title: Criminal record

text: There is a centralised criminal record system, there is only one centralised database where the final criminal conviction issued by a Slovak criminal court is registered. This database is in electronic form and is maintained a unit within the General Prosecutors office of the Slovak Republic. The relevant legislation for this is governed by the Act on Criminal Records.


title: Criminal record

text: As of 2008 there was a proposed bill that these criminal records could only be accessed by request to the General Prosecutors office when the person in question was up for a position which required a clean criminal record. Certain criminal records are not accessible at any time for instance the criminal record/record details of the President of the Republic of Slovakia are not available to anyone during his/her time in office.


title: Criminal record

text: The criminal records and personal details of everyone held by the General Prosecutors office are lifelong, and continue to be updated throughout their life, every time they move address/change name etc.


title: Criminal record

text: Criminal record information in Slovenia is looked after by the Department for Criminal Records and Educational Measures (DCREM), this is based at the Ministry of Justice. Among other things the DCREM maintains a database which holds information on convicted criminals.


title: Criminal record

text: Although this database is not public, applications for a criminal records disclosure can be made to the DCREM, anyone who has lived in Slovenia for a significant amount of time may apply for the disclosure of a particular criminal record. Although perspective employers cannot request a copy directly from the DCREM, they must request this from the perspective employee.


title: Criminal record

text: The time in which a conviction remains on a person's criminal record depends on the type of conviction received, i.e. The longer the prison sentence served the longer the conviction remains on the record, up to 15 years. If a conviction is 15 years' imprisonment this shall never be removed from the criminal record. However, if the conviction is removed, then all rights are given back to the person in question, as if the conviction had never been received at all.


title: Criminal record

text: The driving license of those who reject the sobriety test may be revoked permanently, and their revocation stays in records indefinitely. At the European Court of Human Rights, there is currently a case pending which aims at the ruling that permanent keeping of the records is excessive.


title: Criminal record

text: The criminal record system for Spain exists in the form of the "Central Criminal Records Registry" ("Registro Central de Penados"). It contains convictions for all crimes and also for misdemeanors.


title: Criminal record

text: The Central Criminal Records Registry is not publicly accessible and therefore very few public agencies and no private agencies have access to it. This has been confirmed by the New Penal Code (1995) Art.136.4. Therefore, the Central Criminal Records Registry is only accessible to judges, public prosecutors and the judicial police for investigative purposes. Other cases where direct access can be granted include: Guardia Civil for gun permits and border control police. Besides judges, prosecutors and some police agencies, only the recorded subject may request a copy of their personal Conviction Record.


title: Criminal record

text: In Spain, conviction records are not 'expunged' as they are not erased completely but rather are 'cancelled' in a process known as 'cancelling a conviction record'. Therefore, judges will still be aware of the records but they disregarded as an aggravating factor when sentencing. Once conviction records are cancelled, the individual will possess a clean criminal record. Therefore, the record of their convictions will be sealed in the Central Criminal Records Registry and is likely made unavailable to the police.


title: Criminal record

text: To cancel a conviction record the following requirements under Penal Code 47 (art.136.2) must be met: 1) A period of time after having served the sentence must have elapsed (6 months, 2 years, 3 years or 5 years depending on the sentence); 2) no further crime has been committed in the interim; 3) civil compensation has been paid or the person has been declared without money. To cancel a criminal record, the individual either makes a free of charge formal request to the Ministry of Justice or the Central Criminal Records Registry cancels the record itself.


title: Criminal record

text: In Sweden, the police have a record of convictions ("Belastningsregistret"). It does not contain arrests, and its information is not available for general public, even regarding serious crimes. Individuals can ask for a copy of their own record once per year, or for a fee anytime. For employment involving children or for security guards etc., a check will be made against the criminal record. Regular employers more and more often require applicants to get a record copy themselves and give the employer. The number of requests for own copies increased from 40,000 to 199,000 between 2003 and 2012.


title: Criminal record

text: Sweden is one of the countries with the largest databases of criminal records, containing some of the oldest population statistics in the world. In the past, individuals were prohibited from retrieving information about themselves to prevent being forced by employers or landlords to hand over the information. Yet there have been two notable changes in Swedish regulation of criminal records. In 1989, access was given to employers with the implementation of the 'subject access' paragraph in Swedish criminal records legislation. In 2001, it became mandatory for employers to check criminal records of teachers and childcare workers before they were hired, given the seriousness of sex offences against children. Individuals' criminal history records are today more available to the public than ever before.


title: Criminal record

text: The Swedish Criminal Records Registry is administered by the Swedish National Police Board which regulates access to criminal records and the use of criminal background checks by employers. The registry contains information on those who have been sentenced in criminal courts or summarily imposed a fine, who have had a restraining order issued against them, or in whose cases prosecution had been abstained from. Generally, the information is kept for five years if the offence was punishable by fine, and ten years if it called for other sentences and sanctions. For those aged under 18 at the time the crime was committed, information is kept for only three or five years depending on the type of punishment.


title: Criminal record

text: In January 2014, Swedish criminal records became available online with the launch of a new website Lexbase. People can search for their friends', colleagues' and neighbours' criminal records, showing the location of convicted criminals in the past five years in their neighbourhood by plotting red dots on the map. The user is able to then pay a fee to get more information about the crime committed. Lexbase has become the subject of intense criticism from Swedish media, government and the general public, given its alleged infringement on the right to privacy and increased social alienation of offenders.


title: Criminal record

text: The "Strafregister" is run by the Federal Department of Justice and Police. It lists final judgments in case of:


title: Criminal record

text: When the prosecutor decides not to refer the matter to a court, or if the court has acquitted the defendant, there will be no criminal record.


title: Criminal record

text: Crimes committed by Swiss citizens abroad will also result in a Swiss criminal record, as soon as Swiss authorities have been informed and the sentences are comparable.


title: Criminal record

text: The full criminal record can be requested by anybody, as long as the person involved has given written authority to do so. Other than that, state authorities like courts, migration and naturalization authorities, the Federal Office of Civil Aviation and road traffic authorities can request the record without approval.


title: Criminal record

text: Criminal records will be expunged after a period of 10, 15 or 20 years plus the duration of the prison sentence handed down in the judgment, depending on the length of the sentence. In case a prisoner is released early, on parole, the period will commence on the day the prisoner would have been regularly released.


title: Criminal record

text: In all other cases, the record will be expunged after ten years. If somebody has been sentenced to a period of probation, the record will only appear until the end of successful probation. When a non-official requests the criminal record as a "Privatauszug" (private excerpt), the sentences will only appear for ⅔ of the mentioned time spans. When somebody has been expelled from Switzerland, the expulsion notice is never stricken from the record. If a minor has been sentenced under the "Jugendstrafrecht" (youth penal code, affecting 10 to 18 years old persons), the "Privatauszug" only shows the sentences if the person has re-offended as an adult.


title: Criminal record

text: The "Sonderprivatauszug" (special private excerpt) can be requested to prove that there is no ongoing ban on activities that involve minors (e.g. teaching, sport training) or vulnerable persons (e.g. treating and nursing patients). The employer must confirm the (intended) employment of the person in question before the special private excerpt is requested. This different excerpt is necessary because the usual "Privatauszug" could be empty while a prohibition is still active, for example when it has been set for a lifetime in case of certain serious crimes.


title: Criminal record

text: In the United Kingdom, checks on a person's criminal record are undertaken by the Disclosure and Barring Service (in England and Wales), Disclosure Scotland (Scotland and basic Disclosure for all the UK) and Access Northern Ireland, all of which have partial access to the Police National Computer (PNC) which holds the definitive record.


title: Criminal record

text: In England and Wales, a PNC record is held for 100 years. The PNC has the ability to record youth reprimands, youth final warnings, cautions and convictions. In 2006 Scotland opted out of retaining records indefinitely. In Scotland, non-convictions are held for 2 years whereas convictions are held for 20 or 30 years depending on the seriousness of the crime.


title: Criminal record

text: The police also utilize the Police national Database which is a depositary of locally held records. Locally held records may involve non-guilty verdicts, known associates, being a suspect in a report, drug intelligence on vehicles. Most information held on the PND is deleted after 7 years. The PND may be used to add other relevant information onto an enhanced DBS check.


title: Criminal record

text: In 2021, the home office will introduce the national law enforcement data service (NLEDS). All records from PNC and PND will migrate to the new system.


title: Criminal record

text: The ACPO criminal records office was founded in 2006, and it has the role of managing criminal record information and improving links between criminal records and biometric information.


title: Criminal record

text: These records are not publicly accessible and cannot be viewed without the subject's consent, although in some cases an employer might make such consent a condition of employment, especially if the employee is to work with children or other vulnerable people. The child sex offenders disclosure scheme allows parents and guardians to ask the police if someone with access to a child has a record for child sexual offences.


title: Criminal record

text: Information supplied depends on the level of disclosure required. Low-level disclosures only reveal unspent convictions (convictions which have not yet been expunged under the Rehabilitation of Offenders Act 1974), while enhanced disclosures normally include "all" convictions, cautions, reprimands and final warnings. An enhanced criminal record certificate may contain relevant information that need not relate solely to criminal matters.


title: Criminal record

text: Arrests that do not lead to an official finding of guilt, i.e. a conviction or the acceptance of a caution, are "not" considered part of a person's criminal record and are not typically disclosed as part of the process. However, an enhanced disclosure may include such additional information, which is supplied at the chief police officer's discretion. Enhanced disclosures are typically used to screen applicants for positions such as police officer, social worker, and teacher, which involve contact with vulnerable groups and children.


title: Criminal record

text: Individuals and the self-employed cannot apply for a DBS check of their own criminal record, as they cannot ask an exempted question (a valid request for a person to reveal their full criminal history, including spent convictions) of themselves.


