title: True Stories (Talking Heads album)

text: Tracks 11 and 12 appear on the 2006 CD issue only. Of the 9 tracks on the original LP release, "Love for Sale", "Wild Wild Life" and "City of Dreams" are the only recordings that actually appear in the film. On screen, the other songs are performed by the film actors; two of those are included among the bonus tracks of the 2006 reissue. The performance of "Papa Legba" by Pops Staples that was included in 2006 reissue runs a full minute longer than the track included in the "complete soundtrack" version of 2018.


title: Rolls-Royce Griffon

text: The Rolls-Royce Griffon is a British 37-litre (2,240 cu in) capacity, 60-degree V-12, liquid-cooled aero engine designed and built by Rolls-Royce Limited. In keeping with company convention, the Griffon was named after a bird of prey, in this case the griffon vulture.


title: Rolls-Royce Griffon

text: Design work on the Griffon started in 1938 at the request of the Fleet Air Arm, for use in new aircraft designs such as the Fairey Firefly. In 1939 it was also decided that the engine could be adapted for use in the Spitfire. Development was stopped temporarily to concentrate efforts on the smaller Merlin and the 24-cylinder Vulture; the engine did not go into production until the early 1940s.


title: Rolls-Royce Griffon

text: The Griffon was the last in the line of V-12 aero engines to be produced by Rolls-Royce with production ceasing in 1955. Griffon engines remain in Royal Air Force service today with the Battle of Britain Memorial Flight and power the last remaining airworthy Avro Shackleton.


title: Rolls-Royce Griffon

text: According to Arthur Rubbra's memoirs, a de-rated version of the "R" engine, known by the name "Griffon" at that time, was tested in 1933. This engine, "R11", which was never flown, was used for "Moderately Supercharged Buzzard development" (which was not proceeded with until much later), and bore no direct relationship to the volume-produced Griffon of the 1940s.


title: Rolls-Royce Griffon

text: In 1938, the Fleet Air Arm approached Rolls-Royce and asked whether a larger version of the Merlin could be designed. The requirements were that the new engine have good power at low altitude and that it be reliable and easy to service. Work began on the design of the engine soon afterwards. The design process was relatively smooth compared with that of the Merlin, and the first of three prototype Griffon Is first ran in the Experimental Department on 30 November 1939.


title: Rolls-Royce Griffon

text: Although the Griffon was designed for naval aircraft, on 8 November 1939 N E Rowe of the Air Ministry suggested fitting the Griffon in a Spitfire. Three weeks later, permission was given to Supermarine to explore the possibilities of adapting the Griffon to the Spitfire; in response, Supermarine issued 'Specification 466' on 4 December. This decision led to a change in the disposition of the engine accessories to reduce the frontal area of the engine as much as possible. As a result, the frontal area of the bare Griffon engine was compared with of the Merlin, despite the Griffon's much larger capacity. This redesigned engine first ran on 26 June 1940 and went into production as the Griffon II.


title: Rolls-Royce Griffon

text: In early 1940, with the expected Battle of Britain looming, on the orders of Lord Beaverbrook, Minister of Aircraft Production, work on the new engine had been halted temporarily to concentrate on the smaller 27 L () Merlin which had already surpassed the output achieved with the early Griffon.


title: Rolls-Royce Griffon

text: Compared with earlier Rolls-Royce designs, the Griffon engine featured several improvements, which meant that it was physically only slightly larger than the Merlin, in spite of its 36% larger capacity of 37-litres (2,240 cu in).


title: Rolls-Royce Griffon

text: One significant difference was the incorporation of the camshaft and magneto drives into the propeller reduction gears at the front of the engine, rather than using a separate system of gears driven from the back end of the crankshaft; this allowed the overall length of the engine to be reduced as well as making the drive train more reliable and efficient. The drive for the supercharger was also taken off the front of the engine, which had required a long shaft to run to its location at the back of the engine.


title: Rolls-Royce Griffon

text: The Merlin engine's crankshaft lubrication was via a gallery cut into the engine block to feed each main bearing and then onto a secondary adjacent big end bearing via a gallery in the crankshaft itself. The crankpin was second in line to the main bearing in oil flow and pressure, with oil having to flow through the main bearing first. The Griffon improved on this arrangement being the first Rolls-Royce production aero engine to use a hollow crankshaft as the means of lubricating the main and big end bearings, with oil being fed from each end of the crankshaft giving even flow to all bearings.


title: Rolls-Royce Griffon

text: In another change from convention, one high efficiency B.T.H-manufactured dual magneto was mounted on top of the propeller reduction casing; earlier Rolls-Royce designs using twin magnetos mounted at the rear of the engine.


title: Rolls-Royce Griffon

text: The Griffon 61 series introduced a two-stage supercharger and other design changes: the pressure oil pumps were now housed internally within the sump and an effort was made to remove as many external pipes as possible. In addition, the drive for the supercharger was moved to the crankshaft at the back of the engine, via a short torsion shaft, rather than at the front of the engine, using a long drive shaft as used by earlier Griffon variants.


title: Rolls-Royce Griffon

text: Production of the aero version of the Griffon ended in December 1955, while a marine version, the Sea Griffon, continued to be produced for the RAF's High Speed Launches.


title: Rolls-Royce Griffon

text: Although it is common practice to compare different piston engines and their performance potential by referring to the engine displacement or swept volume, this does not give an accurate reading of an engine's capabilities. According to A C Lovesey, who was in charge of the Merlin's development, "The impression still prevails that the static capacity known as the swept volume is the basis of comparison of the possible power output for different types of engine, but this is not the case because the output of the engine depends solely on the mass of air it can be made to consume efficiently, and in this respect the supercharger plays the most important role."


title: Rolls-Royce Griffon

text: Unlike the Merlin, the Griffon was designed from the outset to use a single-stage supercharger driven by a two-speed, hydraulically operated gearbox; the initial production versions, the Griffon II, III, IV, and VI series, were designed to give their maximum power at low altitudes and were mainly used by the Fleet Air Arm. The Griffon 60, 70, and 80 series featured two-stage supercharging and achieved their maximum power at low to medium altitudes. The Griffon 101, 121, and 130 series engines, collectively designated "Griffon 3 SML", used a two-stage, three-speed supercharger, adding a set of "Low Supercharger (L.S)" gears to the already existing Medium and Full Supercharger (M.S and F.S) gears. Another modification was to increase the diameters of both impellers, thus increasing the rated altitudes at which maximum power could be generated in each gear. While the 101 continued to drive a five-blade propeller, the 121 and 130 series were designed to drive contra-rotating propellers. In 1946 a Griffon 101 was fitted to the Supermarine Spiteful XVI, "RB518" (a re-engined production Mk.XIV); this aircraft achieved a maximum speed of 494 mph (795 km/h) with full military equipment.


title: Rolls-Royce Griffon

text: Pilots who converted from the Merlin to the Griffon-engined Spitfires soon discovered that, because the Griffon engine's propeller rotated in the opposite direction to that of the Merlin, the fighter swung to the right on takeoff rather than to the left. This tendency was even more marked with the more powerful 60- and 80-series Griffon engines, with their five-bladed propellers. As a result, pilots had to learn to apply left (port) trim on takeoff, instead of the right (starboard) trim they were used to applying. On takeoff, the throttle had to be opened slowly, as the pronounced swing to the right could lead to "crabbing" and severe tyre wear.


title: Rolls-Royce Griffon

text: Some test Spitfire XIVs, 21s, and 24s were fitted with contra-rotating propellers, which eliminated the torque effect. Early problems with the complex gearbox that was required for contra-rotating propellers prevented them from ever becoming operational in Spitfires, but they were used on later aircraft, including the Seafire FR. Mk 46 and F and FR.47, which were fitted with Griffon 87s driving contra-rotating propellers as standard equipment. The Griffon 57 and 57A series, installed in Universal Power Plant (UPP) installations and driving contra-rotating propellers, was used in the Avro Shackleton maritime patrol aircraft.


title: Rolls-Royce Griffon

text: The Griffon was produced in approximately 50 different variants, the Griffon 130 being the last in the series. Details of representative variants are listed below:


title: Rolls-Royce Griffon

text: Several North American Mustangs raced in the Unlimited Class races at the Reno Air Races have been fitted with Griffons. These include "Red Baron" (NL7715C), as well as the custom-built P-51XR "Precious Metal" (N6WJ) and Mustang/Learjet hybrid "Miss Ashley II" (N57LR). In all cases, Griffons with contra-rotating propellers, taken from Avro Shackleton patrol bombers were used in these aircraft. The RB51 Red Baron is noteworthy for holding the FAI piston-engine 3-kilometre world speed record from 1979 to 1989 (499.018 mph).


title: Rolls-Royce Griffon

text: The 1980 "Miss Budweiser" Unlimited Hydroplane dominated the race circuit with a Rolls-Royce Griffon engine. It was the last of the competitive piston-engined boats, before turboshaft powerplants took over.


title: Rolls-Royce Griffon

text: In modern-day tractor pulling, Griffon engines are also in use, a single or double, rated each at 3,500 hp (2,600 kW).


title: Rolls-Royce Griffon

text: The Griffon engine continues to be used in restored Fireflies and later mark Spitfires worldwide. The Royal Air Force Battle of Britain Memorial Flight is a notable current operator of the Griffon.


title: Rolls-Royce Griffon

text: The sole remaining technically airworthy Avro Shackleton is based at the Air Force Base Ysterplaat. However, at least one further airframe is in running condition at the Gatwick Aviation Museum and another is in running, taxiing condition at Coventry Airport, intended to be flown in a short time.


title: The Getaway (video game)

text: The Getaway is an action-adventure open world video game developed by Team Soho and published by Sony Computer Entertainment for the PlayStation 2. "The Getaway" is inspired by British gangster films, most notably "Get Carter" and "Snatch". Initially, the release of the game was to coincide with the launch of the PlayStation 2 in 2000, but was delayed by 27 months due to the difficulty of re-creating large areas of London in high resolution. Parts of "The Getaway" feature in various episodes of Graham Duff's "Ideal".


title: The Getaway (video game)

text: The game focuses on two characters each with their own plot settings, Mark Hammond, an ex-bank robber, and Detective Constable Frank Carter, a police officer in service with the Flying Squad, with both plots running parallel and intersecting before concluding in the finale of the game. A sequel, entitled "", was released in 2004.


