title: History of Madagascar

text: As for the cause of the coming of these Austronesians, the history of the Indian Ocean from the early first millennium CE is still poorly understood. Madagascar may have played an important role in the trade of spices (especially cinnamon) and timber between Southeast Asia and the Middle East, directly or through the African coast and Madagascar.


title: History of Madagascar

text: The first known concentrated population of human settlers emerged along the southeastern coast of the island, although the first landfall may have been made on the northern coast. Upon arrival, early settlers practiced "tavy" (slash-and-burn agriculture) to clear the virgin coastal rainforests for the cultivation of their crops. The first settlers encountered Madagascar's wealth of megafauna, including giant lemurs, elephant birds, giant fossa and the Malagasy hippopotamus, which have since become extinct due to hunting and habitat destruction.


title: History of Madagascar

text: By 600, groups of these early settlers had moved inland and began clearing the forests of the central highlands ("Imerina"), where they particularly planted taro ("saonjo") and probably rice ("vary"). These "Vahoaka Ntaolo", hunters-gatherers and farmers, who decided to settle "in the forest", especially in the forests of the central highlands are known by the tradition as the Vazimba (from "*ba/va-yimba-" 'those of the forest', from "*yimba-" 'forest' in Proto–Southeast Barito, today "barimba" or "orang rimba" in Malay). Rafandrana, an ancestor of the Merina royal dynasty, for example, is known to have been a Vazimba. Rafohy and Rangita, the two founding queens of the Merina royalty, were also called Vazimbas.


title: History of Madagascar

text: On the other side, the fishermen who, from the beginning, remained on the southwestern coast (probably the coasts of the first landing) were, according to the linguists, probably originally called the "Vezo" (from "*ba/va/be/ve-jau" – "those of the coast", borrowed from Proto-Malayo-Javanese, today "veju" in Bugis, "bejau" in Malay, and "bajo" in Javanese), which today is still the name of a Southwestern tribe.


title: History of Madagascar

text: After the arrival of the newcomers (see below), as growing population density necessitated higher crop yields, irrigated rice paddies emerged in Betsileo country by 1600 and were complemented with terraced paddies throughout the central highlands a century later. Zebu were introduced around 1000 by Bantu-speaking migrants from the African Great Lakes region (see below), who maintained large herds. The rising intensity of land cultivation and the ever-increasing demand for zebu pasturage in the central highlands had largely transformed the region from a forest ecosystem to barren grassland by the 17th century.


title: History of Madagascar

text: By the mid-first millennium (ca 700) until about 1500, the inner Vazimbas as much as the coastal Vezos clans welcome new visitors or immigrants. These goods and/or slave traders from the Middle East (Shirazi Persians, Omani Arabs, Arab Jews, accompanied by Bantus from southeast Africa), and from Asia (Gujaratis, Malays, Javanese, Bugis) were sometimes integrated within the coastal Vezos and the inner Vazimbas clans.


title: History of Madagascar

text: The written history of Madagascar begins in the 7th century when Omanis established trading posts along the northwest coast and introduced Islam, the Arabic script (used to transcribe the Malagasy language in a form of writing known as the sorabe alphabet), Arab astrology and other cultural elements. During this early period, Madagascar served as an important transoceanic trading port for the East African coast that gave Africa a trade route to the Silk Road and served simultaneously as a port for incoming ships. There is evidence that Bantu or Swahili sailors or traders may have begun sailing to the western shores of Madagascar as early as around the 6th and 7th century.


title: History of Madagascar

text: According to the traditions of some Malagasy peoples, the first Bantus and Arabs to settle in Madagascar came as refugees from the civil wars that followed the death of Muhammad in 632.


title: History of Madagascar

text: Beginning in the 10th or 11th century, Arabic and Zanzibari slavers worked their way down the Swahili coast in their dhows and established settlements on the west coast of Madagascar. Notably they included the Zafiraminia, traditional ancestors of the Antemoro, Antanosy and other east coast ethnicities. The last wave of Arab immigrants, the Antalaotra, immigrated from Swahili colonies. They settled the northwest of the island (the Mahajanga area) and introduced, for the first time, Islam to Madagascar.


title: History of Madagascar

text: Arab immigrants, though few in number compared to the native Austronesians and Bantus, nevertheless left a lasting impression. The Malagasy names for seasons, months, days, and coins in certain regions come from Arabic origins, as do cultural features such as the practice of circumcision, the communal grain-pool, and different forms of salutation (such as "salama").


title: History of Madagascar

text: According to oral tradition, new Austronesian clans (Malays, Javanese, Bugis, and Orang Laut), historically referred to in general, regardless of their native island, as the "Hova" (from Old Bugis "uwa", "commoner") landed in the north-west and east coast of the island. Adelaar's observations of Old Malay (Sanskritised), Old Javanese (Sanskritised) and Old Bugis borrowings in the initial Proto-Southeast-Barito language indicate that the first Hova waves came probably in the 7th century at the earliest. Marre and Dahl pointed out that the number of Sanskrit words in Malagasy is very limited compared with the large number now found in Indonesian languages, which means that the Indonesian settlers must have come at an early stage of Hindu influence, that is ca. 400 AD.


title: History of Madagascar

text: The Hova were probably derived from Indonesian thalassocracies. Their leaders were known as the "diana" in the Southeast and "andriana" or "raondriana" in the Center and the West (from "(ra)-hadi-an", "lord" or "master" in Old Javanese, modern Javanese "raden", also found in the Bugis noble title and the Tagalog word for "king" "hari"). They for the most part allied with Vazimba clans:


title: History of Madagascar

text: With the arrival of Islam, Persian and Arab traders soon supplanted the Indonesians on the coast of Africa and eventually extended their control over the Comoro Islands and parts of the coast of Madagascar. Meanwhile, with competition in the new joint naval powers of Song China and Chola South India, the thalassocracies of Indonesia were in rapid decline, though the Portuguese still encountered Javanese sailors in Madagascar in the sixteenth century.


title: History of Madagascar

text: There is archaeological evidence that Bantu peoples, agro-pastoralists from East Africa, may have begun migrating to the island as early as the 6th and 7th century. Other historical and archaeological records suggest that some of the Bantus were descendants of Swahili sailors and merchants who used dhows to traverse the seas to the western shores of Madagascar. Finally some sources theorize that during the Middle Ages, Arab, Persian and Neo-Austronesian slave-traders brought Bantu people to Madagascar transported by Swahili merchants to feed foreign demand for slaves. Years of intermarriages created the Malagasy people, who primarily speak Malagasy, an Austronesian language with Bantu influences. There are consequently many (Proto-)Swahili borrowings in the initial Proto-SEB Malagasy language. This substratum is especially significantly present in the domestic and agricultural vocabulary (e.g. "omby" or "aombe", "beef", from Swahili "ng'ombe"; "tongolo" "onion" from Swahili "kitunguu"; Malagasy "nongo" "pot" from "nunggu" in Swahili).


title: History of Madagascar

text: Europe knew of Madagascar through Arab sources; thus "The Travels of Marco Polo" claimed that "the inhabitants are Saracens, or followers of the law of Mohammed", without mentioning other inhabitants. Other than its size and location, everything about the island in the book describes southeastern Africa, not Madagascar. European contact began on 10 August 1500, when the Portuguese sea captain Diogo Dias sighted the island after his ship separated from a fleet going to India. The Portuguese traded with the islanders and named the island "São Lourenço" (Saint Lawrence). In 1666, François Caron, the director general of the newly formed French East India Company, sailed to Madagascar. The company failed to establish a colony on Madagascar but established ports on the nearby islands of Bourbon (now Réunion) and Isle de France (now Mauritius). In the late 17th century, the French established trading posts along the east coast. On Île Sainte-Marie, a small island off the northeastern coast of Madagascar, Captain Misson and his pirate crew allegedly founded the famous pirate utopia of Libertatia in the late 17th century. From about 1774 to 1824, Madagascar was a favourite haunt for pirates. Many European sailors were shipwrecked on the coasts of the island, among them Robert Drury, whose journal is one of the few written depictions of life in southern Madagascar during the 18th century. Sailors sometimes called Madagascar "Island of the Moon".


title: History of Madagascar

text: By the 15th century, Europeans had wrested control of the spice trade from the Muslims. They did this by bypassing the Middle East and sending their cargo-ships around the Cape of Good Hope to India. The Portuguese mariner Diogo Dias became the first European to set foot on Madagascar when his ship, bound for India, blew off course in 1500. In the ensuing 200 years, the English and French tried (and failed) to establish settlements on the island.


title: History of Madagascar

text: Fever, dysentery, hostile Malagasy, and the trying arid climate of southern Madagascar soon terminated the English settlement near Toliara in 1646. Another English settlement in the north in Île Sainte-Marie came to an end in 1649. The French colony at Tôlanaro (Fort Dauphin) fared a little better: it lasted thirty years. On Christmas night 1672, local Antanosy tribesmen, perhaps angry because fourteen French soldiers in the fort had recently divorced their Malagasy wives to marry fourteen French orphan-women sent out to the colony, massacred the fourteen grooms and thirteen of the fourteen brides. The Antanosy then besieged the stockade at Tôlanaro for eighteen months. A ship of the French East India Company rescued the surviving thirty men and one widow in 1674.


title: History of Madagascar

text: In 1665, François Caron, the Director General of the newly formed French East India Company, sailed to Madagascar. The Company failed to found a colony on Madagascar but established ports on the nearby islands of Bourbon and Île-de-France (today's Réunion and Mauritius respectively). In the late 17th century, the French established trading-posts along the east coast.


title: History of Madagascar

text: Between 1680 and 1725, Madagascar became a pirate stronghold. Many unfortunate sailors became shipwrecked and stranded on the island. Those who survived settled down with the natives, or more often, found French or English colonies on the island or even pirate havens and thus became pirates themselves. One such case, that of Robert Drury,


title: History of Madagascar

text: resulted in a journal giving one of the few written depictions of southern Madagascar in the 18th century.