title: Criminal record

text: Only organisations registered with the DBS can ask an exempted question and submit applications for criminal records checks. There are two types of registered organisation: a registered body, which is the employer; and an umbrella body, a registered body that processes criminal record checks for non-registered organisations who can ask the exempted question.


title: Criminal record

text: The Lammy Review found that a criminal record that is visible to potential employers is a significant detriment to a person's future work prospects, and that work is key to reducing re-offending. Therefore having a criminal record that is visible to employers can increase the likelihood for a criminal to re-offend. The review also found that BAME groups are disproportionately affected as they are already more likely to be discriminated in employment.


title: Criminal record

text: In the United States, criminal records are compiled and updated on local, state, and federal levels by various law enforcement agencies. The primary purpose of a criminal record is to present a comprehensive criminal history for an individual.


title: Criminal record

text: Criminal histories are maintained by law enforcement agencies in all levels of government. Local police departments, sheriffs' offices, and specialty police agencies may maintain their own internal databases. On the state level, state police, troopers, highway patrol, correctional agencies, and other law enforcement agencies also maintain separate databases. Law enforcement agencies often share this information with other similar enforcement agencies and this information is usually made available to the public.


title: Criminal record

text: All states have official "statewide repositories" of criminal history information that include information contributed by the various county and municipal courts and law enforcement agencies within the state. State repositories are usually accurate, but all states have provisions for the correction of errors that occur in the reporting and recording of criminal history information. Individuals may normally obtain their own records from the state, but to obtain the records of another person, a private individual will normally need to obtain a release from the subject of the record search.


title: Criminal record

text: The federal government maintains extensive criminal histories and acts as a central repository for all agencies to report their own data. The Next Generation Identification (NGI) System is a database of criminal history information that is maintained by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). Acting within the NGI System the Interstate Identification Index (III) System maintains a system of state pointers that provide a gateway to the state that maintains administrative control of that arrest information. The FBI maintains administrative control for the federal agencies. When a criminal history record is requested, then the appropriate agency responds with their criminal history record for that subject.


title: Criminal record

text: Criminal records may be used for many purposes, mostly for background checks, including identification, employment, security clearance, adoption, immigration/international travel/visa, licensing, assistance in developing suspects in an ongoing criminal investigation, and for enhanced sentencing in criminal prosecutions.


title: Criminal record

text: In the 21st century, there has been controversy about for-profit data mining companies that harvest much of the electronic booking blotter records from various police authorities nationwide and offer it free on the public Internet and for sale to employers. Though frequently effective at identifying applicants with criminal backgrounds, the mined data does not usually reflect subsequent results of any criminal prosecution, acquittal, or dismissal of charges, and the highly prejudicial nature of such records can damage applicant chances for jobs and other benefits when such records are not in proper context of subsequent prosecutorial result for a hiring manager or recruiter to evaluate. In many cases, records are available for seven years or more beyond acquittals or dismissal of charges. In addition, since arrest records can sometimes be mistakenly matched to individuals with the same or similar names, the prejudicial nature of the available records, particularly violent ones, can negatively affect applicants and candidates in a dramatic way when they otherwise have no actual criminal record.


title: Promise (Sade album)

text: Promise is the second studio album by English band Sade, released in the United Kingdom on 4 November 1985 by Epic Records and in the United States on 15 November 1985 by Portrait Records. Recording for the album began in February and lasted until August 1985. The band co-produced the album with the same team of producers they worked with on their debut album, "Diamond Life", including Robin Millar, Mike Pela and Ben Rogan. The album's title comes from a letter from Sade Adu's father where he refers to the "promise of hope" to recover from cancer.


title: Promise (Sade album)

text: The album was a commercial success, peaking at number one on both the UK Albums Chart and the US "Billboard" 200, becoming the band's first album to top both charts. It also reached number one in Finland, the Netherlands and Switzerland, and the top five in numerous countries, including Canada, Germany and New Zealand. The album spawned three singles, including "The Sweetest Taboo", which became a success worldwide.


title: Promise (Sade album)

text: After studying fashion design, and later modeling briefly, Adu sang backup with British band Pride. During this time she formed a writing partnership with Pride's guitarist and saxophonist, Stuart Matthewman; together, backed by Pride's rhythm section, they began doing their own sets at Pride gigs. In 1983, Adu and Matthewman split from Pride along with keyboardist Andrew Hale, bassist Paul Denman, and drummer Paul Cooke and formed Sade; later that year they got a record deal. Afterwards, Sade released their debut album, "Diamond Life", in 1984, which became a success in the United Kingdom and later became a success in the United States following the release of its single "Smooth Operator". "Diamond Life" has sold over six million copies worldwide, becoming one of the top-selling debut album of the 1980s and the best-selling debut ever by a British female vocalist.


title: Promise (Sade album)

text: Between February and August 1985, Sade enlisted the same team of producers they worked with on "Diamond Life". The band co-produced "Promise" with Robin Millar, Mike Pela, and Ben Rogan, the latter of which played a less central role in the production. Some of the album's sessions took place during a two-week sojourn in Provence, utilising an SSL E-series console housed at the barn-shaped, concrete-built Studio Miraval. However, the majority of the album was recorded at Power Plant Studios in London, where the project commenced in February 1985 and concluded seven months later, with the mix being done in the Gallery (Studio Three) located on the top floor, with its 44-channel Harrison MR3. Studio One is where the production team initially listened to several of the songs in demo form, although Pela was at the Royal Albert Hall when he first heard one of the new tracks. Like their debut album, "Promise" was recorded live, though it featured the use of technology, sampling drums by way of an AMS with a lock-in feature.


title: Promise (Sade album)

text: The album's lead single was created at Power Plant's Studio One, where a 30 × 25 × 18-foot live area was complemented by a 36-channel Harrison Series 24 console, UREI 813B main monitors and a 24-track Studer A820 recorder running Ampex tape at 30ips. Pela explained the process saying, "We had UREI monitors in all of the rooms so that there was some continuity, and we also had Acoustic Research AR18Ss, which we discovered at that studio and which I've still got a pair of. They were like hi-fi speakers, they only cost about 80 quid, and once we'd started using them the company stopped making them. They were really nice and natural-sounding, not designed to carry super-low heavy frequencies, but absolutely fine."


title: Promise (Sade album)

text: The album spawned three singles—"Is It a Crime?", "Never as Good as the First Time" and "The Sweetest Taboo", the latter of which was released as the album's lead single and spent six months on the US "Billboard" Hot 100. "The Sweetest Taboo" peaked at number five on the US "Billboard" Hot 100, number one on the US Adult Contemporary chart and number three on the US Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs.


title: Promise (Sade album)

text: The second single "Never as Good as the First Time" was released in 1986, reaching number six on the Adult Contemporary chart, number 18 on the Hot Dance Music/Maxi-Singles Sales chart, number eight on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart and number 20 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100.


title: Promise (Sade album)

text: In a contemporary review for "Rolling Stone", Anthony DeCurtis felt that "the careful elegance of the production and instrumental settings seems little more than a strategy to conceal the limitations of Sade's vocal range and skills as a song stylist". "The Village Voice"s Robert Christgau commented, "Even when it's this sumptuous, there's a problem with aural wallpaper—once you start paying attention to it, it's not wallpaper anymore, it's pictures on the wall. And while as a wallpaper these pictures may be something, they can't compete with the ones you've hung up special."


title: Promise (Sade album)

text: Ron Wynn of AllMusic was more positive in his retrospective review, stating that the album was superior to the band's debut and describing Sade as the "personification of cool, laid-back singing", despite "seldom extending or embellishing lyrics, registering emotion, or projecting her voice." In a retrospective review for "Pitchfork", Naima Cochrane called "Promise" "lush and unhurried" and "the ideal second album, firmly establishing the Sade template without retreading the same material of the band's debut." Cochrane felt that "You can wrap yourself up in the music and Adu's soft-touch tone, recall or lament life and love through the lyrics, or fully immerse yourself with both."


title: Promise (Sade album)

text: "Promise" became the band's first album to reach number one on the US "Billboard" 200, spending two weeks at the top position. By September 1988, "Promise" had sold one million copies in the United States, and on 23 July 1997, it was certified quadruple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for shipments in excess of four million copies. When Sade's sixth studio album, "Soldier of Love", topped the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart in 2010, the group set the record for the longest gap between number-one albums on the chart ("Promise" and "Soldier of Love" were separated by 23 years, 10 months and 2 weeks).


title: Kerning

text: In typography, kerning is the process of adjusting the spacing between characters in a proportional font, usually to achieve a visually pleasing result. Kerning adjusts the space between individual letterforms, while tracking (letter-spacing) adjusts spacing uniformly over a range of characters. In a well-kerned font, the two-dimensional blank spaces between each pair of characters all have a visually similar area. The term "keming" is sometimes used informally to refer to poor kerning (the letters r and n placed too close together being easily mistaken for the letter m).


title: Kerning

text: The source of the word "kern" is from the French word , meaning "projecting angle, quill of a pen". The French term originated from the Latin , , meaning "hinge". In the days when all type was cast metal, the parts of a typecasting sort that needed to overlap adjacent letters simply hung off the sort slug's edge. Those overhanging metal pieces were called kerns. At that time, the word "kerning" only referred to manufacturing the sorts with kerns, while adjusting space between letters during compositing was called inter-spacing or letter spacing.


title: Kerning

text: Because this method was not well-suited to some pairs of letters, ligatures were supplied for those glyph combinations, such as the French , or the combinations "ff", "fi", "fl", "ffi", "ffl", and others.


title: Kerning

text: In metal typesetting, kerning was labour-intensive and expensive because the matrices had to be physically modified. It was therefore only employed on letter combinations which needed it the most, such as "VA" or "AV". With the arrival of digital fonts, it became much easier to kern many glyph combinations.