title: The Getaway (video game)

text: "The Getaway" is designed as a third-person sandbox game in which the player controls the two lead characters as they carry out their missions for game progression. Both of the two characters can perform a series of physical tasks, such as walking, sprinting, rolling, shooting, and taking cover during a gunfight. Once Mark Hammond's missions are completed free-roaming is unlocked for his character, which allows roaming around the City district and Central London without mission objectives or time-limits. Due to similarities to the "Grand Theft Auto" series, it is often labeled as a "Grand Theft Auto" clone.


title: The Getaway (video game)

text: The game features a number of licensed vehicles from real automobile manufacturers that the player can control; unlike those seen in "Grand Theft Auto", which are fictional. The majority of the vehicles in the game are made by MG Rover Group, Jensen Motors, Saab, PSA Peugeot Citroën, Fiat, and Lexus, along with a number of others. Firearms and weapons available to the player include the Glock 17 pistol, the AK-47 assault rifle, Remington 870 pump action shotgun, and the Heckler & Koch MP5 submachine gun; other weapons include a cleaver and crowbar, among others.


title: The Getaway (video game)

text: A major feature in the game was its approach to immersion and being "movie-like", achieved mostly by not including the typical HUD, such as with car chases being done by signaling the player with the vehicle's indicators, rather than a large arrow above the car, or the player characters limping or bleeding profusely to represent low health instead of a health bar/meter.


title: The Getaway (video game)

text: The entirety of the game takes place in London, during the span of a single day, and is played through the perspectives of two characters: ex-convict Mark Hammond and Detective Constable Frank Carter of the Flying Squad.


title: The Getaway (video game)

text: Recently released from prison for armed robbery, Mark Hammond witnesses the kidnapping of his son, Alex, and the unintentional murder of his wife, Susie. Mark pursues his son's kidnappers, but is knocked out and brought before Charlie Jolson, the head of the Bethnal Green mob. After Alex's life is threatened, Mark is forced to do several jobs for Charlie, such as ambushing a prison transfer to free Charlie's nephew, "Crazy" Jake Jolson, as well as instigating a gang war between the Yardies and the Triads. Due to Mark's criminal history, any possibility of police assistance to him unlikely, which was exacerbated by Mark unintentionally touching the gun that shot Susie, leading to the police believing he killed her and kidnapped Alex.


title: The Getaway (video game)

text: Mark is sent on increasingly risky tasks, culminating in the execution of corrupt Detective Chief Inspector Clive McCormack, who arrested Mark five years prior, in a police station. However, Mark spares his other target, Yasmin, in return for information on Alex, as she was present at his kidnapping and Susie's murder. Afterwards, Mark steals £300,000 worth of Yardie drug money, but secretly stashes it with Liam, his close friend, having become wary of Charlie's intentions. Mark's suspicions are later confirmed at the cash drop-off, but before Mark can flee, he is captured. Charlie later reveals to Mark and Yasmin that his ultimate plan is to wipe out his rivals and take over London in their absence, with Mark acting as the scapegoat.


title: The Getaway (video game)

text: Detectives Frank Carter and Joe Fielding identify Jake at a safe house, and move in to arrest him; Joe is wounded in the encounter, but Frank successfully arrests Jake. Frank is then sent to respond to the chaos instigated by Mark, but his suspicions are roused when he is placed on a convoy escort duty for Jake, which Mark attacks. McCormack, Frank's boss, suspends Frank on trumped-up charges following the incident. A suspicious Frank follows McCormack to one of Charlie's depots, but before he can clear his name, he witnesses Mark murder McCormack. Recovering in the hospital, Joe points Frank toward another one of Charlie's warehouses, where he finds the captured Mark and Yasmin, and agrees to help them in bringing Charlie down.


title: The Getaway (video game)

text: Mark, Yasmin, and Frank converge on the "Sol Vita", berthed at St Saviour's Dock, where Charlie has taken Alex and where he intends on destroying his rival gangs with a bomb. Following a shootout, Mark and Yasmin rescue Alex and are able to escape the ship mere moments before the bomb detonates, while Frank fights his way out, leaving Charlie and several gang affiliates to die in the explosion .


title: The Getaway (video game)

text: The game originally began life on the 32-bit PlayStation, off the back of "Porsche Challenge". After having made an acclaimed circuit driving game, Brendan McNamara – like many other developers at the time – felt that a free-roaming vehicle game was an interesting concept worth exploring. The title was prototyped and playable missions were made, but it then evolved into a PlayStation 2 project. However, the original code was kept and there was talk of including it on the finished game, which would ultimately not happen. Apart from several screenshots printed in the "Official U.S. PlayStation Magazine", the original version would never see release.


title: The Getaway (video game)

text: In moving over to vastly more capable hardware, the scope of the title expanded, as did its ambitions. Bizarre Creations were generating a lot attention due to their successful result in reproducing the streets of central London for their Sega Dreamcast racer "Metropolis Street Racer" ("MSR"). As "MSR" was being hyped and primed for release as one of the Dreamcast's so-called "killer applications", Sony Computer Entertainment Europe felt compelled to attempt to steal Sega's thunder by promising the creation of a PlayStation 2 title which would re-create a massive 113 square kilometers (70 square miles) of London, displaying the ferocity with which Sony Computer Entertainment Europe was willing to attempt to challenge its veteran competitor. The final creation actually only yielded an area of 16 square kilometers (10 square miles).


title: The Getaway (video game)

text: Re-creating even 16 square kilometers proved a daunting task and a technical nightmare, factors which may have delayed the release of "The Getaway" by several years. In the case of the latter, the programmers had to perfect an engine that could constantly stream three-dimensional geometry and texture data; of the areas of London the player was currently in close proximity to. At no point was the entire city loaded into memory, as it simply wouldn't fit. Unlike Rockstar's "Grand Theft Auto III", it was not an acceptable option for the Team Soho developers to break the city up into separate regions and impose a loading time delay when crossing between areas.


title: The Getaway (video game)

text: The hype surrounding the project began in earnest just before E3 2000, when a series of screenshots were published online. They revealed an amazing level of detail, clearly showing the very identifiable streets near Team Soho's studio. Though it has been argued that these shots were actually mock-up pre-renders, it is possible they were taken from actual code that received further detailed vehicle and character models, higher resolution textures and also anti-aliased the final output.


title: The Getaway (video game)

text: Although the prototype game was constantly shown behind closed doors, the public was not privy to its results for at least another year. It was only finally made playable at E3 2002. By then, the project had ballooned, exceeding its development budget many times over. Sony Computer Entertainment Europe had a range of other titles in development; however, the decision was taken by Phil Harrison to can many of them, perhaps to allow yet more funds to be poured into "The Getaway". As a result of this, the axe was to fall on two of its studios, Sony Computer Entertainment Europe Manchester and Sony Computer Entertainment Europe Leeds.


title: The Getaway (video game)

text: When the game was launched in December 2002 it was a huge seller across Europe, especially in the United Kingdom. Worldwide and particularly in the United States, the game received mixed reviews and sales. The fact that it was released around the same time as the hugely-popular "" (to which the game was often compared) also hurt sales, despite a large marketing campaign in the United States.


title: The Getaway (video game)

text: The game's soundtrack is complemented by a title song and cutscene soundtrack, performed by the London Philharmonic Orchestra. The game's soundtrack was chiefly composed by Andrew Hale, while portions of the soundtrack were written by Shawn Lee, who would later compose music for another sandbox-style game, "Bully".


title: The Getaway (video game)

text: One alteration that Team Soho had to make was the removal of a vehicle and phone box logos which appeared in the initial release of the game. During one of Hammond's missions, a British Telecommunications (BT) van is used in a mission in which Hammond must kill the driver and take the van to assassinate a corrupt police officer. BT complained that it "did not want [its] name and livery associated with the violent scenes" in the game, and was worried that it "might incite attacks on [its] engineers". Although the initial release of the game was not recalled, subsequent production was amended to remove the offending details.


title: The Getaway (video game)

text: Originally passed with an "MA 15+" rating for the uncut version on 22 November 2002, it was resubmitted and banned 5 days later due to a scene of detailed torture. A censored version, omitting this scene, was released on 13 December the same year, with the identical rating.


title: The Getaway (video game)

text: "Maxim" gave the game a score of eight out of ten and wrote: "If the ensuing police brutality doesn't mold you into the model Wheelman, then having to endure those whiny English cop sirens surely will". "FHM" also gave it a score of four stars out of five and said: "Not just a little similar to "GTA III" in look, feel, and gameplay, it's nonetheless worth sleeping in front of the game store for this one". However, "The Cincinnati Enquirer" gave the game a score of three-and-a-half stars out of five, saying that "the biggest hindrance in "The Getaway" involves its user interface - or lack thereof - as the development team attempted to make the game look and play out like a movie". "Entertainment Weekly" was very negative of the game, giving it a D and stating: "The level of detail is extraordinary; even the facial expressions are motion captured. But the slickest graphic presentation can't cover for "Getaway"s flawed script. [...] In a game infused with more humor and less pretentious aspirations, these flaws would be more forgivable".


title: The Getaway (video game)

text: Sales of "The Getaway" reached 300,000 copies within two weeks of the game's release. It received a "Double Platinum" sales award from the Entertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association (ELSPA), indicating sales of at least 600,000 copies in the United Kingdom. By July 2006, "The Getaway" had sold 1 million copies and earned $36 million in the United States. "Next Generation" ranked it as the 53rd highest-selling game launched for the PlayStation 2, Xbox, or GameCube between January 2000 and July 2006 in that country. According to Mike Rouse, a former Sony developer who worked on "The Getaway", it sold almost 4 million copies in total.


title: The Getaway (video game)

text: In a retrospective article from 2014, Den of Geek made the game number 23 in their top 50 underappreciated PlayStation 2 games list. In 2020, "Push Square" included the game and its sequel in a list of games they would like to see released on the PlayStation 4.


title: The Getaway (video game)

text: "The Getaway: Black Monday" is the second game in the series and was again developed for the PlayStation 2 in 2004. The game's story is based on such films as "The Long Good Friday" and "Lock, Stock and Two Smoking Barrels".