title: History of Madagascar

text: Notable pirates including William Kidd, Henry Every, John Bowen, and Thomas Tew made Antongil Bay and Île Sainte-Marie (a small island 12 miles off the northeast coast of Madagascar) their bases of operations. The pirates plundered merchant ships in the Indian Ocean, the Red Sea, and the Persian Gulf. They deprived Europe-bound ships of their silks, cloth, spices, and jewels. Vessels captured going in the opposite direction (to India) lost their coin, gold, and silver. The pirates robbed the Indian cargo ships that traded between ports in the Indian Ocean as well as ships commissioned by the East India Companies of France, England, and the Netherlands. The pilgrim fleet sailing between Surat in India and Mocha on the tip of the Arabian Peninsula were a favorite target, because the wealthy Muslim pilgrims often carried jewels and other finery with them to Mecca. Merchants in India, various ports of Africa, and Réunion showed willingness to fence the pirates' stolen goods. The low-paid seamen who manned merchant ships in the Indian Ocean hardly put up a fight, seeing as they had little reason or motivation to risk their lives. The pirates often recruited crewmen from the ships they plundered.


title: History of Madagascar

text: With regard to piracy in Malagasy waters, note the (semi-)legendary accounts of the alleged pirate-state of Libertalia.


title: History of Madagascar

text: Prior to the arrival of the Europeans, certain Malagasy tribes occasionally waged wars to capture and enslave prisoners. They either sold the slaves to Arab traders or kept them on-hand as laborers. Following the arrival of European slavers, human slaves became more valuable, and the coastal tribes of Madagascar took to warring with each other to obtain prisoners for the lucrative slave-trade. Instead of spears and cutlasses, the tribesmen fought with muskets, musket-balls, and gunpowder that they obtained from the Europeans, conducting fierce and brutal wars. On account of their relationship to the pirates, the Betsimisaraka in eastern Madagascar had more firearms than anyone else. They overpowered their neighbors, the Antankarana and Tsimihety, and even raided the Comoro Islands. As the tribe on the west coast with the most connections to the slave trade, the Sakalava people also had access to guns and powder.


title: History of Madagascar

text: Today, the people of Madagascar can be considered as the product of mixing between the first occupants, the "vahoaka ntaolo" Austronesians ("Vazimba"and "Vezo") and those arrived later ("Hova" neo-Austronesians, Persians, Arabs, Africans and Europeans).


title: History of Madagascar

text: Genotypically, the original Austronesian heritage is more or less evenly distributed throughout the island. Researchers have noticed the "Polynesian motif" everywhere: an old marker of Austronesian populations from before the great immigration to the islands of Polynesia and Melanesia. This fact would require a starting common home among the Proto-Malagasy "vahoaka ntaolo" (gone west to Madagascar) and the ancestors of the current Polynesians (left for the Pacific Islands in the East) between 500 BCE – 1 CE.


title: History of Madagascar

text: Those new immigrants of the Middle Ages were a minority in numbers, yet their cultural contributions, political and technological to the neo-Vazimba and neo-Vezo world substantially altered their society and is the cause of the major upheavals of the sixteenth century that led to the Malagasy feudal era.


title: History of Madagascar

text: On the coasts, the integration of the East Asians, Middle Easterns, Bantus and Portuguese led to the establishment of the kingdoms of the Antakarana, Boina, Menabe and Vezo on the west coast, the Mahafaly and Antandroy in the south, and the Antesaka, Antambahoaka, Antemoro, Antanala and Betsimisaraka on the east coast.


title: History of Madagascar

text: In the interior, the struggle for hegemony between the different Neo-Vazimba clans of central highlands, called the "Hova" by the coastal Neo-Vezo clans, led to the creation of the Merina, Betsileo, Bezanozano, Sihanaka, Tsimihety and Bara kingdoms.


title: History of Madagascar

text: The birth of these kingdoms/tribes essentially altered the political structure of the ancient world of the Vahoaka Ntaolo, but for the most part the common language, customs, traditions, religion and economy was preserved.


title: History of Madagascar

text: Among the Central Kingdoms, the most important were the Betsileo kingdoms (Fandriana, Fisakana, Manandriana, Isandra) to the south, and the Merina kingdoms to the north. These were definitively unified in the early 19th century by Andrianampoinimerina. His son and successor Radama I (reigning 1810–1828) opened his country to foreign influence. With the support of the British, he extended its authority over much of the island. From 1817, the central Merina kingdoms, Betsileo, Bezanozano, and Sihanaka, unified by Radama I were known to the outside world as the Kingdom of Madagascar.


title: History of Madagascar

text: The island's West clan chiefs began to extend their power through trade with their Indian Ocean neighbors, first with Arab, Persian and Somali traders who connected Madagascar with East Africa, the Middle East and India, and later with European slave traders. The wealth created in Madagascar through trade created a state system ruled by powerful regional monarchs known as the Maroserana. These monarchs adopted the cultural traditions of subjects in their territories and expanded their kingdoms. They took on divine status, and new nobility and artisan classes were created. Madagascar functioned as a contact port for the other Swahili seaport city-states such as Sofala, Kilwa, Mombasa and Zanzibar. By the Middle Ages, large chiefdoms began to dominate considerable areas of the island. Among these were the Betsimisaraka alliance of the eastern coast and the Sakalava chiefdoms of the Menabe (centered in what is now the town of Morondava) and of Boina (centered in what is now the provincial capital of Mahajanga). The influence of the Sakalava extended across what are now the provinces of Antsiranana, Mahajanga and Toliara.


title: History of Madagascar

text: The island's chiefs began to extend their power through trade with their Indian Ocean neighbours, notably East Africa, the Middle East and India. Large chiefdoms began to dominate considerable areas of the island. Among these were the Sakalava chiefdoms of the Menabe, centred in what is now the town of Morondava, and of Boina, centered in what is now the provincial capital of Mahajanga (Majunga). The influence of the Sakalava extended across what are now the provinces of Antsiranana, Mahajanga and Toliara.


title: History of Madagascar

text: According to local tradition, the founders of the Sakalava kingdom were Maroseraña (or Maroseranana, "those who owned many ports") princes, from the Fiherenana (now Toliara). They quickly subdued the neighbouring princes, starting with the southern ones, in the Mahafaly area. The true founder of Sakalava dominance was Andriamisara; his son Andriandahifotsy (c. 1610–1658) then extended his authority northwards, past the Mangoky River. His two sons, Andriamanetiarivo and Andriamandisoarivo, extended gains further up to the Tsongay region (now Mahajanga). At about that time, the empire's unity starts to split, resulting in a southern kingdom (Menabe) and a northern kingdom (Boina). Further splits resulted, despite continued extension of the Boina princes' reach into the extreme north, in Antankarana country.


title: History of Madagascar

text: The Sakalava rulers of this period are known through the memoirs of Europeans such as Robert Drury, James Cook, Barnvelt (1719), Valentyn (1726).


title: History of Madagascar

text: King Andrianampoinimerina (1785–1810) and his son, Radama I (1810–1828) succeeded in uniting nearly all of Madagascar under Merina rule. These kings and their successors descended from a line of ancient Merina royalty who ruled the lands of Imerina in the central Highlands of Madagascar since at least the 16th century. Even prior to their eventual domination and unification of the entire island, the political and cultural activities of Merina royalty were to leave an indelible mark on contemporary Malagasy identity.


title: History of Madagascar

text: With the establishment of dominion over the greater part of the Highlands, Andrianampoinimerina became the first Merina monarch to be considered a king of Madagascar. The island continued to be ruled by a succession of Merina monarchs until the last of them, Ranavalona III, was deposed and exiled to Algeria by French forces who conquered and colonized the island in 1895.


title: History of Madagascar

text: Andrianampoinimerina, grandson of King Andriambelomasina and successor to his uncle King Andrianjafy, successfully reunited the fragmented Merina kingdom through a combination of diplomacy, strategic political marriages and successful military campaigns against rival princes. Andrianampoinimerina distinguished himself from other kings by codifying laws and supervising the building of dikes and trenches to increase the amount of arable land around his capital at Antananarivo in a successful bid to end the famines that had wracked Imerina for decades. The king ambitiously proclaimed: "Ny ranomasina no valapariako" (“the sea is the boundary of my rice-field”), and by the time of his death in 1810 he had conquered the Bara and Betsileo highland tribes, laying the groundwork for expansion of his kingdom to the shores of the island.


title: History of Madagascar

text: Andrianampoinimerina's son Radama I (Radama the Great) assumed the throne during a turning-point in European history that had repercussions for Madagascar. With the defeat of Napoléon in 1814/1815, the balance of power in Europe and overseas shifted in Britain's favor. The British, eager to exert control over the trade routes of the Indian Ocean, had captured the islands of Réunion and Mauritius from the French in 1810. Although they returned Réunion to France, they kept Mauritius as a naval base which would maintain trade links throughout the British Empire. Mauritius's governor, in a bid to woo Madagascar from French control, recognized Radama I as King of Madagascar, a diplomatic maneuver meant to underscore the idea of the sovereignty of the island and thus to preclude claims by any European powers.


title: History of Madagascar

text: Radama I signed treaties with the United Kingdom outlawing the slave trade and admitting Protestant missionaries into Madagascar. As a result of these treaties Protestant missionaries from Britain would spread British influence in Madagascar; while outlawing the slave trade would weaken Réunion's economy by depriving the island of slave laborers for France's sugar plantations. In return for outlawing the slave trade, Madagascar received what the treaty called "The Equivalent": an annual sum of a thousand dollars in gold, another thousand in silver, stated amounts of gunpowder, flints, and muskets, plus 400 surplus British Army uniforms. The governor of Mauritius also sent military advisers who accompanied and sometimes led Merina soldiers in their battles against the Sakalava and Betsimisaraka. In 1824, having defeated the Betsimisaraka, Radama I declared, "Today, the whole island is mine! Madagascar has but one master." The king died in 1828 while leading his army on a punitive expedition against the Betsimisaraka.


title: History of Madagascar

text: The 33-year reign of Queen Ranavalona I, the widow of Radama I, was characterized by an increase in the size of the Kingdom of Madagascar as it conquered neighboring states as well as an effort to maintain the cultural and political sovereignty of Madagascar in the face of increasing foreign influence. The queen repudiated the treaties that Radama I had signed with Britain and, in 1835 after issuing a royal edict prohibiting the practice of Christianity in Madagascar, she expelled British missionaries from the island and began persecuting Christian converts who would not renounce their religion. Malagasy Christians would remember this period as "ny tany maizina", or "the time when the land was dark". During her reign regular warfare, disease, slavery, difficult forced labor and harsh measures of justice


title: History of Madagascar

text: (Tangena ordeal) resulted in a high mortality rate among soldiers and civilians alike during her 33-year reign, with Madagascar's population reducing from 5 million in 1833 to 2.5 million in 1839.