title: Kerning

text: In digital typography, kerning is usually applied to letter pairs as a number by which the default character spacing should be increased or decreased: a positive value for an increase, a negative value for a decrease. The number is expressed in "font units", one unit being a certain fraction of an "em" (one em is the type size currently used). Different fonts may use different units, but common values are 1000 and 2048 units/em. Thus, for 1000 units/em, a kerning value of 15 means an increase in character spacing by 0.015 of the current type size. (The kerning units for a given font are the same as the units used to express the character widths in that font.)


title: Kerning

text: Most kerning adjustments are negative, and negative adjustments are generally larger than positive ones. Adjustments for different pairs within a given font can range from a tiny 2 to over 100 (when expressed as 1000 units/em). The adjustments for a given pair vary greatly from one font to another.


title: Kerning

text: Negative kerning is widely used to fit capital letters such as "T", "V", "W", and "Y" closer to some other capital letters on either side, especially "A", and to some lower case letters on the right side, such as the combinations "Ta", "Te", and "To". It is also used to fit a period (full stop) or a comma closer to these and to "F" and "P", as well as to the lower case letters "r", "v", "w", and "y". Some other combinations that use negative kerning are "FA", "LT", and "LY", and letters like "A", "L", and "h" followed by a quotation mark.


title: Kerning

text: Positive kerning is used mainly in conjunction with special characters and punctuation (for example, the lower case letter "f" followed by right parenthesis or quotation mark). Depending on the font, some small positive kerning may also be required for accented letters and for pairs like "Bo", "Dw", and "TY".


title: Kerning

text: The table below contains a few exemplifying kerning pairs and their values. These values are based on 1000 units/em and the kerning pairs are ordered from the most negative to the most positive kerning value. The samples are taken from the kerning tables of the Minion Pro font. In other fonts the kerning may be very different.


title: Kerning

text: Which letters need to be kerned depends on which languages the font is to be used with. Since some combinations of letters are not used in normal words in any language, kerning these is not necessary. Non-proportional (monospaced) fonts do not use kerning, since their characters always have the same spacing.


title: Kerning

text: In older font formats, such as Microsoft's TrueType, the kerning values are specified in a simple "kern" table where each entry consists of a pair of characters and their kerning value. TrueType fonts typically have several hundred pairs, but some have more than a thousand.


title: Kerning

text: Since OpenType is a superset of TrueType "kern" tables are still supported for TrueType fonts packed as OpenType; however PostScript-based (CFF) OpenType fonts do not have this option. OpenType introduced a new, uniform way of specifying, among other things, kerning, via the Glyph Positioning Table (GPOS). The more recent font releases by Adobe no longer have "kern" tables at all, but only specify kerning via GPOS.


title: Kerning

text: Since an OpenType font may include thousands of glyphs, and consequently a huge number of pairs of characters that need kerning, OpenType fonts may have an elaborate system of tables and subtables, designed to minimize the overall storage space. (Kerning is treated as part of a broad range of new glyph positioning features which are stored in GPOS.) The system is based on the concept of glyph "classes": instead of a one-dimensional table where each entry corresponds to a pair of characters, there are two-dimensional tables where each entry corresponds to a pair of classes of glyphs. A class includes several characters whose right-hand outline (and right side-bearing) is identical for kerning purposes, or several characters whose left-hand outline (and left side-bearing) is identical. All pairs of characters where the first one is from the first class and the second one is from the second class will require the same kerning value, so this value needs to be specified only once in the table. The rows in the two-dimensional table correspond to first-character classes, and the columns correspond to second-character classes. The kerning value for a given pair of characters is found in the table at the intersection of the classes to which they belong.


title: Kerning

text: This system is very economical, but is necessarily limited. For example, many of the classes may be quite small. Also, a font with many types of glyphs may require several such tables. Finally, many pairs remain that cannot be represented through classes. For them, simpler, one-dimensional tables are provided: each table is for a particular character that is the first in many pairs, and the entries contain the characters that are the second in these pairs, together with the corresponding kerning values.


title: Kerning

text: Here are a few examples of glyph classes in the Minion Pro font for the first character in a kerning pair: (d i l u), (h m n), (j q), (b o p), (v w y), (D O Q), (H I), (V W); and for the second character in a pair: (f i m n r), (h k l), (j p t u), (c d e o q), (v w y), (C G O Q), (B D E F H I K L N P R).


title: Kerning

text: A category of letters that lend themselves well to class-based kerning is those with diacritical marks. These letters can be added to the class of the base letter, and can stay together whether they are the first or second character in a pair: (a à á â), (e è é ê), etc. A letter cannot be included in the class if its kerning is different from the others in certain pairs (for example, "Yá" vs. "Yä").


title: Kerning

text: Most modern office and desktop publishing systems support OpenType features, and hence class-based kerning.


title: Kerning

text: Automatic kerning refers to the kerning applied automatically by a program, as opposed to no kerning at all, or the kerning applied manually by the user. There are two types of automatic kerning: "metric" and "optical". With metric kerning, the program directly uses the values found in the kerning tables included in the font file. Most systems with typographic features today provide this type of kerning. Optical kerning, on the other hand, is available only in the more advanced systems. With optical kerning, the program uses an algorithm to calculate, from their outlines, the optimal spacing for each pair of consecutive characters. With both types of automatic kerning, the system usually permits the user to specify a minimum font size for applying kerning, if the user feels that kerning is unnecessary for smaller font sizes.


title: Kerning

text: With metric kerning, in a text that uses several fonts, the program must decide which kerning table to use when two consecutive characters belong to different the table from the font of the first character, or the second or to avoid kerning altogether. In this case, optical kerning is preferable. A common situation occurs when italic text ends with a roman symbol (right parenthesis or quotation mark, question mark, etc.) and the last letter's slant clashes with the symbol.


title: Kerning

text: Manual kerning, available in some systems, permits the user to override the automatic kerning and to apply any kerning value directly to a pair of characters in a particular place in the text. When not available, this feature can be simulated by using, for those two characters, the function that modifies the space between characters in a block of text (usually called tracking).


title: Kerning

text: When employed by a skilled person, manual kerning will usually give better results than optical kerning; for example, some characters that may appear to an algorithmic comparison to be spaced very closely together may appear to a human reader too far apart, especially when the only element of a glyph that is “too close” is a diacritic mark. Manual kerning may even be better than the metric kerning built into the kerning table by the font's designer, since these tables often have errors or omissions, or the difference may simply be a matter of personal preference.


title: Kerning

text: Contextual kerning refers to positional adjustment that depends on more than two consecutive glyphs. For example, the spacing of a certain glyph may depend not only on the preceding glyph (as in ordinary kerning) but also on the one following it. Although rarely implemented in ordinary documents, contextual kerning is a concern in quality typography.


title: Kerning

text: An example of a situation that demands contextual kerning in the Minion Pro font is the sequence of three characters "f.”" ("f", period, quotation mark), as is often found at the end of a quotation. Using the font's kerning tables, the quotation mark is too close to the "f", although without the period between them their spacing is adequate. The period, in other words, reduces their spacing instead of increasing it. The explanation is this: without the period, their kerning is a positive 121 (expressed as 1000 units/em). The period's width is 228, but the kerning between "f" and the period is −5, and between the period and the quotation mark −138. The total is a positive 85, as opposed to the original 121: a net loss of 36 units, which explains why the quotation mark is now closer to the "f". Contextual kerning would recognize the sequence of three characters, and would increase one or both inter-character spaces. A similar problem exists with the letters "F", "P", "T", "V", "W", and "Y"; with comma rather than period; or with single rather than double quotation mark.


title: Kerning

text: Contextual kerning is supported by the OpenType font format, but few font designers implement it, and probably no desktop publishing systems can currently use it. When important, the solution for a user is to employ manual kerning instead.


title: Kerning

text: While the OpenType math standard does not include support for kerning of subscripts or superscripts, Microsoft's implementation adds extensions to support this feature as of Office 2007.


title: Kerning

text: Font editors allow the user to modify the properties of a font, including its kerning table (if the font license permits it). They accomplish this by modifying the table found in the actual font file. The user can change the kerning value in existing pairs, or add new pairs.


title: Kerning

text: A few desktop publishing systems allow the user to change or add kerning pairs without modifying the font file itself. The system merely applies to the user's document the new kerning values, in place of the values found in the font file.


title: Kerning

text: Whether modifying the font file with a font editor or overriding it in a particular system, the user is limited to the existing kerning features. Thus, if one needs features like optical kerning, or contextual kerning, or kerning a pair of characters that belong to different fonts, and if the system lacks these features, other means must be employed.


title: Kerning

text: Some desktop publishing systems permit developers to create plug-ins (extensions that perform a variety of functions that the system itself lacks), and this capability has also been used for kerning. In general, these plug-ins permit the user to apply a kerning change automatically to a certain character pair throughout an entire document, instead of applying it by searching manually for those pairs. So far only basic kerning features have been implemented through plug-ins, and it is unclear whether the more advanced features can be effectively implemented in this manner.


title: Kerning

text: Instead of adding functionality to a desktop publishing system, a different approach is to export the document and process it outside that system. Any kerning features can then be applied to the document using tools ranging from ordinary text editors to programs specially developed for this task. The modified document is then imported back into the desktop publishing system. Many systems permit this operation, either by converting the document with import and export functions, or by making their internal document format an open standard. The benefit of this approach is that some complex typesetting functions that may be hard to implement through plug-ins (kerning in particular) may be relatively easy to implement through separate tools.


title: Kerning

text: The CSS property codice_1 enables kerning in Firefox, Chrome, Safari, Opera, and the Android Browser. Another CSS property, codice_2, also enables kerning in Internet Explorer 10+, Chrome, Edge, Firefox, and the Android Browser. There is also a proposed CSS3 property codice_3, but it is only supported in Firefox (prefixed with codice_4), Chrome and Opera (prefixed with codice_5 in both) and in Internet Explorer starting at version 10. The CSS3 draft suggests that kerning should always be enabled for OpenType fonts.


