title: Copenhagen Metro

text: The decision to build stage 2, from Nørreport to Vanløse, and stage 3, to the airport, was taken by Parliament on 21 December 1994. Stage 2 involved the establishment of the company Frederiksbergbaneselskabet I/S in February 1995, owned 70% by the Ørestad Development Corporation and 30% by Frederiksberg Municipality. The third stage would be built by Østamagerbaneselskabet I/S, established in September 1995 and owned 55% by the Ørestad Development Corporation and 45% by Copenhagen County. In October 1996, a contract was signed with the Copenhagen Metro Construction Group (COMET) for building the lines (Civil Works), and with Ansaldo STS for delivery of technological systems and trains, and to operate the system the first five years. COMET was a single-purpose consortium composed of Astaldi, Bachy, SAE, Ilbau, NCC Rasmussen & Schiøtz Anlæg and Tarmac Construction.


title: Copenhagen Metro

text: Construction started in November 1996, with the moving of underground pipes and wires around the station areas. In August 1997, work started at the depot, and in September, COMET started the first mainline work. In October and November, the two tunnel boring machines (TBM), christened Liva and Betty, were delivered. They started boring each barrel of the tunnel from Islands Brygge in February 1998. The same month, the Public Transport Authority gave the necessary permits to operate a driverless metro. The section between Fasanvej and Frederiksberg is a former S-train line, and was last operated as such on 20 June 1998.


title: Copenhagen Metro

text: The first section of tunnel was completed in September 1998, and the TBMs moved to Havnegade. By December 1998, work had started on the initial nine stations. Plans for M2 were presented to the public in April 1999, with a debate emerging if the proposed elevated solution was the best. In May, the first trains were delivered, and trial runs began at the depot. In December, the tunnels were completed to Strandlodsvej, and the TBMs were moved to Havnegade, where they started to grind towards Frederiksberg. From 1 January 2000, the S-train service from Solbjerg to Vanløse was terminated, and work commenced to rebuild the section to metro. The last section of tunnel was completed in February 2001.


title: Copenhagen Metro

text: In March 2001, Copenhagen County Council decided to start construction of stage 3. On 6 November 2001, the first train operated through a tunnel section. On 28 November, laying of tracks along stage 1, and stage 2A from Nørreport to Frederiksberg, was completed. An agreement about financing stage 3 was reached on 12 April. By 22 May, the 18 delivered trains had test-run . The section from Nørreport to Lergravsparken and Vestamager was opened on 19 October 2002. Initially, the system had a 12-minute headway on each of the two services. From 3 December this was reduced to 9 minutes, and from 19 December to 6 minutes. Operation of the system was subcontracted to Ansaldo, who again subcontracted it to Metro Service, a subsidiary of Serco. The contract had a duration of five years, with an option for extension for another three.


title: Copenhagen Metro

text: Trial runs on stage 2A began on 24 February 2003 and opened on 29 May. All changes to bus and train schedules in Copenhagen took place on 25 May, but to allow Queen Margrethe II to open the line, the opening needed to be adapted to her calendar. This caused four days without a bus service along the line. Stage 2B, from Frederiksberg to Vanløse, opened on 12 October.


title: Copenhagen Metro

text: Forum Station was nominated for the European Union Prize for Contemporary Architecture in 2005. On 2 December 2005, the final agreement to build the City Circle Line was made between the local and national governments. The price was estimated at 11.5 to 18.3 billion Danish krone (DKK), of which DKK 5.4 billion will be financed though ticket sales, and the remaining from the state and municipalities. In 2006, it was announced that the contract with Ansaldo to operate the metro had been prolonged another three years. However, the subcontract between Ansaldo and Serco Group was not extended, and the contract was instead given to Azienda Trasporti Milanesi in joint venture with Ansaldo; they took over operations from October 2007. The Ørestad Development Corporation was discontinued in 2007, and the ownership of the metro was transferred to Metroselskabet I/S.


title: Copenhagen Metro

text: In January 2007, the city council decided that a branch was to be built during construction at Nørrebro, to allow a future branch line from the City Circle Line towards Brønshøj. The first part of this line was intended to be constructed at the same time as the City Circle Line, to avoid a multitude-higher construction cost and long interruptions of operations later. This did not involve a final decision, only an option for future construction. The Herlev/Brønshøj line was ultimately dropped as the City of Copenhagen withdrew its share of the cost of the Nørrebro branch chamber in its 2009 budget, and the state refused to continue the project. Any branch to the Herlev / Brønshøj region would now require a shutdown of the City Circle Line for an extended period of time.


title: Copenhagen Metro

text: In March 2007, a proposal to establish a station at Valby, where the Carlsberg Group is planning an urban redevelopment, was scrapped. The proposal would have increased construction costs by DKK 900 million and was deemed not economical. The increased cost was, in part, due to an extra TBM being needed to complete the project on time. The City Circle Line was passed by parliament on 1 June 2007, with only the Red–Green Alliance voting in disfavor.


title: Copenhagen Metro

text: The stage 3 opened on 28 September 2007, from Lergravsparken to the airport. It followed, for the most part, the route of the former Amager Line of the Danish State Railways. With this stage complete, the 34 trains were delivered for use by the M1 and M2. However, the line caused a heated debate, with several locals organized themselves into the Amager Metro Group. The group argued that the line should have been built underground, citing concerns that it would create noise pollution and a physical barrier in Amager. In April 2008, the Copenhagen Metro won the award at MetroRail 2008 for the world's best metro. The jury noted the system's high regularity, safety and passenger satisfaction, as well as the efficient transport to the airport. During 2008, the metro experienced a 16% passenger growth to 44 million passengers per year.


title: Copenhagen Metro

text: Initially, the system operated trains from 01:00 to 05:00 only on Thursdays through Saturdays, but, starting on 19 March 2009, night service was extended to the rest of the week. This caused a logistical challenge, because Metro Service used the nights for maintenance. The routes were therefore set up in such a way that the system could be operated on only a single track, leaving the other free for work. In May 2009, six companies were pre-qualified to bid for the public service obligation to operate the metro. These were Serco-NedRailways, Ansaldo STS, Arriva, S-Bahn Hamburg, Keolis and DSB Metro—a joint venture between DSB and RATP. The process was delayed because of a procedural error by Metroselskabet, who failed to pre-qualify DSB Metro.


title: Copenhagen Metro

text: An expansion of the metro, the City Circle Line, is current and opened on 29 September 2019. Independent of the existing system, it circles the city centre and connects the areas of Østerbro, Nørrebro and Vesterbro to Frederiksberg and Indre By. The line is long and runs entirely in tunnel. The circle has 17 stations, two of which are interchanges with both the M1 and M2 lines, as well with three Copenhagen S-train stations. It takes 25 minutes to complete a full lap in either direction. Archaeological and geological surveys started in 2007, preferred bidders were announced in November 2010 and contracts were signed in 2011. Preparations began by moving utilities etc. in 2010, and construction of work sites and stations began in 2011. Drilling of tunnels began in 2013. On 7 January 2011 the new project called Cityringen started with the signing of new contracts by Metroselskabet, with Ansaldo Breda and Ansaldo Sts (Finmeccanica Group) for the supply of trains and control systems and with an Italian joint-venture led by Salin Construttori (about 60%) and Tecnimont (about 40%) with Seli as third partner for the construction part. In July 2013, Natur- og Miljøklagenævnet, the environmental appeals board, ruled that the city was wrong to grant Metroselskabet permission for 24-hour work days and noise levels of up to 78 db at the Marmorkirken site. This forced construction to stop work at 6PM until a final ruling was made, thus delaying the completion date.


title: Copenhagen Metro

text: The City Circle Line is serviced by lines M3 and M4. The M3 opened by 29 September 2019, and its trains operate on the entire circle in either direction. The M3 has transfers to M1 and M2 at Frederiksberg and Kongens Nytorv. The line is estimated to carry 240,000 daily passengers, bringing the metro's total daily ridership to 460,000.


title: Copenhagen Metro

text: The M4 was opened on 28 March 2020 when two additional stations were opened in the Nordhavn district. This line running from Copenhagen Central Station (København H) via Østerport to Orientkaj station in Nordhavn, thus sharing six stations with the M3 and featuring two additional Nordhavn stations. The M4 line is interchange with the M1 and M2 at Kongens Nytorv.


title: Copenhagen Metro

text: An extension to the Sydhavn district is expected to open by 2024 and will also be served by the M4. The addition of this line will relocate the M4's southern terminus from Copenhagen Central Station to Ny Ellebjerg.


title: Copenhagen Metro

text: A northwestern expansion of the City Circle Line was planned, where M4 would have diverted at Nørrebro and run to the suburbs of Brønshøj and Gladsaxe. This project was abandoned, as the interchange chamber between any such line and the City Circle Line was scrapped as part of the City of Copenhagen's 2009 budget. In subsequent plans, the northern extension of the M4 was instead relocated as a Nordhavn branch which connects with the City Circle Line at Østerport. The Nordhavn extension with two stations opened on 28 March 2020. The southern extension of the M4 will run from Copenhagen Central Station through Sydhavn to Ny Ellebjerg, where the M4 will link up with the S-train and regional train system. The Danish Transport Authority (Trafikstyrelsen) has suggested converting the F-line of the S-train network to metro standard as an M5 line. If the M5 line becomes reality, it will connect with existing lines at Flintholm Station (interchange with M1 and M2), Nørrebro station (interchange with M3), and the future Ny Ellebjerg station (interchange with M4).


title: Copenhagen Metro

text: The fourth line, M4 or the Harbour line, shares the track with the M3 between Copenhagen Central Station and Østerport station (six stations shared).


title: Copenhagen Metro

text: An additional extension to the M4 is under construction: service the southern (Sydhavn) harbour district in Copenhagen. The completed M4 between Orientkaj and Ny Ellebjerg will feature 13 stations.


title: Copenhagen Metro

text: The northern extension, Nordhavn station and Orientkaj station, both begun service on 28 March 2020. The southern extension will add five additional stops to the M4, with its southern terminus moving from Copenhagen Central Station to Ny Ellebjerg. This line will service the southern harbour district and is expected to open by 2024.


title: Copenhagen Metro

text: As of 2019, the M1 and M2 has a total of 22 stations. After opening of the City Circle Line, the metro system is featured 3 lines with a total of 37 stations. Upon completion of both extensions of the M4, the system will feature four lines with 44 stations. 8 of these will be interchanges with the S-train.