title: History of Madagascar

text: Unbeknownst to the queen, her son and heir, the crown-prince (the future Radama II), attended Roman Catholic masses in secret. The young man grew up under the influence of French nationals in Antananarivo. In 1854, he wrote a letter to Napoléon III inviting France to invade and uplift Madagascar. On 28 June 1855 he signed the Lambert Charter. This document gave Joseph-François Lambert, an enterprising French businessman who had arrived in Madagascar only three weeks before, the exclusive right to develop all minerals, forests, and unoccupied land in Madagascar in exchange for a 10-percent royalty payable to the Merina monarchy. In years to come, the French would show the Lambert Charter and the prince's letter to Napoléon III to explain the Franco-Hova Wars and the annexation of Madagascar as a colony. In 1857, the queen uncovered a plot by her son (the future Radama II) and French nationals in the capital to remove her from power. She immediately expelled all foreigners from Madagascar, sparing her son. Ranavalona died in 1861.


title: History of Madagascar

text: In his brief two years on the throne, King Radama II re-opened trade with Mauritius and Réunion, invited Christian missionaries and foreigners to return to Madagascar, and re-instated most of Radama I's reforms. His liberal policies angered the aristocracy, however, and Rainivoninahitriniony, the prime minister, engineered a coup d'état in which Radama II was strangled to death.


title: History of Madagascar

text: A council of princes headed by Rainilaiarivony approached Rabodo, the widow of Radama II, the day after the death of her husband. They gave her the conditions under which she could succeed to the throne. These conditions included the suppression of trial by ordeal as well as the monarchy's defense of freedom of religion. Rabodo, crowned queen on 13 May 1863 under the throne name of Rasoherina, reigned until her death on 1 April 1868.


title: History of Madagascar

text: The Malagasy people remember Queen Rasoherina for sending ambassadors to London and Paris and for prohibiting Sunday markets. On 30 June 1865, she signed a treaty with the United Kingdom giving British citizens the right to rent land and property on the island and to have a resident ambassador. With the United States of America she signed a trade agreement that also limited the importation of weapons and the export of cattle. Finally, with France the queen signed a peace between her descendants and the descendants of the "Emperor of France". Rasoherina married her Prime Minister, Rainivoninahitriniony, but public outcry against his involvement in the murder of Radama II soon forced his resignation and exile to Betsileo country south of Imerina. She then married his brother, Rainilaiarivony, head of the army at the time of Radama II's murder who was promoted to the post of Prime Minister upon the resignation and exile of his older brother. Rainilaiarivony would rule Madagascar from behind the scenes for the remaining 32 years of the Merina monarchy, marrying each of the final three queens of Madagascar in succession.


title: History of Madagascar

text: In 1869, Queen Ranavalona II, previously educated by the London Missionary Society, underwent baptism into the Church of England and subsequently made the Anglican faith the official state religion of Madagascar.


title: History of Madagascar

text: The queen had all the "sampy" (traditional royal idols) burned in a public display. Catholic and Protestant missionaries arrived in numbers to build churches and schools. The reign of Queen Ranavalona II proved the high water mark of British influence in Madagascar. British goods and weapons arrived on the island by way of South Africa.


title: History of Madagascar

text: Her public coronation as queen took place on 22 November 1883 and she took the name Ranavalona III. As her first order of business she confirmed the nomination of Rainilaiarivony and his entourage in their positions. She also promised to do away with the French threat.


title: History of Madagascar

text: Angry at the cancellation of the Lambert Charter and seeking to restore property seized from French citizens, France invaded Madagascar in 1883 in what became known as the first Franco-Hova War ("Hova" as a name referring to the Merina aristocrats). At the war's end, Madagascar ceded Antsiranana (Diégo Suarez) on the northern coast to France and paid 560,000 gold francs to the heirs of Joseph-François Lambert. In Europe, meanwhile, European diplomats had worked out an agreement whereby Britain, in order to establish control over the Sultanate of Zanzibar, ceded its rights over the island of Heligoland to Germany and renounced all claims of influence in Madagascar in favor of France. The agreement spelled the end of the Madagascan political independence. Rainilaiarivony had succeeded in playing the various European powers against one another, but now France could act without fear of British support towards the Madagascans.


title: History of Madagascar

text: In 1895, a French flying column landed in Mahajanga (Majunga) and marched by way of the Betsiboka River to the capital, Antananarivo, taking the city's defenders by surprise (they had expected an attack from the much closer east coast). Twenty French soldiers died fighting and 6,000 died of malaria and other diseases before the second Franco-Hova War ended. In 1896 the French Parliament voted to annex Madagascar. The 103-year-old Merina monarchy ended with the royal family sent into exile in Algeria.


title: History of Madagascar

text: The kingdom of Madagascar continued its transformation throughout the 19th century from a locally grown monarchy into a modern state.


title: History of Madagascar

text: Before Radama I the Malagasy language was written in a script known as sorabe. In 1820 under the direction of David Jones, a Welsh missionary of the London Missionary Society, Radama I codified the new Malagasy Latin alphabet of 21 letters which replaced the old sorabe alphabet. By 1830 the Bible was the first book written in this new Malagasy Latin alphabet. It is the oldest complete translation of the bible into a sub-Saharan African language.


title: History of Madagascar

text: The United States and the Kingdom of Madagascar concluded a commercial convention in 1867 after which Queen Rasoherina and Prime Minister Rainilaiarivoy exchanged gifts with president Andrew Johnson. A treaty of peace, friendship, and commerce was then signed in 1881.


title: History of Madagascar

text: During the reign of Ranavalona I, early attempts at industrialization took place from 1835 under the direction of the French Jean Laborde (a survivor of a shipwreck off the east coast), producing soap, porcelain, metal tools and firearms (rifles, cannons, etc.)..


title: History of Madagascar

text: In 1864 Antananarivo opened the first hospital and a modern medical school. Two years later appeared the first newspaper. A scientific journal in English ("Antananarivo Annual") was released from 1875. In 1894, on the eve of the establishment of colonial rule, the schools of the kingdom, mainly led by the Protestant missions, were attended by over 200,000 students.


title: History of Madagascar

text: In 1750, the ruler of the Kingdom of Betsimisaraka, Bety of Betsimisaraka, ceded the island Nosy Boraha (Île Sainte-Marie) to the Kingdom of France. However, in 1752 the French Colonists were massacred when the local population rebelled. France left the settlement abandoned for roughly half a century until returning in 1818.


title: History of Madagascar

text: In 1840 Tsiomeko, the ruler of Nosy Be island, accepted French protection in 1840. The French took possession of the island in 1841, and in 1849 an unsuccessful attempt was made to expel them.


title: History of Madagascar

text: In the Berlin Treaty, the British accepted the claims of France to exert its influence on Madagascar, and after the first Franco-Hova Wara treaty of alliance between France and Madagascar was signed on 17 December 1885 by Queen Ranavalona III, granting France a protectorate over the Diego-Suarez bay and surrounding territory, as well as the islands of Nosy-Be and Île Sainte-Marie.


title: History of Madagascar

text: Disagreements on the implementation of this treaty served as a pretext for the French invasion of 1895, which first met little resistance. The authority of the Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony, in power since 1864, had become very unpopular with the public.


title: History of Madagascar

text: The British accepted the imposition of a French protectorate over Madagascar in 1890 in return for recognition of British sovereignty over Zanzibar (subsequently part of Tanzania) and as part of an overall definition of spheres of influence in the area. The intention of the French was initially to maintain the protectorate in order to control the economy and foreign relations of the island. But later, the outbreak of the Menalamba rebellion and the arrival of General Gallieni (responsible for "pacifying" the country) in 1896 led to the colonization of the island and the exile of the queen to Algeria.


title: History of Madagascar

text: In 1904–1905 Madagascar was the scene of a large-scale uprising by various tribes and tribal leaders, among whom Kotavy, a former French corporal who defected to the rebels, filled a preponderant role.


title: History of Madagascar

text: Malagasy troops fought in France, Morocco, and Syria during World War II. Prior to the implementation of the Final Solution, Nazi Germany had considered the Madagascar Plan, which would have relocated European Jews to Madagascar. After France fell to the Germans in 1940, the Vichy government administered Madagascar until 1942, when British and Commonwealth troops occupied the strategic island in the Battle of Madagascar. The United Kingdom handed over control of the island to Free French Forces in 1943.


title: History of Madagascar

text: In 1948, with French prestige at a low ebb, the French government, headed by Prime Minister Paul Ramadier of the French Section of the Workers' International (SFIO) party, suppressed the Madagascar revolt, a nationalist uprising.


title: History of Madagascar

text: The French subsequently established reformed institutions in 1956 under the Loi Cadre (Overseas Reform Act), and Madagascar moved peacefully toward independence. The Malagasy Republic, proclaimed on 14 October 1958, became an autonomous state within the French Community. On 26 March 1960 France agreed to Madagascar becoming fully independent. On 26 June 1960 Madagascar became an independent country and Philibert Tsiranana became its first president.


title: History of Madagascar

text: Tsiranana's rule represented continuation, with French settlers (or "colons") still in positions of power. Unlike many of France's former colonies, the Malagasy Republic strongly resisted movements towards communism.


title: History of Madagascar

text: In 1972, protests against these policies came to a head and Tsiranana had to step down. He handed power to General Gabriel Ramanantsoa of the army and his provisional government. This régime reversed previous policy in favour of closer ties with the Soviet Union.


title: History of Madagascar

text: On 5 February 1975, Colonel Richard Ratsimandrava became the President of Madagascar. After six days as head of the country, he died in an assassination while driving from the presidential palace to his home. Political power passed to Gilles Andriamahazo.