title: Kerning

text: Some critics have proposed to replace (at least some) OpenType-style GPOS kerning with spacer glyphs using OpenType's Glyph Substitution Table (GSUB).


title: Kerning

text: The human perception of kerning can vary with the intraword and interword spacing during reading. Even without complete kerning control, the effect can be simulated by slight modifications to the space between letters. For instance, on webpages with CSS1, a standard dating back to 1996, the property offers options for "lost" or "enhanced kerning perception" by simply making the space between letters non-uniform. The newer CSS3 standard includes the property, which allows a complete control of kerning.


title: Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz

text: Abū Luʾluʾa Fīrūz (; from ), also known as Bābā Shujāʿ al-Dīn (), was a Sassanid Persian slave known for having assassinated Umar ibn al-Khattab (), the second Islamic caliph, in November 644.


title: Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz

text: After having been captured in battle during the Arab-Muslim conquest of Persia, Abu Lu'lu'a was brought to Medina, the then-capital of the Rashidun Caliphate, which was normally off-limits to non-Arab captives. However, as a highly skilled craftsman, Abu Lu'lu'a was exceptionally allowed entrance into the city in order to work for the caliph. His motive for killing the caliph is not entirely clear, but medieval sources generally attribute it to a tax dispute. At one point, Abu Lu'lu'a is said to have asked the caliph to lift a tax imposed upon him by his Arab master, al-Mughira ibn Shu'ba. When Umar refused to lift the tax, Abu Lu'lu'a attacked him while he was leading the congregational prayer in the mosque, stabbing him with a double-bladed dagger and leaving him mortally wounded.


title: Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz

text: According to historical accounts, Abu Lu'lu'a was either captured and executed in Medina or committed suicide there. In retaliation, Ubayd Allah ibn Umar (one of Umar's sons) killed Abu Lu'lu'a's daughter; Hurmuzān, an ex-Sassanid military officer; and Jufayna, a Christian man from al-Hira (Iraq) who worked as a private tutor for a family in Medina.


title: Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz

text: However, according to later legends that were first recorded in the Safavid era, the prophet Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law Ali (later revered as the first Shi'ite Imam), saved Abu Lu'lu'a from his pursuers and miraculously transported him to the city of Kashan (Iran), where Abu Lu'lu'a married and lived out the rest of his life. At some point, a shrine was erected for him there, which from the 16th century onward became the focus of a yearly anti-Sunni festival celebrating Abu Lu'lu'a's assassination of Umar (whom Shi'ites consider to be the most oppressive early caliph), called Omar Koshan ().


title: Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz

text: Abu Lu'lu'a's given name was most likely , a Middle Persian name meaning "Victorious" and Arabicized in the extant sources as or . However, in the early sources he is more commonly referred to by his Arabic (teknonym) , meaning "Father of Pearl". From the 16th or 17th century onward he also received the Arabic (honorific nickname) (), which was associated with the annual celebrations held in his honor in early modern Iran (see below).


title: Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz

text: Very little is known about his life. According to some historical accounts, Abu Lu'lu'a was a Zoroastrian from Nahavand (Iran), though other reports describe him as a Christian. A highly skilled joiner and blacksmith, Abu Lu'lu'a was probably taken captive by his Arab master al-Mughira ibn Shu'ba in the Battle of Nahavand (642) and subsequently brought to Arabia, where he may also have converted to Islam. Other historical sources report that he was rather taken captive by al-Mughira in the Battle of al-Qadisiyya (636), or that he was sold to al-Mughira by Hurmuzān, an ex-Sassanid military officer who had been working for Umar as an adviser after his own capture by the Muslims. Although Medina was generally off-limits to non-Arab captives under Umar's reign, Abu Lu'lu'a was exceptionally allowed to enter the capital of the early caliphate, being sent there by al-Mughira to serve the caliph.


title: Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz

text: When al-Mughira forced Abu Lu'lu'a to pay a tax of two dirhams a day, Abu Lu'lu'a turned to Umar to protest this tax. However, Umar refused to lift the tax, thus provoking Abu Lu'lu'a's rage. Although this is the reason given by most historical accounts for Abu Lu'lu'a's assassination of Umar, Umar's biased policies against non-Arab captives may also have played a prominent role. One day when Umar was leading the congregational prayer in the mosque of Medina, Abu Lu'lu'a stabbed him with a double-bladed dagger. There are different versions of how this happened: according to one version, he also killed Kulayb ibn al-Bukayr al-Laythi who was behind Umar, while in another version he stabbed thirteen people who tried to restrain him. According to some accounts, the caliph died on the same day, while other accounts maintain that he died three days later. In any case, Umar died of his wounds on Wednesday of the ( according to the Gregorian calendar).


title: Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz

text: Some historical sources report that Abu Lu'lu'a was taken prisoner and executed for his assassination of Umar, while other sources claim that he committed suicide. After Abu Lu'lu'a's death, his daughter was killed by Ubayd Allah ibn Umar, one of Umar's sons. Acting upon the claim of one man (either Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf or Abd al-Rahman ibn Abi Bakr) that they had been seen conspiring with Abu Lu'lu'a while he was holding the double-bladed dagger, Ubayd Allah also killed Hurmuzān (Umar's Persian military adviser), and Jufayna, a Christian man from al-Hira (Iraq) who had been taken to Medina to serve as a private tutor to a family in Medina. After Ubayd Allah was detained for these murders, he threatened to kill all foreign captives residing in Medina, as well as some others. Although Ubayd Allah may have been encouraged by his sister Hafsa bint Umar to avenge their father's death, his murder of Hurmuzān and Jufayna was likely the result of a mental breakdown rather than of a true conspiracy. It was regarded by his peers as a crime rather than as a legitimate act of retaliation.


title: Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz

text: In early 20th-century scholarship it was sometimes supposed that Abu Lu'lu'a had really been an instrument in the hands of a conspiracy, though not a conspiracy led by Hurmuzān, but rather one led by Ali, al-Zubayr ibn al-Awwam, and Talha ibn Ubayd Allah. These men, who according to the historical sources were appointed by Umar himself as members of the council who would elect the next caliph, were thought by scholars to have conspired to overthrow Umar's reign and to put Ali in his place. This hypothesis, however, is rejected by more recent scholars. Nevertheless, while Ubayd Allah was subsequently acquitted of his crimes by Umar's successor Uthman (r. 644–656), who considered the execution of Ubayd Allah an excessive measure in view of his father's recent assassination, Ali, among others, did protest against this and vowed to apply the regular punishment for murder if he were ever to be caliph.


title: Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz

text: Wilferd Madelung has pointed out that just like Abu Lu'lu'a's assassination of Umar over something as trivial as a tax burden, Ubayd Allah's retaliatory killing of apparently random non-Arabs bears witness to the strong tensions that existed between Arabs and non-Arabs in the early Islamic caliphate. According to Tayeb El-Hibri, the 9th-century historians who recorded these events (amongst others, Ibn Sa'd, al-Baladhuri, al-Tabari) regarded them as laying the first seeds of the special affinity between Persia and the Hashimid family of the prophet (including Ali), which would later be reflected in the crucial role played by Khurasani converts in overthrowing the Umayyads and establishing the Hashimid rule of the Abbasids during the Abbasid revolution (750 CE).


title: Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz

text: According to later legends, Abu Lu'lu'a did not die in Medina, but was miraculously saved from his pursuers by Ali, who transported him by means of a special prayer to Kashan (a city in central Iran), where he married and lived out the rest of his life. This story was recorded by the anti-Shi'ite polemicist Mirza Makhdum Sharifi (1540/41–1587), but Abu Lu'lu'a's connections to Kashan seem to go back further, since already in the (an anonymous work written ) it is mentioned that Abu Lu'lu'a came from Fin, a village near Kashan. At some point a shrine was dedicated to Abu Lu'lu'a in the vicinity of Kashan, which was said to be built over his tomb. The first records of Abu Lu'lu'a's tomb in Kashan appear in the works of Ghiyath al-Din Khwandamir () and Nur Allah al-Shushtari (1549–1610).


title: Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz

text: Recently, there has been some controversy over this sanctuary, with a number of Sunni institutions, such as the al-Azhar University and the International Union for Muslim Scholars, demanding the Iranian government demolish the shrine. The shrine was reportedly shut down in 2007 by Ayatollah Mohammad-Ali Taskhiri, who was known as a strong proponent of Sunni-Shi'i reconciliation.


title: Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz

text: During the 16th-century conversion of Iran to Shia Islam under Safavid rule, a festival began being held in honor of Abu Lu'lu'a and his assassination of Umar. Named (), it was originally held around Abu Lu'lu'a's sanctuary in Kashan, on the anniversary of Umar's death (). Later the celebration spread elsewhere in Iran, and was sometimes held on rather than on .


title: Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz

text: The festival celebrated Abu Lu'lu'a, nicknamed (), as a national hero who had defended the religion by killing the oppressive caliph. Umar was not only seen as a persecutor of non-Arabs, he was also thought to have threatened and injured Muhammad's daughter and Ali's wife Fatima. Because of this, Umar came to be regarded by Shi'is (who revere Fatima) as a symbol of the oppression of their sect. The establishment of the festival was related to the more general institution in early Safavid Iran of the ritual cursing of the first three Rashidun caliphs (revered by Sunnis but regarded by Shi'is as usurpers of Ali's rightful position as caliph). It involved the beating and burning of effigies of Umar, accompanied by cursing and the recitation of vilifying poetry.


title: Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz

text: During the Qajar period (1789–1925), the ritual cursing and humiliation of the first three caliphs was gradually abandoned due to the improving political relations with the Sunni Ottomans. Thus, by the beginning of the 20th century, the festival of Omar Koshan had fallen into disuse in the major cities of Iran, surviving only in the countryside. This evolution was further spurred on by the rise of pan-islamism (an ideology advocating the unity of all Muslims, both Shi'is and Sunnis) in the late 19th century. It reached a peak with the Islamic Revolution in 1979, which lead to the ritual being officially banned in the Islamic Republic of Iran.