title: The Getaway (video game)

text: "The Getaway 3" was to be the third installment of Sony's "The Getaway" series for the PlayStation 3 console. The title was reported as cancelled on 4 June 2008, along with "Eight Days". In October 2009, the games were reported as not being cancelled, but "on hold".


title: The Getaway (video game)

text: A technical demo featuring Piccadilly Circus was demonstrated in May 2005 at E3, but this was not directly from the game. It was confirmed that the game would again be set in London.


title: The Getaway (video game)

text: Information regarding "The Getaway 3" was released on 7 March 2008 by screenplay writer Katie Ellwood, who affirmed the action title was still in the works. No estimated release date was given, but Ellwood did say that Sony executives were making deals with film companies about the possibility of a future film adaptation of "The Getaway 3".


title: The Getaway (video game)

text: Nicolas Doucet said: "I would not say they have been abandoned, just put to one side. Much work had been done. The studio just wanted to focus on its strengths, "EyeToy" and "SingStar". Given the potential of "EyePet", priorities have been changed, but the other projects aren't dead yet. Ultimately, the decision [to put those games to one side] has benefited everyone".


title: The Getaway (video game)

text: Richard Bunn, a former developer, had noted the game was cancelled shortly after Phil Harrison was replaced by Shuhei Yoshida as president of SCE Worldwide Studios.


title: The Tale of Aragorn and Arwen

text: "The Tale of Aragorn and Arwen" is a story within the Appendices of J. R. R. Tolkien's "The Lord of the Rings". It narrates the love of the mortal Man Aragorn and the immortal Elf-maiden Arwen, telling the story of their first meeting, their eventual betrothal and marriage, and the circumstances of their deaths. Tolkien called the tale "really essential to the story". In contrast to the non-narrative appendices it extends the main story of the book to cover events both before and after it, one reason it would not fit in the main text. Tolkien gave another reason for its exclusion, namely that the main text is told from the hobbits' point of view.


title: The Tale of Aragorn and Arwen

text: The tale to some extent mirrors the "Tale of Beren and Lúthien", set in an earlier age of Middle-earth. This creates a feeling of historical depth, in what scholars note is an approach similar to that of Dante in his "Inferno".


title: The Tale of Aragorn and Arwen

text: Aspects of the tale discussed by scholars include the nature of love and death; the question of why the tale, if so important, was relegated to an appendix; Tolkien's blurring of the line between story and history; the balance Tolkien strikes between open Christianity and his treatment of his characters as pagan; and the resulting paradox that although Tolkien was a Roman Catholic and considered the book fundamentally Catholic, Middle-earth societies lack religions of their own. It has been noted also that the tale's relegation deprives the main story of much of its love-interest, shifting the book's emphasis towards action.


title: The Tale of Aragorn and Arwen

text: The tale is set in the Third and Fourth Ages of J. R. R. Tolkien's fictional universe, Middle-earth, and was published in 1955 in "The Return of the King" as the fifth part of the first section of Appendix A of "The Lord of the Rings". In the main text of the book, Aragorn is presented almost without detail of his relationships, other than a brief interaction with Éowyn, the lady of Rohan, while Arwen barely speaks and hardly features until her marriage at the end of the book. In a letter dated 6 April 1956 to his publisher Rayner Unwin, Tolkien stated that the tale was the only part of the Appendices that was "really essential to the story." The publishers wanted to omit the Appendices entirely for the first Swedish edition, the 1959-1961 "Sagan om ringen"; Tolkien insisted on keeping the tale, stating that it was "essential to the understanding of the main text in many places", and it and Appendix D formed the only appendices to that edition. The first one-volume edition of "The Lord of the Rings" that appeared in 1968 omitted all the Appendices "except for "The Tale of Aragorn and Arwen"".


title: The Tale of Aragorn and Arwen

text: The process of the composition of the tale was explored by Tolkien's son and literary executor Christopher Tolkien in the 12th and final volume of "The History of Middle-earth". Working from his father's unpublished manuscripts and drafts, he traces the evolution of the tale through several versions and framing devices, including an "abandoned experiment at inserting it into [a] history of the North Kingdom", concluding that "the original design of the tale of Aragorn and Arwen had been lost". The original manuscript pages of the deathbed exchange between Aragorn and Arwen show that this key scene was almost unchanged from the published version, and had been written at great speed.


title: The Tale of Aragorn and Arwen

text: In Tolkien's fictional universe, the frame story is that the tale was written after Aragorn's death by Barahir, grandson of Faramir and Éowyn, and that an abbreviated version of the tale was included in the copy of the Thain's Book made by Findegil. The Tolkien scholar Giuseppe Pezzini writes that the "meta-textual frame ... is duly harmonised in the text through the use of formal features; the appendixes are indeed full of scribal glosses, later notes, and editorial references that are meant to match the elaborate textual history detailed in the Note on the Shire Records." The narrative voice and the point of view from which the story is told is examined by the scholar of English, literature, and film Christine Barkley, who considers the main part of the tale to have been narrated by Aragorn.


title: The Tale of Aragorn and Arwen

text: Aragorn, visiting Rivendell, sings the "Lay of Lúthien", an immortal Elf-maiden in the First Age who marries a man, Beren, thereby choosing a mortal life. As he does so, "Lúthien walked before his eyes": he sees Arwen in the woods, and calls out to her "Tinúviel! Tinúviel!" as Beren had done; she reveals that although she seems no older than he, she is of great age, having "the [immortal] life of the Eldar". He falls in love with her. Arwen's father, Elrond the Half-elven, sees without being told what has happened, and tells Aragorn that a "great doom awaits" him, either to be the greatest of his line since Elendil, or to fall into darkness; and that he "shall neither have wife, nor bind any woman to you in troth" until he is found worthy. In reply, with "the foresight of his kindred", Aragorn prophesies that Elrond's time in Middle-earth is coming to an end, and that Arwen will have to choose between her father and staying in Middle-earth.


title: The Tale of Aragorn and Arwen

text: Aragorn and Arwen meet again in Lothlórien, nearly thirty years later. Galadriel dresses Aragorn in "silver and white, with a cloak of elven-grey and a bright gem on his brow", so that he seems to be an elf-lord. Arwen sees him and makes her choice. They climb the hill of Cerin Amroth, from where they can see the Shadow (Mordor) in the East, and the Twilight (the fading of the Elves) in the West, and they "plighted their troth". Elrond tells Aragorn that they may marry only when he is King of both Gondor and Arnor, the ancient southern and northern Kingdoms of Middle-earth.


title: The Tale of Aragorn and Arwen

text: Some years later, Aragorn helps the Fellowship and the forces of the West to victory in the War of the Ring against the forces of Mordor. At the Battle of the Pelennor Fields, he unfurls the standard made by Arwen and is hailed as King by the people of Gondor. The One Ring is destroyed, taking the power of the three Elven-rings, including Elrond's, with it. Aragorn becomes King of Gondor and Arnor, and at midsummer he and Arwen are married in Minas Tirith. The Third Age ends as Elrond departs Middle-earth never to return, and he and Arwen are "sundered by the Sea and by a doom beyond the end of the world".


title: The Tale of Aragorn and Arwen

text: Aragorn and Arwen live together as King and Queen of Gondor and Arnor for "six-score [120] years in great glory and bliss". Then, aged 210 and feeling the onset of old age, Aragorn chooses to lay down his life before he falls from his "high seat unmanned and witless". In the scenes that follow, Aragorn and a grief-stricken Arwen converse on the nature of death and the consequences of the choice she had made. Aragorn lies down in "the House of the Kings in the Silent Street" and, giving the crown of Gondor and the sceptre of Arnor to his son Eldarion, he says his final farewell to Arwen and dies, his body remaining "in glory undimmed". Arwen was "not yet weary of her days and thus tasted the bitterness of the mortality that she had taken upon her". The elf-light in her eyes goes out, and she leaves Gondor for Lorien, itself now dimmed as the elf-rulers Galadriel and Celeborn and their people had left Middle-earth. She wanders under the mallorn trees, their leaves falling, and becomes the only living Elf in Middle-earth since Lúthien to die of old age.


title: The Tale of Aragorn and Arwen

text: The medievalist and scholar of Old English literature and its use in fantasy, Tom Shippey, analyses the tale for what it says about Tolkien's delicate balance between open Christianity and his treatment of his characters as heathens, a word that Shippey observes Tolkien uses very sparingly. Shippey notes that both Aragorn and Arwen are pagan, though Aragorn is "remarkably virtuous .. without even the faults of Theoden, and he foreknows his death like a [Christian] saint". Shippey notes that Arwen is inconsolable, seeing nothing after death, rejecting Aragorn's "we are not bound for ever to the circles of the world, and beyond them is more than memory. Farewell!"; as Shippey says, "Arwen is not comforted" by this; none of the traditional consolations of religion are present. He observes that Tolkien stated in a letter to a Jesuit priest that he had cut religion out of "The Lord of the Rings" because it "is absorbed into the story and the symbolism".


title: The Tale of Aragorn and Arwen

text: Shippey explains that Tolkien, a devout Roman Catholic, "thought, or hoped, that God had a plan for [virtuous pagan] pre-Catholics too", so that heroes like Aragorn would go to Limbo rather than to Hell. He notes that the tale contains another death-scene, that of Gilraen, Aragorn's mother; she too is not comforted by Aragorn's mention of "a light beyond the darkness", a phrase that Shippey writes could be a hope of salvation, or simply a hope of winning the War of the Ring. Whatever the case, Shippey considers the tale to give "the deepest sense of religious belief mentioned explicitly in Middle-earth", but that the result is an "only-slightly-qualified absence of religion", creating a "paradox of a 'fundamentally Catholic' work which never once mentions God."


title: The Tale of Aragorn and Arwen

text: In her study of death and dying in "The Lord of the Rings", Amy Amendt-Raduege states that Aragorn's death "follows the step-by-step process outlined by the "Ars moriendi"", the Christian precepts on how to die well, namely "the acceptance of death, the refusal of temptation, the dispensation of worldly goods and the last farewell to the family, and the final affirmation of faith". Amendt-Raduege describes the death of Aragorn as "one of the most deeply moving scenes in the story".