title: Copenhagen Metro

text: Many new lines have been discussed. Initially Line M4 was supposed to supplement the circular M3 on the eastern side of the Inner City between Nørrebro station and Copenhagen Central Station. At this time, an extension was suggested from Nørrebro to the northwestern suburbs with a terminus at Husum station. This was abandoned as the City of Copenhagen rejected funding interchange chamber under Nørrebro station necessary for this extension. Instead, the city preferred the M4 to branch at Østerport station to facilitate development of the Nordhavn harbour area.


title: Copenhagen Metro

text: The "M5"-label appears to having been reserved for a potential future conversion of Line F of the Copenhagen S-train to metro standard. In 2011, the City of Copenhagen suggested two additional lines M6 and M7, the M6 linking the northwestern suburbs and central Amager and the M7 forming a second ring line further east than the M3, and a western extension of the M1 or M2 to Brøndbyøster was also suggested. In 2017, the city of Copenhagen suggested a new M6 line connecting Brønshøj and Refshaleøen via Copenhagen Central Station. In 2018, the government and the city agreed on plans to construct an artificial island, Lynetteholmen north of Refshaleøen, and the city included its plans to link Copenhagen Central Station and Refshaleøen in this discussion.


title: Copenhagen Metro

text: As of January 2018, no further development will be done after the construction of the Harbour line, or Line M4. Between Ny Ellebjerg station and Orientkaj in the Nordhavn area, except for a few more stations northeast of Orientkaj.


title: Copenhagen Metro

text: In September 2011, the city of Copenhagen and neighbouring Malmö in Sweden announced that they were seeking European Union funding to study a potential metro line under the Øresund to the neighbourhood of Malmö Central Station, providing faster trips and additional capacity beyond that of the existing Øresund Bridge. The study, for which the EU granted funding in the following December, will consider both a simple shuttle between the two stations and a continuous line integrated with the local transport networks on each side, and they anticipate a travel time of 15 minutes between the two city centers. Work on the study is expected to continue until 2020.


title: Copenhagen Metro

text: The metro consists of four lines, M1, M2, M3 and M4. M1 and M2 share a common section from Vanløse to Christianshavn, where they split along two lines: M1 follows the Ørestad Line to Vestamager, while M2 follows the Østamager Line to the airport. The metro consists of a total route length of , and 22 stations, 9 of which are on the section shared by both lines. M1 is long and serves 15 stations, while M2 is long and serves 16 stations. About of the lines and 9 stations are in tunnel, located at below ground level. The remaining sections are on embankments, viaducts or at ground level.


title: Copenhagen Metro

text: The section from Vanløse to Frederiksberg follows the Frederiksberg Line, a former S-train line which runs on an embankment. From Fasanvej station, the line runs underground, and continues this way through the city center. After Christianshavn, the line splits in two. M1 reaches ground level at Islands Brygge, and continues on a viaduct through the Vestamager area. M2 continues in tunnel until after Lergravsparken, where it starts to follow the former Amager Line.


title: Copenhagen Metro

text: The tunnels consist of two parallel tunnels; that run through stable limestone at about depth, but are elevated slightly at each station. There are emergency exits every , so that no train is ever further than from an exit. The outer tunnel diameter is , while the inner diameter is . The tunnels were excavated by the cut-and-cover method, the New Austrian Tunnelling method and by tunnel boring machines (TBM). Along the elevated sections, the tracks run on alternating sections of separate reinforced concrete viaducts and joint embankments made of reinforced earth.


title: Copenhagen Metro

text: M3 is a 15.5-kilometre (9.63 mi) looping line which serves 17 stations. Including Frederiksberg and Kongens Nytorv which also serve M1 and M2. A full trip around the line takes approximately 29 minutes.


title: Copenhagen Metro

text: The M4 line serves 8 operational stations. 6 of which are an extention of the M3 line. It branches off the M3 line at Østerport continuing to Orientkaj. 5 additional stations are planned for the line. Estimated to be built in 2024 this section of the line will branch of the M3 line at København H and terminate at København Syd (until 2024 named Ny Ellebjerg)


title: Copenhagen Metro

text: The system operates 24/7 with a varying headway throughout the day. During rush hour (07:00–10:00 and 15:00–18:00), there is a two-minute headway on the common section and a four-minute headway on the single-service sections. During Thursday through Saturday night (0:00–05:00) on the M1 and M2 lines there is a seven/eight-minute headway on the common section and a fifteen-minute headway on the single-service sections, and other nights it is twenty-minutes on all sections of the metro. At all other times, there is a three-minute headway on the common section and a six-minute on the single-service sections. Travel time from Nørreport to Vestamager on M1 is 14 minutes, to the airport on M2 is 15 minutes, and to Vanløse on M1 and M2 is 9 minutes. During rush hour (07:00–10:00 and 15:00–18:00), on the M3 (Cityringen) there is a three-minute headway.


title: Copenhagen Metro

text: During Thursday through Saturday night (0:00–05:00) on M3 there is a six-minute headway (one direction), while in the weekend it is twelve-minutes (two directions). At all other times, there is a four/five-minute headway. Travel time of the Cityringen M3 is 29 minutes.


title: Copenhagen Metro

text: During Thursday through Saturday night (0:00–05:00) on the M4 there is a twelve minute headway between Osterport and Orientkaj stations, while in the weekend it is a ten minute headway between Kobenhavn H Central Station and Orientkaj Station. At all other times, there is a six/ten-minute headway. Travel time of the M4 is 12 minutes (only 3 minutes late night between Osterport and Orientkaj stations). In 2009, the metro transported 50 million passengers, or 137,000 per day; by 2013, the metro's ridership increased to 55 million.


title: Copenhagen Metro

text: The metro operates with a proof-of-payment system, so riders must have a valid ticket before entering the station platforms. The system is divided into zones, and the fare structure is integrated with other public transport in Copenhagen, including the buses managed by Movia, local DSB trains and the S-train. The system lies within four different zones. Ticket machines are available at all stations, where special tickets for dogs and bicycles can also be purchased. A two-zone ticket costs DKK 24, and a three-zone ticket DKK 36, and tickets are good for 60 minutes. Holders of the Copenhagen Card museum pass ride free of charge, as do up to two children under twelve years of age accompanied by an adult. As of 2012, the metro has fully adapted to the national electronic fare card system Rejsekort. Outside the Central zones, the outer zones are divided into sub-zones and ticketing can be a bit confusing for visitors familiar with how zones work in London or Berlin. Passengers must specify, on their ticket which sub-zone they wish to travel to.


title: Copenhagen Metro

text: The system is integrated with other public transport in Copenhagen. There is transfer to the S-train at Vanløse, Flintholm and Nørreport, to DSB's local trains at Nørreport, Ørestad and Lufthavnen, and to Copenhagen Airport at Lufthavnen. There are transfers to Movia bus services at all but four stations.


title: Copenhagen Metro

text: The system is owned by Metroselskabet, who is also responsible for building the City Circle Line. The company is owned by Copenhagen Municipality (50.0%), the Ministry of Transport (41.7%) and Frederiksberg Municipality (8.3%). The company is organized with as few employees as possible. Construction and operation is subcontracted through public tenders, while consultants are used for planning. The contract to operate the system was made with Ansaldo STS, who has subcontracted it to Metro Service, a joint venture between them and Azienda Trasporti Milanesi (ATM), the public transport company of the city of Milan, Italy. The company has 285 employees, the majority of whom work as stewards.


title: Copenhagen Metro

text: There are 37 stations on the network. Of the initial 22 stations on lines M1 and M2, nine are underground and six of these are deep-level. They were all designed by KHR Arkitekter, who created open stations with daylight. Stations have an information column in front, marked with a large 'M' and featuring information screens. All stations have a vestibule at ground level, which has ticket and local information, ticket machines and validators. The stations are built with island platforms and are fully accessible for people with disabilities.


title: Copenhagen Metro

text: The deep-level stations are built as rectangular, open boxes long, wide and deep. The platforms are located below the surface. Access to the surface is reached via escalators and elevators. The design allows the stations to be located below streets and squares, allowing the stations to be built without expropriation. Access to the track is blocked by platform screen doors. The underground stations on M1 and M2 were built as cut-and-cover from the top down (except Christianshavn, which was excavated as a large hole and the station built bottom-up), and the first part of construction was building a water-tight wall on all sides. There are glass pyramids on the roof of the stations permitting daylight to enter. Inside the pyramids, there are prisms reflecting and splitting the light, sometimes resulting in rainbows on the walls. The light in the stations is automatically regulated to make best use of the daylight and maintain a constant level of illumination of the stations at all times.


title: Copenhagen Metro

text: The elevated stations are built in glass, concrete and steel to minimize their visual impact. Outside, there is parking for bicycles, cars, buses and taxis. Access to the trains are blocked by platform screen doors.


title: Copenhagen Metro

text: The system uses 64 driverless electric multiple units built by Hitachi Rail Italy and designed by Giugiaro Design of Italy called the Hitachi Rail Italy Driverless Metro.


title: Copenhagen Metro

text: The trains are long, wide, and weigh . Each train consists of three articulated cars with a total of six automated, wide doors, holding up to 96 seated and 204 standing passengers (300 in total). There are four large 'flex areas' in each train with folding seats providing space for wheelchairs, strollers and bicycles.


title: Copenhagen Metro

text: Each car is equipped with two three-phase asynchronous motors, giving each train a power output of . In each car, the two motors are fed by the car's own IGBT motor drive. They transform the 750-volt direct current collected from the third rail shoe to the three-phase alternating current used in the motors. The trains' top speed are , while the average service speed is , with an acceleration and deceleration capacity of 1.3 m/s (4.3 ft/s) along the standard-gauge track.


title: Copenhagen Metro

text: The entire metro system and the trains are run by a fully automated computer system, located at the two Control and Maintenance Centers, south of Vestamager Station (M1 + M2), and at Sydhavnen (M3 + M4). The automatic train control (ATC) consists of three subsystems: automatic train protection (ATP), automatic train operation (ATO) and automatic train supervisory (ATS). The ATP is responsible for keeping the trains' speed, ensuring that doors are closed before departure and switches are correctly set. The system uses fixed block signaling, except around stations, where moving block signaling is used.