title: Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz

text: Nevertheless, the festival is still celebrated in Iran, though often secretly and indoors. It is now held on the 9th day of the month of Rabi' Al-Awwal of the Islamic year, lasting until the 27th. It is a carnival-type of festival in which social roles are reversed and communal norms upturned, generally functioning as a more lighthearted counterpart to the passion plays commemorating the death of the prophet Muhammad's grandson Husayn ibn Ali at the Battle of Karbala in 680. Nowadays, the Umar who is scorned at the festival is sometimes taken to be Umar ibn Sa'ad, the leader of the troops who killed Husayn at Karbala, an identification which further removes the festival from its anti-Sunni origins.


title: Conservation movement

text: The conservation movement, also known as nature conservation, is a political, environmental, and social movement that seeks to manage and protect natural resources, including animal, fungus, and plant species as well as their habitat for the future. Conservationists are concerned with leaving the environment in a better state than the condition they found it in. Evidence-based conservation seeks to use high quality scientific evidence to make conservation efforts more effective.


title: Conservation movement

text: The early conservation movement evolved out of necessity to maintain natural resources such as fisheries, wildlife management, water, soil, as well as conservation and sustainable forestry. The contemporary conservation movement has broadened from the early movement's emphasis on use of sustainable yield of natural resources and preservation of wilderness areas to include preservation of biodiversity. Some say the conservation movement is part of the broader and more far-reaching environmental movement, while others argue that they differ both in ideology and practice. Conservation is seen as differing from environmentalism and it is generally a conservative school of thought which aims to preserve natural resources expressly for their continued sustainable use by humans.


title: Conservation movement

text: The conservation movement can be traced back to John Evelyn's work "Sylva", presented as a paper to the Royal Society in 1662. Published as a book two years later, it was one of the most highly influential texts on forestry ever published. Timbre resources in England were becoming dangerously depleted at the time, and Evelyn advocated the importance of conserving the forests by managing the rate of depletion and ensuring that the cut down trees get replenished.


title: Conservation movement

text: The field developed during the 18th century, especially in Prussia and France where scientific forestry methods were developed. These methods were first applied rigorously in British India from the early 19th century. The government was interested in the use of forest produce and began managing the forests with measures to reduce the risk of wildfire in order to protect the "household" of nature, as it was then termed. This early ecological idea was in order to preserve the growth of delicate teak trees, which was an important resource for the Royal Navy.


title: Conservation movement

text: Concerns over teak depletion were raised as early as 1799 and 1805 when the Navy was undergoing a massive expansion during the Napoleonic Wars; this pressure led to the first formal conservation Act, which prohibited the felling of small teak trees. The first forestry officer was appointed in 1806 to regulate and preserve the trees necessary for shipbuilding.


title: Conservation movement

text: This promising start received a setback in the 1820s and 30s, when laissez-faire economics and complaints from private landowners brought these early conservation attempts to an end.


title: Conservation movement

text: In 1837, American poet George Pope Morris published "Woodman, Spare that Tree!", a Romantic poem urging a lumberjack to avoid an oak tree that has sentimental value. The poem was set to music later that year by Henry Russell. Lines from the song have been quoted by environmentalists.


title: Conservation movement

text: Conservation was revived in the mid-19th century, with the first practical application of scientific conservation principles to the forests of India. The conservation ethic that began to evolve included three core principles: that human activity damaged the environment, that there was a civic duty to maintain the environment for future generations, and that scientific, empirically based methods should be applied to ensure this duty was carried out. Sir James Ranald Martin was prominent in promoting this ideology, publishing many medico-topographical reports that demonstrated the scale of damage wrought through large-scale deforestation and desiccation, and lobbying extensively for the institutionalization of forest conservation activities in British India through the establishment of Forest Departments. Edward Percy Stebbing warned of desertification of India. The Madras Board of Revenue started local conservation efforts in 1842, headed by Alexander Gibson, a professional botanist who systematically adopted a forest conservation program based on scientific principles. This was the first case of state management of forests in the world.


title: Conservation movement

text: These local attempts gradually received more attention by the British government as the unregulated felling of trees continued unabated. In 1850, the British Association in Edinburgh formed a committee to study forest destruction at the behest of Dr. Hugh Cleghorn a pioneer in the nascent conservation movement.


title: Conservation movement

text: He had become interested in forest conservation in Mysore in 1847 and gave several lectures at the Association on the failure of agriculture in India. These lectures influenced the government under Governor-General Lord Dalhousie to introduce the first permanent and large-scale forest conservation program in the world in 1855, a model that soon spread to other colonies, as well the United States. In the same year, Cleghorn organised the Madras Forest Department and in 1860 the department banned the use shifting cultivation. Cleghorn's 1861 manual, "The forests and gardens of South India", became the definitive work on the subject and was widely used by forest assistants in the subcontinent. In 1861, the Forest Department extended its remit into the Punjab.


title: Conservation movement

text: Sir Dietrich Brandis, a German forester, joined the British service in 1856 as superintendent of the teak forests of Pegu division in eastern Burma. During that time Burma's teak forests were controlled by militant Karen tribals. He introduced the "taungya" system, in which Karen villagers provided labor for clearing, planting and weeding teak plantations. After seven years in Burma, Brandis was appointed Inspector General of Forests in India, a position he served in for 20 years. He formulated new forest legislation and helped establish research and training institutions. The Imperial Forest School at Dehradun was founded by him.


title: Conservation movement

text: Germans were prominent in the forestry administration of British India. As well as Brandis, Berthold Ribbentrop and Sir William P.D. Schlich brought new methods to Indian conservation, the latter becoming the Inspector-General in 1883 after Brandis stepped down. Schlich helped to establish the journal "Indian Forester" in 1874, and became the founding director of the first forestry school in England at Cooper's Hill in 1885. He authored the five-volume "Manual of Forestry" (1889–96) on silviculture, forest management, forest protection, and forest utilization, which became the standard and enduring textbook for forestry students.


title: Conservation movement

text: The American movement received its inspiration from 19th century works that exalted the inherent value of nature, quite apart from human usage. Author Henry David Thoreau (1817–1862) made key philosophical contributions that exalted nature. Thoreau was interested in peoples' relationship with nature and studied this by living close to nature in a simple life. He published his experiences in the book "Walden," which argued that people should become intimately close with nature. The ideas of Sir Brandis, Sir William P.D. Schlich and Carl A. Schenck were also very influential—Gifford Pinchot, the first chief of the USDA Forest Service, relied heavily upon Brandis' advice for introducing professional forest management in the U.S. and on how to structure the Forest Service.


title: Conservation movement

text: Both conservationists and preservationists appeared in political debates during the Progressive Era (the 1890s–early 1920s). There were three main positions.


title: Conservation movement

text: The debate between conservation and preservation reached its peak in the public debates over the construction of California's Hetch Hetchy dam in Yosemite National Park which supplies the water supply of San Francisco. Muir, leading the Sierra Club, declared that the valley must be preserved for the sake of its beauty: "No holier temple has ever been consecrated by the heart of man."


title: Conservation movement

text: President Roosevelt put conservationist issues high on the national agenda. He worked with all the major figures of the movement, especially his chief advisor on the matter, Gifford Pinchot and was deeply committed to conserving natural resources. He encouraged the Newlands Reclamation Act of 1902 to promote federal construction of dams to irrigate small farms and placed 230 million acres (360,000 mi or 930,000 km) under federal protection. Roosevelt set aside more federal land for national parks and nature preserves than all of his predecessors combined.


title: Conservation movement

text: Roosevelt established the United States Forest Service, signed into law the creation of five national parks, and signed the year 1906 Antiquities Act, under which he proclaimed 18 new national monuments. He also established the first 51 bird reserves, four game preserves, and 150 national forests, including Shoshone National Forest, the nation's first. The area of the United States that he placed under public protection totals approximately .


title: Conservation movement

text: Gifford Pinchot had been appointed by McKinley as chief of Division of Forestry in the Department of Agriculture. In 1905, his department gained control of the national forest reserves. Pinchot promoted private use (for a fee) under federal supervision. In 1907, Roosevelt designated 16 million acres (65,000 km) of new national forests just minutes before a deadline.


title: Conservation movement

text: In May 1908, Roosevelt sponsored the Conference of Governors held in the White House, with a focus on natural resources and their most efficient use. Roosevelt delivered the opening address: "Conservation as a National Duty".


title: Conservation movement

text: In 1903 Roosevelt toured the Yosemite Valley with John Muir, who had a very different view of conservation, and tried to minimize commercial use of water resources and forests. Working through the Sierra Club he founded, Muir succeeded in 1905 in having Congress transfer the Mariposa Grove and Yosemite Valley to the federal government. While Muir wanted nature preserved for its own sake, Roosevelt subscribed to Pinchot's formulation, "to make the forest produce the largest amount of whatever crop or service will be most useful, and keep on producing it for generation after generation of men and trees."


title: Conservation movement

text: Theodore Roosevelt's view on conservationism remained dominant for decades; Franklin D. Roosevelt authorised the building of many large-scale dams and water projects, as well as the expansion of the National Forest System to buy out sub-marginal farms. In 1937, the Pittman–Robertson Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Act was signed into law, providing funding for state agencies to carry out their conservation efforts.