title: The Tale of Aragorn and Arwen

text: The scholar of English literature Chris Walsh describes "The Tale of Aragorn and Arwen" as an alternative ending to "The Lord of the Rings", with Aragorn's sombre last words to Arwen in place of the hobbit Sam Gamgee's cheery "Well, I'm back". Walsh notes that in a letter, Tolkien wrote "The passage over Sea [to Elvenhome in the West] is not Death ... I am only concerned with Death as part of the nature, physical and spiritual, of Man, and with Hope without guarantees. That is why I regard the tale of Arwen and Aragorn as the most important of the appendices; it is part of the essential story [...]".


title: The Tale of Aragorn and Arwen

text: Sarah Workman writes that the relegation of the tale to an appendix "does not subordinate its importance", citing the same letter.


title: The Tale of Aragorn and Arwen

text: Walsh states that he is interested to find that while Tolkien had "reluctantly relegated" the tale to an appendix, it is part of the main story in Peter Jackson's film trilogy, "strategically placed almost exactly half-way through". The film's depiction of the tale differs from the book's, combining Arwen's arrival, the presentation of the banner, the coronation, and the wedding; in the tale, Aragorn "unfurled the standard of Arwen in the battle of the Fields of Pelennor". Walsh notes that Jackson includes a flash forward to Elrond's vision of Arwen as the King's widow, with the phrase "There is nothing for you here: only death" used both in the film of "The Two Towers" and again in "The Return of the King": in Walsh's view, death is the story's focus.


title: The Tale of Aragorn and Arwen

text: The literary historian and folklorist William Gray adds that the reason for the tale's relegation may be that it does not contribute to the interlacing of the narrative. Interlacing is the literary device where the narrative jumps between parallel threads. Gray notes that one effect of the relegation is an emphasis on dramatic action, at the price of "love-interest". All the same, Gray writes, the tale "is one of Tolkien's most moving pieces. It is a tale about enduring love, triumphing over seemingly impossible odds, and sealed with Arwen's sacrifice of her Elven immortality in order to live with her human husband for 'six score years of great glory and bliss'."


title: The Tale of Aragorn and Arwen

text: Tolkien himself gave another explanation, which was that "This story is placed in an appendix, because I have told the whole tale [of "The Lord of the Rings"] more or less through 'hobbits'; and that is because another main point in the story for me is the remark of Elrond in Vol. I: 'Such is oft the course of deeds that move the wheels of the world [...]'". The Tolkien scholar Christina Scull notes that as a result of this hobbit-centred viewpoint, first-time readers can be "as surprised as the hobbits when Arwen and her escort arrive at Minas Tirith".


title: The Tale of Aragorn and Arwen

text: The scholar of medieval and Renaissance literature Mary R. Bowman writes that both "The Tale of Aragorn and Arwen" and the final part of Appendix B (a detailed timeline) are examples of the appendices denying the closure of "The Lord of the Rings" by narrating events for some 120 years after those of the final chapter of the main text; this differs from the non-narrative nature of the later appendices which add "cultural and linguistic material".


title: The Tale of Aragorn and Arwen

text: Bowman notes that when Aragorn first sees Arwen, he both sings about Lúthien Tinúviel and calls Arwen by that name "as if the story [of Lúthien and Beren] had come to life before his eyes" and later he compares his life with Beren's, saying "I have turned my eyes to a treasure no less dear than the treasure of Thingol that Beren once desired". To Bowman, this blurs the line between story and history, something that as she notes Tolkien much preferred, whether "true or feigned", in the same way that Dante in his "Inferno" (5.121-138) narrates that Paolo and Francesca were trying to imitate Lancelot and Guinevere of Arthurian legend.


title: The Tale of Aragorn and Arwen

text: The Tolkien scholar John D. Rateliff writes that the "Tale of Aragorn and Arwen" forms one of the "very final passages" of the internal chronology of "The Lord of the Rings", and that it ends not just with Arwen's death, but the statement that her grave is on Cerin Amroth "until the world is changed, and all the days of her life are utterly forgotten by men that come after ... and with the passing of [Arwen] Evenstar no more is said in this book of the days of old." Rateliff observes that this points up a "highly unusual" aspect of the book among modern fantasy: it is set "in the real world but in an imagined prehistory." As a result, Rateliff explains, Tolkien can build what he likes in that distant past, elves and wizards and hobbits and all the rest, provided that he tears it all down again, so that the modern world can emerge from the wreckage, with nothing but "a word or two, a few vague legends and confused traditions..." to show for it. Rateliff praises and quotes the scholar of English literature Paul H. Kocher on this: "At the end of his epic Tolkien inserts ... some forebodings of [Middle-earth's] future which will make Earth what it is today ... he shows the initial steps in a long process of retreat or disappearance [of] all other intelligent species, which will leave man effectually alone on earth... Ents may still be there in our forests, but what forests have we left? The process of extermination is already well under way in the Third Age, and ... Tolkien bitterly deplores its climax today."


title: The Tale of Aragorn and Arwen

text: In this tale of decline and fall, notes Marjorie Burns, Tolkien "clever[ly]" manages to include an element of rising to nobility. Men cannot climb the hierarchy, as Eru, Valar, and Elves are permanently above them. But the Elves voluntarily leave at the end of the Third Age, so men can take their place. Further, Burns writes, the marriage with Arwen infuses Aragorn's line with fresh Elven blood, bringing some of the Elves' actual power and nobility to Gondor.


title: The Tale of Aragorn and Arwen

text: The Tolkien scholar Richard C. West notes the resemblance between Arwen and Lúthien, and analyses Arwen's understanding of her fateful choice, between love for Aragorn and mortality on the one hand, and her father's wishes and immortality on the other. Others such as Bill Davis analyse Tolkien's exploration of mortality through an elf's choosing to die. West further shows how Tolkien subtly weaves the tale into the main story of "The Lord of the Rings". West gives examples of direct and indirect references to Arwen that only make sense or become clearer once the tale in the Appendices has been read, such as the gift-giving scene in Lothlorien where Aragorn refers to Arwen with his words to Galadriel "Lady, you know all my desire, and long held in keeping the only treasure that I seek. Yet it is not yours to give me, even if you would; and only through darkness shall I come to it", and in response is presented by Galadriel with a green elfstone (earning him the name "Elessar") set in a silver brooch from Arwen.


title: The Tale of Aragorn and Arwen

text: West draws a further connection between the tale in the Appendices and the main text in his analysis of the scene at the camp on Weathertop where Aragorn (Strider) recounts to the hobbits in poetry and prose the "Tale of Beren and Lúthien", with West highlighting Aragorn's words and "pensive mood" as he tells them that Lúthien "chose mortality, and to die from the world, so that she might follow [Beren]" and that "together they passed, long ago, beyond the confines of this world" and that she "alone of the Elf-kindred has died indeed and left the world, and they have lost her whom they most loved". West speculates that Aragorn may be thinking here of the consequences of what will happen should Arwen marry him, and later states that he finds "the lonely death of Arwen the most moving tragedy within ["The Lord of the Rings"]". A similar conclusion regarding Aragorn's feelings at Weathertop is drawn by scholar of medieval English literature John M. Bowers in his work on the influence of Geoffrey Chaucer on Tolkien. Bowers, looking at both the Weathertop scene and 'The Tale of Aragorn and Arwen', states that like certain pilgrims in Chaucer's "Canterbury Tales", Aragorn's stories of his ancestors "open a window into his private desires and fears".


title: The Tale of Aragorn and Arwen

text: The scholar of English literature Anna Vaninskaya studies "The Tale of Aragorn and Arwen" to see how Tolkien uses fantasy to examine the issues of love and death, time and immortality. Given that Tolkien's Elves are immortal, they face the question of death from a unique vantage-point. Sarah Workman writes that in the tale, Arwen's mourning of Aragorn serves to overcome what Peter Brooks called (she writes) the "meaningless", interminable nature of immortality. Workman quotes Brooks's statement that "all narration is obituary" and states that it is in that conception that Tolkien valued Arwen's fate: it is Arwen's "mourning gaze that allows for the transmission of Aragorn's memory", or in Tolkien's words which she quotes, "And long there he lay, an image of the splendour of the Kings of Men in glory undimmed".


title: The Tale of Aragorn and Arwen

text: The Polish scholar of religion in literature and film, Christopher Garbowski, notes that while Tolkien contrasts Elves and Men throughout "The Lord of the Rings", he introduces the conceit that an Elf may marry a Man on condition of surrendering her immortality. This happens exactly twice in the legendarium, with Lúthien and then with Arwen. In Garbowski's view the conceit's most dramatic use is an event in "The Tale of Aragorn and Arwen", the moment when Aragorn voluntarily accepts the time of his death, offered to him by Ilúvatar (God), which Garbowski finds "optimistic". Arwen calls this "gift" "bitter to receive"; Garbowski comments that Tolkien's later and much less optimistic posthumously published discourse "Athrabeth Finrod ah Andreth" effectively undermines the status of the "gift", coming close to the Christian position that body and soul cannot be separated.


title: The Tale of Aragorn and Arwen

text: The political philosopher Germaine Paulo Walsh compares Tolkien's view that "the ability to exercise wise judgment is tied to a steadfast belief in the ultimate justice of the cosmos, even in the face of circumstances that seem hopeless" with the attitudes towards death in Ancient Greece. He writes that Plato stated that Homer took Achilles as the model for death, the "only sound response" being despair, whereas Tolkien's model is Aragorn, who chooses death freely according to the "ancient prerogative of the Númenórean rulers"; when Arwen pleads with him to hold off, he "concedes that death is a cause for 'sorrow' but not for 'despair'." Walsh comments that it is significant that at this moment, Arwen calls him Estel, his childhood name, which meant "Hope" or "Trust"; she has to trust his wisdom, and her own choice of love and death. That Aragorn was wise to choose his death as he did is confirmed, Walsh writes, by the "transformation" of his body after death, as it becomes permanently beautiful, reflecting the "essential goodness of his soul", in contrast to the death of the wizard Saruman, who had turned to evil.