title: Copenhagen Metro

text: The ATO is the autopilot that runs the trains on a predefined schedule, ensures that the trains stop at the station and open the doors. The ATS keeps track of all the components in the network, including the rails and all of the trains in the system, and displays a live schematic at the control center. The ATC is designed so that the ATP is the only safety-critical system, as it would halt the trains if the other systems fail. The safety and signaling specifications are based on the German BOStrab, and controlled by TÜV Rheinland and Det Norske Veritas under supervision of the Public Transport Authority. Other aspects of the system, such as power supply, ventilation, security alarms, cameras and pumps, are controlled by a system called "control, regulating and surveillance".


title: Copenhagen Metro

text: The Control and Maintenance Center is a facility located at the south end of M1. It consists of a storage area for trains not in use, a maintenance area and the control facility. Trains operate automatically through the system, and can also automatically be washed on the exterior. The facility has of track, of which is a test track for use after maintenance. The most common repairs are wheel grinding; more complicated repairs are made by replacing entire components that are sent to the manufacturer. By having components in reserve, trains can have shorter maintenance time. The depot also has several maintenance trains, including diesel locomotives that are able to retrieve broken down or disabled trains.


title: Copenhagen Metro

text: At any time, there are four or five people working at the control center: two monitor the ATC system, one monitors passenger information, and one is responsible for secondary systems, such as power supply. In case of technical problems, there is always a team of linepeople that can be dispatched to perform repairs. Although the trains are not equipped with drivers, there are stewards at stations and on most trains that help passengers, perform ticket controls and assist in emergency situations.


title: Philip V of France

text: Philip V (c. 1293 – 3 January 1322), known as the Tall (), was King of France and Navarre (as Philip II) from 1316 to 1322.


title: Philip V of France

text: Philip was the second son of King Philip IV of France and Queen Joan I of Navarre. He was granted an appanage, the County of Poitiers, while his elder brother, Louis X, inherited the French and Navarrese thrones. When Louis died in 1316, he left a daughter and a pregnant wife, Clementia of Hungary. Philip the Tall successfully claimed the regency. Queen Clementia gave birth to a boy, who was proclaimed king as John I, but the infant king lived only for five days.


title: Philip V of France

text: At the death of his nephew, Philip immediately had himself crowned at Reims. However, his legitimacy was challenged by the party of Louis X's daughter Joan. Philip V successfully contested her claims for a number of reasons, including her youth, doubts regarding her paternity (her mother was involved in the Tour de Nesle Affair), and the Estates General's determination that women should be excluded from the line of succession to the French throne. The succession of Philip, instead of Joan, set the precedent for the French royal succession that would be known as the Salic law.


title: Philip V of France

text: Philip restored somewhat good relations with the County of Flanders, which had entered into open rebellion during his father's rule, but simultaneously his relations with his brother-in-law Edward II of England worsened as Edward, who was also Duke of Guyenne, initially refused to pay him homage. A spontaneous popular crusade started in Normandy in 1320 aiming to liberate the Iberian Peninsula from the Moors. Instead the angry populace marched to the south attacking castles, royal officials, priests, lepers, and Jews. Philip engaged in a series of domestic reforms intended to improve the management of the kingdom. These reforms included the creation of an independent Court of Finances, the standardization of weights and measures, and the establishment of a single currency.


title: Philip V of France

text: In 1307 Philip married Joan II, Countess of Burgundy, with whom he had four daughters. The couple produced no male heirs, however, so when Philip died from dysentery in 1322, he was succeeded by his younger brother Charles IV.


title: Philip V of France

text: Philip was born in Lyon, the second son of King Philip IV of France and Queen Joan I of Navarre. His father granted to him the county of Poitiers in appanage. Modern historians have described Philip V as a man of "considerable intelligence and sensitivity", and the "wisest and politically most apt" of Philip IV's three sons. Philip was influenced by the troubles and unrest that his father had encountered during 1314, as well as by the difficulties his older brother, Louis X, known as "the Quarreler", had faced during the intervening few years. At the heart of the problems for both Philip IV and Louis X were taxes and the difficulty in raising them outside of crises.


title: Philip V of France

text: Philip married Joan of Burgundy, the eldest daughter of Otto IV, Count of Burgundy and Mahaut, Countess of Artois, on 21 January 1307. The original plan had been for Louis X to marry Joan, but this was altered after Louis was engaged to Margaret of Burgundy. Modern scholars have found little evidence as to whether the marriage was a happy one, but the pair had a considerable number of children in a short space of time, and Philip was exceptionally generous to Joan by the standards of the day. Philip went to great lengths not only to endow Joan with lands and money but to try to ensure that these gifts were irrevocable in the event of his early death. Amongst the various gifts were a palace, villages, additional money for jewels, and her servants and the property of all the Jews in Burgundy, which he gave to Joan in 1318.


title: Philip V of France

text: Joan was implicated in Margaret's adultery case during 1314; Margaret was accused and convicted of adultery with two knights, upon the testimony of their sister-in-law, Isabella. Joan was suspected of having secretly known about the adultery; placed under house arrest at Dourdan as punishment, it was then implied that Joan was guilty of adultery herself. With Philip's support she continued to protest her innocence, and by 1315 her name had been cleared by the Paris Parlement, partially through Philip's influence, and she was allowed to return to court. It is unclear why Philip stood by her in the way that he did. One theory has been that he was concerned that if he were to abandon Joan, he might also lose Burgundy; another theory suggests that his slightly "formulaic" love letters to his wife should be taken at face value, and that he was in fact very deeply in love.


title: Philip V of France

text: Philip's older brother, Louis X, died in 1316 leaving the pregnant Clementia of Hungary as his widow. There were several potential candidates for the role of regent, including Charles of Valois and Duke Odo IV of Burgundy, but Philip successfully outmanoeuvred them, being appointed regent himself. Philip remained as regent for the remainder of the pregnancy and for a few days after the birth of his nephew John I, who lived for only five days.


title: Philip V of France

text: What followed the death of John I was unprecedented in the history of the Capetian kings of France. For the first time, the king of France died without a son. The heir to the throne was now a subject of some dispute. Joan, the remaining daughter of Louis X by Margaret of Burgundy, was one obvious candidate, but suspicion still hung over her as a result of the scandal in 1314, including concerns over her actual parentage.


title: Philip V of France

text: With only his niece between himself and the throne, Philip engaged in some rapid political negotiations and convinced Charles of Valois, who along with Odo IV was championing Joan's rights, to switch sides and support him instead. In exchange for marrying Philip's daughter, Odo IV abandoned his niece's cause, not only her claim to the French throne but also her claim to Navarre's. On 9 January 1317, with Charles's support, Philip was hastily crowned at Rheims. The majority of the nobility, however, refused to attend. There were demonstrations in Champagne, Artois, and Burgundy, and Philip called a rapid assembly of the nobility on 2 February in Paris. Philip laid down the principle that Joan, as a woman, could not inherit the throne of France, played heavily upon the fact that he was now the anointed king, and consolidated what some authors have described as his effective "usurpation" of power. The exclusion of women, and later of their male descendants, was later popularized as the Salic law by the Valois monarchy. Joan, however, did accede in 1328 to the throne of Navarre, which did not hold to the Salic law.


title: Philip V of France

text: The next year, Philip continued to strengthen his position. He married his eldest daughter Joan to the powerful Odo IV, bringing the Duke over to his own party. Philip then built his reign around the notion of reform – "reclaiming rights, revenues and territories" that had been wrongly lost to the crown in recent years.


title: Philip V of France

text: Domestically, Philip proved a "strong and popular" king, despite inheriting an uncertain situation and an ongoing sequence of poor harvests. He followed in the steps of his father, Philip IV, in trying to place the French crown on a solid fiscal footing and revoked many of the unpopular decisions of his predecessor and older brother, Louis X. He also instituted government reforms, reformed the currency and worked to standardise weights and measures. Amongst Philip's key appointments was the later cardinal Pierre Bertrand, who would play a key role in successive French royal governments in subsequent years.


title: Philip V of France

text: In 1317, Philip reissued an act first passed by his father, in 1311, condemning the alienation and theft of royal resources and offices in the provinces. By 1318, his political situation strengthened, Philip went further, setting out in a new act a distinction between the French royal domain – the core set of lands and titles that belonged permanently to the crown – and those lands and titles that had been forfeited to the crown for one reason or another. If the French crown was to bestow or grant new lands to nobles, Philip declared, they would usually be given only from the second source: this was a double-edged announcement, at once reinforcing the core, unalienable powers of the crown, whilst also reassuring nobles that their lands were sacrosanct unless they were forfeited to the crown in punishment for a crime or misdemeanour. Philip was responsible for the creation of the "cours des comptes" in 1320, a court responsible for auditing the royal accounts to ensure proper payment; the courts still exist today. In practice, Philip did not entirely keep to his self-declared principles on grants of royal lands and titles, but he was far more conservative in such matters than his immediate predecessors.


title: Philip V of France

text: Philip was able to achieve a successful resolution of the ongoing Flanders problem. The Count of Flanders ruled an "immensely wealthy state", which largely led an autonomous existence on the edge of the French state. The French king was generally regarded as having suzerainty over Flanders, but in recent years the relationship had become strained. Philip IV had been defeated at Courtrai in 1302 attempting to reassert French control, and despite the later French victory at the Battle of Mons-en-Pévèle the relationship remained tense.


title: Philip V of France

text: Robert III of Flanders had continued to resist France militarily, but by Philip's accession to the throne had found himself increasingly isolated politically in Flanders itself. Meanwhile, the French position had become strained by the need to maintain a wartime footing. Louis X had prohibited exports of grain and other material to Flanders in 1315, resulting in a profitable smuggling industry that in turn discouraged legal trade with the French crown along the border region; Louis was forced to directly requisition food for his forces, resulting in a string of complaints from local lords and the Church. Philip began to reinstate a proper recompensation scheme in 1317, but the situation remained unstable.