title: Conservation movement

text: While Theodore Roosevelt was one of the leading activists for the conservation movement in the United States, he also believed that the threats to the natural world were equally threats to white Americans. They held the belief that the cities, industries and factories that were overtaking the wilderness and threatening the native plants and animals were also consuming and threatening the racial vigor that they believed white Americans held which made them superior. Roosevelt was a big believer that white male virility depended on wildlife for its vigor, and that depleting wildlife would result in a much weaker nation. This lead Roosevelt to support the passing of many immigration restrictions, eugenics legislations and wildlife preservation laws. He drew much inspiration for his beliefs from Madison Grant, a well known American eugenicist and conservationist. Grant worked alongside Roosevelt in the American conservation movement and was even secretary and president of the Boone and Crockett Club. In 1916, Grant published the book "The Passing of the Great Race", which explained the hierarchy of races, with white, "Nordic" men at the top, and all other races below. The German translation of this book was used by Nazi Germany as the source for many of their beliefs.


title: Conservation movement

text: The National Audubon Society was founded in 1905 with the priority of protecting/conserving various waterbird species. However, the first state-level Audubon group was created in 1896 by Harriet Hemenway and Minna B. Hall to convince women to refrain from buying hats made with bird feathers- a common practice at the time. The organization is named after John Audubon, a naturalist and legendary bird painter. The lesser known truth is that he was a slaveholder who also included many racist tales in his many books. Despite his views of racial inequality, Audubon did find black and indigenous people to be scientifically useful, often using their local knowledge in his books and relying on them to collect specimens for him.


title: Conservation movement

text: Environmental reemerged on the national agenda in 1970, with Republican Richard Nixon playing a major role, especially with his creation of the Environmental Protection Agency. The debates over the public lands and environmental politics played a supporting role in the decline of liberalism and the rise of modern environmentalism. Although Americans consistently rank environmental issues as "important", polling data indicates that in the voting booth voters rank the environmental issues low relative to other political concerns.


title: Conservation movement

text: The growth of the Republican party's political power in the inland West (apart from the Pacific coast) was facilitated by the rise of popular opposition to public lands reform. Successful Democrats in the inland West and Alaska typically take more conservative positions on environmental issues than Democrats from the Coastal states. Conservatives drew on new organizational networks of think tanks, industry groups, and citizen-oriented organizations, and they began to deploy new strategies that affirmed the rights of individuals to their property, protection of extraction rights, to hunt and recreate, and to pursue happiness unencumbered by the federal government at the expense of resource conservation.


title: Conservation movement

text: In 2019, convivial conservation was an idea proposed by Bram Büscher and Robert Fletcher. Convivial conservation draws on social movements and concepts like environmental justice and structural change to create a post-capitalist approach to conservation.


title: Conservation movement

text: The World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) is an international non-governmental organization founded in 1961, working in the field of the wilderness preservation, and the reduction of human impact on the environment. It was formerly named the "World Wildlife Fund", which remains its official name in Canada and the United States.


title: Conservation movement

text: WWF is the world's largest conservation organization with over five million supporters worldwide, working in more than 100 countries, supporting around 1,300 conservation and environmental projects. They have invested over $1 billion in more than 12,000 conservation initiatives since 1995. WWF is a foundation with 55% of funding from individuals and bequests, 19% from government sources (such as the World Bank, DFID, USAID) and 8% from corporations in 2014.


title: Conservation movement

text: WWF aims to "stop the degradation of the planet's natural environment and to build a future in which humans live in harmony with nature." The Living Planet Report is published every two years by WWF since 1998; it is based on a Living Planet Index and ecological footprint calculation. In addition, WWF has launched several notable worldwide campaigns including Earth Hour and Debt-for-Nature Swap, and its current work is organized around these six areas: food, climate, freshwater, wildlife, forests, and oceans.


title: Conservation movement

text: A conservation-exploitation dichotomy has plagued a place many may not expect: Conservation institutions. Institutions such as the WWF have historically been the cause of the displacement and divide between native populations and the lands they inhabit. The overbearing reason behind this rather contradictory truth is because of the organization's historically colonial, paternalistic, and neoliberal approaches to conservation. Claus, in his article "Drawing the Sea Near: Satoumi and Coral Reef Conservation in Okinawa", expands on these approaches and their effectiveness, not as much in conservation, but in creating the value of and commercializing endangered flora and fauna. One way in which this has taken place is through a separation between people, even locals, and the nature spaces they aimed to protect. This is what Claus calls the "Conservation-Far" method, in which access to lands is completely relinquished upon the locals and tourists, by an external, foreign entity. This entity is largely unaware of the customs and values held by those within the territory surrounding nature and their role within it.


title: Conservation movement

text: Claus relays the history of an Island in Japan, Shiraho, in which the people's traditional ways of tending to nature were lost due to modernization and the rise of a fast-paced lifestyle. It is the view of a "Conservation-Near" approach that would suggest a regeneration of these customs within the local area. This engages those near in proximity to the lands in the conservation efforts and holds them accountable for their direct effects on its preservation. Unlike the hands-on, full sensory experience permitted by conservation-near methodologies, conservation-far drills visuals and sight as being the main interaction medium between people and the environment. An emphasis on observation only stems from a deeper association with intellect and observation. The alternative to this is more of a bodily or "primitive" consciousness, which is associated with lower-intelligence and people of color. A new, integrated approach to conservation is being investigated in recent years by institutions such as WWF.


title: Conservation movement

text: Deforestation and overpopulation are issues affecting all regions of the world. The consequent destruction of wildlife habitat has prompted the creation of conservation groups in other countries, some founded by local hunters who have witnessed declining wildlife populations first hand. Also, it was highly important for the conservation movement to solve problems of living conditions in the cities and the overpopulation of such places.


title: Conservation movement

text: The idea of incentive conservation is a modern one but its practice has clearly defended some of the sub Arctic wildernesses and the wildlife in those regions for thousands of years, especially by indigenous peoples such as the Evenk, Yakut, Sami, Inuit and Cree. The fur trade and hunting by these peoples have preserved these regions for thousands of years. Ironically, the pressure now upon them comes from non-renewable resources such as oil, sometimes to make synthetic clothing which is advocated as a humane substitute for fur. (See Raccoon dog for case study of the conservation of an animal through fur trade.) Similarly, in the case of the beaver, hunting and fur trade were thought to bring about the animal's demise, when in fact they were an integral part of its conservation. For many years children's books stated and still do, that the decline in the beaver population was due to the fur trade. In reality however, the decline in beaver numbers was because of habitat destruction and deforestation, as well as its continued persecution as a pest (it causes flooding). In Cree lands, however, where the population valued the animal for meat and fur, it continued to thrive. The Inuit defend their relationship with the seal in response to outside critics.


title: Conservation movement

text: The Izoceño-Guaraní of Santa Cruz Department, Bolivia, is a tribe of hunters who were influential in establishing the Capitania del Alto y Bajo Isoso (CABI). CABI promotes economic growth and survival of the Izoceno people while discouraging the rapid destruction of habitat within Bolivia's Gran Chaco. They are responsible for the creation of the 34,000 square kilometre Kaa-Iya del Gran Chaco National Park and Integrated Management Area (KINP). The KINP protects the most biodiverse portion of the Gran Chaco, an ecoregion shared with Argentina, Paraguay and Brazil. In 1996, the Wildlife Conservation Society joined forces with CABI to institute wildlife and hunting monitoring programs in 23 Izoceño communities. The partnership combines traditional beliefs and local knowledge with the political and administrative tools needed to effectively manage habitats. The programs rely solely on voluntary participation by local hunters who perform self-monitoring techniques and keep records of their hunts. The information obtained by the hunters participating in the program has provided CABI with important data required to make educated decisions about the use of the land. Hunters have been willing participants in this program because of pride in their traditional activities, encouragement by their communities and expectations of benefits to the area.


title: Conservation movement

text: In order to discourage illegal South African hunting parties and ensure future local use and sustainability, indigenous hunters in Botswana began lobbying for and implementing conservation practices in the 1960s. The Fauna Preservation Society of Ngamiland (FPS) was formed in 1962 by the husband and wife team: Robert Kay and June Kay, environmentalists working in conjunction with the Batawana tribes to preserve wildlife habitat.


title: Conservation movement

text: The FPS promotes habitat conservation and provides local education for preservation of wildlife. Conservation initiatives were met with strong opposition from the Botswana government because of the monies tied to big-game hunting. In 1963, BaTawanga Chiefs and tribal hunter/adventurers in conjunction with the FPS founded Moremi National Park and Wildlife Refuge, the first area to be set aside by tribal people rather than governmental forces. Moremi National Park is home to a variety of wildlife, including lions, giraffes, elephants, buffalo, zebra, cheetahs and antelope, and covers an area of 3,000 square kilometers. Most of the groups involved with establishing this protected land were involved with hunting and were motivated by their personal observations of declining wildlife and habitat.


title: 4.2-kiloyear event

text: The 4.2-kiloyear (thousand years) BP aridification event (long-term drought) was one of the most severe climatic events of the Holocene epoch. It defines the beginning of the current Meghalayan age in the Holocene epoch.


title: 4.2-kiloyear event

text: Starting around 2200 BC, it probably lasted the entire 22nd century BC. It has been hypothesised to have caused the collapse of the Old Kingdom in Egypt as well as the Akkadian Empire in Mesopotamia, and the Liangzhu culture in the lower Yangtze River area. The drought may also have initiated the collapse of the Indus Valley civilisation, with some of its population moving southeastward to follow the movement of their desired habitat, as well as the migration of Indo-European-speaking people into India.


title: 4.2-kiloyear event

text: Some scientists disagree with that conclusion, citing evidence that the event was not a global drought and did not happen in a clear timeline.


title: 4.2-kiloyear event

text: A phase of intense aridity about 4.2 ka BP is recorded across North Africa, the Middle East, the Red Sea, the Arabian Peninsula, the Indian subcontinent, and midcontinental North America. Glaciers throughout the mountain ranges of western Canada advanced about that time. Evidence has also been found in an Italian cave flowstone, the Kilimanjaro ice sheet, and in Andean glacier ice. The onset of the aridification in Mesopotamia in about 4100 BP also coincided with a cooling event in the North Atlantic, known as Bond event 3. Despite the geographic diversity of these examples, evidence for the 4.2 kyr event in Northern Europe is ambiguous, which suggests that the origins and effects of the event are spatially complex.