title: The Tale of Aragorn and Arwen

text: The scholar of English literature Catherine Madsen notes the reflection of mortality in the "fading" of Middle-earth from the enormous powers like Morgoth and Elbereth that battled in the First Age. She writes that "Aragorn is a hero and a descendant of heroes, but he is brought up in hiding and given the name of Hope [Estel]; Arwen possesses the beauty of Lúthien, but she is born in the twilight of her people and her title is Evenstar; these two restore the original glories only for a little while, before the world is altered and 'fades into the light of common day'". Rateliff, writing on the theme of the evocation of loss in Tolkien's works, describes the 'Gift of Men' as being "to accept loss and decay as essential parts of the world" and draws parallels with other writings by Tolkien: "The Elves cling to the past and so are swept away with it; in a fallen world, acceptance of the inevitability of death is the only way to pass beyond the world's limitations, for Brendan or Niggle or Arwen."


title: The Tale of Aragorn and Arwen

text: The medievalist and scholar of mythology Verlyn Flieger wrote that neither the Elves nor anybody else knows where Men go to when they leave Middle-earth, and that the nearest Tolkien came to dealing with the question was in his essay "On Fairy-Stories" "where, after speculating that since 'fairy-stories are made by men not by fairies', they must deal with what he called the Great Escape, the escape from death. He went on to the singular assertion that 'the Human-stories of the elves are doubtless full of the Escape from Deathlessness'." Flieger suggests that two of the "human stories" of Tolkien's Elves really focus on this kind of escape, the "Tale of Beren and Lúthien" and that of Aragorn and Arwen, where in both cases an elf makes her escape from deathlessness; though since Elves do not die, she questions whether the theme can be at once death and immortality. Shippey comments that "the themes of the Escape from Death, and the Escape from Deathlessness, are vital parts of Tolkien's entire mythology." In a 1968 broadcast on BBC2, Tolkien quoted French philosopher Simone de Beauvoir and described the inevitability of death as the "key-spring of "The Lord of the Rings"". In their annotated and expanded edition of Tolkien's essay ("Tolkien On Fairy-stories"), Flieger and the textual scholar Douglas A. Anderson provide commentary on 'the Escape from Deathlessness' passage, referencing Tolkien's views in a 1956 letter, that:


title: Gangs in New Zealand

text: There are numerous gangs in New Zealand, of varying criminality, organisation and ethnicity, including outlaw motorcycle gangs, street gangs and ethnically based gangs. A chapter of the Hells Angels motorcycle club was formed in Auckland in 1961, the first Hells Angels chapter outside the US. Soon after, the Mongrel Mob formed in Hastings and Wellington, developing into a predominantly Māori and Pacific Islander gang, and having the largest membership in the country. Through the 1960s and 1970s, other outlaw motorcycle clubs and ethnically based gangs formed, including another predominantly Māori gang, Black Power (not related to the African-American movement), which grew to rival the Mongrel Mob.


title: Gangs in New Zealand

text: The New Zealand Police have distinguished between "New Zealand gangs" with predominantly Maori and Pacific Islander membership, outlaw motorcycle gangs and local street gangs.


title: Gangs in New Zealand

text: By the 1970s, established gangs included Black Power, Mongrel Mob, Head Hunters and Stormtroopers. Some had friends in high places, with Prime Minister Robert Muldoon partying at a Black Power pad in 1976 and Wellington Mayor Michael Fowler stumping bail for seven of them after an altercation with the Mongrel Mob. Organised crime gangs such as those that currently dominate in New Zealand mostly date from the 1970s. The Police named the three most prominent "New Zealand gangs" as Black Power, the Mongrel Mob, and the Nomads, as of 2007. Examples of local street gangs in 2007 were the Junior Don Kings (JDK) and Dope Money Sex (DMS) of Auckland.


title: Gangs in New Zealand

text: 'Gangsta' style gangs have been a presence in New Zealand since the early 1990s but individual gangs of this type are typically short lived. New Zealand gangs have generally been heavily influenced by their American counterparts and have remained a significant social problem since 1990. Although Black Power takes its name from the black liberation movement of the same name, in many ways it and similar gangs are much more akin to white American motorcycle gangs such as the Hell's Angels. Since the early 1990s newer gangs have primarily been influenced by African American street gangs such as the Crips and Bloods.


title: Gangs in New Zealand

text: Some politicians have called for gang patches to be made illegal. In 2009 the Wanganui District Council voted to ban gang patches, but it was overturned following a judicial review instigated by the Hells Angels. The council tried again in 2011, this time restricting the ban to just the central business district, malls and parks. A law banning gang patches from government and public buildings was introduced in 2012 by National MP Todd McClay. Police welcomed the law, but others said it was racist against Māori. It was passed as the Prohibition of Gang Insignia in Government Premises Act 2013, and has been in force since August 2013.


title: Gangs in New Zealand

text: Gang members account for a rapidly increasing proportion of incarcerations in New Zealand. A New Zealand Ministry of Justice study showed that in 1991 just under 80% of prison inmates had no gang history, and just over 90% had no current gang membership. Of the prison population, 4% were members of the Mongrel Mob and 4.3% former members, while 3.6% were current and 3.2% former members of Black Power. No other gang had more than one percent of the prison population. A similar study in 2003 showed that 11.3% of prison inmates were gang members. Of these, 35% were Mongrel Mob and 33% Black Power, with no other individual gang having more than 5% of the imprisoned gang population. As of April 2013, gang members and affiliates account for over 30% of inmates, with over 10% of New Zealand prisoners being Mongrel Mob members.


title: Gangs in New Zealand

text: According to the 2007 book "Gangs" by English journalist Ross Kemp, New Zealand had more gangs per head than any other country in the world, with about seventy major gangs and over 4,000 patched members in a population of 4 million people. In 2019 the Police recorded 6,500 patched or prospective gang members in the country, with the ten main gangs being the Head Hunters, Bandidos, Hells Angels, King Cobras, Black Power, Mongrel Mob, Tribesmen, Rebels, Devils Henchmen and Highway 61. In June 2021, there were 8,061 patched gang members listed by the New Zealand police.


title: Gangs in New Zealand

text: It was reported in 2019 that New Zealand gangs seemed to be recruiting members at a greater rate than the police force.


title: Gangs in New Zealand

text: Black Power was formed about 1970 in Wellington as the Black Bulls, and its membership is primarily Māori and Pacific Islander. It has been involved with various kinds of crime, particularly drug dealing. Its symbol is the clenched fist of the American black power movement, and their colours are blue and black.


title: Gangs in New Zealand

text: The Head Hunters motorcycle club is one of the fastest growing motorcycle clubs in the country. It has chapters in West Auckland, Wellsford, Northland and most recently Wellington and Christchurch after patching over the Epitaph Riders. Its beginning is said to go back to 1967 and has been historically tied to West Auckland although it maintains a presence in Ellerslie through a senior member. In 2011 members of the motorcycle club in Wellington have patched over to become part of the Head Hunters motorcycle club.


title: Gangs in New Zealand

text: The King Cobras are a Central Auckland-based gang with its origins born out of the Polynesian Panthers in the early 1970s whose ranks are predominantly Polynesian but not exclusive of others. Their reputed turf is reported to stretch from the Downtown area to Mangere Papatoetoe and Manurewa. The Cobras also have links and associations with activity in the far north Moerewa Whangarei and North Shore, and an established presence in the Hutt Valley and the Wellington area. The gang is also known to have a presence in Christchurch.


title: Gangs in New Zealand

text: In 2009 it was reported that members of the gang had been involved in a multimillion-dollar methamphetamine drug ring organised within Paremoremo Prison, and previously ran another large drug ring along with the Head Hunters. The Cobras maintained a headquarters in Ponsonby up until August 2011 as they are reported to be shifting premises.


title: Gangs in New Zealand

text: In 2012, the notorious worldwide Motorcycle Club known as the Bandidos set up in South Auckland and later established a second chapter in Christchurch. The Bandidos have gone on to establish prospect chapters in Dunedin and Invercargill.


title: Gangs in New Zealand

text: The Hells Angels motorcycle club founded a chapter in Auckland in 1961 and has since taken over gangs in Wanganui. New Zealand had the first chapter of the Hells Angels outside the US.


title: Gangs in New Zealand

text: In 2011 the club made headlines when it tried to register a lottery. It made headlines again in late 2015 when it shutdown Nelson's long-standing Lost Breed MC to stamp its mark on the city.


title: Gangs in New Zealand

text: The Highway 61 motorcycle club was founded in 1968 and was the largest outlaw motorcycle club in New Zealand during the 1980s, 90s up until 2010. It has chapters in Auckland, Hastings, Rotorua, Northland, Wellington and Christchurch, and by 2008 had expanded into Brisbane, Sydney and the Gold Coast in eastern Australia. They are mainly European and Maori in descent.


title: Gangs in New Zealand

text: The Mongrel Mob was formed and organised in Hastings and Wellington in the early 1960s. Originally consisting of Pakeha youth, it became primarily Māori and Pacific Islander, like its Black Power rivals. The gang has been active in organised crime and has been involved in several murders. Its symbol is a bulldog wearing a German Stahlhelm helmet, and the gang makes use of other Nazi imagery. Their colours are red and black. The Mongrel Mob is currently the largest gang in New Zealand.


title: Gangs in New Zealand

text: In 2010 members of the Australian motorcycle club the Rebels have announced they will be establishing a presence in New Zealand in 2011. Rebels MC members have been sighted wearing their patches in various places throughout the North Island in early 2011.


title: Gangs in New Zealand

text: The Road Knights motorcycle club operates in the South Island. They are based in Invercargill, Timaru and Dunedin.


title: Gangs in New Zealand

text: At the beginning of 2014, members of the Canadian motorcycle club the Rock Machine established a Nomad chapter in New Zealand. In August of the same year they publicly announced they had established a second chapter in Christchurch.


title: Gangs in New Zealand

text: The Tribesmen is a prominently Māori motorcycle club formed in the 1980s in Otara, they have a presence in South Auckland and as far south as Rotorua and Murupara. The Tribesmen are also rivals with the Mongrel Mob.


title: Gangs in New Zealand

text: The Tribesmen have a feeder youth street gang called Killer Beez (sometimes Killer Bees, Killabeez, or KBZ), possibly a reference to the hip hop group Killa Beez, a name given to Wu-Tang Clan affiliates who also wear yellow and black. Killer Beez was headed by Josh Marsters, formerly a vice-president of the Tribesmen gang. Marsters was one of 44 people from both gangs arrested in a police swoop in May 2008. In total 60 Killer Beez were arrested in an operation that involved 110,000 intercepted messages. Charges included supplying methamphetamine, conspiracy to supply methamphetamine and money laundering. Masters pleaded guilty but as of October 2011 was fighting to have that overturned.