title: History of Madagascar

text: On 15 June 1975, Lieutenant-Commander Didier Ratsiraka (who had previously served as foreign minister) came to power in a coup. Elected president for a seven-year term, Ratsiraka moved further towards socialism, nationalising much of the economy and cutting all ties with France. These policies hastened the decline in the Madagascan economy that had begun after independence as French immigrants left the country, leaving a shortage of skills and technology behind. Ratsiraka's original seven-year term as President continued after his party (Avant-garde de la Révolution Malgache or AREMA) became the only legal party in the 1977 elections.


title: History of Madagascar

text: In the 1980s, Madagascar moved back towards France, abandoning many of its communist-inspired policies in favour of a market economy, though Ratsiraka still kept hold of power.


title: History of Madagascar

text: Eventually, opposition, both within and without, forced Ratsiraka to consider his position and in 1992 the country adopted a new and democratic constitution.


title: History of Madagascar

text: The first multi-party elections came in 1993, with Albert Zafy defeating Ratsiraka. Despite being a strong proponent of a liberal, free-market economy, Zafy ran on a ticket critical of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank. During his presidency the country struggled to implement IMF and World Bank guidelines that were, on the short term, suicidal politically.


title: History of Madagascar

text: As president Zafy was frustrated by the restraints placed upon the powers of his office by the new constitution. His quest for increased executive power put him on a collision course with the parliament led by then Prime Minister Francisque Ravony. Zafy eventually won the power he sought after but suffered impeachment at the hands of the disenfranchised parliament in 1996 for violating the constitution by refusing to promulgate specific laws.


title: History of Madagascar

text: The ensuing elections saw a turnout of less than 50% and unexpectedly resulted in the re-election of Didier Ratsiraka.


title: History of Madagascar

text: He moved further towards capitalism. The influence of the IMF and the World Bank led to widespread privatisation.


title: History of Madagascar

text: Opposition to Ratsiraka began to grow again. Opposition parties boycotted provincial elections in 2000, and the 2001 presidential election produced more controversy. The opposition candidate Marc Ravalomanana claimed victory after the first round (in December) but the incumbent rejected this position. In early 2002 supporters of the two sides took to the streets and violent clashes took place. Ravalomanana claimed that fraud had occurred in the polls. After an April recount the High Constitutional Court declared Ravalomanana president. Ratsiraka continued to dispute the result but his opponent gained international recognition, and Ratsiraka had to go into exile in France, though forces loyal to him continued activities in Madagascar.


title: History of Madagascar

text: Ravalomanana's I Love Madagascar party achieved overwhelming electoral success in December 2001 and he survived an attempted coup in January 2003. He used his mandate to work closely with the IMF and the World Bank to reform the economy, to end corruption and to realise the country's potential.


title: History of Madagascar

text: Ratsiraka went on trial ("in absentia") for embezzlement (the authorities charged him with taking $8m of public money with him into exile) and the court sentenced him to ten years' hard labour.


title: History of Madagascar

text: Ravalomanana is credited with improving the country's infrastructure, such as roads, along with making improvements in education and health, but has faced criticism for his lack of progress against poverty; purchasing power is said to have declined during his time in office. On 18 November 2006, his plane was forced to divert from Madagascar's capital during a return trip from Europe following reports of a coup underway in Antananarivo and shooting near the airport; however, this alleged coup attempt was unsuccessful.


title: History of Madagascar

text: Ravalomanana ran for a second term in the presidential election held on December 3, 2006. According to official results, he won the election with 54.79% of the vote in the first round; his best results were in Antananarivo Province, where he received the support of 75.39% of voters. He was sworn in for his second term on January 19, 2007.


title: History of Madagascar

text: Ravalomanana dissolved the National Assembly in July 2007, prior to the end of its term, following a constitutional referendum earlier in the year. Ravalomanana said that a new election needed to be held so that the National Assembly would reflect the changes made in this referendum.


title: History of Madagascar

text: He became involved in a political standoff after he closed the TV station belonging to Antananarivo mayor Andry Rajoelina. In January 2009, protests which then turned violent were organized and spearheaded by Andry Rajoelina, the mayor of the capital city of Antananarivo and a prominent opponent of President Ravalomanana.


title: History of Madagascar

text: The situation fundamentally changed on 10 March 2009 when army leaders forced the recently appointed defense secretary to resign (the previous one had decided to resign after the killings by the presidential guard on 7 February 2009). They also announced that they gave the opponents 72 hours to dialogue and find a solution to the crisis before they would take further action. This move came after the leaders of the main military camp had announced a day earlier that they would not execute orders coming from the presidency any more since their duty was to protect the people, and not to oppress them, as groups of the military had done over the last few days.


title: History of Madagascar

text: On 16 March 2009, the army seized the presidential palace in the centre of Antananarivo. Ravalomanana was not in the palace at the time. He handed his resignation to the army, which then decided to hand over power to his fierce political rival, Andry Rajoelina. The second round of the postponed presidential elections was held in December 2013 and the results were announced in January 2014. The winner and the next president was Hery Rajaonarimampianina. He was backed by Rajoelina who led the 2009 coup and still was very influential political figure.


title: History of Madagascar

text: In 2018 the first round of the presidential election was held on 7 November and the second round was held on 10 December. Three former presidents and the most recent president were the main candidates of the elections. Former president Andry Rajoelina won the second round of the elections. He was previously president from 2009 to 2014. Former president Marc Ravalomana lost the second round and he did not accept the results because of allegations of fraud. Ravalomana was president from 2002 to 2009. The most recent president Hery Rajaonarimampianina received very modest support in the first round. In January 2019 the High Constitutional Court declared Rajoelina as the winner of the elections and the new president.


title: History of Madagascar

text: In 2021, Madagascar's worst drought in 40 years left more than a million people in southern Madagascar food insecure. This forced thousands of people to leave their homes to search for food.


title: Michael Hunter (American boxer)

text: Michael Hunter, Jr. (born July 10, 1988) is an American professional boxer who challenged for the WBO junior heavyweight title in 2017. As an amateur he won the National Championships as a super heavyweight in 2007 and 2009, and qualified for the 2012 Olympics in the heavyweight division. He is the son of late professional boxer Mike "the Bounty" Hunter.


title: Michael Hunter (American boxer)

text: In 2006 at the age of 18 he made it to the finals of the National Golden Gloves with only five bouts where he lost to Felix Stewart and won the bronze medal at the Under-19 World Championships in Morocco by scoring wins over Andrey Volkov of Russia and Pavel Kulda of Lithuania before losing in the semifinals to eventual winner Cristian Ciocan of Romania.


title: Michael Hunter (American boxer)

text: In 2007 now based in Las Vegas he beat future (2008) champ Lenroy Thompson and narrowly outpointed two-time winner Mike Wilson to win the US championships.


title: Michael Hunter (American boxer)

text: At the Olympic trials 2007 he easily beat Wilson-conqueror Kimdo Bethel twice and won the tournament.


title: Michael Hunter (American boxer)

text: At the World Championships 2007 he beat Kurban Günebakan 30:7 and Jasem Delavari and lost only 15:22 to world #1 and European champion Islam Timurziev.


title: Michael Hunter (American boxer)

text: At the first qualifier he beat Oscar Rivas but lost to Cuban Robert Alfonso 1:9, at the second he beat Didier Bence but lost to Jose Payares and thus failed to qualify for the 2008 Olympics.


title: Michael Hunter (American boxer)

text: In June 2011, Hunter helped Wladimir Klitschko in his preparation for his fight against David Haye, acting as his sparring partner in the last few weeks building up to the fight.


title: Michael Hunter (American boxer)

text: He managed to qualify for the London Olympics by winning his qualifier against Julio Castillo and Yamil Peralta. At the Olympics, he was eliminated in the first round by Artur Beterbiyev.


title: Michael Hunter (American boxer)

text: In March 2013 Hunter made his professional debut defeating Chad Davis by third-round TKO in a bout held in Phoenix, Arizona. He then scored another KO on August 30.


title: Michael Hunter (American boxer)

text: On April 8, 2017, Hunter fought his first career title fight, against Oleksandr Usyk for the WBO cruiserweight title. Hunter boxed well in the beginning, but couldn't manage to land effectively on Usyk. Usyk, on the other hand, managed to hurt Hunter multiple times, almost knocking him out towards the end of the fight. Despite a courageous effort from Hunter, Usyk was declared the winner via unanimous decision.


title: Michael Hunter (American boxer)

text: On October 13, 2018, Hunter fought Martin Bakole, his biggest test at heavyweight up to that point. Bakole was visibly the bigger man of the two, but Hunter managed to outbox and hurt him during the fight, eventually stopping it in the final seconds of the tenth, and last, round.


title: Michael Hunter (American boxer)

text: In his next fight, Hunter fought veteran heavyweight Alexander Ustinov. Hunter wore Ustinov down by scoring two knockdowns, one in the eighth round and one in the ninth round, after which Ustinov's corner threw in the towel.


title: Michael Hunter (American boxer)

text: On September 13, 2019, Hunter, ranked #9 by the WBA, #10 by the IBF, #12 by the WBO and #14 by the WBC at heavyweight, fought Sergey Kuzmin, ranked #5 by the WBA and #7 by the IBF. Hunter got his sixth win in a row in convincing fashion, scoring 117-110 and all three judges' scorecards.


title: Michael Hunter (American boxer)

text: On December 7, 2019, on the undercard of Andy Ruiz Jr. vs. Anthony Joshua II, Hunter faced former WBA (Regular) heavyweight champion Alexander Povetkin. Povetkin was ranked #6 by the WBA and WBC and #10 by the IBF at heavyweight, while Hunter was ranked #7 by the WBA and IBF, #8 by the WBO and #14 by the WBA. Both fighters fought well and were aggressive at given points of the fight, making for a very entertaining bout. The fight would end up being a draw, one judge scoring the fight 115-113 in favor of Povetkin, one scoring it 115-113 for Hunter, while the third judge had it even, 114-114.