title: 4.2-kiloyear event

text: In 2018, the International Commission on Stratigraphy divided the Holocene epoch into three periods, with the late Holocene from approximately 2250 BC onwards designated as the "Meghalayan stage/age". The boundary stratotype is a speleothem in Mawmluh cave in India, and the global auxiliary stratotype is an ice core from Mount Logan in Canada. However, justification for this division is debated as the event was not a global drought and did not happen within a clear timeframe. Jessica Tierney, a paleoclimatologist at the University of Arizona in Tucson, states that proponents of the new partitioning mistakenly "lumped together evidence of other droughts and wet periods, sometimes centuries away from the event."


title: 4.2-kiloyear event

text: On the Iberian Peninsula, the construction of "motillas"-type settlements in the period after 2200 BC is believed to be the consequence of the severe aridification that affected this area.


title: 4.2-kiloyear event

text: According to Mejías et al., who reported the first palaeohydrogeological interdisciplinary research in La Mancha, Spain,


title: 4.2-kiloyear event

text: The authors' analysis verified a relationship between the geological substrate and the spatial distribution of the "motillas".


title: 4.2-kiloyear event

text: In c. 2150 BC, Egypt was hit by a series of exceptionally low Nile floods that may have influenced the collapse of the centralised government of the Old Kingdom after a famine.


title: 4.2-kiloyear event

text: In the Persian Gulf region, there was a sudden change in settlement pattern, style of pottery and tombs. The 22nd century BC drought marks the end of the Umm Al Nar culture and the change to the Wadi Suq culture.


title: 4.2-kiloyear event

text: The aridification of Mesopotamia may have been related to the onset of cooler sea-surface temperatures in the North Atlantic (Bond event 3), as analysis of the modern instrumental record shows that large (50%) interannual reductions in Mesopotamian water supply result when subpolar northwest Atlantic sea surface temperatures are anomalously cool. The headwaters of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers are fed by elevation-induced capture of winter Mediterranean rainfall.


title: 4.2-kiloyear event

text: The Akkadian Empire in 2300 BC was the second civilisation to subsume independent societies into a single state (the first being ancient Egypt in around 3100 BC). It has been claimed that the collapse of the state was influenced by a wide-ranging, centuries-long drought. Archaeological evidence documents widespread abandonment of the agricultural plains of northern Mesopotamia and dramatic influxes of refugees into southern Mesopotamia, around 2170 BC. A 180-km-long wall, the "Repeller of the Amorites", was built across central Mesopotamia to stem nomadic incursions to the south. Around 2150 BC, the Gutian people, who originally inhabited the Zagros Mountains, defeated the demoralised Akkadian army, took Akkad and destroyed it around 2115 BC. Widespread agricultural change in the Near East is visible at the end of the 3rd millennium BC.


title: 4.2-kiloyear event

text: Resettlement of the northern plains by smaller sedentary populations occurred near 1900 BC, three centuries after the collapse.


title: 4.2-kiloyear event

text: A study of fossil corals in Oman provides evidence that prolonged winter shamal seasons, around 4200 years ago, led to the salinization of the irrigated field, which made a dramatic decrease in crop production trigger a widespread famine and eventually the collapse of the ancient Akkadian Empire.


title: 4.2-kiloyear event

text: In the 2nd millennium BC, widespread aridification occurred in the Eurasian steppes and in South Asia. On the steppes, the vegetation changed, driving "higher mobility and transition to the nomadic cattle breeding." Water shortage also strongly affected South Asia:


title: 4.2-kiloyear event

text: Urban centers of the Indus Valley civilisation were abandoned and replaced by disparate local cultures because of the same climate change that affected the neighbouring regions to the west. , many scholars believed that drought and a decline in trade with Egypt and Mesopotamia caused the collapse of the Indus civilisation. The Ghaggar-Hakra system was rain-fed, and water supply depended on the monsoons. The Indus Valley climate grew significantly cooler and drier from about 1800 BC, which is linked to a contemporary general weakening of the monsoon. Aridity increased, with the Ghaggar-Hakra River retracting its reach towards the foothills of the Himalayas, leading to erratic and less-extensive floods, which made inundation agriculture less sustainable. Aridification reduced the water supply enough to cause the civilisation's demise, and to scatter its population eastward.


title: 4.2-kiloyear event

text: The drought may have caused the collapse of Neolithic cultures around Central China in the late 3rd millennium BC. At the same time, the middle reaches of the Yellow River saw a series of extraordinary floods related to the legendary figure of Yu the Great. In the Yishu River Basin, the flourishing Longshan culture was affected by a cooling that severely reduced rice output and led to a substantial decrease in population and to fewer archaeological sites. In about 2000 BC, Longshan was displaced by the Yueshi culture, which had fewer and less-sophisticated artifacts of ceramic and bronze.


title: Doubly linked list

text: In computer science, a doubly linked list is a linked data structure that consists of a set of sequentially linked records called nodes. Each node contains three fields: two link fields (references to the previous and to the next node in the sequence of nodes) and one data field. The beginning and ending nodes' previous and next links, respectively, point to some kind of terminator, typically a sentinel node or null, to facilitate traversal of the list. If there is only one sentinel node, then the list is circularly linked via the sentinel node. It can be conceptualized as two singly linked lists formed from the same data items, but in opposite sequential orders.


title: Doubly linked list

text: The two node links allow traversal of the list in either direction. While adding or removing a node in a doubly linked list requires changing more links than the same operations on a singly linked list, the operations are simpler and potentially more efficient (for nodes other than first nodes) because there is no need to keep track of the previous node during traversal or no need to traverse the list to find the previous node, so that its link can be modified.


title: Doubly linked list

text: The first and last nodes of a doubly linked list for all practical applications are immediately accessible (i.e., accessible without traversal, and usually called "head" and "tail") and therefore allow traversal of the list from the beginning or end of the list, respectively: e.g., traversing the list from beginning to end, or from end to beginning, in a search of the list for a node with specific data value. Any node of a doubly linked list, once obtained, can be used to begin a new traversal of the list, in either direction (towards beginning or end), from the given node.


title: Doubly linked list

text: The link fields of a doubly linked list node are often called next and previous or forward and backward. The references stored in the link fields are usually implemented as pointers, but (as in any linked data structure) they may also be address offsets or indices into an array where the nodes live.


title: Doubly linked list

text: Traversal of a doubly linked list can be in either direction. In fact, the direction of traversal can change many times, if desired. Traversal is often called iteration, but that choice of terminology is unfortunate, for iteration has well-defined semantics (e.g., in mathematics) which are not analogous to traversal.


title: Doubly linked list

text: Removal of a node is easier than insertion, but requires special handling if the node to be removed is the "firstNode" or "lastNode":


title: Doubly linked list

text: One subtle consequence of the above procedure is that deleting the last node of a list sets both "firstNode" and "lastNode" to "null", and so it handles removing the last node from a one-element list correctly. Notice that we also don't need separate "removeBefore" or "removeAfter" methods, because in a doubly linked list we can just use "remove(node.prev)" or "remove(node.next)" where these are valid. This also assumes that the node being removed is guaranteed to exist. If the node does not exist in this list, then some error handling would be required.


title: Doubly linked list

text: Assuming that "someNode" is some node in a non-empty list, this code traverses through that list starting with "someNode" (any node will do):


title: Doubly linked list

text: Notice the postponing of the test to the end of the loop. This is important for the case where the list contains only the single node "someNode".


title: Doubly linked list

text: This simple function inserts a node into a doubly linked circularly linked list after a given element:


title: Doubly linked list

text: As in doubly linked lists, "removeAfter" and "removeBefore" can be implemented with "remove(list, node.prev)" and "remove(list, node.next)".


title: Doubly linked list

text: An asymmetric doubly linked list is somewhere between the singly linked list and the regular doubly linked list. It shares some features with the singly linked list (single-direction traversal) and others from the doubly linked list (ease of modification)


title: Doubly linked list

text: It is a list where each node's "previous" link points not to the previous node, but to the link to itself. While this makes little difference between nodes (it just points to an offset within the previous node), it changes the head of the list: It allows the first node to modify the "firstNode" link easily.


title: Doubly linked list

text: To insert a node before another, we change the link that pointed to the old node, using the "prev" link; then set the new node's "next" link to point to the old node, and change that node's "prev" link accordingly.


title: Doubly linked list

text: To remove a node, we simply modify the link pointed by "prev", regardless of whether the node was the first one of the list.


title: Sheboygan, Wisconsin

text: Sheboygan () is a city in and the county seat of Sheboygan County, Wisconsin, United States. The population was 49,929 at the 2020 census. It is the principal city of the Sheboygan, Wisconsin Metropolitan Statistical Area, which has a population of 118,034. The city is located on the western shore of Lake Michigan at the mouth of the Sheboygan River, about north of Milwaukee and south of Green Bay.


title: Sheboygan, Wisconsin

text: Before its settlement by European Americans, the Sheboygan area was home to Native Americans, including members of the Potawatomi, Chippewa, Ottawa, Winnebago, and Menominee tribes. In the Menominee language, the place is known as "Sāpīwǣhekaneh," "at a hearing distance in the woods". The Menominee ceded this land to the United States in the 1831 Treaty of Washington. Following the treaty, the land became available for sale to American settlers. Migrants from New York, Michigan, and New England were among the first white Americans to settle this area in the 1830s, though the French had been present in the region since the 17th century and had intermarried with local people. One 19th century settler remarked: "Nearly all the settlers were from the New England states and New York." Lumbering was the first major industry, as trees were harvested and shipped to eastern markets through the Great Lakes.


title: Sheboygan, Wisconsin

text: Although Sheboygan was officially incorporated in 1846, much of the town had been platted in 1836, when property investors laid out more than one thousand lots.