title: Philip V of France

text: Both Philip and Robert turned away from seeking a military solution in favour of a political compromise. Accordingly, Robert made an accommodation with Philip in June 1320, under which Robert would confirm his young grandson, Louis, as his designated heir, in return for Louis being pledged in marriage to Philip's second daughter, Margaret. This would provide Robert, and then Louis, with strong French support within Flanders. Louis was, to a great extent, already under Philip's influence. Louis had been brought up in Nevers in central France, and at Philip's court. and was culturally effectively a French prince. This arrangement was a considerable success for Philip's policy, although over time Louis' clear French loyalties and lack of political links within Flanders itself would lead to political upheaval and peasant revolt.


title: Philip V of France

text: Philip also faced difficulties with Edward II of England. Like the Count of Flanders, Edward in his role as the ruler of Gascony owed homage to the king of France, but as a king in his own right, and as the head of a largely autonomous Gascon province, was disinclined to do so. Edward had not given homage to Louis X, and initially declined to do so to Philip, who had a reputation as being more favourable to the English than Louis X. In 1319 Philip allowed Edward to give homage by proxy, an honour by the standards of the day, but expected him to do so in person in 1320. Edward arrived in Amiens to do so, only to find that Philip was now insisting that Edward also give an oath of personal fealty to him – an act going beyond that of normal feudal homage. Edward gave homage but refused to swear fealty; nonetheless, this marked a period of increased French pressure on England over Gascony.


title: Philip V of France

text: Philip was also to play a role in the ongoing crusade movement during the period. Pope John XXII, the second of the Avignon popes, had been elected at a conclave assembled in Lyons during 1316 by Philip himself, and set out his renewed desire to see fresh crusades. Philip IV had agreed to a joint plan for a new French-led crusade at the Council of Vienne in 1312, with his son Philip, a "committed crusader," taking the cross himself in 1313. Once king himself, Philip was obligated to carry out these plans and asked John for and received additional funds after 1316. Both Philip and John agreed, however, that a French crusade was impossible whilst the military situation in Flanders remained unstable. Nonetheless, John continued to assure the Armenians that Philip would shortly lead a crusade to relieve them. An attempt to send a naval vanguard from the south of France under Louis I of Clermont failed, however, with the forces being destroyed in a battle off Genoa in 1319. Over the winter of 1319–20 Philip convened a number of meetings with French military leaders in preparation for a potential second expedition, that in turn informed Bishop William Durand's famous treatise on crusading. By the end of Philip's reign, however, he and John had fallen out over the issue of new monies and commitments to how they were spent, and the attentions of both were focused on managing the challenge of the Shepherds' Crusade.


title: Philip V of France

text: The Shepherds' Crusade, or the "Pastoreaux", emerged from Normandy in 1320. One argument for the timing of this event has been that the repeated calls for popular crusades by Philip and his predecessors, combined with the absence of any actual large scale expeditions, ultimately boiled over into this popular, but uncontrolled, crusade. Philip's intent for a new crusade had certainly become widely known by the spring of 1320, and the emerging peace in Flanders and the north of France had left a large number of displaced peasants and soldiers. The result was a large and violent anti-Semitic movement threatening local Jews, royal castles, the wealthier clergy, and Paris itself. The movement was ultimately condemned by Pope John, who doubted whether the movement had any real intent to carry out a crusade. Philip was forced to move against it, crushing the movement militarily and driving the remnants south across the Pyrenees into Aragon.


title: Philip V of France

text: In 1321 an alleged conspiracy – the "leper scare" – was discovered in France. The accusation, apparently unfounded, was that lepers had been poisoning the wells of various towns, and that this activity had been orchestrated by the Jewish minority, secretly commissioned by foreign Muslims. The scare took hold in the febrile atmosphere left by the Shepherds' crusade of the previous year and the legacy of the poor harvests of the previous decade.


title: Philip V of France

text: The French Jews were, by 1321, closely connected to the French crown; Philip had given orders that royal officials assist Jewish money lenders in recovering Christian debts, and some local officials were arguing that the crown was due to inherit the estates of dead Jewish merchants. Following the events of 1320, Philip was involved in fining those who had attacked Jews during the Shepherds' Crusade, which in practice added further to the dislike of this minority in France. Rumours and allegations about lepers themselves had been circulated in 1320 as well, and some had been arrested during the Crusade.


title: Philip V of France

text: Philip was in Poitiers in June, involved in a tour of the south aimed at reform of the southern fiscal system, when word arrived of the scare. Philip issued an early edict demanding that any leper found guilty was to be burnt and their goods would be forfeit to the crown. The King's southern tour and reform plans, although administratively sound by modern standards, had created much local opposition, and modern historians have linked the King's role in Poitiers with the sudden outbreak of violence. This all put Philip in a difficult position: He could not openly side with those claiming wrongdoing by the lepers, Jews, and Muslims without encouraging further unnecessary violence; on the other hand, if he did not ally himself to the cause, he encouraged further unsanctioned violence, weakening his royal position. Some Jews did leave France as a result of the leper scare, but Philip had successfully resisted signing any formal edict, which limited the impact to some degree.


title: Philip V of France

text: In August, Philip was continuing to progress his reform plans when he fell ill from multiple illnesses. After a brief respite, he died at Longchamp, Paris. He was interred in Saint Denis Basilica, with his viscera buried at the church of the now-demolished Couvent des Jacobins in Paris.


title: Philip V of France

text: By the principle of male succession that Philip had invoked in 1316, Philip was succeeded by his younger brother, Charles IV, since he left no sons. Charles was also to die without male issue, resulting ultimately in the claim to the French throne by Edward III of England and the subsequent Hundred Years War (1337–1453).


title: Philip V of France

text: In January 1307 Philip V married Joan II, Countess of Burgundy (daughter and heiress of Otto IV, count of Burgundy), and they had five children:


title: Philip V of France

text: Philip is a character in "Les Rois maudits" ("The Accursed Kings"), a series of French historical novels by Maurice Druon. In the novel, Philip was depicted as the most shrewd among the three sons of Philip IV. He was portrayed by Josep Maria Flotats in the 1972 French miniseries adaptation of the series, and by Éric Ruf in the 2005 adaptation.


title: Afrikaner nationalism

text: Afrikaner nationalism () is a nationalistic political ideology which created by Afrikaners residing in Southern Africa during the Victorian era. The ideology was developed in response to the significant events in Afrikaner history such as the Great Trek, the First and Second Boer Wars (and the resulting anti-British sentiment that developed among Afrikaners) and opposition to South Africa's entry into World War I.


title: Afrikaner nationalism

text: According to historian T. Dunbar Moodie, Afrikaner nationalism could be described as a civil religion that drew upon the Afrikaner people's history, the defense of the Afrikaans language, decolonisation, republicanism, and Afrikaner Calvinism. A major proponent of the ideology was the "Broederbond" secret society and the National Party that ruled the country from 1948 to 1994. Other Afrikaner nationalist organizations were the Federation of Afrikaans Cultural Organisations (Afrikaans: "Federasie van Afrikaanse Kultuurvereniginge", FAK), the Institute for Christian National Education, and the White Workers' Protection Association.


title: Afrikaner nationalism

text: One of the first champions of Afrikaner nationalism was an ordained minister, Stephen Du Toit (1847–1911) of the Dutch Reformed Church, who became one of the founding members (1881) of the Afrikaner Bond as well as the publisher of "Die Afrikaanse Patriot" newspaper (founded in 1876). In his writings, Du Toit put forward the notion that Afrikaners were a distinct nationality with a fatherland (South Africa) and their own language (Afrikaans) and that the destiny of the "volk" was to rule South Africa.


title: Afrikaner nationalism

text: Religion, especially Afrikaner Calvinism, played an instrumental role in the development of Afrikaner nationalism and consequently in the apartheid ideology. The Dutch Reformed Churches of South Africa engaged throughout the 18th century in a constant battle against modernism and modernity. They aligned with the conservative views of Abraham Kuyper (1837–1920), who emphasised God's authority over separate spheres of creation. Such spheres (for example: historical nations) had to be preserved and protected from liberalism and revolutionary ideologies. Kuyper also rejected the Enlightenment with its emphasis on human rationality and individuality and thought that it had led to the ideals of equality, fraternity and freedom of the French Revolution. In his view, all these ideas challenged God's authority. Afrikaner theologians worked from this foundation and defined a number of political, economic and cultural spheres that had their separate, independent destinies. Afrikaner history was also reinterpreted through a Christian-nationalistic ideology. Paul Kruger, president of the Transvaal from 1883 to 1902 and a founding member of the "Gereformeerde Kerke van Zuid-Afrika" or "Dopper Church", referred to a "sacred history" with the "volk" as the chosen people, where the Great Trek of the 1830s was seen as the Exodus from British rule in the Cape to the Promised Land of the Boer Republics.


title: Afrikaner nationalism

text: During the 1930s and 1940s many intellectuals participated in the theoretical formulation of Afrikaner nationalism. Nicolaas Johannes Diederichs, who later (1975-1978) became South Africa's president, formulated Afrikaner nationalistic ideology in his 1936 book ""Nationalism as a Worldview and Its Relationship to Internationalism"" through Kuyperian theology. According to Diederichs, God created nations and these nations had a God-ordained right to exist as separate entities. Therefore, Afrikaners could refuse a "British-designed" South Africa in which they would co-exist with other ethnic groups as a minority. Geoffrey Cronjé developed these ideas further and argued that as long as the Afrikaner existed as a minority in a racially and culturally different environment, they could not allow the black majority to develop economically or politically, since this would lead to black domination. He acknowledged this as unjust and unchristian and as a solution offered total segregation, that is apartheid, between the blacks and the whites.


title: Afrikaner nationalism

text: The Afrikaner nationalist intelligentsia, along with the National Party and the "Broederbond", ended up formulating a radical nationalistic policy which rejected British hegemony in economics and politics as well as ethnic "mengelmoes" ("mess") induced by the transportation of black migrant workers around the country. They proposed as a solution the drastic reordering of the South African demographic map with a dominant Afrikaner Republic not influenced by British imperialism. However, because of the opposition of the urban middle class, they did not propose a return to conservative, pre-modern Boer pastoralism.


title: Afrikaner nationalism

text: Initially during the 19th century the position of the Dutch Reformed Church on the nationalist issue was more pragmatic than ideological and for example, in South Africa, racial segregation was accepted as a harmonious way of administering a heterogeneous community. The economic depression in South Africa between 1905 and 1909 changed this attitude when a new group of "poor whites", mostly Afrikaners, emerged. By 1939 racial segregation had become a church dogma:


title: Afrikaner nationalism

text: The Afrikaner state as a Christian civilisation thus had an alleged divine right to stay separate and to rule the surrounding "heathen" nations.