title: Gangs in New Zealand

text: In 2011 Vila Lemanu was the most senior Killer Beez member not in prison, he was on the run for several months before having his conviction quashed by the Court of Appeal and a new trial ordered.


title: Gangs in New Zealand

text: The Killer Beez controlled the record label Colourway Records until all its assets were seized in 2008.


title: Gangs in New Zealand

text: The Red Devils Motorcycle Club has a presence in Mount Eden along with strong ties to the Hells Angels . In 2012 the club was involved in a high-profile anti-drug operation which later fell apart under heavy scrutiny in court. A range of charges laid against twenty one club members and associates were stayed, and later dropped altogether, in the belief that police had committed a "gross abuse of process" in posing as court officials to obtain a fake arrest warrant. The case against the club was officially dropped in early 2015 with the final charges dismissed on 1 July. Police now believe that the Nelson chapter has become a full-fledged prospect chapter of the Hells Angels.


title: Drug test

text: A drug test is a technical analysis of a biological specimen, for example urine, hair, blood, breath, sweat, or oral fluid/saliva—to determine the presence or absence of specified parent drugs or their metabolites. Major applications of drug testing include detection of the presence of performance enhancing steroids in sport, employers and parole/probation officers screening for drugs prohibited by law (such as cocaine, methamphetamine, and heroin) and police officers testing for the presence and concentration of alcohol (ethanol) in the blood commonly referred to as BAC (blood alcohol content). BAC tests are typically administered via a breathalyzer while urinalysis is used for the vast majority of drug testing in sports and the workplace. Numerous other methods with varying degrees of accuracy, sensitivity (detection threshold/cutoff), and detection periods exist.


title: Drug test

text: A drug test may also refer to a test that provides quantitative chemical analysis of an illegal drug, typically intended to help with responsible drug use.


title: Drug test

text: The detection windows depend upon multiple factors: drug class, amount and frequency of use, metabolic rate, body mass, age, overall health, and urine pH. For ease of use, the detection times of metabolites have been incorporated into each parent drug. For example, heroin and cocaine can only be detected for a few hours after use, but their metabolites can be detected for several days in urine. The chart depicts the longer detection times of the metabolites.


title: Drug test

text: Oral fluid or saliva testing results for the most part mimic that of blood. The only exceptions are THC (tetrahydrocannabinol) and benzodiazepines. Oral fluid will likely detect THC from ingestion up to a maximum period of 6–12 hours. This continues to cause difficulty in oral fluid detection of THC and benzodiazepines.


title: Drug test

text: Breath air for the most part mimics blood tests as well. Due to the very low levels of substances in the breath air, liquid chromatography—mass spectrometry has to be used to analyze the sample according to a recent publication wherein 12 analytes were investigated.


title: Drug test

text: Rapid oral fluid products are not approved for use in workplace drug testing programs and are not FDA cleared. Using rapid oral fluid drug tests in the workplace is prohibited in only:


title: Drug test

text: Urine analysis is primarily used because of its low cost. Urine drug testing is one of the most common testing methods used. The enzyme-multiplied immune test is the most frequently used urinalysis. Complaints have been made about the relatively high rates of false positives using this test.


title: Drug test

text: Urine drug tests screen the urine for the presence of a parent drug or its metabolites. The level of drug or its metabolites is not predictive of when the drug was taken or how much the patient used.


title: Drug test

text: Urine drug testing is an immunoassay based on the principle of competitive binding. Drugs which may be present in the urine specimen compete against their respective drug conjugate for binding sites on their specific antibody. During testing, a urine specimen migrates upward by capillary action. A drug, if present in the urine specimen below its cut-off concentration, will not saturate the binding sites of its specific antibody. The antibody will then react with the drug-protein conjugate and a visible colored line will show up in the test line region of the specific drug strip.


title: Drug test

text: A common misconception is that a drug test that is testing for a class of drugs, for example, opioids, will detect all drugs of that class. However, most opioid tests will not reliably detect oxycodone, oxymorphone, meperidine, or fentanyl. Likewise, most benzodiazepine drug tests will not reliably detect lorazepam. However, urine drug screens that test for a specific drug, rather than an entire class, are often available.


title: Drug test

text: When an employer requests a drug test from an employee, or a physician requests a drug test from a patient, the employee or patient is typically instructed to go to a collection site or their home. The urine sample goes through a specified 'chain of custody' to ensure that it is not tampered with or invalidated through lab or employee error. The patient or employee's urine is collected at a remote location in a specially designed secure cup, sealed with tamper-resistant tape, and sent to a testing laboratory to be screened for drugs (typically the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration 5 panel). The first step at the testing site is to split the urine into two aliquots. One aliquot is first screened for drugs using an analyzer that performs immunoassay as the initial screen. To ensure the specimen integrity and to detect possible adulterants, additional parameters are tested for. Some test the properties of normal urine, such as, urine creatinine, pH, and specific gravity. Others are intended to catch substances added to the urine to alter the test result, such as, oxidants (including bleach), nitrites, and gluteraldehyde. If the urine screen is positive then another aliquot of the sample is used to confirm the findings by gas chromatography—mass spectrometry (GC-MS) or liquid chromatography - mass spectrometry methodology. If requested by the physician or employer, certain drugs are screened for individually; these are generally drugs part of a chemical class that are, for one of many reasons, considered more habit-forming or of concern. For instance, oxycodone and diamorphine may be tested, both sedative analgesics. If such a test is not requested specifically, the more general test (in the preceding case, the test for opioids) will detect most of the drugs of a class, but the employer or physician will not have the benefit of the identity of the drug.


title: Drug test

text: Employment-related test results are relayed to a medical review office (MRO) where a medical physician reviews the results. If the result of the screen is negative, the MRO informs the employer that the employee has no detectable drug in the urine, typically within 24 hours. However, if the test result of the immunoassay and GC-MS are non-negative and show a concentration level of parent drug or metabolite above the established limit, the MRO contacts the employee to determine if there is any legitimate reason—such as a medical treatment or prescription.


title: Drug test

text: On-site instant drug testing is a more cost-efficient method of effectively detecting substance use amongst employees, as well as in rehabilitation programs to monitor patient progress. These instant tests can be used for both urine and saliva testing. Although the accuracy of such tests varies with the manufacturer, some kits have rates of accuracy correlating closely with laboratory test results.


title: Drug test

text: Breath test is a widespread method for quickly determining alcohol intoxication. A breath test measures the alcohol concentration in the body by a deep-lung breath. There are different instruments used for measuring the alcohol content of an individual though their breath. Breathalyzer is a widely known instrument which was developed in 1954 and contained chemicals unlike other breath-testing instruments. More modernly used instruments are the infrared light-absorption devices and fuel cell detectors, these two testers are microprocessor controlled meaning the operator only has to press the start button.


title: Drug test

text: To get accurate readings on a breath-testing device the individual must blow for approximately 6 seconds and need to contain roughly 1.1 to 1.5 liters of breath. For a breath-test to result accurately and truly an operator must take steps such as avoiding measuring “mouth alcohol” which is a result from regurgitation, belching, or recent intake of an alcoholic beverage. To avoid measuring “mouth alcohol” the operator must not allow the individual that's taking the test to consume any materials for at least fifteen minutes before the breath test. When pulled over for a driving violation if an individual in the United States refuses to take a breath test that individual's driver's license can be suspended for a 6 to 12 months time period.


title: Drug test

text: Hair analysis to detect addictive substances has been used by court systems in the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, and other countries worldwide. In the United States, hair testing has been accepted in court cases as forensic evidence following the Frye Rule, the Federal Rules of Evidence, and the Daubert Rule. As such, hair testing results are legally and scientifically recognized as admissible evidence.


title: Drug test

text: Although some lower courts may have accepted hair test evidence, there is no controlling judicial ruling in either the federal or any state system declaring any type of hair test as reliable.


title: Drug test

text: Hair testing is now recognized in both the UK and US judicial systems. There are guidelines for hair testing that have been published by the Society of Hair Testing (a private company in France) that specify the markers to be tested for and the cutoff concentrations that need to be tested. Addictive substances that can be detected include Cannabis, Cocaine, Amphetamines and drugs new to the UK such as Mephedrone.


title: Drug test

text: In contrast to other drugs consumed, alcohol is deposited directly in the hair. For this reason the investigation procedure looks for direct products of ethanol metabolism. The main part of alcohol is oxidized in the human body. This means it is released as water and carbon dioxide. One part of the alcohol reacts with fatty acids to produce esters. The sum of the concentrations of four of these fatty acid ethyl esters (FAEEs: ethyl myristate, ethyl palmitate, ethyl oleate and ethyl stearate) are used as indicators of the alcohol consumption. The amounts found in hair are measured in nanograms (one nanogram equals only one billionth of a gram), however with the benefit of modern technology, it is possible to detect such small amounts. In the detection of ethyl glucuronide, or EtG, testing can detect amounts in picograms (one picogram equals 0.001 nanograms).


title: Drug test

text: However, there is one major difference between most drugs and alcohol metabolites in the way in which they enter into the hair: on the one hand like other drugs FAEEs enter into the hair via the keratinocytes, the cells responsible for hair growth. These cells form the hair in the root and then grow through the skin surface taking any substances with them. On the other hand, the sebaceous glands produce FAEEs in the scalp and these migrate together with the sebum along the hair shaft (Auwärter et al., 2001, Pragst et al., 2004). So these glands lubricate not only the part of the hair that is just growing at 0.3 mm per day on the skin surface, but also the more mature hair growth, providing it with a protective layer of fat.


title: Drug test

text: FAEEs (nanogram = one billionth of a gram) appear in hair in almost one order of magnitude lower than (the relevant order of magnitude of) EtG (picogram = one trillionth of a gram). It has been technically possible to measure FAEEs since 1993, and the first study reporting the detection of EtG in hair was done by Sachs in 1993.


title: Drug test

text: In practice, most hair which is sent for analysis has been cosmetically treated in some way (bleached, permed etc.). It has been proven that FAEEs are not significantly affected by such treatments (Hartwig et al., 2003a). FAEE concentrations in hair from other body sites can be interpreted in a similar fashion as scalp hair (Hartwig et al., 2003b).


