder. The new Real de Minas was founded under the name of "Real de Minas de San Francisco de Cuéllar" in honor of the then Viceroy of New Spain, Francisco Fernández de la Cueva Enríquez, 10th. Duke of Alburquerque and Marquis de Cuéllar.


title: Chihuahua City

text: The growth of the Real de Minas, driven by mines and activity of the surrounding farms continued during the colony; because of this on October 1, 1718, it stands at the Royal of San Francisco de Cuéllar in Villa, with the name of "San Felipe el Real de Chihuahua"'; Saint Philip in honor of the king Felipe V of Spain and being used for the first time the name of Chihuahua. At this time it is also solved the construction of a parish temple worthy for the village, to that end, the city council decided to impose a special tax on silver extracted from the mines of Santa Eulalia and with it was built the temple that today is the Catedra Scun. By the year 1786 the Villa de Chihuahua was a Mayor's and on April 1, 1797, the first census was lifted in the city of Chihuahua by Don Fructuoso Simón de Herrera with the following summary: 324 men, 396 women, total 720 inhabitants.


title: Chihuahua City

text: In the 18th century, an aqueduct with quarry arches pouring water into a fountain in the main square was built in the city. Then elegant houses appeared, some with wooden floors worked with rich woods brought from the mountains; these houses had orchards with fruit trees and vegetables, chicken coops and smaller cattle. Wealthy miners like the Irigoyen and Carbonel decorated their mansions with luxurious furniture, magnificent paintings, silverware and beautiful porcelain. In the name of the king of Spain came the "visitors" to investigate the morality and justice of the kingdoms and to collect taxes. They read heralds through the streets, which enacted good treatment of indigenous people; Despite this they were confined and restricted by their freedom, always being under the rule of the Spaniards, Creoles and mestizos. With this mixture of races he was writing, over the centuries, the history of the capital.


title: Chihuahua City

text: As in other parts of northern Mexico, the peregrinos Catholicism greatly influenced the colonial era, and the city became a meeting point for pilgrims on their way to "La Sierra", a mountainous region in which the indigenous people had not yet converted to Catholicism.


title: Chihuahua City

text: Also built in the city was a college run by the Society of Jesus, which built a solid building on the east end of the village, later and after the expulsion of the Jesuits, the school building was used as a barracks, prison and mint.


title: Chihuahua City

text: The information on the beginning of the Independence of Mexico movement took a long time to reach the then Villa de Chihuahua, where in practice it had no effect, because of this The Realists decided that the trial of the insurgents apprehended in Acatita de Baján will be held in Chihuahua. On April 23 the prisoners entered Chihuahua to be tried and on June 26 the insurgents Ignacio Allende, Mariano Jiménez, Juan Aldama and Manuel Santamaría are shot in the convent of San Francisco. On 30 July, don Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla was shot in the courtyards of the military hospital, a place formerly the convent of Loreto. During the rest of the war of independence the situation in Chihuahua was practically identical and without any shock.


title: Chihuahua City

text: Once independence was consummated through the Treaties of Cordoba, and after the ephemeral First Mexican Empire, on 19 July 1823 the Union Congress issued a decree dividing the former province of the New Biscay in two, the Province of Durango and the Province of Chihuahua, and pointed by capital of the latter to the Villa of San Felipe el Real de Chihuahua, which from that moment was erected in city, and was called "Chihuahua"'.


title: Chihuahua City

text: During the Mexican–American War, Chihuahua was occupied by a column of the U.S. Army under Alexander Doniphan, who came from [New Mexico], had previously occupied Santa Fe and El Paso. For the defense of Chihuahua, the Battle of Sacramento, on February 28, 1847, was enlisted with the invaders, with the full defeat of Mexican forces dispersed, the state government moved to Parral and March 1 the U.S. military occupied the city.


title: Chihuahua City

text: On March 7, 1848, the second occupation of the Anglo-Americans occurred and Governor Trías evacuated Chihuahua and was occupied by the invading chief Sterling Price. This situation lasted until 25 July, when the capital was evicted by the invaders. The legitimate authorities resettled in their official residence on 14 August of the same year.


title: Chihuahua City

text: On January 4, 1858, within the War of Reformation, which generally dominated the liberal party with the exception of two short seasons in which the conservatives occupied the capital by armed hands, Lieutenant Colonel Bruno Arriada and Mr. Juan N. Bárcenas seduced the garrison forces, proclaimed the Tacubaya Plan and set a half-hour deadline for the governor, Mr. Antonio Ochoa, to sign his accession. He retired to Aldama, gathered the national guard under the command of Colonel José Esteban crowned and the next 19 recaptured the capital.


title: Chihuahua City

text: On May 5, 1862, Don Mariano Sáenz built at his expense the first building specifically intended for theater, was called "Teatro de Zaragoza", was located in the street of La Libertad, near the current Plaza de Merino and premiered with the play "Los French in Mexico." On September 15, 1877, it was inaugurated by the governor of the state, General Angel Trías the "Teatro Betancourt", located in the street of La Libertad, built by the Jalisciense Don Miguel Betancourt, who was located in Chihuahua for more than twenty years. With a celebration of the "Scream of Independence", it lasted until May 27, 1904, when it was destroyed by fire. The "Coronado Theatre" opens, which was in ojinaga street and also disappeared from a fire. Mr. Betancourt built it.


title: Chihuahua City

text: On 12 October 1864, the head of the Federal Executive Power, Mr. Benito Juárez, arrived in the city on the occasion of the events of the French intervention and the empire. He was accompanied by his Secretaries of State, dispatched to the official residence of the state government. It remained until August 5, 1865, when it took the northern way; returned to the capital on 20 November and returned to the border on 9 December. The last season remained in Chihuahua from 17 June to 10 December 1866. At this time the 3 ships that overlook the now Victoria Street, part of the Municipal Palace, were sold to support the expenses demanded by the movement of troops on the occasion of the departure of President Juárez and his Ministers in the direction of Paso del Norte.


title: Chihuahua City

text: At the time of the Reformation it was in fact, for two years, capital of the Republic and seat of the Federal Powers, as the former Government Palace, today Museo Casa Juárez, became from 1864 to 1866, the National Palace and the residence of President Benito Juáre z and their ministers.


title: Chihuahua City

text: On March 25, 1866, a battle was set in the Plaza de Armas, the French imperialists were quartered in the Cathedral and General Terrazas was moving through Victoria and Independence streets, it was practically impossible to enter the cathedral, until it was decided that it would be cannoned and from Coronado and Ocampo streets they did, the 8 kg bullet. weight fell just in the bell breaking it in half, after this fact the French went out to surrender and recovered the city. The bell was declared by the city hall historical monument and still today can be seen inside Cathedral.


title: Chihuahua City

text: In 1875, the images began to be reproduced on paper or cardboard, based on the daguerreotype, and because in 1863 the Anglo-American Henry W. Barquer was established and on March 2, 1876, the telegraph was inaugurated in the short stretch between the government house (J street) not uarez. 321) and the stage station called "La Despedida" (Bolívar and 10a walk) On April 23, the service between Chihuahua and Rosales was inaugurated and in August 1877 with Mexico City. The city's first telegraphist was named Francisco Hernández.


title: Chihuahua City

text: On June 2, 1876, Colonel Angel Trías rebelled in favor of the Tuxtepec Plan, seize the capital and take the constitutional governor, Lic. Antonio Ochoa, prisoner. The term-appointed surrogate, Manuel de Herrera, dispatched successively in Cusihuiriachi, Guerrero and Camargo, raised the national guard and joined the government troops. Defeated by the Porphyrists at the Avalos ranch on 19 September, the legitimate authorities resumed the exercise of their duties in the capital.


title: Chihuahua City

text: On February 6, 1877, General Juan B. Camaño, at the head of a Tuxtepecana brigade, occupied the capital, deposed the constitutional authorities, assumed the political and military command of the state and began the new era.


title: Chihuahua City

text: On May 5, 1881, the first telephone line was inaugurated by Félix Francisco Maceyra, manager of Banco Mexicano. This line was between the bank offices, corner of Independencia Avenue and Victoria Street and the address of the mint, located where the Federal Palace is located. Three years later there were a hundred and fifty urban service aircraft and the long-distance aircraft began operating on 1 April 1930. On March 24, 1883, the first telephone communication of two populations was established, were Chihuahua and Aldama. In 1884, the Chihuahua telephone company was founded.


title: Chihuahua City

text: In 1882, as governor, General Luis Terrazas, the installation of the metal pipe was started, which gradually spread and branched. Auxiliary lime and singing ditches and piles and fountains were disappearing from the city grounds.


title: Chihuahua City

text: On September 16, 1882, the first section of the railway line, from Juárez to Chihuahua, built by Ferrocarril Central Mexicano, was inaugurated, which since 1909 belonged to the system of the National Railways of Mexico. On March 8, 1884, communication was opened to Mexico City and on the 23rd passenger and freight trains began to run.


title: Chihuahua City

text: In 1883, the first typewriters were established by the main commercial houses. They began to be used in public offices in 1891, during the local administration of Colonel Lauro Carrillo.


title: Chihuahua City

text: At the end of 1884, the first line of urban trams was inaugurated between Plaza de la Constitución and the primitive station of the National Railways. They moved by shooting beasts, then, in August 1908, they moved with electric force. They disappeared in early 1922.


title: Chihuahua City

text: On September 11, 1891, the Government Palace of Chihuahua was completed by Governor Carrillo. However, the official inauguration was on 1 June 1892 by the same governor.


title: Chihuahua City

text: The report published by the Directorate General of Statistics gave the city of Chihuahua, in 1895, the number of 19,520 people.