title: Langmuir adsorption model

text: The Langmuir adsorption model explains adsorption by assuming an adsorbate behaves as an ideal gas at isothermal conditions. According to the model, adsorption and desorption are reversible processes. This model even explains the effect of pressure i.e at these conditions the adsorbate's partial pressure, formula_1, is related to the volume of it, , adsorbed onto a solid adsorbent. The adsorbent, as indicated in the figure, is assumed to be an ideal solid surface composed of a series of distinct sites capable of binding the adsorbate. The adsorbate binding is treated as a chemical reaction between the adsorbate gaseous molecule formula_2 and an empty sorption site, . This reaction yields an adsorbed species formula_3 with an associated equilibrium constant formula_4:


title: Langmuir adsorption model

text: From these basic hypotheses the mathematical formulation of the Langmuir adsorption isotherm can be derived in various independent and complementary ways: by the kinetics, the thermodynamics, and the statistical mechanics approaches respectively (see below for the different demonstrations).


title: Langmuir adsorption model

text: where formula_6 is the fractional occupancy of the adsorption sites, i.e., the ratio of , the volume of gas adsorbed onto the solid, to formula_7, the volume of a gas molecules monolayer covering the whole surface of the solid and completely occupied by the adsorbate. A continuous monolayer of adsorbate molecules covering a homogeneous flat solid surface is the conceptual basis for this adsorption model.


title: Langmuir adsorption model

text: In 1916, Irving Langmuir presented his model for the adsorption of species onto simple surfaces. Langmuir was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1932 for his work concerning surface chemistry. He hypothesized that a given surface has a certain number of equivalent sites to which a species can “stick”, either by physisorption or chemisorption. His theory began when he postulated that gaseous molecules do not rebound elastically from a surface, but are held by it in a similar way to groups of molecules in solid bodies.


title: Langmuir adsorption model

text: Langmuir published two papers that confirmed the assumption that adsorbed films do not exceed one molecule in thickness. The first experiment involved observing electron emission from heated filaments in gases. The second, a more direct evidence, examined and measured the films of liquid onto an adsorbent surface layer. He also noted that generally the attractive strength between the surface and the first layer of adsorbed substance is much greater than the strength between the first and second layer. However, there are instances where the subsequent layers may condense given the right combination of temperature and pressure.


title: Langmuir adsorption model

text: Inherent within this model, the following assumptions are valid specifically for the simplest case: the adsorption of a single adsorbate onto a series of equivalent sites onto the surface of the solid.


title: Langmuir adsorption model

text: The mathematical expression of the Langmuir adsorption isotherm involving only one sorbing species can be demonstrated in different ways: the kinetics approach, the thermodynamics approach, and the statistical mechanics approach respectively. In case of two competing adsorbed species, the competitive adsorption model is required while when a sorbed species dissociates into two distinct entities, the dissociative adsorption model need to be used.


title: Langmuir adsorption model

text: This section provides a kinetic derivation for a single adsorbate case. The kinetic derivation applies to gas phase adsorption. However, it has been mistakenly applied to solutions. The multiple adsorbate case is covered in the competitive adsorption sub-section.


title: Langmuir adsorption model

text: The model assumes adsorption and desorption as being elementary processes, where the rate of adsorption "r" and the rate of desorption "r" are given by


title: Langmuir adsorption model

text: where "p" is the partial pressure of "A" over the surface, ["S"] is the concentration of free sites in number/m, ["A"] is the surface concentration of "A" in molecules/m (concentration of occupied sites), and "k" and "k" are constants of forward adsorption reaction and backward desorption reaction in the above reactions.


title: Langmuir adsorption model

text: At equilibrium, the rate of adsorption equals the rate of desorption. Setting "r" = "r" and rearranging, we obtain


title: Langmuir adsorption model

text: The concentration of sites is given by dividing the total number of sites (S) covering the whole surface by the area of the adsorbent (a):


title: Langmuir adsorption model

text: We can then calculate the concentration of all sites by summing the concentration of free sites ["S"] and occupied sites:


title: Langmuir adsorption model

text: This, applied to the previous equation that combined site balance and equilibrium, yields the Langmuir adsorption isotherm:


title: Langmuir adsorption model

text: In condensed phases (solutions), adsorption to a solid surface is a competitive process between the solvent (A) and the solute (B) to occupy the binding site. The thermodynamic equilibrium is described as the following:


title: Langmuir adsorption model

text: If we designate the solvent by the subscript "1" and the solute by "2", and the bound state by the superscript "s" (surface/bound) and the free state by the "b" (bulk solution / free), then the equilibrium constant can be written as a ratio between the activities of products over reactants:


title: Langmuir adsorption model

text: For dilute solutions the activity of the solvent in bulk solution formula_17≃1 and the activity coefficients (formula_18) are also assumed to ideal on the surface. Thus, formula_19 , formula_20, and formula_21. (formula_22: activity, formula_23: mole fraction )


title: Langmuir adsorption model

text: Note that the concentration of the solute adsorbate can be used instead of the activity coefficient. However, the equilibrium constant will no longer be dimensionless and will have units of 1/concentration units instead. The difference between the kinetic and thermodynamic derivations of the Langmuir model is that the thermodynamic uses activities as a starting point while the kinetic derivation uses rates of reaction. The thermodynamic derivation allows for the activity coefficients of adsorbates in their bound and free states to be included. The thermodynamic derivation is usually referred to as the "Langmuir-like equation".


title: Langmuir adsorption model

text: based on statistical mechanics was originally provided by Volmer and Mahnert in 1925. The partition function of the finite number of adsorbents adsorbed on a surface, in a canonical ensemble, is given by


title: Langmuir adsorption model

text: where formula_27 is the partition function of a single adsorbed molecule, formula_28 is the number of adsorption sites (both occupied and unoccupied), and formula_29 is the number of adsorbed molecules which should be less than or equal to formula_28. The terms in the bracket give the total partition function of the formula_29 adsorbed molecules by taking a product of the individual partition functions (refer to Partition function of subsystems). The formula_32 factor accounts for the overcounting arising due to the indistinguishable nature of the adsorbates. The grand canonical partition function is given by


title: Langmuir adsorption model

text: formula_34 is the chemical potential of an adsorbed molecule. As it has the form of binomial series, the summation is reduced to


title: Langmuir adsorption model

text: Now, invoking the condition that the system is in equilibrium, that is, the chemical potential of the adsorbed molecules is equal to that of the molecules in gas phase, we have


title: Langmuir adsorption model

text: formula_44 is the partition function of a single particle in the volume of formula_45 (only consider the translational freedom here).


title: Langmuir adsorption model

text: It is plotted in the figure alongside demonstrating that the surface coverage increases quite rapidly with the partial pressure of the adsorbants, but levels off after "P" reaches "P".


title: Langmuir adsorption model

text: The previous derivations assumed that there is only one species, "A", adsorbing onto the surface. This section considers the case when there are two distinct adsorbates present in the system. Consider two species "A" and "B" that compete for the same adsorption sites. The following hypotheses are made here:


title: Langmuir adsorption model

text: The site balance states that the concentration of total sites ["S"] is equal to the sum of free sites, sites occupied by "A" and sites occupied by "B":


title: Langmuir adsorption model

text: Inserting the equilibrium equations and rearranging in the same way we did for the single-species adsorption, we get similar expressions for both θ and θ:


title: Langmuir adsorption model

text: The other case of special importance is when a molecule "D" dissociates into two atoms upon adsorption. Here, the following assumptions would be held to be valid:


title: Langmuir adsorption model

text: The 1/2 exponent on "p" arises because one gas phase molecule produces two adsorbed species. Applying the site balance as done above,


title: Langmuir adsorption model

text: The formation of Langmuir monolayers by adsorption onto a surface dramatically reduces the entropy of the molecular system.


title: Langmuir adsorption model

text: The Langmuir adsorption model deviates significantly in many cases, primarily because it fails to account for the surface roughness of the adsorbent. Rough inhomogeneous surfaces have multiple site-types available for adsorption, with some parameters varying from site to site, such as the heat of adsorption. Moreover, specific surface area is a scale dependent quantity and no single true value exists for this parameter. Thus, the use of alternative probe molecules can often result in different obtained numerical values for surface area, rendering comparison problematic.


title: Langmuir adsorption model

text: The model also ignores adsorbate/adsorbate interactions. Experimentally, there is clear evidence for adsorbate/adsorbate interactions in heat of adsorption data. There are two kinds of adsorbate/adsorbate interactions: direct interaction and indirect interaction. Direct interactions are between adjacent adsorbed molecules, which could make adsorbing near another adsorbate molecule more or less favorable and greatly affects high-coverage behavior. In indirect interactions, the adsorbate changes the surface around the adsorbed site, which in turn affects the adsorption of other adsorbate molecules nearby.


title: Langmuir adsorption model

text: The modifications try to account for the points mentioned in above section like surface roughness, inhomogeneity, and adsorbate-adsorbate interactions.


title: Langmuir adsorption model

text: Also known as the two site Langmuir equation. This equation describes the adsorption of one adsorbate to two or more distinct types of adsorption sites. Each binding site can be described with its own Langmuir expression as long as the adsorption at each binding site type is independent from the rest.


title: Langmuir adsorption model

text: This equation works well for adsorption of some drug molecules to activated carbon in which some adsorbate molecules interact with hydrogen bonding while others interact with a different part of the surface via hydrophobic interactions (hydrophobic effect). The equation was modified to account for the hydrophobic effect (also known as entropy-driven adsorption):


title: Langmuir adsorption model

text: The hydrophobic effect is independent of concentration since formula_77. Therefore the capacity of the adsorbent for hydrophobic interactions (formula_78) can obtained from fitting to experimental data. The entropy-driven adsorption originates from the restriction of translational motion of bulk water molecules by the adsorbate, which is alleviated upon adsorption.


title: Langmuir adsorption model

text: where "α" and "C" are fitting parameters. This equation implies that if one makes a log-log plot of adsorption data, the data will fit a straight line. The Freundlich isotherm has two parameters while Langmuir's equations has only one: as a result, it often fits the data on rough surfaces better than the Langmuir's equations. However, the Freundlich equation is unique; consequently, if the data fit the equation, it is only likely, but not proved, that the surface is heterogeneous. The heterogeneity of the surface can be confirmed with calorimetry. Homogeneous surfaces (or heterogeneous surfaces that exhibit homogeneous adsorption (single site)) have a constant formula_80 of adsorption as a function of % sites occupied. On the other hand, heterogeneous adsorption (multi-site) have a variable formula_80 of adsorption depending on the percent of sites occupied. When the adsorbate pressure (or concentration) are low, high energy sites will be occupied; and as the pressure (or concentration) increases, the lesser energy sites will be occupied resulting in a lower formula_80 of adsorption.