title: Afrikaner nationalism

text: Afrikaner nationalism and Nazism had common roots in religio-nationalism and in Pan-Germanism, and therefore the racist elements of both movements could assimilate. For example, Afrikaner criticism of the capitalistic system in the inter-war period was quite anti-Semitic.


title: Afrikaner nationalism

text: Many Afrikaner nationalists also viewed a strong government on Nazi-German lines as necessary to protect the nation ("volk)". Just before and during World War II (1939–1945), these sentiments led to the appearance of a number of pro-Nazi Afrikaner nationalistic organisations, such as the "Ossewabrandwag" (founded in February 1939) and its paramilitary wing "Stormjaers".


title: Afrikaner nationalism

text: The Union of South Africa's entry into World War I on the side of the Allies, automatically undertaken as an extension of the British entry into the war, aroused Afrikaner nationalist resentment due to recent memories of the South African War. After the repression of the Maritz rebellion against the government, J. B. M. Hertzog founded the National Party as an Afrikaner nationalist party. Hertzog led the National Party the 1915 and 1920 elections under the slogan "South Africa first" to create a South Africa independent from the British influence. In the 1924 elections he defeated the South African Party led by Jan Smuts, after Smuts had used force to end the Rand Revolt of white miners in 1922, and stayed in power for 15 years in a coalition government with the Labour Party. During his reign, he steadily promoted Afrikaner nationalism while deepening the racial segregation in the country.


title: Afrikaner nationalism

text: During the 1930s a group of "Broederbond" members shaped Afrikaner nationalistic ideology, by trying to create a common "Christian-republican" identity for white, Afrikaans speaking South Africans as well as introducing the idea of "Volkskapitalisme" (people's capitalism) that tried to take control from the allegedly "British" or "Jewish" Capitalism and adapt it to Afrikaner culture. "Volkskapitalisme" strived to improve the economic conditions of the Afrikaners who in general at the time were less well-off than the English-speaking whites in South Africa. In practice the program consisted of utilising Afrikaner investment into both new and existing Afrikaner businesses. Although "volkskapitalisme "managed to develop some Afrikaner businesses, such as Sanlam and Santam (to provide Afrikaners with financial aid) into corporate giants that still have a central role in South African economy, ultimately the economic benefits for the majority of the poor Afrikaners were slim.


title: Afrikaner nationalism

text: Despite the efforts of "Broederbond" activists to "Afrikanerise" South Africa, the uptake of this new Christian republican identity was slow and unenthusiastic. According to electoral studies the majority of the target group (white, Afrikaans speaking South Africans) did not vote for the National Party until the early 1960s.


title: Afrikaner nationalism

text: During the 1930s and 1940s Afrikaner nationalists used popular medias to diffuse nationalism with maps and narratives of the heroic past of Afrikaners people, moral purpose and a place among other nations. These ideas were spread through new emerging Afrikaner print media, such as the Christian-nationalistic journal "Koers" (Direction) and more popularised magazines such as "Inspan" and "Huisgenoot" as well as books published by the "Burger Boekhandel" publishing house and the newspapers "Die Burger", "Transvaler" and "Volksblad". The usage of Afrikaans instead of Dutch was aggressively promoted throughout the 1920s especially in white schools. The Bible was translated into Afrikaans by J. D. du Toit, E. E. van Rooyen, J. D. Kestell, H. C. M. Fourie and BB Keet in 1933.


title: Afrikaner nationalism

text: South African opposition to the country's involvement in both wars against Imperial and Nazi Germany led directly to the National Party's rise to power in the 1948 elections, the implementation of apartheid, and culminating finally in Afrikaner mobilisation in 1961; when South Africa voted to leave the British Commonwealth and become a republic. The National Party government implemented, alongside apartheid, a program of legislated Puritanism. Pornography, gambling and all other such vices were banned because they were all considered contrary to the "Afrikaner way of life". In keeping with Afrikaner Calvinism, adultery and attempted adultery were also criminalized under the Immorality Amendment Act, Act No 23 of 1957.


title: Afrikaner nationalism

text: During the 1960s a split emerged among the Afrikaner electorate over the issue of how to preserve a distinct identity in a multi-ethnic society: one faction insisted on preserving the national identity through strict isolation, while others thought that such barriers needed to be relaxed. Evidence of this manifested itself in the 1970 election as a radical splinter group from the National Party, the Herstigte Nasionale Party, got 3.59% of the vote compared to the National Party's 54.86%. The gulf widened further during the 1980s partly due to international pressure against apartheid.


title: Afrikaner nationalism

text: One notable Afrikaner nationalist organisation was the Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging (AWB), a political and former paramilitary group. The group had the support of an estimated 5–7 percent of white South Africans in 1988. The organisation was consumed with personal and militant scandals in the late 1980s and early 1990s which led to a diminished support. This organisation however, never garnered substantial Afrikaner support and which substantial support was retained by the National Party until its dissolution.


title: Afrikaner nationalism

text: In the 1990s the National Party acknowledged the failure of its ethnic project and under the leadership of F. W. De Klerk dismantled the political system set up from 1948. After apartheid, Afrikaner nationalism lost most of its support.


title: Afrikaner nationalism

text: Although it has mostly disappeared from publicity, Afrikaner nationalism is kept alive through such political initiatives as the "Cyber Republic of the Boer Nation", which claims to be "the only white indigenous tribe in Southern Africa" and has tried to appeal to the UN Working Group on Indigenous Populations for the protection of cultural, linguistic and religious rights of people around the world. Also some marginal right wing political parties, such as the Herstigte Nasionale Party, still declare their goal to be the "unashamed promotion of Afrikaner nationalism".


title: Afrikaner nationalism

text: Front National (South Africa); a political party in South Africa also emerged in the post-apartheid years promoting Afrikaner Nationalism. The party is linked to "South Africa Today" a media outlet that reports about South African farm attacks and other issues that affect white South Africans.


title: Afrikaner nationalism

text: The tradition of Christian-national education is continued by the Movement for Christian-National Education () which educates the youth about the Boere-Afrikaner "volk" in the Afrikaner Calvinist tradition, Boer culture and history as well as in the Afrikaans language.


title: Afrikaner nationalism

text: The Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging has largely been inactive in South Africa since the demise of apartheid, although in 2008, the organisation was reactivated and is actively seeking an Afrikaner secessionist state within South Africa. On 3 April 2010, Eugene Terre'Blanche, leader of the AWB, was murdered on his farm.


title: Head (film)

text: Head is a 1968 American satirical musical adventure film written and produced by Jack Nicholson and Bob Rafelson, directed by Rafelson, starring television rock group the Monkees (Davy Jones, Peter Tork, Micky Dolenz and Michael Nesmith) and distributed by Columbia Pictures.


title: Head (film)

text: During production, one of the working titles for the film was "Changes", which was later the name of an album by the Monkees. Another working title was "Untitled". A rough cut of the film was previewed for audiences in Los Angeles in the summer of 1968 under the title "Movee Untitled".


title: Head (film)

text: The film featured Victor Mature as "The Big Victor" and cameo appearances by Nicholson, Teri Garr, Carol Doda, Annette Funicello, Frank Zappa, Sonny Liston, Timothy Carey, Percy Helton and Ray Nitschke. Also appearing on screen in brief non-speaking parts are Dennis Hopper and film choreographer Toni Basil.


title: Head (film)

text: "Head" begins at the dedication of the Gerald Desmond Bridge in Long Beach, California. As a local politician struggles with his microphone during the dedication speech, the Monkees (Micky Dolenz, Davy Jones, Peter Tork, and Michael Nesmith) suddenly interrupt the ceremony by running through the assembled officials to the sound of various horns and sirens. Micky then jumps off the bridge into the water below. He floats around, unconscious, as several mermaids attempt to revive him.


title: Head (film)

text: The scene then transitions into the living room at the Monkees pad, in which the Monkees are having a kissing contest with a young woman, who pronounces them all "even." Then a satiric version of the Monkees theme song plays, as the screen fills with images from the film, ending with the execution of Nguyễn Văn Lém followed by a woman screaming. However, the woman is not screaming in terror but in excitement, as the Monkees are about to take the stage at a concert. When the Monkees arrive, they lead the crowd in a cheer for "War!" which leads to a short war film, then transitions back to the concert stage where the group performs the song "Circle Sky". After the song, they are ripped apart by a rush of fans, but it quickly becomes clear that the Monkees are merely mannequins.


title: Head (film)

text: The movie meanders along, weaving through various (and mostly unrelated) sets, lots, and film genres, alternating between scenes with the group and scenes with individual members, interspersed with musical numbers and extended non sequiturs. Each Monkee takes a turn in the spotlight, experiencing confusion and dissatisfaction with his situation. Together, they repeatedly find themselves trapped in some form of enclosure, from a vacuum cleaner to a large black box (which Micky says represents their universe). When trapped, they are alone and spend their time trying to find a way out, but each time they escape they have little control over the situations they find themselves in. Any initiative they do take is invariably short-lived.


title: Head (film)

text: The film's main antagonist is the Big Victor. He seems to exist outside the film's universe, and when he does interact with it, he is not restricted by its physical limitations. The Big Victor appears sporadically throughout the film, and each character who sees him regards him with awe and fear.


title: Head (film)

text: Eventually, Peter discovers a swami he believes to have "the Answer", but when Peter shares his enlightenment with the rest of the group, Davy becomes enraged with Peter's conclusion: "I know nothing." Davy then goes on a rampage through the studio and the lot, eventually landing the group back inside the black box, which is then flown out to the desert. There they are released, only to face all their antagonists from the film.


title: Head (film)

text: After a chaotic romp, the Monkees flee on foot, ending up at the bridge dedication shown at the beginning of the film. This time, we see all four Monkees jump from the bridge, still pursued by their enemies. As each Monkee lands in the water below, he begins to swim away. However, they soon discover that they are actually trapped inside an aquarium on the back of a truck, which drives away, the Big Victor riding along with a smile as the credits roll.