title: Sheboygan, Wisconsin

text: By 1849, a wave of liberal, middle-class immigration triggered by the revolutions of 1848 had made the community known for its German population. As Major William Williams wrote on June 26, 1849: "Arrived at Sheboigin on the Wisconsin side, a small town, population purhaps from 700 to 1000. This is a promising place. There are a great many best class of Germans settling around it. 'Tis all along this Lake so far quite an interesting country." Between 1840 and 1890, Protestant Dutch immigrants also settled in the area, as did Irish refugees fleeing the Great Famine. A neighborhood in northwestern Sheboygan (between Martin Avenue and Alexander Court) was settled by Slovenian immigrants and acquired the name "Laibach"; it was also known as "Vollrath's Division". In 1887, Sheboygan adopted a sundown town ordinance banning African Americans from living there, according to a local Optimist member's account in 1963, though city leaders denied that any such ordinance was in effect.


title: Sheboygan, Wisconsin

text: In the spring of 1898, Sheboygan elected Fred C. Haack and August L. Mohr as aldermen, making them the first two Social Democratic Party candidates to be elected to public office in the United States. Haack had originally been elected in 1897 as a member of the Populist Party but joined the Social Democrats after they organized locally. Haack served as alderman for sixteen years before moving to Milwaukee and being elected as a Socialist alderman there. At the


title: Sheboygan, Wisconsin

text: 1932 Socialist Party convention, Haack received recognition as the first Socialist officeholder in America.


title: Sheboygan, Wisconsin

text: In the early 20th century, many Orthodox Greeks, Catholic Slavs and Lithuanians immigrated to Sheboygan. In the late 20th century, Hmong refugees from Laos and Southeast Asia settled there.


title: Sheboygan, Wisconsin

text: According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which, is land and is water. It is located at latitude 43°45' north, longitude 87°44' west.


title: Sheboygan, Wisconsin

text: Sheboygan has a warm-summer humid continental climate typical of Wisconsin. In spite of its position on Lake Michigan there are vast temperature differences between seasons, although it is somewhat moderated compared with areas farther inland.


title: Sheboygan, Wisconsin

text: As of the census of 2020, the population was 49,929. The population density was . There were 22,605 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 72.3% White, 11.1% Asian, 3.3% Black or African American, 0.6% Native American, 4.8% from other races, and 7.9% from two or more races. Ethnically, the population was 12.5% Hispanic or Latino of any race and 68.9% Non-Hispanic White.


title: Sheboygan, Wisconsin

text: As of the census of 2010, there were 49,288 people, 20,308 households, and 12,219 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 22,339 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 82.5% White, 1.8% African American, 0.5% Native American, 9.0% Asian, 3.6% from other races, and 2.5% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 9.9% of the population.


title: Sheboygan, Wisconsin

text: There were 20,308 households, of which 30.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 43.4% were married couples living together, 11.7% had a female householder with no husband present, 5.1% had a male householder with no wife present, and 39.8% were non-families. Of all households 33.4% were made up of individuals, and 12.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.38 and the average family size was 3.06.


title: Sheboygan, Wisconsin

text: The median age in the city was 36.2 years. 25.3% of residents were under the age of 18; 8.7% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 27.2% were from 25 to 44; 24.8% were from 45 to 64; and 13.9% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 49.5% male and 50.5% female.


title: Sheboygan, Wisconsin

text: In 1976, the first three Hmong families settled in Sheboygan with the help of local refugee agencies such as the Grace Episcopal Church and Trinity Lutheran Church. They were refugees from Laos. By 1990, the city had 2,000 residents of Hmong descent. By December 1999, there were around 5,000 Hmong and Hmong American residents in Sheboygan, 65% of whom were under the age of 18.


title: Sheboygan, Wisconsin

text: In 2006, the Sheboygan Hmong Memorial was installed in the lakefront Deland Park to honor Hmong military and civilian contributions to the Secret War in Laos (particularly from 1961–1975). The 2010 U.S. Census showed the number of Hmong citizens to be around 4,100 people, putting it fourth in Wisconsin for Hmong populations.


title: Sheboygan, Wisconsin

text: Sheboygan County is well known for its bratwurst. The Sheboygan Jaycees sponsor Bratwurst Days, an annual fund-raising festival that includes the Johnsonville World Bratwurst Eating Championship.


title: Sheboygan, Wisconsin

text: In April 1894, the schooner "Lottie Cooper" wrecked just off Sheboygan in a gale. The wreckage was found buried in the harbor during the construction of the Harbor Centre Marina and is now on display in Deland Park, on Sheboygan's lakefront. The free display is the only one of its kind on the Great Lakes.


title: Sheboygan, Wisconsin

text: The city has a trail along the Highway 23 corridor leading to the Old Plank Road Trail to the west of Sheboygan that uses dedicated paths and bike lanes, along with a lakefront trail between Pennsylvania and Park avenues along Broughton Drive. Several bike routes are marked in the city using existing streets and roads to demarcate separate bike lanes.


title: Sheboygan, Wisconsin

text: A 2013 project created a north-south trail using the former Chicago & Northwestern Railroad right-of-way known as the "Shoreline 400" between Pennsylvania and North avenues, with future expansion to the south planned. A 2016 project added a trail along the Taylor Drive corridor, and improvements to the south to allow an eventual connection to the Ozaukee Interurban Trail are proposed for a future date.


title: Sheboygan, Wisconsin

text: Sheboygan is a notable surfing destination, and has been called "The Malibu of the Midwest.” Sheboygan is considered to be one of the best places to surf in the Great Lakes region" Sheboygan hosted the annual Dairyland Surf Classic from 1988 to 2012, the largest lake surfing competition in the world. Sheboygan's surfing culture was discussed in the 2003 surfing documentary, "Step into Liquid".


title: Sheboygan, Wisconsin

text: Sheboygan has a Mayor–Council form of government. The full-time mayor is elected by general election for a term of four years, with no term limits and to an officially non-partisan position. The Common Council consists of ten alderpersons representing the city's ten aldermanic districts with a council president and vice-president presiding over them. A City Administrator oversees the day-to-day administration of the city and is appointed by the Common Council.


title: Sheboygan, Wisconsin

text: Sheboygan's 1916-built City Hall was remodeled throughout 2018 and into 2019, being re-dedicated on September 3, 2019 with a new north frontage becoming the building's new main entrance and making the building's vintage three-story staircase its most prominent feature within a new atrium.


title: Sheboygan, Wisconsin

text: The Sheboygan Police Department is the law enforcement agency in the city. Civil and criminal law cases are heard in the Sheboygan County Circuit Court, with municipal citations for Sheboygan and Kohler handled through the city's municipal court within the police headquarters building. The Sheboygan Fire Department provides fire suppression and emergency medical services, operating out of five fire stations throughout the city.


title: Sheboygan, Wisconsin

text: Sheboygan is represented in the Wisconsin State Assembly as part of both the 26th (Terry Katsma, R–Oostburg) and 27th (Tyler Vorpagel, R–Plymouth) districts, whose boundaries split the city along Geele Avenue from the west until North 18th Street, then Superior Avenue from North 18th Street to Lake Michigan. The city is also represented in the State Senate as part of the 9th district (Devin LeMahieu, R–Oostburg).


title: Sheboygan, Wisconsin

text: Sheboygan is in the 6th congressional district of Wisconsin, which is represented by Republican congressperson Glenn Grothman.


title: Sheboygan, Wisconsin

text: The school district was the first in Wisconsin to operate an FM radio station, WSHS (91.7). Since 1996, Sheboygan has had a high school program, Rockets for Schools, where students build and launch rockets.


title: Sheboygan, Wisconsin

text: The city's daily newspaper is Gannett's "The Sheboygan Press", which has been published since 1907. The "Sheboygan Sun" also provides local news coverage through its website, while the "Beacon" is published by the same company as "The Plymouth Review" and "Sheboygan Falls News"; the latter two have print editions mailed out weekly to all residents. The Gannett-owned "Shoreline Chronicle" contains Press "best-of" content, and is door-delivered and is also distributed with the Wednesday "Press".


title: Sheboygan, Wisconsin

text: The city is served by television and radio stations in Green Bay and Milwaukee. Nielsen's television division places Sheboygan within the Milwaukee market, although Green Bay stations also report news, events, and weather warnings pertaining to Sheboygan and target the city with advertising.


title: Sheboygan, Wisconsin

text: Nielsen Audio places Sheboygan and Sheboygan County within one radio market, and several stations serve the area. Midwest Communications owns four stations within the county, including talk station WHBL (1330, with a translator station at 101.5 FM serving Sheboygan, Kohler and Sheboygan Falls); country station WBFM (93.7); CHR/Top 40 WXER (104.5 from Plymouth, with a translator at 96.1 FM in Sheboygan); and active rock Sheboygan Falls-licensed WHBZ (106.5). Another CHR station, WCLB (950, translated on 107.3) also serves the city, along with the Sheboygan Area School District's WSHS (91.7), a member of the Wisconsin Public Radio Ideas Network, and Plymouth's WGXI (1420, translated on 98.5), a classic country station.


title: Sheboygan, Wisconsin

text: Various religious stations originating from Milwaukee and north of Green Bay and a translator for Kiel's WSTM (91.3), and NOAA Weather Radio station WWG91 broadcast from several towers in the city. WYVM acts as a full-power relay of Suring's WRVN (102.7), which has a religious teaching format.


title: Sheboygan, Wisconsin

text: The city is served by Spectrum and U-verse, with public-access television cable TV programming provided to both systems from "WSCS", and "SASD-TV" features school board meetings, with both channels featuring meetings and other content through their websites and YouTube. The city at one time had a television station, WPVS-LP, which went off the air following the digital switchover and has since moved to Milwaukee; WHBL also attempted to establish a television sister station several times, without success.