title: Drug test

text: Presumptive substance tests attempt to identify a suspicious substance, material or surface where traces of drugs are thought to be, instead of testing individuals through biological methods such as urine or hair testing. The test involves mixing the suspicious material with a chemical in order to trigger a color change to indicate if a drug is present. Most are now available over-the-counter for consumer use, and do not require a lab to read results.


title: Drug test

text: Benefits to this method include that the person who is suspected of drug use does not need to be confronted or aware of testing. Only a very small amount of material is needed to obtain results, and can be used to test powder, pills, capsules, crystals, or organic material. There is also the ability to detect illicit material when mixed with other non-illicit materials. The tests are used for general screening purposes, offering a generic result for the presence of a wide range of drugs, including Heroin, Cocaine, Methamphetamine, Amphetamine, Ecstasy/MDMA, Methadone, Ketamine, PCP, PMA, DMT, MDPV, and may detect rapidly evolving synthetic designer drugs. Separate tests for Marijuana/Hashish are also available.


title: Drug test

text: There are five primary color-tests reagents used for general screening purposes. The Marquis reagent turns into a variety of colors when in the presence of different substances. Dille-Koppanyi reagent uses two chemical solutions which turns a violet-blue color in the presence of barbiturates. Duquenois-Levine reagent is a series of chemical solutions that turn to the color of purple when the vegetation of marijuana is added. Van Urk reagent turns blue-purple when in the presence of LSD. Scott test's chemical solution shows up as a faint blue for cocaine base.


title: Drug test

text: In recent years, the use of presumptive test kits in the criminal justice system has come under great scrutiny due to the lack to forensic studies, questioned reliability, rendering of false positives with legal substances, and wrongful arrests.


title: Drug test

text: Saliva / oral fluid-based drug tests can generally detect use during the previous few days. Is better at detecting very recent use of a substance. THC may only be detectable for 2–24 hours in most cases. On site drug tests are allowed per the Department of Labor.


title: Drug test

text: Detection in saliva tests begins almost immediately upon use of the following substances, and lasts for approximately the following times:


title: Drug test

text: A disadvantage of saliva based drug testing is that it is not approved by FDA or SAMHSA for use with DOT / Federal Mandated Drug Testing. Oral fluid is not considered a bio-hazard unless there is visible blood; however, it should be treated with care.


title: Drug test

text: Sweat patches are attached to the skin to collect sweat over a long period of time (up to 14 days). These are used by child protective services, parole departments, and other government institutions concerned with drug use over long periods, when urine testing is not practical.


title: Drug test

text: There are also surface drug tests that test for the metabolite of parent drug groups in the residue of drugs left in sweat. An example of a rapid, non-invasive, sweat-based drug test is fingerprint drug screening. This 10 minute fingerprint test is in use by a variety of organisations in the UK and beyond, including within workplaces, drug treatment and family safeguarding services at airport border control (to detect drug mules) and in mortuaries to assist in investigations into cause of death.


title: Drug test

text: Drug-testing a blood sample measures whether or not a drug or a metabolite is in the body at a particular time. These types of tests are considered to be the most accurate way of telling if a person is intoxicated. Blood drug tests are not used very often because they need specialized equipment and medically trained administrators.


title: Drug test

text: Depending on how much marijuana was consumed, it can usually be detected in blood tests within six hours of consumption. After six hours has passed, the concentration of marijuana in the blood decreases significantly. It generally disappears completely within 30 days.


title: Drug test

text: Can occur at any time, usually when the investigator has reason to believe that a substance is possibly being used by the subject by behavior or immediately after an employee-related incident occurs during work hours. Testing protocol typically conforms to the national medical standard, candidates are given up to 120 minutes to reasonably produce a urine sample from the time of commencement (in some instances this time frame may be extended at the examiners discretion).


title: Drug test

text: In the case of life-threatening symptoms, unconsciousness, or bizarre behavior in an emergency situation, screening for common drugs and toxins may help find the cause, called a "toxicology test" or "tox screen" to denote the broader area of possible substances beyond just self-administered drugs. These tests can also be done post-mortem during an autopsy in cases where a death was not expected. The test is usually done within 96 hours (4 days) after the desire for the test is realized. Both a urine sample and a blood sample may be tested. A blood sample is routinely used to detect ethanol/methanol and ASA/paracetamol intoxication. Various panels are used for screening urine samples for common substances, e.g. "triage 8" that detects amphetamines, benzodiazepines, cocaine, methadone, opiates, cannabis, barbiturates and tricyclic antidepressants. Results are given in 10–15 min.


title: Drug test

text: Similar screenings may be used to evaluate the possible use of date rape drugs. This is usually done on a urine sample.


title: Drug test

text: Drug checks/tests (also known as pill testing) are provided at some events such as concerts and music festivals. Attendees can voluntarily hand over a sample of any drug or drugs in their possession to be tested to check what the drug is and its purity. The scheme is used as a harm reduction technique so people are more aware of what they are taking and the potential risks.


title: Drug test

text: Drug and alcohol impairment while at work increases the risk of work-place accidents and decreases productivity. Employers such as the commercial driving and airline industry may conduct random drug tests on employees with the goal of deterring use to improve safety. There is some evidence that increasing the use of random drug testing in the airline industry reduces the percentage of people who test positive, however, it is unclear if this decrease is associated with a corresponding decrease in fatal or non-fatal injuries, other accidents, number of days absent from work. It is also not clear if there are other unwanted side effects that may result from random drug and alcohol testing in the workplace.


title: Drug test

text: Anabolic steroids are used to enhance performance in sports and as they are prohibited in most high-level competitions drug testing is used extensively in order to enforce this prohibition. This is particularly so in individual (rather than team) sports such as athletics and cycling.


title: Drug test

text: Before testing samples, the tamper-evident seal is checked for integrity. If it appears to have been tampered with or damaged, the laboratory rejects the sample and does not test it.


title: Drug test

text: Next, the sample must be made testable. Urine and oral fluid can be used "as is" for some tests, but other tests require the drugs to be extracted from urine. Strands of hair, patches, and blood must be prepared before testing. Hair is washed in order to eliminate second-hand sources of drugs on the surface of the hair, then the keratin is broken down using enzymes. Blood plasma may need to be separated by centrifuge from blood cells prior to testing. Sweat patches are opened and the sweat collection component is removed and soaked in a solvent to dissolve any drugs present.


title: Drug test

text: Laboratory-based drug testing is done in two steps. The first step is the screening test, which is an immunoassay based test applied to all samples. The second step, known as the confirmation test, is usually undertaken by a laboratory using highly specific chromatographic techniques and only applied to samples that test positive during the screening test. Screening tests are usually done by immunoassay (EMIT, ELISA, and RIA are the most common). A "" drug testing method which could provide screening test capabilities to field investigators has been developed at the University of Illinois.


title: Drug test

text: After a suspected positive sample is detected during screening, the sample is tested using a confirmation test. Samples that are negative on the screening test are discarded and reported as negative. The confirmation test in most laboratories (and all SAMHSA certified labs) is performed using mass spectrometry, and is precise but expensive. False positive samples from the screening test will almost always be negative on the confirmation test. Samples testing positive during both screening and confirmation tests are reported as positive to the entity that ordered the test. Most laboratories save positive samples for some period of months or years in the event of a disputed result or lawsuit. For workplace drug testing, a positive result is generally not confirmed without a review by a Medical Review Officer who will normally interview the subject of the drug test.


title: Drug test

text: Urine drug test kits are available as on-site tests, or laboratory analysis. Urinalysis is the most common test type and used by federally mandated drug testing programs and is considered the Gold Standard of drug testing. Urine based tests have been upheld in most courts for more than 30 years. However, urinalysis conducted by the Department of Defense has been challenged for reliability of testing the metabolite of cocaine. There are two associated metabolites of cocaine, benzoylecgonine (BZ) and ecgonine methyl ester (EME), the first (BZ) is created by the presence of cocaine in an aqueous solution with a pH greater than 7.0, while the second (EME) results from the actual human metabolic process. The presence of EME confirms actual ingestion of cocaine by a human being, while the presence of BZ is indicative only. BZ without EME is evidence of sample contamination, however, the US Department of Defense has chosen not to test for EME in its urinalysis program.


title: Drug test

text: A number of different analyses (defined as the unknown substance being tested for) are available on Urine Drug Screens.


title: Drug test

text: Spray (sweat) drug test kits are non-invasive. It is a simple process to collect the required specimen, no bathroom is needed, no laboratory is required for analysis, and the tests themselves are difficult to manipulate and relatively tamper-resistant. The detection window is long and can detect recent drug use within several hours.


title: Drug test

text: There are also some disadvantages to spray or sweat testing. There is not much variety in these drug tests, only a limited number of drugs can be detected, prices tend to be higher, and inconclusive results can be produced by variations in sweat production rates in donors. They also have a relatively long specimen collection period and are more vulnerable to contamination than other common forms of testing.


title: Drug test

text: Hair drug testing is a method that can detect drug use over a much longer period of time, and is often used for highly safety-critical positions where there is zero tolerance of illegal drug use. Standard hair follicle screen covers a period of 30 to 90 days. The growth of head hair is usually at the rate of 0.5 inches per month. The hair sample is cut close to the scalp and 80 to 120 strands of hair are needed for the test. In the absence of hair on the head, body hair can be used as an acceptable substitute. This includes facial hair, the underarms, arms, and legs or even pubic hair. Because body hair grows at a different rate than head hair, the timeframe changes, with scientists estimating that drug use can be detected in body hair for up to 12 months. Currently, most entities that use hair testing have prescribed consequences for individuals removing hair to avoid a hair drug test.


title: Drug test

text: The claim that a hair test cannot be tampered with has been shown to be debatable. One study has shown that THC does not readily deposit inside epithelial cells so it is possible for cosmetic and other forms of adulteration to reduce the amount of testable cannabinoids within a hair sample.


title: Drug test

text: The results of federally mandating drug testing were similar to the effects of simply extending to the trucking industry the right to perform drug tests, and it has been argued that the latter approach would have been as effective at lower cost.


title: Drug test

text: Psychologist Tony Buon has criticized the use of workplace drug testing on a number of grounds, including:


title: Drug test

text: Tony Buon has also reported by the CIPD as stating that "drug testing captures the stupid—experienced drug users know how to beat the tests".