title: Head (film)

text: The plot and peak moments of the film came from a weekend visit to an Ojai, California resort where the Monkees, Rafelson, and Nicholson brainstormed into a tape recorder, reportedly with the aid of a quantity of marijuana. Jack Nicholson then took the tapes and used them as the basis for his screenplay which (according to Rafelson) he structured while under the influence of LSD. When the band learned that they would not be allowed to direct themselves or to receive screenwriting credit, Dolenz, Jones, and Nesmith staged a one-day walkout, leaving Tork the only Monkee on the set the first day. The strike ended after the first day when, to mollify the Monkees, the studio agreed to a larger percentage share of the film's net for the group. But the incident damaged the Monkees' relationship with Rafelson and Bert Schneider, and would effectively end their professional relationship together.


title: Head (film)

text: Filmed from February 19 to May 17, 1968, at Columbia Pictures/Screen Gems Studios in Culver City and at the Columbia Ranch in Burbank, California as well as on various locations in California:


title: Head (film)

text: The footage featuring actor Bela Lugosi saying the line "Supernatural, perhaps. Baloney, perhaps not" is sourced from the 1934 film "The Black Cat".


title: Head (film)

text: While the film's music disappointed fans of the band's more traditional pop sound, it features what some critics considered to be some of the Monkees' best-recorded work, including contributions by Carole King and Harry Nilsson. Jack Nicholson compiled the soundtrack album, which approximates the flow of the movie and includes large portions of the dialogue. The film's incidental music was composed and conducted by Ken Thorne, who also composed and conducted the incidental music to the Beatles' second film, "Help!" The film's most famous song, "Porpoise Song", appeared at the film's start and finish. Bright color filters heighten the visual effect and dreamlike touch of the passages, which include mermaids rescuing member Micky Dolenz in the film's start. It was a psychedelic touch — recalling some visual and musical elements used for the Beatles' television film "Magical Mystery Tour" and their animated feature film "Yellow Submarine" — and was directed by George Dunning.


title: Head (film)

text: Andrew Sandoval, author of "The Monkees: The Day-By-Day Story of the 60s TV Pop Sensation", commented that, "It has some of their best songs on it and ...the movie's musical performances are some of the most cohesive moments in the film."


title: Head (film)

text: The music of the Monkees often featured a rather dark subject matter beneath a superficially bright, uplifting sound. The music of the film takes the darkness and occasional satirical elements of the Monkees' earlier tunes and makes it far more overt, as in "Ditty Diego" or "Daddy's Song", which has Jones singing an upbeat, Broadway-style number about a boy abandoned by his father. In his 2012 essay on the soundtrack album, academic Peter Mills noted that "on this album the songs are only part of the story, as they were with the Monkees project as a whole: Signals, sounds, and ideas interfere with each other throughout."


title: Head (film)

text: Trailers summarized it as a "most extraordinary adventure, western, comedy, love story, mystery, drama, musical, documentary satire ever made (And that's putting it mildly)." There were no pictures of the Monkees on the original poster; only a picture of John Brockman, who did the PR for the film.


title: Head (film)

text: "Head" was one of the first films to be advertised with an MPAA rating, with newspaper advertisements in New York daily papers on November 1, 1968, displaying a G rating.


title: Head (film)

text: Another part of the promotional campaign was placing "Head" stickers in random places. Rafelson commented that he and Nicholson were arrested at the New York City premiere on October 6 for trying to put a sticker on a police officer's helmet as he mounted his horse.


title: Head (film)

text: A poor audience response at an August 1968 screening in Los Angeles eventually forced the producers to edit the picture from its original 110-minute length. The 86-minute "Head" premiered in New York City on November 6, 1968; the film later debuted in Hollywood on November 20. It was not a commercial success. This was in part because "Head", being an antithesis of "The Monkees" sitcom, comprehensively demolished the group's carefully groomed public image while the older, hipper counterculture audience they had been reaching for rejected the Monkees' efforts out of hand.


title: Head (film)

text: The film's release also was delayed (partly because of the use of solarization, a then-new technique both laborious and expensive) and badly underpromoted. The sole television commercial was a confusing minimalist close-up shot of a man's head (John Brockman); after 30 seconds the man smiled and the name HEAD appeared on his forehead. This ad was a parody of Andy Warhol's 1964 film "Blow Job", which only showed a close-up of a man's face for an extended period, supposedly receiving 'head'.


title: Head (film)

text: Receiving mixed critical reviews and virtually non-existent box office receipts, the film succeeded in alienating the band's teenage fanbase while failing to attract the more adult audience for which they had strived. "Head"s abysmal reception halted studio plans for any further films with the Monkees. It also corresponded with a steep drop in the group's popularity as recording artists; the "Head" soundtrack peaked at No. 45 on the U.S. chart, the first time any Monkees album had not risen to the Top 5. "Porpoise Song" was also the first single to not make the Top 40.


title: Head (film)

text: In her scathing review, Renata Adler of "The New York Times" commented: "Head" "might be a film to see if you have been smoking grass, or if you like to scream at the Monkees, or if you are interested in what interests drifting heads and hysterical high-school girls." She added that the group "are most interesting for their lack of similarity to The Beatles. Going through ersatz Beatle songs, and jokes and motions, their complete lack of distinction of any kind ... makes their performance modest and almost brave."


title: Head (film)

text: "Daily Variety" was also harsh, stating that ""Head" is an extension of the ridiculous nonsense served up on the Screen Gems vid series that manufactured the Monkees and lasted two full seasons following the same format and, ostensibly, appealing to the same kind of audience." But the review applauded Rafelson and Nicholson, saying that they "were wise not to attempt a firm storyline as the Monkees have established themselves in the art of the non sequitur and outrageous action. Giving them material they can handle is good thinking; asking them to achieve something more might have been a disaster."


title: Head (film)

text: Funicello said when she saw the film "it made no more sense to me than it ever had" when she read the script "but it was a challenging, offbeat role and I was happy to play it."


title: Head (film)

text: The film was released on September 18, 1986, on VHS, Beta, and Laserdisc. It was re-released on VHS on January 25, 1995.


title: Head (film)

text: It was released on DVD twice: first as an individual release on June 12, 2000, then again on December 14, 2010, as part of the Criterion Collection box set "America Lost and Found: The BBS Story".


title: Head (film)

text: It was released on Blu-ray twice: first on November 23, 2010, as part of "America Lost and Found", then again on July 8, 2016, as part of "The Monkees: The Complete TV Series" Blu-ray box set.


title: Head (film)

text: "Head" has developed a cult following. Leonard Maltin describes it as "delightfully plotless" and "well worth seeing", giving the film 3 out of 4 stars, while Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a 75% rating. "Head" premiered on television across-the-board as a "CBS Late Movie" on December 30, 1974; the network rebroadcast the film on July 7, 1975. Cable TV took hold in 1981, when "Head" began periodic showings on Spotlight; Cinemax began airing the film in 1984. In the U.K., Channel 4 also aired it on British TV in 1986 and 1991. It was later shown regularly on Starz Cinema and in 2007, Turner Classic Movies featured the film as part of "TCM Underground", showing the film unedited and in its original aspect ratio. It was released on video and Laserdisc by RCA/Columbia Pictures Home Video in September 1986, taking advantage of the group's 20th Anniversary, again on VHS and DVD by Rhino Entertainment in January 1995 and a third time on Blu-ray and DVD in November and December 2010, respectively, by the Criterion Collection, in a box set with other films from Rafelson. In honor of the Monkees' 50th anniversary, Rhino released the complete series on Blu-ray on July 8, 2016, with the film and deleted scenes.


title: Head (film)

text: When asked by "Rolling Stone" magazine in March 2012 if he thought making "Head" was a mistake, Nesmith responded by saying that "by the time "Head" came out the Monkees were a pariah. There was no confusion about this. We were on the cosine of the line of approbation, from acceptance to rejection ...and it was over. "Head" was a swan song. We wrote it with Jack and Bob ...and we liked it. It was an authentic representation of a phenomenon we were a part of that was winding down. It was very far from suicide even though it may have looked like that. There were some people in power, and not a few critics, who thought there was another decision that could have been made. But I believe the movie was an inevitability. There was no other movie to be made that would not have been ghastly under the circumstances." A decade earlier, in his commentary for the television series episode "Fairy Tale", Nesmith called the film the "murder" of the Monkees, an intentional move by Schneider and Rafelson, who had their eyes on bigger goals and felt that the Monkees project was holding them back. Bassist Tork echoed a similar statement during the Monkees' 2001 interview on the VH-1 series Behind the Music. Also in the 2001 interview, Davy Jones acceded to the notion that the Monkees should never have made the movie at the time.


title: Head (film)

text: For all of the negative remarks, there have been positive comments, showing Dolenz, whether knowingly or unknowingly, as a fashion trendsetter. In "Straight Outta Cullompton", author Adam Foley wrote more glowingly, "Julian [Hewings]: 'I was watching "Head", The Monkees film, and there's a bit at the beginning when Micky Dolenz falls from Golden Gate Bridge and he's got a pair of slightly flared boot cut jean cords on with a pair of (Adidas) Gazelles, probably the first ones that ever came out and this stripy t-shirt and I thought "Wow, that's what I remember when I was a kid – that's what everyone used to wear when they went to school." I just thought "Wow. Yeah. That's really speaking to me there and I got the others together" and went "Have a look at this, we're going to go out and find these clothes and that's what we're going to wear". The look came first before the music'".


title: Head (film)

text: On November 19, 2014, the film was screened in the United Kingdom for the first time outside London as part of the Leeds International Film Festival. It was introduced by Peter Mills of Leeds Beckett University, author of a book about the Monkees.


title: Head (film)

text: The NorthEast ComicCon & Collectibles Extravaganza hosted a 50th anniversary screening of the film at the Regent Theatre (Arlington, Massachusetts), on July 6, 2018. A portion of that screening benefited the Cystic Dreams Fund a 501(c)(3) non-profit organization and Dolenz conducted a lengthy question and answer before introducing the film.


title: I Can't Go for That (No Can Do)

text: "I Can't Go for That (No Can Do)" is a song by the American duo Daryl Hall and John Oates. Written by Daryl Hall, John Oates and Sara Allen, the song was released as the second single from their tenth studio album, "Private Eyes" (1981). The song became the fourth number one hit single of their career on the "Billboard" Hot 100. It features Charles DeChant on saxophone.


title: I Can't Go for That (No Can Do)

text: Daryl Hall sketched out the basic song one evening at a music studio in New York City, in 1981, after a recording session for the "Private Eyes" album. Hall started the Rock 1 setting on Roland CompuRhythm then began playing a bass line on a Korg organ, and sound engineer Neil Kernon recorded the result. Hall then came up with a guitar riff, which he and Oates worked on together. The next day, Hall, Oates and Sara Allen worked on the lyrics.


title: I Can't Go for That (No Can Do)

text: Speaking about the meaning of the lyrics, John Oates has stated that while many listeners may assume the lyrics are about a relationship, in reality, the song, "is about the music business. That song is really about not being pushed around by big labels, managers, and agents and being told what to do, and being true to yourself creatively." This was done intentionally, he explained, to universalize the topic of the song into something everyone could relate to and ascribe personal meaning to in their own way. Naming "Maneater" as another example, he revealed that this was a common theme for the group's songs.


title: I Can't Go for That (No Can Do)

text: The single debuted at number 59 on the Hot 100 the week of November 14, 1981 as the highest debut of the week and after eleven weeks, on January 30, 1982, it reached the top of the chart, staying there for a week. "I Can't Go for That" ended a 10-week run at the top of the Hot 100 by Olivia Newton-John's song, "Physical" (which had knocked out Hall & Oates' "Private Eyes" from the top spot). The song also went to number one on the Hot Dance Club Play chart for one week in January 1982.


title: I Can't Go for That (No Can Do)

text: Thanks to heavy airplay on urban contemporary radio stations, "I Can't Go for That" also topped the US R&B chart, a rare feat for a white act. It was the only record to hit number one on both the Hot 100 and then-Hot Soul charts during all of 1982. The single was certified Gold by the RIAA for shipments of one million units on January 7, 1982. According to the Hall & Oates biography, Hall, upon learning that "I Can't Go for That" had gone to number one on the R&B chart, wrote in his diary, "I'm the head soul brother in the U.S. Where to now?"


title: I Can't Go for That (No Can Do)

text: It also peaked at number one on the "Radio & Records" CHR/Pop Airplay chart on December 18, 1981, staying at the top of the chart for six weeks and remaining on it for fifteen weeks, making it their biggest hit on the "R&R" airplay chart. This single was also the first top 10 hit for the duo in the UK, peaking at number eight in the UK Singles Chart. It was certified Silver by the BPI on March 1, 1982 for shipments of 200,000 units.


title: I Can't Go for That (No Can Do)

text: The song has been sampled numerous times including in "Say No Go" by De La Soul, "Sunrise" by Simply Red, "The Final Hour" and "Take Me to Your Leader" by MF Doom (under the King Geedorah moniker), and "On Hold" by The xx. Anderson .Paak has stated that Dr Dre's "Nuthin' but a 'G' Thang" was originally also going to sample the song.


title: I Can't Go for That (No Can Do)

text: According to Daryl Hall, during the recording of "We Are the World", Michael Jackson approached him and admitted to lifting the bass line for "Billie Jean" from a Hall & Oates song, apparently referring to "I Can't Go for That (No Can Do)." Hall says that he told Jackson that he had lifted the bass line from another song himself, and that it was "something we all do."


title: Fernand Braudel

text: Fernand Braudel (; 24 August 1902 – 27 November 1985) was a French historian and leader of the Annales School. His scholarship focused on three main projects: "The Mediterranean" (1923–49, then 1949–66), "Civilization and Capitalism" (1955–79), and the unfinished "Identity of France" (1970–85). He was a member of the Annales School of French historiography and social history in the 1950s and 1960s. He was a student of Henri Hauser.


title: Fernand Braudel

text: Braudel emphasized the role of large-scale socioeconomic factors in the making and writing of history. He can also be considered one of the precursors of world-systems theory.


title: Fernand Braudel

text: Braudel was born in Luméville-en-Ornois (as of 1943, merged with and part of Gondrecourt-le-Château), in the département of the Meuse, France. At the age of 7, his family moved to Paris. His father, who was a natural mathematician, aided him in his studies. Braudel also studied a good deal of Latin and a little Greek. Braudel was educated at the Lycée Voltaire and the Sorbonne, where at the age of 20 he was awarded an "agrégé" in history. While teaching at the University of Algiers between 1923 and 1932, he became fascinated by the Mediterranean Sea and wrote several papers on the Spanish presence in Algeria in the 16th century. During this time, Braudel began his doctoral thesis on the foreign policy of King Philip II of Spain. From 1932 to 1935 he taught in the Paris "lycées" (secondary schools or high schools) of Pasteur, Condorcet, and Henri-IV.


title: Fernand Braudel

text: By 1900, the French solidified their cultural influence in Brazil through the establishment of the Brazilian Academy of Fine Arts. São Paulo still lacked a university, however, and in 1934 francophile Julio de Mesquita Filho invited anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss and Braudel to help establish one. The result was formation of the new University of São Paulo. Braudel later said that the time in Brazil was the "greatest period of his life."


title: Fernand Braudel

text: In 1937, Braudel returned to Paris from Brazil. However, the journey was as significant as arriving at his destination; on his way, he met Lucien Febvre, who was the co-founder of the influential "Annales" journal. The two had booked passage on the same ship. Braudel had started archival research on his doctorate on the Mediterranean when he fell under the influence of the "Annales" School around 1938. Also around this time he entered the École pratique des hautes études as an instructor in history. He worked with Lucien Febvre, who would later read the early versions of Braudel's "magnum opus" and provide him with editorial advice.


title: Fernand Braudel

text: At the outbreak of war in 1939, he was called up for military service and in 1940 was taken prisoner by the Germans. He was held at a POW camp in Mainz from 1940 to 1942 before being transferred to a POW camp near Lübeck, where he remained for the rest of the war. While in that camp, Braudel drafted his great work "La Méditerranée et le Monde Méditerranéen à l'époque de Philippe II" ("The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II"), without access to his books or notes and relying only on his prodigious memory and a local library.


title: Fernand Braudel

text: Braudel became the leader of the second generation of "Annales" historians after 1945. In 1947, with Febvre and Charles Morazé, Braudel obtained funding from the Rockefeller Foundation in New York and founded the noted Sixième Section for "Economic and social sciences" at the Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes. He received an additional $1 million from the Ford Foundation in 1960.


title: Fernand Braudel

text: In 1962, he and Gaston Berger used the Ford Foundation grant and government funds to create a new independent foundation, the Fondation Maison des Sciences de l'Homme (FMSH), which Braudel directed from 1970 until his death. It was housed in the building called "Maison des Sciences de l'Homme". FMSH focused its activities on international networking in order to disseminate the "Annales" approach to Europe and the world. In 1972 he gave up all editorial responsibility on the journal, although his name remained on the masthead.


title: Fernand Braudel

text: In 1962, he wrote "A History of Civilizations" as the basis for a history course, but its rejection of the traditional event-based narrative was too radical for the French ministry of education, which in turn rejected it.


title: Fernand Braudel

text: A feature of Braudel's work was his compassion for the suffering of marginal people. He articulated that most surviving historical sources come from the literate wealthy classes. He emphasized the importance of the ephemeral lives of slaves, serfs, peasants, and the urban poor, demonstrating their contributions to the wealth and power of their respective masters and societies. His work was often illustrated with contemporary depictions of daily life, rarely with pictures of noblemen or kings.


title: Fernand Braudel

text: In 1949, Braudel was elected to the Collège de France upon Febvre's retirement. He co-founded the academic journal, "Revue économique," in 1950. He retired in 1968. In 1983, he was elected to the Académie française.


title: Fernand Braudel

text: His first book, "La Méditerranée et le Monde Méditerranéen à l'Epoque de Philippe II" (1949) ("The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II") was his most influential and has been described as a "watershed".


title: Fernand Braudel

text: For Braudel there is no single Mediterranean Sea. There are many seas—indeed a "vast, complex expanse" within which men operate. Life is conducted on the Mediterranean: people travel, fish, fight wars, and drown in its various contexts. And the sea articulates with the plains and islands. Life on the plains is diverse and complex; the poorer south is affected by religious diversity (Catholicism and Islam), as well as by intrusions – both cultural and economic – from the north. In other words, the Mediterranean cannot be understood independently from what is exterior to it. Any rigid adherence to boundaries falsifies the situation.


title: Fernand Braudel

text: The first level of time, geographical time, is that of the environment, with its slow, almost imperceptible change, its repetition and cycles. Such change may be slow, but it is irresistible. The second level of time comprises long-term social, economic, and cultural history, where Braudel discusses the Mediterranean economy, social groupings, empires and civilizations. Change at this level is much more rapid than that of the environment; Braudel looks at two or three centuries in order to spot a particular pattern, such as the rise and fall of various aristocracies. The third level of time is that of events ("histoire événementielle"). This is the history of individuals with names. This, for Braudel, is the time of surfaces and deceptive effects. It is the time of the ""courte durée"" proper and it is the focus of Part 3 of "The Mediterranean" which treats of "events, politics and people."


title: Fernand Braudel

text: Braudel's Mediterranean is centered on the sea, but just as important, it is also the desert and the mountains. The desert creates a nomadic form of social organization where the whole community moves; mountain life is sedentary. Transhumance — that is, the movement from the mountain to the plain, or vice versa in a given season — is also a persistent part of Mediterranean existence.


title: Fernand Braudel

text: Braudel's vast, panoramic view used insights from other social sciences, employed the concept of the "longue durée", and downplayed the importance of specific events. It was widely admired, but most historians did not try to replicate it and instead focused on their specialized monographs. The book firmly launched the study of the Mediterranean and dramatically raised the worldwide profile of the "Annales School."


title: Fernand Braudel

text: After "La Méditerranée", Braudel's most famous work is "Civilisation Matérielle, Économie et Capitalisme, XV-XVIII" ("Civilization and Capitalism, 15th-18th Century"). The first volume was published in 1967, and was translated to English in 1973. The last of the three-volume work appeared in 1979. The work is a broad-scale history of the pre-industrial modern world, presented in the minute detail demanded by the methodological school called cliometrics, and focusing on how regular people made economies work. Like all Braudel's major works, the book mixed traditional economic material with thick description of the social impact of economic events on various facets of everyday life, including food, fashion, and other social customs. The third volume, subtitled "The Perspective of the World", was strongly influenced by the work of German scholars like Werner Sombart. In this volume, Braudel traced the impact of the centers of Western capitalism on the rest of the world. Braudel wrote the series both as a way of explanation for the modern way and partly as a refutation of the Marxist view of history.


title: Fernand Braudel

text: Braudel discussed the idea of long-term cycles in the capitalist economy that he saw developing in Europe in the 12th century. Particular cities, and later nation-states, follow each other sequentially as centers of these cycles: Venice in the 13th through the 15th centuries (1250–1510); Antwerp and Genoa in the 16th century (1500–1569 and 1557–1627, respectively), Amsterdam in the 16th through 18th centuries (1627–1733); and London (and England) in the 18th and 19th centuries (1733–1896). He used the word "structures" to denote a variety of social structures, such as organized behaviours, attitudes, and conventions, as well as physical structures and infrastructures. He argued that the structures established in Europe during the Middle Ages contributed to the successes of present-day European-based cultures. He attributed much of this to the long-standing independence of city-states, which, though later subjugated by larger geographic states, were not always completely suppressed—probably for reasons of utility.


title: Fernand Braudel

text: Braudel argued that capitalists have typically been monopolists and not, as is usually assumed, entrepreneurs operating in competitive markets. He argued that capitalists did not specialize and did not use free markets, thus diverging from both liberal (Adam Smith) and Marxian interpretations. In Braudel's view, the state in capitalist countries has served as a guarantor of monopolists rather than a protector of competition, as it is usually portrayed. He asserted that capitalists have had power and cunning on their side as they have arrayed themselves against the majority of the population.


title: Fernand Braudel

text: An agrarian structure is a long-term structure in the Braudelian understanding of the concept. On a larger scale the agrarian structure is more dependent on the regional, social, cultural and historical factors than on the state's undertaken activities.


title: Fernand Braudel

text: Braudel's last and most personal book was "L'Identité de la France" ("The Identity of France"), which was unfinished at the time of his death in 1985. Unlike many of Braudel's other books, he made no secret of his profound love of his country, remarking at the beginning that he had loved France as if she were a woman. Reflecting his interest with the "longue durée", Braudel's concern in "L'Identité de la France" was with the centuries and millennia instead of the years and decades. Braudel argued that France was the product not of its politics or economics but rather of its geography and culture, a thesis Braudel explored in a wide-ranging book that saw the "bourg" and the "patois: historie totale" integrated into a broad sweep of both the place and the time. Unlike Braudel's other books, "L'Identité de la France" was much colored by a romantic nostalgia, as Braudel argued for the existence of "la France profonde", a "deep France" based upon the peasant "mentalité" that despite all of the turmoil of French history and the Industrial Revolution had survived intact right up to the present.


title: Fernand Braudel

text: According to Braudel, before the "Annales" approach, the writing of history was focused on the "courte durée" (short span), or on "histoire événementielle" (a history of events).


title: Fernand Braudel

text: His followers admired his use of the "longue durée" approach to stress the slow and often imperceptible effects of space, climate and technology on the actions of human beings in the past. The "Annales" historians, after living through two world wars and massive political upheavals in France, were very uncomfortable with the notion that multiple ruptures and discontinuities created history. They preferred to stress inertia and the "longue durée", arguing that the continuities in the deepest structures of society were central to history. Upheavals in institutions or the superstructure of social life were of little significance, for history, they argued, lies beyond the reach of conscious actors, especially the will of revolutionaries. They rejected the Marxist idea that history should be used as a tool to foment and foster revolutions. A proponent of historical materialism, Braudel rejected Marxist materialism, stressing the equal importance of infrastructure and superstructure, both of which reflected enduring social, economic, and cultural realities. Braudel's structures, both mental and environmental, determine the long-term course of events by constraining actions on, and by, humans over a duration long enough that they are beyond the consciousness of the actors involved.


title: Fernand Braudel

text: Binghamton University in New York has a Fernand Braudel Center, and there is an Instituto Fernand Braudel de Economia Mundial in São Paulo, Brazil.


title: Fernand Braudel

text: In a 2011 poll by "History Today" magazine, Fernand Braudel was picked as the most important historian of the previous 60 years.


title: Nonpareils

text: Nonpareils are a decorative confectionery of tiny balls made with sugar and starch, traditionally an opaque white but now available in many colors. They are also known as Hundreds and Thousands in South Africa, Australia, New Zealand and the United Kingdom. Their origin is uncertain, but they may have evolved out of the pharmaceutical use of sugar, as they were a miniature version of comfits. The French name has been interpreted to mean they were "without equal" for intricate decoration of cakes, desserts, and other sweets, and for the elaborate pièces montées constructed as table ornaments.


title: Nonpareils

text: The term "nonpareil" also may refer to a specific confection, made using nonpareils – namely, discs of chocolate coated with nonpareils, which also are known as chocolate nonpareils.


title: Nonpareils

text: An 18th-century American recipe for a frosted wedding cake calls for nonpareils as decoration. By the early 19th century, colored nonpareils seem to have been available in the U.S. The popular cookbook author Eliza Leslie suggests the use of red and green nonpareils for decorating a Queen cake, but strongly suggests "white" nonpareils are most suitable for pink icing on a pound cake in her 1828 "Seventy-five Receipts for Pastries, Cakes and Sweetmeats".


title: Nonpareils

text: In 1844, Eleanor Parkinson, of a well-known Philadelphia family of professional confectioners, first published her book "The Complete Confectioner", in which she described how to make nonpareils following her comfit-making procedure, which involved multiple hot pots and hot syrup.


title: Nonpareils

text: Görlitz, Germany was the birthplace of the German version of nonpareils, popularly known in Germany as "Liebesperlen" (German: "love pearls"). Invented by confectioner Rudolf Hoinkis (1876–1944), the name derives from a conversation Hoinkis had with his wife, proclaiming he loved her like these "pearls", the nonpareil. Unsure of what to call the treat he invented, his wife suggested calling them "love pearls", and the name stuck. The factory where he first manufactured the treat, founded in 1896, is now run by his great-grandson, Mathias.


title: Nonpareils

text: In the United States, traditional nonpareils gave way for most purposes by the mid 20th century to "sprinkles" (known in some parts as "jimmies"), confections nearly as small but usually oblong rather than round and soft rather than brittle. Like nonpareils, their function is more decorative than gustatory as their actual taste is indistinct, and the products they are applied to are usually themselves very high in sugar. Candy-covered anise seeds called muisjes, sometimes mistaken for traditional nonpareils, are sometimes offered at breakfast in the Netherlands to be served on bread and butter. They are, however, usually served on rusk to celebrate the birth of a child. This is known as "beschuit met muisjes".


title: Nonpareils

text: In South Africa, the UK, Australia and New Zealand, nonpareils are known as "hundreds-and-thousands". In Australia and New Zealand, they are often eaten on top of patty cakes or on buttered bread as fairy bread, as festive items at children's birthday parties.


title: Nonpareils

text: The term "nonpareils" can also refer to a specific confection: a round flat chocolate drop with the upper surface coated with nonpareils. This confection is also referred to as "chocolate nonpareils". Ferrero makes a variety marketed as Sno-Caps. In Australia, these confections are commonly known as "chocolate freckles", or simply "freckles". Nonpareils are also sold in the United Kingdom as "Jazzies", "Jazzles", "Jazz drops" and "Snowies" (the latter being of the white chocolate variety). The coating of nonpareils is often referred to as hundreds and thousands in South Africa and the UK. The Canadian company Mondoux sells them as "Yummies".


title: LGBT rights in Greece

text: Lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) rights in Greece have evolved significantly since the early 21st century, establishing it as one of the most liberal countries in Southern Europe. Discrimination has become increasingly less common in the country as of late, although LGBT people in Greece may still face social challenges not experienced by non-LGBT residents. Despite this, Greek public opinion on homosexuality is generally regarded as culturally liberal, with same-sex unions being legally recognised since 2015.


title: LGBT rights in Greece

text: Both male and female same-sex sexual activity have been legal in Greece since 1951, and anti-discrimination laws in employment were enacted in 2005. Since then, anti-discrimination laws have been extended to other spheres including gender identity. Hate speech and hate crime legislation is one of the most rigid and comprehensive in Europe. In 2015, civil unions (; cohabitation agreements) were legalised for same-sex couples, making households headed by same-sex couples eligible for many, but not all, of the legal protections and rights available to married opposite-sex couples. In 2017, transgender people were granted the right to have their gender identity recognized and change their legal sex without having to undergo surgical alteration of their genitals in order to have key identity documents changed. In February 2018, a county court in Greece granted a non-binary person the right to a gender-neutral name. In May 2018, the Greek Parliament passed a law granting same-sex couples the right to foster care children.


title: LGBT rights in Greece

text: Gay culture is vibrant in the capital of Athens, particularly in the gay neighbourhood of Gazi, in Thessaloniki and some of the Greek islands. With Greece being one of Europe's most popular LGBT tourist destinations, many establishments catering for the LGBT community can be found in islands such as Mykonos, which is known worldwide for the gay and lesbian scene. There are four LGBT pride parades held annually, in Athens, Thessaloniki, Patras and Heraklion, the capital of the island of Crete. The largest of them, the Athens Pride, saw record participation in 2015, and the attendance of many public figures including the President of the Hellenic Parliament and the Mayor of Athens.


title: LGBT rights in Greece

text: According to recent reports carried out by ILGA-Europe, which assesses LGBT rights in European countries, Greece achieved one of the highest improvements among the 49 countries in the legal and policy situation of LGBT people in the last decade, with an overall score of 52%.


title: LGBT rights in Greece

text: Male homosexual practice was decriminalized in 1951. Lesbians were not mentioned or acknowledged in the Greek Criminal Code. Article 347 of the Penal Code outlawed male prostitution and provided for a higher age of consent of 17 for male homosexual acts. However, this provision was abolished by Article 68 of the "Law 3456 of 2015" (), effectively resulting in equalization of the age of consent and the legalization of male prostitution, subject to existing laws on the regulation of prostitution.


title: LGBT rights in Greece

text: The age of consent in Greece is 15, as specified by Article 339, as well as Articles 337, 348B of the Greek Penal Code. In 2015, along with the legalization of same-sex civil unions, Article 347, which provided a further prohibition of seducing a male under 17 if the actor is a male adult, was repealed, therefore equalising the age of consent for homosexual acts.