title: Langmuir adsorption model

text: This isotherm takes into account indirect adsorbate-adsorbate interactions on adsorption isotherms. Temkin noted experimentally that heats of adsorption would more often decrease than increase with increasing coverage.


title: Langmuir adsorption model

text: He derived a model assuming that as the surface is loaded up with adsorbate, the heat of adsorption of all the molecules in the layer would decrease linearly with coverage due to adsorbate-adsorbate interactions:


title: Langmuir adsorption model

text: where "α" is a fitting parameter. Assuming the Langmuir Adsorption isotherm still applied to the adsorbed layer, formula_87 is expected to vary with coverage, as follows:


title: Langmuir adsorption model

text: Brunauer, Emmett and Teller (BET) derived the first isotherm for multilayer adsorption. It assumes a random distribution of sites that are empty or that are covered with by one monolayer, two layers and so on, as illustrated alongside. The main equation of this model is:


title: Langmuir adsorption model

text: in which "[A]" is the number of bare sites, and "[A]" is the number of surface sites covered by "i" molecules.


title: Langmuir adsorption model

text: This section describes the surface coverage when the adsorbate is in liquid phase and is a binary mixture.


title: Langmuir adsorption model

text: For ideal both phases - no lateral interactions, homogeneous surface - the composition of a surface phase for a binary liquid system in contact with solid surface is given by a classic Everett isotherm equation (being a simple analogue of Langmuir equation), where the components are interchangeable (i.e. "1" may be exchanged to "2") without change of equation form:


title: Submarine aircraft carrier

text: A submarine aircraft carrier is a submarine equipped with aircraft for observation or attack missions. These submarines saw their most extensive use during World War II, although their operational significance remained rather small. The most famous of them were the Japanese s and the , although small numbers of similar craft were built for other nations' navies as well.


title: Submarine aircraft carrier

text: Most operational submarine aircraft carriers, with the exception of the "I-400" and AM classes, used their aircraft for reconnaissance and observation. This is in contrast to the typical surface aircraft carrier, whose main function is serving as a base for offensive aircraft.


title: Submarine aircraft carrier

text: Germany was the first nation to experiment with submarine aircraft carriers, initiated by the Imperial German Naval Air Service commander Oberleutnant zur See Friedrich von Arnauld de la Perière who commanded a unit of two Friedrichshafen FF.29 reconnaissance seaplanes in Zeebrugge. One of the first U-boats to arrive at the Zeebrugge base was Kapitänleutnant Walther Forstmann's , which was to play the role of a submarine aircraft carrier.


title: Submarine aircraft carrier

text: The unarmed FF-29 seaplanes were modified to carry bombs. On 25 December 1915, one of the newly modified aircraft flew across the English Channel and up the River Thames, dropping bombs on the outskirts of London, although they caused only minor damage. It was pursued by British fighters but returned to base safely. On this first bombing mission it was apparent that the aircraft suffered more from a lack of range.


title: Submarine aircraft carrier

text: Encouraged by this success, Arnauld and Forstmann theorised that they could increase the range by carrying the aircraft off the British coast on the deck of a submarine in a takeoff position, then launching the aircraft by partially submerging, allowing the seaplane to float off. On 6 January 1915, "U-12" made a launch of an FF-29 off its deck in Zeebrugge within the safety of the breakwater Zeebrugge Mole. The aircraft was then lashed athwartships again and the submarine left the harbour, seemingly dwarfed by the wingspan of the biplane, which stretched almost ⅓ of the length of the small coastal patrol submarine. "U-12" carried the FF-29 for 30 miles before flooding the forward tanks and letting the seaplane float off the deck without much difficulty, after which the plane took off. Arnauld originally intended to rendezvous with the sub, but decided against it. After gaining altitude, Arnauld left for the British coast which he apparently flew along undetected before returning to Zeebrugge.


title: Submarine aircraft carrier

text: Although the aircraft had been carried out to sea and had safely floated off the submarine's deck, it was obvious improvements were needed in the procedure and setup.


title: Submarine aircraft carrier

text: Arnauld and Forstmann proposed further experiments to the German Naval Command, but were vetoed as their project was considered impractical. The plans were reinvestigated in 1917 in the hope that they would increase the striking power of new German subs such as the long-range cruiser-type "Unterseeboote", which were to be equipped with small scouting seaplanes that could be assembled and dismantled onboard and stored in special compartments on deck – but the idea was abandoned as the war came to an end.


title: Submarine aircraft carrier

text: Two of the aircraft designs created for that purpose were the biplane Hansa-Brandenburg W.20 and LFG Stralsund V 19 Putbus low-wing monoplane. The first type was designed in 1917 for use aboard the Cruiser submarines that never went into service.


title: Submarine aircraft carrier

text: The British also experimented with the aircraft-carrying submarine concept when was fitted out in a manner similar to the German U-boat but for the purpose of intercepting German airships as they crossed the North Sea. It was capable of launching two Sopwith Schneider floatplanes in 1916. However, just as in the German experiment, the aircraft were carried unprotected on the deck and the submarine was unable to submerge without losing them.


title: Submarine aircraft carrier

text: "Surcouf" was a French submarine ordered in December 1927, launched 18 October 1929, and commissioned May 1934. At 4,000 tons (3,600 tonnes) displacement submerged, "Surcouf" was the largest submarine in the world at the start of World War II.


title: Submarine aircraft carrier

text: "Surcouf" was designed as an "underwater cruiser", intended to seek and engage in surface combat. For the first part of that mission, it carried an observation float plane in a hangar built into the after part of the conning tower; for the second part, it was armed with not only 12 torpedo tubes but also a twin gun turret forward of the conning tower. The guns were fed from a magazine holding 60 rounds and controlled by a director with a rangefinder, mounted high enough to view a horizon. In theory, the observation plane could direct fire out to the guns' maximum range. Anti-aircraft cannons and machine guns were mounted on the top of the hangar.


title: Submarine aircraft carrier

text: The "Regia Marina" (Italian Navy) ordered , a submarine with a waterproof hangar for a small reconnaissance seaplane in the late-1920s. In 1928 Macchi and Piaggio each received orders for suitable aircraft which resulted in the Macchi M.53 and the Piaggio P.8, but the program was cancelled, and the submarine's hangar was removed in December 1931, before "Ettore Fieramosca" was delivered.


title: Submarine aircraft carrier

text: The Japanese applied the concept of the "submarine aircraft carrier" extensively, starting with the J2 class "I-6" and the J3 class of 1937–38. Altogether 42 submarines were built with the capability to carry floatplanes, one such vessel being .


title: Submarine aircraft carrier

text: After the loss of the heavy gun-carrying and the Washington Naval Treaty which restricted the armament of vessels that were not capital ships, the remaining M-class submarines were converted to other uses. By 1927, had entered service with a waterproof hangar for a Parnall Peto seaplane with folding wings, which could be launched and recovered with the aid of a derrick. In October 1928, she was fitted with a hydraulic catapult which allowed the seaplane to be launched from a ramp on the forward casing. The submarine and her plane could then provide reconnaissance ahead of the fleet, submerging when threatened. HMS "M2" herself was lost in 1932, and plane-launching submarines were abandoned by the Royal Navy.


title: Submarine aircraft carrier

text: The United States began studying the concept in 1922 when two Caspar U.1 seaplanes were purchased from Germany for evaluation at Anacostia Naval Station. One aircraft was later lost during an exhibition flight in 1923, but they provided useful technical information.


title: Submarine aircraft carrier

text: The United States Navy ordered six Cox-Klemin XS-1s and six Martin MS-1s, both small seaplanes that like the Caspar U-1 could be disassembled easily. Both were tested aboard "S-1" during October and November 1923. Later, Cox-Klemm built the improved XS-2 model, and Loening built the XSL, but the Navy had lost interest in the concept by then.


title: Submarine aircraft carrier

text: Problems with launching and recovering the aircraft, and the limited military value caused interest in the concept to wane, and


title: Submarine aircraft carrier

text: news that the British submarine "M2" had sunk during trials in 1933, plus damage to the XSL during testings on the sheltered waters of the Anacostia River ended further U.S. Navy development.


title: Submarine aircraft carrier

text: The "Kriegsmarine" (German navy) also started development of submarines capable of launching aircraft and ordered four very large "cruiser" U-boats in early 1939. These boats were to be twice as large as any existing U-boat and were to have had a crew of 110 while carrying a single Arado Ar 231 floatplane, but were cancelled at the outbreak of war later that year.


title: Submarine aircraft carrier

text: Although not strictly an aircraft, some U-boats carried the Focke-Achgelis Fa 330 (English: Wagtail). It was a type of rotary-wing kite, known as a gyroglider or rotor kite. They were towed behind German U-boats during World War II and allowed a lookout in the kite to see further.


title: Submarine aircraft carrier

text: Another German long range U-boat was the Type IX D2 ""Monsun"", used in the Indian Ocean and Far East Area based in Penang (Occupied Malaya). To aid such submarines the observation "Autogyro-Kite" Focke-Achgelis Fa 330 ""Bachstelze"" (Wagtail) was developed. This was used in the Indian Ocean and sporadically in the Southern Atlantic but its use hindered the submarine's ability to submerge quickly.


title: Submarine aircraft carrier

text: The Flettner Fl 282A ""Kolibri"" reconnaissance-helicopter was also planned to be used from long range submarines.


title: Submarine aircraft carrier

text: This single seat helicopter was manufactured of welded steel tubing and was sized so that it could be stowed with rotor blades and landing gear removed in a diameter by long pressured hangar on the U-boat's deck. The Fl 282 ""Kolibri"" was never deployed on a German submarine.


title: Submarine aircraft carrier

text: The Japanese applied the concept of the submarine aircraft carrier extensively. Altogether 47 submarines were built with the capability to carry seaplanes. Most IJN submarine aircraft carriers could carry only one aircraft, though a few types could carry two, and the giant I-400 class submarines could carry three.


title: Submarine aircraft carrier

text: The Type B1 ("I-15" Series) submarines ("I-15", "I-17", "I-19", "I-21", "I-23", "I-25", "I-26", "I-27", "I-28", "I-29", "I-30", "I-31", "I-32", "I-33", I-34, "I-35", "I-36", "I-37", "I-38", "I-39") were the most numerous type of submarines of the Imperial Japanese Navy during World War II. In total, 20 were made, starting with number "I-15", which became the name of the series. These submarines were fast, had a very long range, and carried a single Yokosuka E14Y seaplane, located in a hangar in front of the conning tower, which was launched by a catapult.


title: Submarine aircraft carrier

text: The series was rather successful, especially at the beginning of the war. In 1942, "I-26" crippled the aircraft carrier . "I-19", on 15 September 1942, fired six torpedoes at the carrier , two of which hit the carrier and crippled it, with the remaining torpedoes damaging the battleship and the destroyer which sank later. "I-25" conducted the only aerial bombings ever on the contiguous United States in September 1942, when an aircraft launched from it dropped two incendiary bombs on a forest near the town of Brookings, Oregon.


title: Submarine aircraft carrier

text: The AM (A Modified) type submarine was a large seaplane-carrying submarine, with a hangar space for two aircraft. These giant submarines were originally of the A2 type, but their design was revised after construction started so that they could carry a second aircraft. The seaplanes were to be the Aichi M6A1 bomber carrying bombs.


title: Submarine aircraft carrier

text: The range and speed of these submarines was remarkable ( at ), but their underwater performance was compromised, making them easy targets. "I-13" was sunk on 16 July 1945 by the destroyer escort and aircraft action from the escort carrier about east of Yokosuka. "I-14" surrendered at sea at the end of the war, and was later scrapped.


title: Submarine aircraft carrier

text: The "I-400"-class submarines were the largest submarines of World War II and remained the largest ever built until the construction of nuclear ballistic missile submarines in the 1960s. It displaced 6,500 tons (5,900 tonnes) and was over long, three times the size of ordinary submarines. It had a figure-eight hull shape for additional strength to handle the on-deck hangar for housing the three Aichi M6A "Seiran" aircraft. In addition, it had three anti-aircraft guns and a large deck gun as well as eight torpedo tubes from which they could fire the Long Lance – the largest, longest ranged and most deadly torpedo in use at the time.


title: Submarine aircraft carrier

text: Three of the "Sen Toku" were built, "I-400", , and "I-402". Each had four engines and enough fuel to go around the world 1½ times, more than enough to reach the United States from either direction.


title: Submarine aircraft carrier

text: The submarines were also able to carry three "Sei ran" aircraft (the Aichi M6A), each carrying a bomb at . Its name was combination of "sei" ("clear sky") and "ran" ("storm"), literally "storm out of a clear sky," because the Americans would not know they were coming. It had a wing span of and a length of . To fit the aircraft into the hangar, the wings of the aircraft were folded back, the horizontal stabilizers folded down, and the top of the vertical stabilizer folded over so the overall profile of the aircraft was within the diameter of its propeller. A crew of four could prepare and get all three airborne in 45 minutes, launching them with a catapult on the fore deck of the giant submarine.


title: Submarine aircraft carrier

text: The US Navy produced sketch designs of rather fanciful submarine aircraft carriers in 1946 and 1952. The 1946 study had a projected hull classification symbol of SSV, and was initially envisioned to carry two XA2J Super Savage bombers for strategic nuclear strike, or four F2H Banshee fighters. Various watertight hangar and takeoff-landing ramp configurations produced potential lengths ranging from to , the latter with double the aircraft for a surfaced displacement of 34,000 tons (the Russian Navy's Typhoon-class submarine, the largest ever built, is a mere 24,000 tons surfaced). The 1952 study was slightly more realistic, carrying three F2Y Sea Dart seaplane fighters, with a topside launching ramp for rough seas (the Sea Dart could only take off on a calm sea). This would still be a large submarine, projected at long and 9,000 tons submerged, with a nuclear power plant to achieve . A more economical plan was also conceived to convert World War II fleet submarines to carry a seaplane version of the A4D Skyhawk in a similar manner to the Regulus missile-equipped SSGs, using hydro-skis for takeoff as the Sea Dart did.


title: Submarine aircraft carrier

text: No submarine aircraft carriers remain in use, but the concept reappears periodically. The ability to make a stealth attack has an allure, but sustained air operations largely negate the advantage of being submersible, and the size limitations preclude sizeable sustained aerial operations. Furthermore, any submarine large enough to be useful would be vulnerable to detection and counterattack. Combined with the cost for such a specialized vessel, it is unlikely that any navy would consider their construction worthwhile. In addition, submarine launchable cruise missiles increasingly incorporate limited surveillance capabilities, allowing them to serve as both strike weapons and disposable reconnaissance drones; this further reduces the value of operating aircraft from submarines.


title: Submarine aircraft carrier

text: There are, however, several projects to develop UAV launch and recovery capabilities. There are three methods for doing so: launching out of a torpedo tube, out of a vertical ICBM launch tube, or from a custom designed unit either in the sail or mounted on the hull. The US Navy has recognized the need for more advanced littoral combat capability, to counter growing area-denial asymmetric threats that this type of vessel could provide.


title: Accent (sociolinguistics)

text: In sociolinguistics, an accent is a way of pronouncing a language that is distinctive to a country, area, social class, or individual. An accent may be identified with the locality in which its speakers reside (a regional or geographical accent), the socioeconomic status of its speakers, their ethnicity (an ethnolect), their caste or social class (a social accent), or influence from their first language (a foreign accent).


title: Accent (sociolinguistics)

text: Accents typically differ in quality of voice, pronunciation and distinction of vowels and consonants, stress, and prosody. Although grammar, semantics, vocabulary, and other language characteristics often vary concurrently with accent, the word "accent" may refer specifically to the differences in pronunciation, whereas the word "dialect" encompasses the broader set of linguistic differences. "Accent" is often a subset of "dialect".


title: Accent (sociolinguistics)

text: As human beings spread out into isolated communities, stresses and peculiarities develop. Over time, they can develop into identifiable accents. In North America, the interaction of people from many ethnic backgrounds contributed to the formation of the different varieties of North American accents. It is difficult to measure or predict how long it takes an accent to form. Accents from Canada, South Africa, Australia and the United States for example, developed from the combinations of different accents and languages in various societies and their effect on the various pronunciations of British settlers.


title: Accent (sociolinguistics)

text: Accents may vary within regions of an area in which a uniform language is spoken. In some cases, such as regional accents of English in the United States, accents can be traced back to when an area was settled and by whom. Areas like the city of New Orleans in Louisiana that are, or at one point in time were, semi-isolated have distinct accents due to the absence of contact between regions. Isolated regions allow dialects to expand and evolve independently. Social and economic factors can also influence the way people speak.


title: Accent (sociolinguistics)

text: During the early period of rapid cognitive development in a child's life it is much easier to develop and master foreign skills such as learning a new (or first) language. Verbal cues are processed and silently learned in preparation for the day the vocal system is developed enough to speak its first words (usually around 12 months). Before infants can identify words, they just hear "sounds" that they come to recognize. Eventually neural pathways are established in the brain that link each sound with a meaning. The more frequently a word is heard, the more its connection is solidified and the same goes for accents. There is no "standard" accent for the child to practice, as far as they're concerned, the accent they hear from their parents is not the "right" way, it's the only way. Eventually children graduate from the conscious act of recalling each word, it becomes natural like breathing. As children grow up they learn vocabulary of the language they are immersed in, whether assisted by parents or not. However, their first few encounters with words determine the way they'll pronounce them for the rest of their lives. This is how accents are cultivated in groups as small as towns and as large as countries; it's a compounding effect. Though it's possible to develop a new accent or lose an old one, it's difficult because the neural pathways created when learning the language were developed with the "original" pronunciations.


title: Accent (sociolinguistics)

text: Children are able to take on accents relatively quickly. Children of immigrant families, for example, generally have a pronunciation more similar to people native to where they live compared to their parents, but both children and parents may have an accent noticeably differing from local people. Accents seem to remain relatively malleable until a person's early twenties, after which a person's accent seems to become more entrenched.


title: Accent (sociolinguistics)

text: Nonetheless, accents are not fixed even in adulthood. An acoustic analysis by Jonathan Harrington of Elizabeth II's Royal Christmas Messages revealed that the speech patterns of even so conservative a figure as a monarch can continue to change over her lifetime.


title: Accent (sociolinguistics)

text: Accents of non-native speakers may be the result of the speaker's native language. Each language contains distinct sets of sounds. At around 12 months of age, human infants will pick out which sounds they need to learn their language. As they get older it becomes increasingly harder to learn these "forgotten" sounds. A prime example of this can be seen between German and English—the "w" and "th" sounds, like in the English words "wish" and "this" respectively, do not exist in German—the closest sounds are "v" and "z". As a result, many English-speaking Germans pronounce "wish" as "vish" and "this" as "zis". A similar disjunction occurs in German speaking native English speakers, who may find it difficult to pronounce the vowels in German words such as "schön" (beautiful) and "müde" (tired).


title: Accent (sociolinguistics)

text: An important factor in predicting the degree to which the accent will be noticeable (or strong) is the age at which the non-native language was learned. The critical period theory states that if learning takes place after the critical period (usually considered around puberty) for acquiring native-like pronunciation, an individual is unlikely to acquire a native-like accent. This theory, however, is quite controversial among researchers. Although many subscribe to some form of the critical period, they either place it earlier than puberty or consider it more of a critical "window," which may vary from one individual to another and depend on factors other than age, such as length of residence, similarity of the non-native language to the native language, and the frequency with which both languages are used.


title: Accent (sociolinguistics)

text: Nevertheless, children as young as 6 at the time of moving to another country often speak with a noticeable non-native accent as adults. There are also rare instances of individuals who are able to pass for native speakers even if they learned their non-native language in early adulthood. However, neurological constraints associated with brain development appear to limit most non-native speakers’ ability to sound native-like. Most researchers agree that for adults, acquiring a native-like accent in a non-native language is near impossible.


title: Accent (sociolinguistics)

text: When a group defines a standard pronunciation, speakers who deviate from it are often said to "speak with an accent". However, everyone speaks with an accent. People from the United States would "speak English with an accent" from the point of view of an Australian, and vice versa. Accents such as Received Pronunciation or General American English may sometimes be erroneously designated in their countries of origin as "accentless" to indicate that they offer no obvious clue to the speaker's regional or social background.


title: Accent (sociolinguistics)

text: Many teachers of, for example, English as a second language neglect to teach speech/pronunciation. Many adult and near-adult learners of second languages have unintelligible speech patterns that may interfere with their education, profession, and social interactions. Pronunciation in a second or foreign language involves more than the correct articulation of individual sounds. It involves producing a wide range of complex and subtle distinctions which relate sound to meaning at several levels.


title: Accent (sociolinguistics)

text: Inadequate instruction in speech/pronunciation can result in a complete breakdown in communication. The proliferation of commercial "accent reduction" services is seen as a sign that many ESL teachers are not meeting their students' needs for speech/pronunciation instruction.


title: Accent (sociolinguistics)

text: The goals of speech/pronunciation instruction should include: to help the learner speak in a way that is easy to understand and does not distract the listener, to increase the self-confidence of the learner, and to develop the skills to self-monitor and adapt one's own speech.


title: Accent (sociolinguistics)

text: Even when the listener does understand the speaker, the presence of an accent that is difficult to understand can produce anxiety in the listener that he will not understand what comes next, and cause him to end the conversation earlier or avoid difficult topics.


title: Accent (sociolinguistics)

text: Intelligibility of speech, in comparison to native-like accent, has been experimentally reported to be of greater importance for the second language speakers. As such ways of increasing intelligibility of speech has been recommended by some researchers within the field.


title: Accent (sociolinguistics)

text: Certain accents are perceived to carry more prestige in a society than other accents. This is often due to their association with the elite part of society. For example, in the United Kingdom, Received Pronunciation of the English language is associated with the traditional upper class. The same can be said about the predominance of Southeastern Brazilian accents in the case of the Brazilian variant of the Portuguese language, especially considering the disparity of prestige between most "caipira"-influenced speech, associated with rural environment and lack of formal education, together with the Portuguese spoken in some other communities of lower socioeconomic strata such as "favela" dwellers, and other sociocultural variants such as middle and upper class "paulistano" (dialect spoken from Greater São Paulo to the East) and "fluminense" (dialect spoken in the state of Rio de Janeiro) to the other side, inside Southeastern Brazil itself. However, in linguistics, there is no differentiation among accents in regard to their prestige, aesthetics, or correctness. All languages and accents are linguistically equal.


title: Accent (sociolinguistics)

text: Stereotypes refer to specific characteristics, traits, and roles that a group and its members are believed to possess. Stereotypes can be both positive and negative, although negative are more common.


title: Accent (sociolinguistics)

text: Stereotypes may result in prejudice, which is defined as having negative attitudes toward a group and its members. Individuals with non-standard accents often have to deal with both negative stereotypes and prejudice because of an accent. Researchers consistently show that people with non-native accents are judged as less intelligent, less competent, less educated, having poor English/language skills, and unpleasant to listen to. Not only people with standard accents subscribe to these beliefs and attitudes, but individuals with accents also often stereotype against their own or others' accents.


title: Accent (sociolinguistics)

text: In some cases, the "way" you hear someone can be more impactful than "what" you actually hear. Humans can (and often do) judge each other as soon as someone says "hello." Even as they continue to speak, your mind has already identified the type of person with whom you're speaking, applied existing stereotypes and generalizations you might hold about that type of person, and in a way categorized them. People associate different behaviors and stereotypes with different accents; in some cases these notions can hold some truth but are often blown out of proportion. This can lead to generalizations about entire cultures.


title: Accent (sociolinguistics)

text: People place certain amounts of trust in others based on two factors stemming solely from the way they speak. First, people naturally relate to, and form connections with, other people when they can. It's comforting to the mind to find someone like you and accent is an easily identifiable factor with which to make a connection, even if it's subconsciously. Second are your previously held conceptions about people with certain accents. Despite forming a connection with someone, these factors could clash. It's the dynamic created by these two factors that works to shape your trust in a specific person (or general population for that matter) with an identifiable accent. Additionally, perspective is key: British accents are seen as "scholarly" or "intellectual" in America while in parts of Ireland and parts of Europe they are looked down upon.


title: Accent (sociolinguistics)

text: Accents have even found to be more impactful on perception than known perceptual dividers like race, religion, or sex. In a PNAS study, babies were told to choose a toy from two recorded speakers with varying characteristics. Ahead of all variables tested, including race and gender, recordings speaking with an accent native to the child were selected at a considerably higher frequency.


title: Accent (sociolinguistics)

text: Discrimination refers to specific behaviors or actions directed at a group or its individual members based solely on the group membership. In accent discrimination, one's way of speaking is used as a basis for arbitrary evaluations and judgments. Unlike other forms of discrimination, there are no strong norms against accent discrimination in the general society. Rosina Lippi-Green writes,


title: Accent (sociolinguistics)

text: Accent serves as the first point of gate keeping because we are forbidden, by law and social custom, and perhaps by a prevailing sense of what is morally and ethically right, from using race, ethnicity, homeland or economics more directly. We have no such compunctions about language, thus, accent becomes a litmus test for exclusion, and excuse to turn away, to recognize the other.


title: Accent (sociolinguistics)

text: Speakers with certain accents often experience discrimination in housing and employment. For example, speakers who have foreign or ethnic-minority accents are less likely to be called back by landlords and are more likely to be assigned by employers to lower status positions than those with standard accents. In business settings, individuals with non-standard accents are more likely to be evaluated negatively. Accent discrimination is also present in educational institutions. For example, non-native speaking graduate students, lecturers, and professors, across college campuses in the US have been targeted for being unintelligible because of accent. Second language speakers have reported being discriminated against, or feeling marginalized for, when they attempted to find a job in higher ranking positions mainly because of their accents. On average, however, students taught by non-native English speakers do not underperform when compared to those taught by native speakers of English. Some English native-speaker students in Canada reported a preference for non-native speaker instructors as long as the instructor's speech is intelligible. This was due to the psychological impacts such circumstances has on the students requiring them to pay closer attention to the instructor to ensure they understand them.


title: Accent (sociolinguistics)

text: Studies have shown the perception of the accent, not the accent by itself, often results in negative evaluations of speakers. In a study conducted by Rubin (1992), students listened to a taped lecture recorded by a native English speaker with a standard accent. They were then shown an image of the "lecturer", sometimes Asian-looking, sometimes white. Participants in the study who saw the Asian picture believed that they had heard an accented lecturer and performed worse on a task that measured lecture comprehension. Negative evaluations may reflect the prejudices rather than real issues with understanding accents.


title: Accent (sociolinguistics)

text: In the United States, Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibits discrimination based on national origin, implying accents. However, employers may claim that a person's accent impairs their communication skills that are necessary to the effective business operation. The courts often rely on the employer's claims or use judges’ subjective opinions when deciding whether the (potential) employee's accent would interfere with communication or performance, without any objective proof that accent was or might be a hindrance.


title: Accent (sociolinguistics)

text: Kentucky's highest court in the case of "Clifford vs. Commonwealth" held that a white police officer, who had not seen the black defendant allegedly involved in a drug transaction, could, nevertheless, identify him as a participant by saying that a voice on an audiotape "sounded black". The police officer based this "identification" on the fact that the defendant was the only African American man in the room at the time of the transaction and that an audio-tape contained the voice of a man the officer said "sounded black" selling crack cocaine to a European American informant planted by the police.


title: Accent (sociolinguistics)

text: Actors are often called upon to speak a variety of language other than their own. Similarly, an actor may portray a character of some nationality other than their own by adopting into the native language the phonological profile typical of the nationality to be portrayed in what is commonly called "speaking with an accent".


title: Accent (sociolinguistics)

text: Accents may have stereotypical associations. For example, in Disney animated films mothers and fathers typically speak with white middle class American or English accents. English accents in Disney animated films are frequently employed to serve one of two purposes, slapstick comedy or evil genius. Examples include "Aladdin" (the Sultan and Jafar, respectively) and "The Lion King" (Zazu and Scar, respectively), among others.


title: Harold Robbins

text: Harold Robbins (May 21, 1916 – October 14, 1997) was an American author of popular novels. One of the best-selling writers of all time, he wrote over 25 best-sellers, selling over 750 million copies in 32 languages.


title: Harold Robbins

text: Robbins was born Harold Rubin in New York City, the son of Frances "Fannie" Smith and Charles Rubin. His parents were well-educated Jewish emigrants from the Russian Empire, his father from Odessa and his mother from Neshwies (Nyasvizh), south of Minsk. Robbins later falsely claimed to be a Jewish orphan who had been raised in a Catholic boys' home. Instead he was raised by his father, a pharmacist, and his stepmother, Blanche, in Brooklyn.


title: Harold Robbins

text: Robbins dropped out of high school in the late 1920s to work in a variety of jobs, including errand boy, bookies' runner, and inventory clerk in a grocers. He was employed by Universal Pictures from 1940 to 1957, starting off as a clerk and rising to an executive.


title: Harold Robbins

text: His first book was "Never Love a Stranger" (1948). "The Dream Merchants" (1949) was a novel about the American film industry, from its beginning to the sound era in which Robbins blended his own life experiences with history, melodrama, sex, and glossy high society into a fast-moving story. His 1952 novel, "A Stone for Danny Fisher," was adapted into a 1958 motion picture "King Creole", which starred Elvis Presley.


title: Harold Robbins

text: Among his best-known books is "The Carpetbaggers" – featuring a protagonist who was a loose composite of Howard Hughes, Bill Lear, Harry Cohn, and Louis B. Mayer. "The Carpetbaggers" takes the reader from New York to California, from the prosperity of the aeronautical industry to the glamor of Hollywood. Its sequel, "The Raiders", was released in 1995.


title: Harold Robbins

text: After "The Carpetbaggers" and "Where Love Has Gone" (1962) came "The Adventurers" (1966), based on Robbins's experiences living in South America, including three months spent in the mountains of Colombia with a group of bandits. The book was adapted into a film in 1970, also titled "The Adventurers". He created the ABC television series "The Survivors" (1969-1970), starring Ralph Bellamy and Lana Turner.