title: Drug test

text: people taking the drug test within risk groups so that those who pose more of a danger to the public can be incapacitated through incarceration or other restrictions on liberty. Thus, the drug testing serves a crime control purpose even if there is no expectation of rehabilitating the drug user through treatment, deterring drug use through sanctions, or sending a message that drug use is a deviant behavior that will not be tolerated.


title: Drug test

text: A study in 2004 by the Independent Inquiry into Drug Testing at Work found that attempts by employers to force employees to take drug tests could potentially be challenged as a violation of privacy under the Human Rights Act 1998 and Article 8 of the European Convention of Human Rights. However, this does not apply to industries where drug testing is a matter of personal and public safety or security rather than productivity.


title: Drug test

text: In consultation with Dr. Carlton Turner, President Ronald Reagan issued Executive Order 12564. In doing so, he instituted mandatory drug-testing for all safety-sensitive executive-level and civil-service Federal employees. This was challenged in the courts by the National Treasury Employees Union. In 1988, this challenge was considered by the US Supreme Court. A similar challenge resulted in the Court extending the drug-free workplace concept to the private sector. These decisions were then incorporated into the White House Drug Control Strategy directive issued by President George H.W. Bush in 1989. All defendants serving on federal probation or federal supervised release are required to submit to at least three drug tests. Failing a drug test can be construed as possession of a controlled substance, resulting in mandatory revocation and imprisonment.


title: Drug test

text: There have been inconsistent evaluation results as to whether continued pretrial drug testing has beneficial effects.


title: Drug test

text: Testing positive can lead to bail not being granted, or if bail has already been granted, to bail revocation or other sanctions. Arizona also adopted a law in 1987 authorizing mandatory drug testing of felony arrestees for the purpose of informing the pretrial release decision, and the District of Columbia has had a similar law since the 1970s. It has been argued that one of the problems with such testing is that there is often not enough time between the arrest and the bail decision to confirm positive results using GC/MS technology. It has also been argued that such testing potentially implicates the Fifth Amendment privilege against self-incrimination, the right to due process (including the prohibition against gathering evidence in a manner that shocks the conscience or constitutes outrageous government conduct), and the prohibition against unreasonable searches and seizures contained in the Fourth Amendment.


title: Drug test

text: According to Henriksson, the anti-drug appeals of the Reagan administration "created an environment in which many employers felt compelled to implement drug testing programs because failure to do so might be perceived as condoning drug use. This fear was easily exploited by aggressive marketing and sales forces, who often overstated the value of testing and painted a bleak picture of the consequences of failing to use the drug testing product or service being offered." On March 10, 1986, the Commission on Organized Crime asked all U.S. companies to test employees for drug use. By 1987, nearly 25% of the Fortune 500 companies used drug tests.


title: Drug test

text: According to an uncontrolled self-report study done by DATIA and Society for Human Resource Management in 2012 (sample of 6,000 randomly selected human resource professionals), human resource professionals reported the following results after implementing a drug testing program: 19% of companies reported a subjective increase in employee productivity, 16% reported a decrease in employee turnover (8% reported an increase), and unspecified percentages reported decreases in absenteeism and improvement of workers' compensation incidence rates.


title: Drug test

text: According to US Chamber of Commerce 70% of all illicit drug users are employed. Some industries have high rates of employee drug use such as construction (12.8%), repair (11.1%), and hospitality (7.9-16.3%).


title: Drug test

text: A person conducting a business or undertaking (PCBU—the new term that includes employers) has duties under the work health and safety (WHS) legislation to ensure a worker affected by alcohol or other drugs does not place themselves or other persons at risk of injury while at work. Workplace policies and prevention programs can help change the norms and culture around substance use.


title: Drug test

text: All organisations—large and small—can benefit from an agreed policy on alcohol and drug misuse that applies to all workers. Such a policy should form part of an organisations overall health and safety management system. PCBUs are encouraged to establish a policy and procedure, in consultation with workers, to constructively manage alcohol and other drug related hazards in their workplace. A comprehensive workplace alcohol and other drug policy should apply to everyone in the workplace and include prevention, education, counselling and rehabilitation arrangements. In addition, the roles and responsibilities of managers and supervisors should be clearly outlined.


title: Drug test

text: In February 2016 a New South Wales magistrate "acquitted a man who tested positive for cannabis". He had been arrested and charged after testing positive during a roadside drug test, despite not having smoked for nine days. He was relying on advice previously given to him by police.


title: Drug test

text: In the United States federal criminal system, refusing to take a drug test triggers an automatic revocation of probation or supervised release.


title: Drug test

text: In Victoria, Australia the driver of the car has the option to refuse the drug test. Refusing to undergo a drug test or refusing to undergo a secondary drug test after the first one, triggers an automatic suspension and disqualification for a period of two years and a fine of AUD$1000. The second refusal triggers an automatic suspension and disqualification for a period of four years and an even larger fine.


title: Downy woodpecker

text: The downy woodpecker (Dryobates pubescens) is a species of woodpecker, the smallest in North America. Length ranges from . Downy woodpeckers primarily live in forested areas throughout the United States and Canada, with the exception of deserts in the southwest and the northern tundra. The bird nests in tree cavities and feeds primarily on insects, although it supplements its diet with seeds and berries. The downy woodpecker is very similar in appearance to the hairy woodpecker, although they are not closely related.


title: Downy woodpecker

text: The downy woodpecker was described and illustrated with a hand-coloured plate by the English naturalist Mark Catesby in his "The Natural History of Carolina, Florida and the Bahama Islands", which was published between 1729 and 1732. When in 1766 the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus updated his "Systema Naturae" for the twelfth edition, he included the downy woodpecker, coined the binomial name "Picus pubescens" and cited Catesby's book. The specific epithet "pubescens" is the Latin for "pubescent" or "downy". Linnaeus specified the type locality as "America septentrionali" (North America) but the locality is now restricted to South Carolina. The downy woodpecker was usually placed in either "Dendrocopos" or "Picoides", but a molecular phylogenetic study published in 2015 found that these genera did not form monophyletic groups. In the revised generic classification, the downy woodpecker was placed with four other species in the resurrected genus "Dryobates", that had been erected in 1826 by the German naturalist Friedrich Boie with the downy woodpecker as the type species. Within the genus, the downy woodpecker is sister to a clade containing Nuttall's woodpecker ("Dryobates nuttalli") and the ladder-backed woodpecker ("Dryobates scalaris").


title: Downy woodpecker

text: Despite their close resemblance, the downy and hairy woodpeckers are not very closely related; the outward similarity is an example of convergent evolution. Why they evolved this way cannot be explained with confidence; it may be relevant that the species exploit rather different-sized foodstuffs and do not compete very much ecologically.


title: Downy woodpecker

text: Adult downy woodpeckers are the smallest of North America's woodpeckers, but there are many smaller species elsewhere, especially the piculets. The total length of the species ranges from and the wingspan from . Body mass ranges from . Standard measurements are as follows: the wing chord is , the tail is , the bill is and the tarsus is . The downy woodpecker is mainly black on the upperparts and wings, with a white back, throat and belly and white spotting on the wings. There is one white bar above the eye, and one below. They have a black tail with white outer feathers barred with black. Adult males have a red patch on the back of the head whereas juvenile birds display a red cap.


title: Downy woodpecker

text: The downy woodpecker is virtually identical in plumage pattern to the larger hairy woodpecker, but it can be distinguished from the hairy by the presence of black spots on its white tail feathers and the length of its bill. The downy woodpecker's bill is shorter than its head, whereas the hairy woodpecker's bill is approximately equal to head length.


title: Downy woodpecker

text: The downy woodpecker gives a number of vocalizations, including a short "pik" call. One may identify the woodpecker by the pik-call, counting half a second between piks (a total of four must be heard). The rattle-call is a short burst that sounds similar to a bouncing ball, while that of the hairy woodpecker is a shorter burst of the same amplitude. Like other woodpeckers, it also produces a drumming sound (sounds like four taps ) with its beak as it pecks into trees. Its drums are slower compared to other North American species.


title: Downy woodpecker

text: Downy woodpeckers are native to forested areas, mainly deciduous, of North America. Their range consists of most of the United States and Canada, except for the deserts of the southwest and the tundra of the north. Mostly permanent residents, northern birds may migrate further south; birds in mountainous areas may move to lower elevations.


title: Downy woodpecker

text: Downy woodpeckers nest in a tree cavity excavated by the nesting pair in a dead tree or limb. In the winter, they roost in tree cavities. Downy woodpeckers forage on trees, picking the bark surface in summer and digging deeper in winter. They mainly eat insects, but they also feed on seeds and berries. They are a natural predator of the European corn borer, a moth that costs the US agriculture industry more than $1 billion annually in crop losses and population control. In winter, especially, downy woodpeckers can often be found in suburban backyards with mature trees where they feed on suet and shelled peanuts provided by mesh birdfeeders.


title: Automatic firearm

text: An automatic firearm is an auto-loading firearm that continuously chambers and fires rounds when the trigger mechanism is actuated. The action of an automatic firearm is capable of harvesting the excess energy released from a previous discharge to feed a new ammunition round into the chamber, and then ignite the propellant and discharge the projectile (either bullet, shot, or slug) by delivering a hammer or striker impact on the primer.


title: Automatic firearm

text: If "both" the feeding and ignition procedures are automatically cycled, the weapon will be considered "fully automatic" and will fire continuously as long as the trigger is kept depressed and the ammunition feeding (either from a magazine or a belt) remains available. In contrast, a firearm is considered "semi-automatic" if it only automatically cycles to chamber new rounds (i.e. self-loading) but does not automatically fire off the shot unless the user manually resets (usually by releasing) and re-actuates the trigger, so only one round gets discharged with each individual trigger-pull. A burst-fire firearm is an "in-between" of fully and semi-automatic firearms, firing a brief continuous "burst" of multiple rounds with each trigger-pull, but then will require a manual re-actuation of the trigger to fire another burst.


title: Automatic firearm

text: Automatic firearms are further defined by the type of cycling principles used, such as recoil operation, blowback, blow-forward or gas operation.


title: Automatic firearm

text: Self-loading firearms are designed with varying rates of fire due to having different purposes. The speed with which a self-loading firearm can cycle through the functions of: